Chapter 3 KASHMIR BASiy 3.1 GENERAL FEATURES ‘The Central Crystalline Axis of the Himalaya (The Great Himalaya) bifurcates, when tary westward from the Spiti area, into two branches near Kangra (Kulu). ‘The main northem axis muns northwestward as the Zanskar Range and the southern subsidiary branch trends westwarj as the Dhauladhar Range and its extension Pir-Panjal. Between these two, lies NW-SE trending, 130 km long and 50 km wide elliptical valley of Kashmir, exhibiting a stratigraphic record folded, fossiliferous, mainly marine Phanerozoic sediments of Tethyan type. While the northern cause of this contrast is yet to be properly explained although, some authors suggested the presence of a barrier (geanticline) seperating the two sectors of the Tethyan Geosynclin tht existed at least during the Palaeozoic times (Wadia, 1937, Pande, 1967, Fuch, 1968). In mos of the Himalayan basin, this fossiliferous Tethyan sediments are expos (CHRAREARD (c.g. the Gpifiland Kumaun basin). But in th In fact, the stratigraphic distinction between the Lower, Higher and the Northern Himalaya is rather feeble in the Kashmir basin owing to aberrant tectonic trends resulting from the Himalayan syntaxis. ‘The Kashmir basin @HlinUeSMORHWES with little change in stratigraphic patter into th ) and these two are co-extensive. id separates it from the Zanskar-Ladakh basin lying 0 north of the Zanskar Range. It is through this Zanskar-Ladakh sedimentary zone, the Kash! basin seems to be linked up towards its cast and south-east with the well known Spiti bt lying north of the CCA. The Pir Panjal Range forms the southern boundary of the Kash basin and it itself is found to comprise the rocks occurring in the basin. On its south-westea! slope, the Pir Panjal is separated from the southern Himalayan (Lesser Himalayan) belt bye Panjal Thrust which separates the Lower Tertiary Muree Formation from the Palaeo-Mes™™ rocks of the Kashmir basin, Towards further southwest the Murre Formation is separated ft Neogene sediments (Siwaliks) of the Himalayan foot hill by the Muree Thrust (= M0" Boundary Thrust). ‘The main structural framework of the Kashunir basi anding features? SW to NE. viz. (i) 7 aed folded rone of the ea aoe as ve Nese siwaliks) sediments (ii) the aufochthonous/P, rene -earoys LOW Sieary rocks acpaaled (om the fore 'us/Paraautochthonous Zone of Caxborifeo's and zone by of Carboni Nor Zone forming the main Kashmir Valley, by the Muree Thrust (iii) Kashmir tporth-east by the Central Himalayan Thr bounded to its SW by the Panjal Thrust "8° ‘ust. This forms a thrust sheet, coming {fom the" 68KASHMIR BASIN 69 and lying over the two zones mentioned earlier. The Kashmir Nappe, probably with its root in the Zanskar Range, is composed of early and late Proterozoic metasediments (as basement), covered by Phanerozoic sediments and volcanics (Palaeo-Mesozoic). 3.2 STRATIGRAPHIC ACCOUNT ‘The stratigraphic account of Kashmir basin is recorded in several classical monographs (Lydekkar 1878-80, 1882, 1883; Middlemiss 1910, 1912, 1924; Oldham 1888; Diener 1890, 1912, 1915; Read 1910, 1912, 1915, 1932, 1934; Wynne 1882; Bion 1928; Seward et al. 1905; Seward 1907, 1912; Wadia 1928, 31, 34, 35, 37, 61; De Terra 1935; Branson 1935; Sahni 1936, Ganju and Rajnath 1939, Ganju 1943), After 1950, the significant contributors to the geology of Kashmir include Rode (1960), Ganju and Srivastava (1961), Verma (1962), Vohra (1966), Shah (1968, 1971, 1972, 1982), Bhatia (1969), Srikantia (1973), Fuchs (1975), Pal (1976, 1978), Kapoor (1973, 1979), Kapoor and Shah (1976), Sharma (1976), Sharma et al. (1979)., Kumar and Srivastava (1986), Shah (1971- 73, 1982), Shah et al. (1980, 1991, 1995), Singh et al. (1982, 1993, 1995), Nakazawa et al. (1970, 1973, 1975), Kumar (1984), Kumar et al. (1983, 1984, 1986, 1987), Raina et al. (1990), Verma et al. (1983, 1988, 1989) and many others. Recently, the stratigraphic account of the Jammu-Kashmir area has been compiled by the geologists of G. S. I. (Misc. Publ. 30 10, 2005). In generalizing the information on the stratigraphy of the Kashmir basin, a pefsistent difficulty is felt on account of the great diversity of both lithofacies and biofacies as reported by different workers from different localities and subbasins, To avoid confusion details of these various lithostratigraphic formations are not attempted here. The author intends to present, the most generalized stratigraphic account based on some well-established horizons developed in the proper Kashmir basin that are exposed in some typical sections. A generalised succession of the Kashmir basin in shown is Table 3.1. 3.2.1 Precambrians ‘The oldest Precambrian rocks in the Kashmir area are exposed in the Higher Himalayan terrain. In general, these rocks are designated as ‘Central crystallines’ but locally they are given different names. These rocks are mainly represented by a complex suite of gneisses and schists interbanded with marbles, calc silicate rocks and quartzites. They are frequently found intruded by various acid and basic igneous bodies. The chief petrologic varieties within these crystallines are paragneiss, augen gneiss, migmatite, sillimanite schist, gamet schist, quartzite, marble, calc schist, calc granulite etc. These rocks exhibit regional metamorphism under granulite facies. Radiometri:ally, these rocks are dated as 2500-1600 Ma and hence are considered belonging to Palaeoproterozoic. These rocks, although exposed outside the main Kashmir basin, probably represent the oldest basement rocks, Younger group of Proterozoic rocks are found exposed in the Tethyan and Lesser Himalayan zones, Locally, these are designated by various names such as Sirban Group of the Lesser Himalaya and Sauni Volcanics of para-autochthonous zone, Salkhala Formation, Balftiaz Formation, Kalamund Formation and Dumgali Quartzite Formation are exposed in the Tethyan belt of the Kashmir basin, On the southwestern flank of the Pir Panjal, these rocks mainly occur as a thrust sheet over the Lesser Himalaya zone,70 PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY op My, The Balfliaz Formation, earlier described as Dogra Slate comprises black, greenish sty, (With oblique cleavage), grey phyllites, schistose quartzites, carbonaceous shales, limeston, diamictites with some penecontemporeneous volcanic flows of spilite and Keratophyre tuffaceous rocks, It is difficult to assign the precise age of these rocks. In the field, they are found overlain by the Lower Palaeozoic rocks, the basal part of which yields Cambrian fog, Shah et al., (1978) reported some trilobite trace fossils from the upper part of this formatio, and considered it as lowermost Palaeozoic (earliest Cambrian). However, radiometric dag from the associated igneous rocks points its Mesoproterozoic age (1600-900Ma), A more younger group of unfossiliferous Proterozoic rocks are exposed in the Less Himalaya, Tethyan Himalaya and Higher Himalaya at different part of Jammu-Kashmir, The are also locally designated by various names, In the proper Kashmir basinal area (Tethyan 2oy) these rocks are represented by the Salkhala, Tanawal and Bhadarwash Formations of which Salkhalas form the basement of Kashmir Phanerozoic sequence. In the Kashmir basin ae, Salkhala Formation (named after the name of a village, located on the left bank of Krishnagange River in the northwest Kashmir) is well exposed in the Nanga Parbat, north of the Krishnaganga, where it shows a sharp-bend around the Western Himalayan syntaxis. The Salkhalas are alp exposed on the southwest side of the Pir Panjal where they form the base of the Kashmir Nappe ‘The Salkhala Formation comprises low to medium grade metasedimentary suite consstg of phyllites, schists, quartzites, limestones with some metavolcanics. The phyllites are black and carbonaceous, frequently associated with pyrite indicating an anoxic condition of sedimentation. Schists are mainly represented by chlorite schist, sericite schist, graphite schis and gamet schist. These rocks are also traversed by younger intrusives of gabbro, pyroxentt, granite and pegmatite. Wadia considered the Salkhala Formation comparable and homotaxid with the Jutogh Group of the Simla Himalaya. Its late Proterozoic Age (900-670Ma) i confirmed by the available radiometric data. This also suggests that Salkhalas are younger ths the Befliaz Formation (previously identified as Dogra Slate). In the northwestern part of ft Kashmir basin, the Salkhalas are found overlain by a group of arenites, greywackes, slates a”) phyllites (also previously described as ‘Dogra Slate’) now designated by the name Ma Formation. 3.2.2 Precambrian-Cambrian Boundary It is difficult to demarcate the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in this part of the Himal!® owing to lack of suitable fossils of Lower Cambrian age and an overall transitional natu® the litho-contacts. In the Pohru Valley area, northwest of Kashmir, the best section of Palaeozoic sequence are exposed in the Hapatnar Valley where rocks are overlying the Salkhalas with a faulted contact. The lowest member of this sequence is named as the ld Formation. A typical Redlichia fauna is reported from the upper part of the Lolab Formal? which is underlain by a basal part containing several trace fossils of Cruziana-RusoP! Redlichia itself is an index fossils of upper part of Lower Cambrian and hence the bas#! of the Lolab formation could represent the lower part of Lower Cambrian. The Prot” A just below the Lolab Formation yields microbiota (cryptarchs and algae) of Neoprotero29" € (Kumar et al, 1984). Hence it appears tha the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary i passé, the base of the Lolab Formation (yielding trilobite trace fossils). The exact bounda"Y o Be aTABLE 3.1 STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION, LITHOLOGY AND FOSSILS OF KASHMIR BASIN (TETHYAN ZONE) (After G.S.L, 2005) Leading Fossils/ Main — | aa Lithotowy ‘Faunal Zones 29) UPPER Fiysch deposits | Gauconitic sandstones. Foraminifera : Orbitolina g3 Gas Voleanies) | voleanogenic sediments, Pelecypods : Gophaea, Hippurites a8 | Yoteanies,radiolarian chert ete. Zy|LowER ‘Womuh Formation | Dark grey shales, slates, Cephalopods :Macrocephalites, Belemnites 33 arenaceous limestones ‘UPPER ‘Woyan Formation | Massive limestones with thinly | Regressive ‘Ammonoids -:Joannites, Prychites rugifer bedded cherry limestones Pelecypods : Megalodon ladakhensis g Brachiopods : Spiriferina stracheyi, Dialasma julicum 2 [appce| vai [Krew Formation | Thinly bedded limestones, = [Ammonoids :Cerarites thuilleri, Hollandites, Gymnites z GROUP black arenaceous shales j |Brachiopods _: Rkynchonella trinodosi LOWER Khunamuh ‘Dark grey shales and transgressive | &: [Ammonoids + Otoceras woodwardi, Ophiceras. Meckoceras, Formation mestones Flemingites UPPER Zewan Formation | Limestones, calcareous ‘Ammonoids :Xenaspis, Xenodiscus, Cyclolobus sandstones, shales and siltstone Brachiopods : Producrus spp.. Lyttonta nobilis, Spiriferetla rajah, Marginifera himalayansis. Fusispirifer. Wagenaconcha Bryozoas__: Protoretipora ampla ‘Mamai Formation | Carbonaccous shales, tuffaccous Plants 7 Glossopreris spp.. Gangamopreris spP- shales, sandstones Sphenophyllum speciosum Cordaites hislopi, Peygmophyllum haydeni, Ginkgophyllum sp. z Verebrates + 2 Fish imblypterus symmetricus. A. kashmirensis 2 gq [Amohibia $Actinoon risinensis, Archoegosourus E Continent | omatus, Chelidosaurus LOWER | pra Panjal Volcanics | Andesites basalts with Geposits with | @ |Bryozoas + Dysinsella, Acandocladia ete. eatcan thyolites, wachytes, spilites | occasion: 5 GROUP, ores Dark Gray WS DIRE hater ang infnenioe Plants TSeveral species of Gangamopteris and a few tuffaceous shales, sandstones Species of Glossopterts, Psyemophyllum. and conglomerates . Cordaites NISV@ YINHSYY tLTABLE 3.1 (Contd.) STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION, LITHOLOGY AND FOSSILS OF KASHMIR BASIN (TETHYAN ZONE) (After G.S.L, 2005) u ] . Mein Deposional ‘Leading Fossils! age | =! 2. Faunal Zones |o" tateleey Phare [Oto JPPER [PIR PANGAL | aggiomeratic ‘Sandstones, agglomerates, Brachiopods pringothyris, Productus, Spirifer faciger 7 | Gaour ‘States, slates, sanstones. diamictites Pelecypods Eurydema spp., Oricrassatella $ 7 7 n ~ a Plants. 2S ‘Fenestella shale ‘Quartz arenites with lenticles | Regressive Brachiopods : Several species of nts. . g Formation ‘of conglomerates, shales and 5 Productus, Sepals Lepidsigiaria = | siltstones: Aulosteges, Spirifer rchaeosigiliaria 5 paren LIDDAR | ws © | Trilobites : Phyllipsia sp. Lepidodendropsis. 3| GROUP 5 |Bryozoas _: Fenestella spp. Rhacopteris z Sprmesiyralne |lmemooss wih inebedaed | Tanearative Bratiopods :Syringotyrs cxpidan, | Rhodea Lower | ree | taeeer wt shes Pee Fplinloptets | | Trilobites _: Phyllipsia sp. rs Fant (eidophyes + Prolepidedendron, Pallophyion Devonian | i Regressive Pat Sistas Pegrans < | cocutpean! Meth Quarzite SILURIAN | GUGULDHAR! ni ‘Nearly Unfossiliferous CYCLE: | crovr | [Mereas. Parple siltstones, slates, | Transgressive Corals: Halysites wallicht ORDOVICIAN) | Formation quariaites, calearenites, Brachiopods : Orthis, Leptolloides, Leptaena, Triplescia | conglomerates Thilobites _: Dalmanites, Calymene UPPER | Tateeem Limesiones and shales Regressive Trilobites + Dikelocephalites flabelliformis, Chuangia | Formation . transversalis z Karihul Formation | Shales, siltstones, sandstones, J] | Tilobites — : Bolaspidelta, Anomocare, Baileilla, Tonkinella, & | mppie| HAPATNAR ‘with limestone lenticles 3 Solenpleura 5 Grou © | Brachiopods : Oboliela, Neobolus, Botsfordia, Acrothele 6 TLolab Formation |Graywackes, siltstones, minor | Transgressive | ~ [Tiilobltes "7 Redlichia noeflingl, Paokannia magna LOWER shales, dotomites Brachiopods : Bowsfordia Tilobites Trace fossils like Rusophycus-Cruziona 3 | basal Lotab fra) ‘Shalala Formation | Slates, phyllites, scbists Microfloral clements/stromatolites. zloge \ Balfiaz Formation |quartites, metavoleanics, Stromasoiles S\ee8 \ with granitoid rocks 2\$% ALLAN EV T\ —_\ eee = — Me "NI 40 anavuouvelis O1OZ0¥INVHdKASHMIR BASIN B Jocatd only if the lowermost Cambrian Fallotaspis Zone (reported from Siberia occurring below the Redlichia zone) be recognised in future. 3.2.3 Lower Palaeozoics ‘The Pohru Valley Section of northwest Kashmir presents the best developed representative of Lower Palaeozoic sequence in this area comprising (i) The Cambrian Hapatnar Group with Lower Lolab and Upper Karihul Formation (ii) Guguldhar Group (Ordovician-Devonian). divisible into a Lower Margan, Middle Muth and an Upper Aishmugam Formation. In the northwest Kashmir, the Proterozoic Manchhal Formation is overlain conformably by the Cambrian Lolab Formation comprising dark graywackes, laminated siltstones, slaty shales and arenites. The basal part of the formation yields trace fossils such as Cruziana sp., Rusophycus sp., Planolites sp., Bergoneria sp., Phycodes sp. etc. The upper part of this formation has yielded Redlichia fauna with R. noetlingi R. cf. knijazavi, Tungusella obsesa etc, These two zones possibly represent the Lower Cambrian part of the sequence. Two new trilobite fossils have been reported from the southern limb of Liddar anticline and northwest of Vel Nagabal village (Vel formation of Kumar and Verma, 1987). The reported fossils are Paokannia magna and Paokannia sp. which are associated with some primitive Cambrian brachiopods like Botsfordia granulata, Neobolus and also fossils of Hyoliths. These are possible equivalents of the Lolab Formation of Pohru Valley, Tiwari (1989) reported an assemblage of small shelly fossils (pre-trilobite) below the Rusophycus-Cruziana Zone of the Lolab formation containing Protohertzina, Taliella, Olivooides, Garparella etc. which possibly represents a transitional zone between Cambrian-Precambrian. The Lolab Formation is conformably succeeded by The Karihul Formation (= Nutunus Formation of northeast Kashmir) made up of argillaceous sediments represented by laminated siltstones, silty shales interbedded with limestones. This is perhaps the most fossiliferous part, yielding some Middle Cambrian trilobite and brachiopod fossils. Biostratigraphically at least four trilobite zones are recognised here. The chief fossils are as follows : Trilobites : Solenpleura lydekkeri, Tonkinella kashmirica, Ptychoparia, Hundwarella, Anomocare hundwarensis, Anomocarella, Lisania, Peronopsis, Acadagnostus Bailiella sejuneta, B. frantengensis, Holocephalia wadiai, H. wakhalosi, Conocoryphae reedi, Luia sp. Bailiaspis sp. Pseudoperonopsis sp. Peronopsis sp. Pentagnostus sp. Hypagnostus sp. Bolaspidella sp. Trilagnostus kashmiriensis, Diplognostus sp. Brachiopods : Obolella, Neobolus, Botsfordia cf coelata, Obolus kashmiricus, Acrothele sp. In the north-east, of Kashmir, the Nutunus Formation (= Karihul Formation) is succeded by the Trahagam Formation which is mainly argillo-calcareous hozoizon with siltstones and limestones, These rocks yield Upper Cambrian trilobites such as Chuangia transversalis, C. sp. Blountia, Dictyites, Cedaria, Lobiostria, Leptoplastus, Dikelocephalites flabelliformis. Damesella, Blackwelderoides, ‘The entire Cambrian system of Kashmir basin is divisible into eight trilobite faunal zones (Shah, 1982) which are shown in the Table 3,2, PSI-DG(WP) : 10PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF 1p, ” ‘TABLE 32 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITE FAUNAL ZONES OF KASHMIR BASIN Shah 198) ~Litho-Formations | Tlie Founal Zones Age aa Tm pikelocephalies Z | Ut Ce i Trahagam Formation | (8) Dikelocephalites Zone Jpper Cambrian (1) Chauangia Zone fo KarihulNutunas | (6) Bolaspidella Zone Middle Cambrian os (5) Anomocare-Ballla Zone (4) Tonkinella-Anomocare Zone (3) Solenplewra-Tonkinella Zone Lower Cambrian Lolab Formation | (2) Redlichia Zone (1) Rusophycus-Cruziana Zone Zone of small shelly fossils of Precambrian affinity| Precambrian ah et dy 1991) from the Magan and Trahagam sections cf ‘These new Kashmir fauna includes species of Damesely, ff Pedinocephalus, Haniwa, Blounis More species of wilobites are reported (Sh: Kashmir and the Parahio Valley of Spit. Blackwelderoides, Cyclolorenzella and Hundwarella; new species of and a new genus Amurticephalus. Lower Cambrian fauna of Kashmir basin are scanty, known from one or two localit. Redlichia Zone represents upper part of the Lower Cambrian and correspond to Botoma stag of Siberia, But the precurssor of this zone (lower part of Lower Cambrian) is not yet reported from India, However, this is probably represented here by the trilobite trace fossils zone liz below the Redlichia Zone. Radlichia noetlingé is a common Lower Cambrian form of Kashi, Spiti, Kumaun and Salt Range. The earliest record of the Middle Cambrian is represented by the Solenpleura-Tonkinella Zone both made their frst appearance here. The succeeding the zones are somewhat overlapping. The agnostids appeared at the middle part of this success in the fourth zone and continued upto the base of the Bolaspidella Zone, An interesting feats of the Middle Cambrian trilobite fauna of Kashmiris the presence of Bolaspidella Zone whit is its only known occurrence in Asia and it marks the top of the Middle Cambrian. The Fos! jg also known from the same position in North America, Broadly, the Middle Cambrian fou cof Kashmir is more allied to the Chinese forms as regards the presence of such gene? ‘Anomocarella, Anomocare, Baililla, Solenpleura, Lisania and Luia, although, the spesits * different, On the otherhand, such genera like Tonkinella, Conocoryphae, Bailias?* Holocephalia, Bolaspidella ae closely allied to the American forms, In ths 7 ct the Mil Cabin fauna of Kashni is esentaly cosmopolitan (Sha 1982) Ths tht" justification of considering it endemic as assumed earlier by Reed (1934). Howevet i® somewhat different fom the other known Mile Cambrian “ana India, The Chuan Zone, marking the beginning of Upper Cambrian bears the Chinese a C sransverst a conesponis wo Chuang bata Zone of Changsha of Nach hina Sun, 125-4 addition to this, the zone also yields Ameri . : i$ 4 bass of inercominental conreaton te Opi eet ite Creeeabte ee 1. flavellfornis is also recorded fiom Changshanig Pes Dikelocepha! Howes the upper most zone of Upper Canbian remains umepresen me of North ie ‘Zone is found ditetly overlain by the Ordovicion neon Loioee oie * . ThisKASHMIR BASIN Ss Presence of a break in sequence between the Cambrian and Ordovician, marked by the absence of uppermost Cambrian and lowermost Ordovician fauna in this region. This break, corresponding to Caledonian Orogeny, is also marked by a tectonic uplift of the area and a spell of volcanism in the northwest Kashmir causing formation of a strip of about 25m thick flows of trachyandesite, tuffaceous thyolites and ash beds (Watar Khai Formation). The Cambrian Trilobite faunas of Kashmir and Spiti are apparently different and Kashmir fauna are often called endemic. Several explanation have been suggested by various author for this anomaly. Some postulated to different disconnected sea preventing the faunal intermigration. A detailed study of the fauna of various stratigraphic levels indicates that the difference of fauna of these two basins is a result of tapping of fauna at different stratigraphic levels and the facies preference of the different faunal elements, The occurrence of Redlichia and Hundwarella from both the region has been already reported. From the occurrence of similar species of Hundwarella and their evolutionary pattern, Shah and Kishore (1989) concluded definite intermigration of fauna between Kashmir and Spiti supporting the continuity of these two basins. This also supports the non-endemic character of the Kashmir fauna which exhibit similarity not only with the fauna of the adjacent Spiti basin but also with the contemporeneous trilobite fauna of China and North America. ‘The typical Ordovician-Silurian of Kashmir basin is represented by the Margan Formation (= Marhaum Formation of northeast Kashmir), well exposed in the southeast Kashmir. The Formation comprises a sequence of ferruginous sandstones, calarenites, reddish siltstones, shales and slates with some basal conglomeratic bands. The lower part of Margan Formation is fairly rich in fossils especially in brachiopods with several Ordovician elements such as : Brachiopods : Orthis (Eridorthis) cf kalavensis, O.(Damanella) chaunzonensis, O(D) cf emanciplata, Orthis cf calligramma O.(Dinorthis) flabellum, Leptelloidea cf leptelloides, Sowerbyella wilsoni, Leptaena sp., Refinesquina sp., Strophomena sp., Resserella sp., Raymondella sp. Bryozoans -: Monotrypa, Diplotrypa, Prosopora, Orbignyella. Crinoids —: Caryocrinus, Cheirocrinus, On the basis of the faunal record an Orthis-Leptaena biostratigraphic zone is recognised here (Shah et al., 1972). Fossiliferous Silurian rocks have been reported from Upper Margan Formation exposed in Jammu and Anantnag district from such localities like Naubag (Naubag bed), Guguldhar and Margan Pass area where three faunal zones have been recognised viz., Refinesquina Zone Stephanocrinus Zone and the youngest Dipterus Zone. Some important fossils from this horizon are ; Brachiopods : Triplescia, Strophomena, Refinesquina, Leptaena, Orthis, Trilobites : Dalmanites, Calymene, Mlacnus, Acidaspis, Corals: Favosites, Halysites, Heliolites, Steptelasma. Crinoids —: Stephanocrinus angulatus.76 PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF IND yy Graptolids : Cyclonema, Monograptus. Fish : Dipterus sp. ‘The assemblage, as a whole, indicates an Upper Silurian age for the rocks. In the Hapatnay Section, the equivalent Ordo-Siturian rocks yield Ordovician graptolites Didymograptus ang Siluian form Monograptus, ‘The Devonian of the Kashmir basin is mainly represented by two formations. A lower Muth Quartzite and an upper Aishmugam Formation. They are well exposed in the southeastem, Part of the Kashmir basin. The Muth Quartzite Formation follows almost conformably the Silurian Margan/Naubag beds. It is a widespread horizon in the Tethyan Himalayan belt found extending from Kashmir to Nepal. Named from the type area, the village Muth in Spiti, the formation consists mainly of white quartzites which are apparently unfossiliferous. It is conformably overlain by the Aishmugam Formation (Late Devonian) and also by the Carboniferous Syringothyris Limestone Formation in Liddar valley. From its conformable contacts with the overlying and underlying formations, Muth Quartzites are considered Lower-Middle Devonian in age and as littoral/coastal sand deposits formed following a retreat of sea from the Kashmir basinal area after the Silurian. Long lateral continuity, well sorted white quartzites and apparently unfossiliferous nature of the Muth Quartzite Formation are in favour of such a conclusion, In the Liddar Valley, southwest Kashmir, Muth Quartzites are overlain by Aishmogam Formation. It is essentially made up of thick areno-argillaceous sequence with the first record of some larid plant fossils represented by some badly preserved pteridophytic flora such as Psilophyton sp., Taeniocrada sp., Protolepidodendron sp., Paracalamites which suggest its lite Devonian age. This is supported by sore fish fossils like Disterus and a conodont Polygnathus present within this formation. 3.2.4 Mid-Palaeozoic Break While in eastern and southeastern Kashmir basin, there is record of continuous sedimentation almost throughout the Palaeozoic, in the northwestern part of the valley, there is a conspicuous break in the Palaeozoic sequence between the Devonian and Carboniferous. Here, the Lower Palaeozoic beds (Cambrian-Silurian) are overlapped by the thick Panjal volcanics (Upp Carboniferous-Triassic) with an intevening break marked by the absence of Devonian-Lower Carboniferous sediments. This break in the sequence seems to be a regional hiatus in this patt of the basin. The Lower Palacozoics in the easter and southeastern part are evident by a mafine geosyndinal association with flysch sediments (graywacke-pyritiferous mudstones) with trilobite brachiopod fauna. This was followed by Devonian formations a shallow water (shore) depos! of orthoquartzites (Muth Formation) which in turn are overlain by the continental Aishmet? Formation with plants and dipterid fish fossils. Thus Mid-Palaeozoic break commenced at tis Jeyel influencing northwestem sector of the Kashmir basin, but appears to be unrecordel elsewhere in the Tethyan Himalaya, 3.2.5 Upper Palaeozoics ‘The Upper Palacozoic rocks of Kashmir basin are inchuded within three major sr08 (1) Liddar Group which is again divisible into a lower Syringothyris Limestone and adKASHMIR BASIN nn Fenestella Shale Formation (Lower-Middle Carboniferous); (ji Panjal Group, including Agglomeratic Slates, Nishatbagh Formation, Panjal Volcanies and Mamal Fosation (Up Carboniferous-LowerPermian) and (ii) Zewan Formation (Permian). i Ce Quartzits/Aishmugam Formations of the Liddar Valley is overlain by the extensively oped Syringothyris Limestone Formation named afte the brachiopod genus Syrngothyris The rocks of this formation are well-exposed in the Liddar anticline at Aishmugam in south west Kashmir. It is essentially a carbonate-clastc horizon composed dominantly of limestones hallow shelf deposits) interbedded at its upper and lower part with sandstones, shales and foes Biostratigraphically, the Syringothyris Limestone Formation has a Lower brachiopod- nch and an uj pper Coral rich zones. Some important fossils of Syringothyris Limestones are as follows : Brachiopods : Syringothyris cuspidata, Productus (Linoproductus) cora, P(L) lineatus, : Semireticularis, Chonetes hardrensis, Athyris roysii, Spirifer kashirensis, Spirigera subtilita, Trilobite : Phyllipsia sp. Corals : Caninoplyllum archaiaci, Nemistium, Lophoplyllum. Pelecypods’: Aviculopecten, Pecten. Kumar et al., (1988) recognised four biostratigraphic zones within the Syringothyris Limestone horizon. These zones in ascending order a : (i) Syringothyris Zone (ii Productions Zone (iii) Sublepidodendron Zone (iw) Coralline Zone, all of Lower Carboniferous age. The faunas of the Syringothyris Limestone Formation resemble those of the Lipak Formation of the adjacent Spiti basin and other contemporeneous carbonate-rich horizons of Sanchu and Ladakh, The brachiopod. fauna of this formation, in general, suggests its Lower Carboniferous age. Its coral fauna is allied to the contemporeneous assemblage of Nova Scotia and that also confirms its Lower’Carboniferous age. In the Liddar Valley area, in Banihal-Budhal on the Pir-Panjal Range.and in few other areas, a thick fossiliferous horizons with alteriate quartz-arenites and shale-siltstones are found resting conformably on the Syringothyris Limestone Formation. This is named as Fenestella Shale Formation (from the name of the bryozoan genus Fenestella). The arenaceons part of this formation is unfossiliferous but the shaly rocks yield several marine fossils (including profuse bryozoas) as well as some continental fossils indicating a depositional condition fluctuating ‘between alternate marine and nonmarine. The chief fossils within this formation are as follows : Brachiopods : Productus cora, P. semireticulatus, P. undatus, P. spitiensis, Spirifer lyddekeri, S. triangularis, S. varuna, Strophalosia, Aulosteges, Dialasma hastatus, Trilobite: Phyllipsia sp. Pelecypods : Aviculopecten, Modiola, Pectan. Bryozoa —_: Fenestella, Propora, Polypora, Protoretipora ampla. Crinoid + Brachythyris.PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF INDY, 78 ytic plant fossils f Singh et al. (1982) have reported the occurrence of several pteridophytic S from seve Formation and more fy some inelayered sandstones of he Upper Sysingoiyis LEON "ae important font some interlayered sitstone-shale beds of the Fenestella Shale Lepidodendropsis cf peruviang include Archocosgilaria mina, epidosgillaria cl Mada TT curiana, Rhode | fenestrata, Cyclasigina ef pacfca, Rhacopers ova, TOP YT ar Carboniferons subpetiolata, Palmatopteris cf furcata etc. Overall, this flora re: eris flora. This is a typicg, flora of other parts of the world commonly known as Riaclhicrs ey ath occurence of Pre-Gondvana flora elements in India comparable 0 the ned fn the Po Formation ofthe Spit basin. Such itermixing of marine and non-T. MBps a fluctuating marine-nonmarine environments prevailed in the ae cela is be : orogenic movement. Considering all evidences, stratigraphic and F ae cae as generally accepted that Syringothyris Limestone and Fenestlla Shale Form aging between the Lower and Middle Carboniferous. 3.2.6 Upper Palaeozoic Break ‘The fluctuating marine and nonmarine conditions of Lower Carboniferous Period in southwest Kashmir and neighbouring areas finally reached its climax with a complete regression of sea followed by a tectonic uplift, when volcanic eruption broke out in this part of the Himalaya with the formation of the Agglomeratic Slate and Panjal Volcanics. The volcanism, although, ceased after Lower Permian in eastern and southeastern part of the Kashmir basin, it continued upto Lower Triassic in northern and western part of the basin. This Upper Carboniferous break, corresponding to the Hercynian Orogeny, is of varying magnitude at different parts of the Himalayan basin. In the Spiti basin it is of short duration. But in Kashmir, this break caused the partial absence of Upper Carboniferous record. 3.2.7 Permo-Carboniferous The Permo-Carboniferous rocks of the Kashmir basin are broadly grouped into Agglomeratc Slate, Nishatbagh Formation, Panjal Volcanics, Mamal Formation, and Zewan Formation (Grom older to younger). The Agglomeratic Slate Formation shows extensive development in different parts of the Kashmir basin bearing a thickness of about 1500m in the Liddar Valley. It ‘comprises a complex heterogencous lithology that includes volcanic agglomerates, slates, tuffs, quartzites, diamictites etc. The agglomerates are gritty, pebbly with angular-subrounded clasts of quartz, feldspar, erate, Limestone, and slate. The agglomerates fequnly grade laterally into tee These a once considered glacial in origin. But absence of ‘ypical ice-faceted pebbles and presence of volcanic materials have supported the view that m; \JOr part of this formation 1 resents pyroclastic type of deposits rearranged by several subaerial agencies (Krishnz ae ae the presence of several marine fossils at ome localities oe ; m ; Precambrians or Muth Formation, Agglomeratic Slatey en PS them, testing direly : es " 7 ‘1 main fossils are obtained from two different sate eal fossiliferous and thet characterised by brachiopods lke Syringohyris euspiden, c firtne Ae is il i »®. Wddekeri, Productus tineatus PKASHMIR BASIN » undatus, P. scabriculus, Spirifer nitiensis, S. kashmiri, S. fasciger, Chonetes sp., Dielasma sp., Derbya regularis, bryozoans like Fenestella, Protoretipora and pelecypods like. Eurydesma, Oriocrassatella, Pinna etc. This fauna as a whole is similar to that of the underlying Fennestella Shale horizon. The upper horizon yields Spirifer nagmargensis, Protoretipora, Fennestella etc. This Fauna has clearly a Permo-Carboniferous affinity. However from the presence of Eurydesma, many authors intend to correlate this horizon with the Talchir Tillites of Salt Range and Peninsula (also associated with the Eurydesma fauna) and suggest its lowermost Permian age. At NisHfatbagh, Bren and Nagmarg in the Kashmir Valley, the Agglomeratic Slate Formation is conformably succeeded by a plant-bearing horizon of continental origin designated as Nishatbagh Formation. It comprises tuffaceons black shales/slates, siltstones and conglomerates with Lower Gondwana plant fossils at the basal part, varvite at the middle part and sandstone- shale sequence at the upper part. It is also recorded below the Panjal Volcanics on the southwestem flank of the Pir Panjal Range from where the plant fossils are also reported. The chief Lower Gondwana plant fossils reported from the Nishatbagh Formation are as follows : Plant fossils : Gangamopteris kashmirensis, G. longicaulis, G. angustifolia G. nishat- baghensis, Glossopteris indica, G. angustifolia, Nummulospermum sp., Psygmophyllum haydeni, Cordaites hislopi, Macrotaenioptesis sp. etc. These fossils suggests a Lower Permian age for the Nishatbagh Formation, Members of the Gondwana flora have been also reported from Singpore area of Doda district from rocks equivalent to Nishatbagh Formation. : In the eastern and southern Kashmir, the Panjal Volcanies are found succeeded by another plant bearing horizon, now designated by the name Mamal Formation (previous Gangamopteris/ Vihi Bed). This formation with a thickness of over 300m comprises an assemblage of carbonaceous shales, silicious shales, cherts, gritty sandstones, tuff and some thin limestone bands. These rocks are best exposed at northern slope of the Pir Panjal in such localities like Banihal, Golabgarh, Gulmarg, Risin, Vihi, Nagmarg. and also in the vicinity of Srinagar. These are mainly continental fluviatile to lacustrine type of deposits, The important floral elements of Mamal Formation are as follows : Gangamopteris kashmirensis, G. angustifolia, Glossopteris indica, G. communis, G. intermittents, G. cf feistmatelli, G. taeniopteritoides, G. browniana, G. angustifolia, Parasphenophyllum thonii vat. minor. Sphenophyllum (Trizygia) speciosum, Condaites hislopi, Psygmophyllum haydeni, Ginkgophyllum sahnii, Lobatannularia ensifolia, Rajahia mamalensis. In contrast to the flora of Nishatbagh Formation, the Mamal plant fossils are more enriched in Glossopteris. The flora has a clear Lower Gondwana affinity. Of these, Lobatannularia and Rajahia are typical Cathysian and Psygmophyllum is a northern floral element. This admixture of flora in the Mamal plant fossils may suggest landwide connection of Kashmir with those continental blocks at least during the Lower Permian times. In addition to the flora, the Mamal Formation also yields some Palaeozoic vertebrate fossils (fish and amphibia) which are as follows : Fishes: Amblypterus symmetricus, A. kashmirensis.80 PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY Of py, Amphibia (Labyrinthodonts) : Actinodon risinensis, A. kashmirensis, Archaegosa,, ornatus, Chelydo-saurus marahomensis Lysipterygig deterrai. ‘The flora and fauna together suggest a Lower-Middle Permian age for the Mamal Forma of Kashmir basin and itis considered equivalent of the Karharbari-Barakar Formation of lye Gondwana Group in Peninsular India. In the Liddar Valley the Agglomeratic Slate Formation conformably passes upward into, Overlying Panjal Volcanics, with or without the intervening Nishatbagh Formation. The Pay Volcanics form the central axis of the Pir Panjal Range. Wadia (1961) recognised the folloyng sequence within the Panjal Volcanic Series (including the Aggomeratic Slates). 5. Bedded green-purple traps. 4. Greenish ash beds, slates, agglomerates with amygduloidal lavas. 3. Black and grey agglomeratic slates (tuffs) with conglomerates containg pebbles of quartzite and slate. 2. Whitish quartzites and sandstones. 1. Black agglomeratic slates. Panjal lavas are greenish, greyish, purple coloured, layered/massive flows with coarse to fie grained varieties. They exhibit both porphyritic and non-porphyritic, vesicular/amygduloidal or non-vesicular varieties, Interbedded with lavas are pyroclastics and tuffs and occasionally sim sedimentary beds with fossils (intertrappeans). They also exhibit frequent intrusions of dykes and sills. The individual flows varies in thickness from 5m to 10m. The total thickness may be over 2000m. Chemically, the lavas represent acidic, intermediate and basic varieties. However, in most of cases, they are composed of andesites and basalts. Acid and ultrabasic varieties ae found at places of which the formers are represented by thyolites, trachytes, felsites and dacts ‘The occurrence of spilites and occasional intertrappean sediments with marine fossils sugges periodic but short marine transgression during the regressive phase of the eruption. The aret probably represents a near-shore zone with fluctuating sea-level. The Panjal Volcanics are found overlying almost conformably the Permo-Carbonifers ‘Agglomeratic Slates and in other place the Lower Permian Nishatgarh Formation, Elsewhets they overlie unconformably the more older rocks. In the Liddar Valley, the traps are sucteed! at places by the Mamal Formation containing Permian Lower Gonduana plant fossils along ¥i# some vertebrates. But, in other places they are directly overlain by the Permian ewan Formation with brachiopod fauna. In Western and southwestem Kashmir they are overlain ‘Triassic rocks. ‘The volcanic phase probably started with the eruption of pyroclastics and tufis wi gradually passes on (0 a quieter phase of intermitent lava lows. Westem Kashmir s conse! to have been the centre of this eruption (central type) where the eruption continued for @ Jon period (upto Triassic). In other parts of the Kashmir basin, the volcanism died out wid lose of Middle Permian. This cessation of volcanism was followed by a short pet continental sedimentation when deposited the Mamal Formation. y odKASHMIR BASIN 81 The i Gare a ie bryozoan fossils like Dysintella sp., Acanthocladia sp., Polypora sp. and ‘graphic position of the Panjal lavas Suggests that the volcanism initiated towards the end of Middle Carboniferou ined its climax i i i melts oe attained its climax in Lower and Middle Permian and gradually Pi Permian Zewan Formation and the overlying Triassic rocks together form the Vihi The Mamal Formation in the Liddar val] i i (named after Zewan vise ui“ae valley ae overain by the succeeding Zewan Formation The Zewan Formatio Mn is richly fossiliferous with fossils of brachiopods, pelecypods, bryozoas and corals, Some important fossils Teported from the Zewan Formation are as follows : Brachiopods : Productus indicus, P. spirals, P.abick, P gratiosus, P. ampla, Lyttonia nobilis, Spivier faciger, Spiriferella rajah. Neospirifer moosakhailenss, Marginifera himalayanss, M. vikiana, Fusispiifer nitiensis, Wagenoconche sangeticum, Costferina alatus, Spiriferina zewanesis, S. cristatas, Spirfera geraadi, Dielasma latouchei, Chonetes lissarensis, C. laevis, Pelecypods : Pecten, Aviculopecten, Ostrea. Bryozoas: Protoretipora ampla, Fenestella aff. ‘fossula, Corals : Amlexius, Zaphrentis. Cephalopods : Xenaspis, Xenodiscus, Cyclolobus, Three biostratigraphic zones are recognised within the Zewan Formation : The lower Productus indicus Zone, the middle Marginifera himalayansis Zone and an upper zone with ammonoids (Xenaspis) and pelecypods. More recently, Kumar et al. (1988). However, recognised four fauna) ‘ones from the Zewar Formation which are (1) Hemiptychina Zone (ji) Protoretipora Zone (iii) Spirifer Zone and (iv) Cyclolobus-Xenaspis Zone. |n the Kalahoj Peak, the Zewan Formation conformably passes upward into the Oroceras bearing nodular limestones of lowermost Triassic age. Considering the stratigraphic Position of the Zewan Formation and its association with some typical Permian index ae like ini ia, it is assi iddle-Upper Permian age. It is considered as Marginifera and Lyttonia, it is assigned to Mid y equivalent of Products Limestone Formation of the Salt Range and Productus Shale Formation of the Spiti basin. PSI-DG(WP) : 11RATIGRAP! ¥ 2 PHANEROZOIC STI HY Op ‘Noy 3.2.8 Mesozoics (Triassic-Cretaceous) Tie Zewan Formation is conformably succeeded bY the Te lithologic contact. The Triassic rocks of Kashmir basin are groupe Khunamuh, Khrew and Wuyan, in an ascending order The basal Khunamuh Formation comprises dark BFeY SH jimmestones ange! in Vihi district. The middle Khrew Formation comprises thin 00 in Khe : arenaceous shales with several cephalopod fossils. Its best aie Timestones and cor Barus Spur. The topmost Wuyan Formation comprises, oa ames are quartzites with poor content of fossils. Its best exposures are f001 _ west Kashmir), east and west of Walar Lake and also in the nomhwestert p Kash general, the Triassic fossils of Kashmir basin are rich in ammonoids, pelecypods and coi J Triassic rocks with a tang, into three formations nang. a shales and limestones, well e, * Some important fossils are as follows : Khunamuh Formation (Lower Triassic) Ammonoids : Otoceras woodwardi, Hungarites. Conodont : Kashmirella albertic. Khrew Formation (Middle Triassic) Ammonoids : Ceratites thuilleri, Hollandites, Gymnites. Brachiopods : Rhynchonella trinodosi. ‘Wuyan Formation (Upper Triassic) Ammonoid : Joannites, Ptychites. Pelecypods : Megalodon ladakhensis. Brachiopods : Spiriferina stracheyi, Dielasma julicum. In general, the Triassic fauna of Kashmir are closely allied to that of the Spiti basin at many identical species of ammonoids, brachiopods and pelecypods are found in both the aes Like the Spiti basin, the Triassic sequence of Kashmir is biostratigraphically zonated bast on ammonoid, brachiopod and pelecypod fossils. Three zones within Lower Trias, Six zis within Middle Trias and three zones within Upper Triassic have been established. Many 20% are identical with the established Triassic biostratigraphic zones of Spiti basin. However, fossil content of the Kashmir basin is somewhat poor compared to that of Spiti. Recently (1989) reported several rotaloid foramimifera viz, Diplotremina, Duostomina, Pagiastomeli Involvina, Asymmetrina and Operhausella from Permian-Triassic succession of Srinagé: Jurassic development of the Kashmir basin is not very significant. sTrascic WW? Formation is found succeeded by the Jurassic as ee rio Battal in the Upper Sind valley, east and northeast of Srinagar and is also exposed near Must section, north of Banihal. This formation comprises dark grey pyritiferous shales wil limestone bands. Fossils are rather poor that include some cey ie ods like Macroc pias Belemnites and several brachiopods, pelecypods and mae Pi Ophiceras sp, Meekoceras varaha, Flemingits roi,KASHMIR BASIN 83 In the proper Kashmir basin, Cretaceous rocks are not exposed, Cretaceous rocks in the Kashmir Valley is Scape poe aoe eral — Na : insignificant and is confined to Suture Zone near region where it is designated as Sangeluma Group. \t comprises sequence of graywackes and radiolarian cherts associated with ophiolites. The rocks at places yield some fossils like Gryphaea vesicularis, Hippurites, Orbitolina etc. indicating a ofthis group ‘between Cenomanian and Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous). The topmost part of this group is known as Dras Volcanics, structurally forming a syncline. Within volcanies occur interbedded shales, limestones and cherts Containing foraminifera Orbitolina and a few pelecypods and gastropods Tewari et al. (1970) reported some planktonic foraminifera from this Indus flysh of Ladakh such as Globotruncana arca, G. fomnicata, Rugoglobigerina bulbosa, Heterohelix slobulosa Globigerinella astrea etc. of Upper Cretaceous age. These volcanic series represents Upper Cretaceons-Tertiry flysch deposits, marking a major tectonic zone along the floor of the Indus River which is sometimes called the Indus Suture Zone (Fuchs, 1968). This belt of flysch deposits can be traced from the western sides of syntaxis, and around the northern side of the Nanga Parbat. The lavas are mainly basaltic to andesitic in composition, 3.2.9 Karewa Formation (Neogene) The name Karewa Formation has been proposed by Lydekker (1883) for a group of lacustrine and fluvial sediments intercalated with some glacial varves and tillites of Plio-Pleistocene age. The original extension of the basin was about 3600sq.km. Its sediments were mainly derived from the northem Higher Himalaya and the southern Pir Panjal Range. It attains a thickness of about 2000m Stratigraphically, it unconformably overlies the marine Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks of Kashmir in some parts of the valley. It is traditionally divided into a lower and an upper division. The steeply dipping Lower Karewas, comprising bluish gray silt and clay beds associated with lignite seams, occur as fringes along the northeastern slope of the Pir Panjal. Upper Karewas can be distinguished from the Lower Karewas in having nearly horizontal beds of buff-coloured siltstones, conglomerates (tillites), varved clays, mostly of glacial origin. Thus the boundary between Lower and Upper Karewas is an unconformity marked by a structural discordance. Thus the interbeds of glacial tillites and varved clays in Upper Karewas presents several phases (3 to 4) of Pleistocene ice advance and retreat, The Karewa Formation yields a rich assemblage of fossils which include ostracodes, molluscs, vertebrates (including mammals), plant fossils, spore-pollen etc. Singh (1977) attempted a biostratigraphic subdivisions based on ostracodes. Some important fossils within Karewas are as follows : Ostracodes : Zonocypris costata, Cypridopsis sp., lyocypris bensoni, 1. kashmirensis, Cypris pubera, Eucypris zenkeri, Heterocypris reptans, Isocypris priomena, Cypridopsis aculeata, Protamocypris arcuata. Vertebrates; Equus sivalensis, Sivatherium gigantium, Hypselephas hysudricus, Bos sp. Rhinoceras sp., giraffa sp. etc. From critical analysis of fossils, it appears that the Lower Karewas are Mio-Pliocene andes On — = yy PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY Op yyy, nic deposit separating the Lowe. Upper Karewas are Pleistocene in age. The typical mori Upper Karewas probably marks the Plio-Pleistocene bow 3.3 TECTONICS AND HISTORY OF SEDIMENTATION 1 i ins a long history of sedimentation, magmati The Himalayan Phanerozoic sequence cons ey pe and tectonism. Attempts have been made to recognise an® : study of lithology, fae and flora, grade of metamorphism, ae and limitey Tadiometric age (data available from some syn-sedimentary eee a ae SiVCS). Bay on the above data several sedimentary cycles have been recognised will e different Tethyay basins including the Kashmir (Shankar et al, 1989). Most of these ee ar separated ft one another by hiatus of varying magnitudes. Each of these cycles exhibits different testo. structural magmatic and sedimentological characteristics. Many of these boundaries corres, to regional and global events. Within the Palneo-Mesozoic sequence there are at least four suc, cycles. ‘The Cambrian-Precambrian boundary is marked by a major biological change indicated by the rapid evolution and diversification of life with the beginning of Cambrian, Soft-bodied animals and microfloral elements (acritarchs) are succeeded by animals with hard skeleton, Although, this notable change in organic content is not reflected in the lithologic sequence, The initiation of Cambrian (Lolab Formation of Kashmir) is marked by a trangressive phase indicated by prolific growth of trilobites, brachiopods and corals. Dominance of black shales (pyritiferous) and slaty rocks suggest a deeper marine environment and somewhat anoxic condition. This transgressive cycle leading to deposition of Lolab, Nutunus and Kartu Formations, was terminated by a large scale marine regression towards the later part of Upper Cambrian followed by the uplift of the basinal area in response to the Caledonian Orogeny of China and Europe. This causes absence of uppermost Cambrian-Lower Ordovician faun! zones in Kashmir basin. The next cycle was initiated with the beginning of a fresh ‘marine transgression cauig deposition of a marine sedimentary pile (Ordonician-Lower Carboniferous), unconformstl) overlying the Cambrian-Precambrian sediments, in parts of Kashmir, Spiti and Kumaua. It the Kashmir basin, the sequence corresponding to this cycle includes Ordo-Silurian Mags! Formation, Devonian Muth and Aishmugam Formation and Lower Carboniferous Syringothyt Limestones and Fenestella Shales. The entire stretch of Lesser Himalaya was probably posit areas supplying clastics to these sedimentary basins of the Himalaya. During the deposition sediments of these cycle, fluctuations of sea level have occurred periodically, reflected} occasional interbedded marine and continental facies, especially at the upper patt of sequence. This phase finally became closed with the total regression of sea after Lower Mist a times. Evolutionary anges specially in the plant life are noticed in the of first appearance of true vascular land plants gi ian-E: fer (Rhacopteris flora) (Singh eal. 198%), This repeat Late Devonian-Early Carbonife” Orogeny of China and Hercynian Orogeny of Europe uplifted with return of exclusive continental environ Himalaya, this break is not so pronounced as evident the Lower and Upper Palaeozoic sequence, in Ka Was temporary, related to Tianshe when the basinal area in Kashi ent. Although, in Spiti basin in C* from a some gritty beds lying bY, shmir, this regressive phase isKASHMIR BASIN 85 conspicuous with initial development of several plant-bearing continental rocks within Aishmugam Formation and Fenestella Shales, followed by intermitton basic and andesitic lava flows along with pyroclastics and ash beds (Agglomeratic Slates and Panjal Volcanics). Although, this volcanism ceased after Middle Permian in eastern and southeastern part of the basin, the eruption continued upto Triassic in the northwestern and western Kashmir. Pegmatites and related leucogranites corresponding to this phase are dated 300 + 50 Ma. In the southeastern Kashmir, the end of volcanism was followed by a short continental fluvial condition when deposited the Mamal Formation yielding profuse Lower Gondwana plant and a few vertebrate fossils. The next cycle of sedimentation initiated with a fresh marine transgression in Late Carboniferous-Early Permian times that continued upto Early Jurassic. The characteristic deposits corresponding to the initial of part this cycle are the thick sequence of carbonate sediments (Permo-Triassic sequence) followed by deposition of black shales in Jurassic times. The phase is characterised by extensive occurrence of Permo-Triassic marine fauna. The marine regression started with the beginning of orogenic movement at the end the Early Jurassic in Kashmir basin which was culminated in almost total expulsion of sea from this area after the deposition of Wumuh Formation and there is no further record of Mesozoic sedimentation in the basinal area. This phase was followed by gradual uplift of the Kashmir basin with the formation of flysch sediments and ophiolites. ceChapter 4 SPITI BASIN a 4.1 GENERAL FEATURES ‘The Spiti basin is a wide fossiliferous sedimentary province on the caste part ofthe Panjub Himalaya and it belongs to the Tethyan or the Northern Himalayan Zone. It is named from the river Spiti flowing across the area. Because of the remarkable continuity in suecession (preserving almost an uninterrupted record of the Proterozoic-Palaeo-Mesozoic sediments), richness in fossils, clarity of stratigraphic record and ideal display of rocks in several field sections, Spiti basin is regarded as a classical ground for the study of marine Phanerozoic rocks in India, Triassic system of Spiti may be considered, one of the best of the world: ‘The Spiti basin presents a sedimentary column of more than 6000m thick, mostly repre- senting shallow marine Phanerozoic deposits within a time span of an about ‘480MLY. years beginning with the Cambrian and terminating at the Upper Cretaceous. Throughout this time span, orogenic influence is practically absent. End-Silurian Caledonian Orogeny seems 10 be unrecorded while the Mid-Carboniferous Hercynian (Variscan) and Mid-Jurassic Callovian Orogeaies are feebly reflected. The true orogenic phase came towards the close of Cretaceous, which is evident from the formation of flysch deposits at the top of Upper Cretaceous Chikkim Formation, a prominant feature of the Indus Tectonic Zone (Indus Flysch). With the beginning of this orogenic phase, the Tethys receded and the Himalayan basins, including the Spiti, gradually disappeared with the termination of Phanerozoic sedimentation, The sediments deposited within these Himalayan basins were then subjected to folding (mostly open folds) with axial trend NW-SE. The basin-floor, made up of central crystalline rocks, are believed to have moved along with its sedimentary cover for several kilometers from their original positions as huge nappes, in response to subsequent late Tertiary orogenic phases. Granites and granitoid rocks of uncertain ages (belonging to different times) are found as intrusives within the sediments from Precambrian to Tertiary times. These are mainly exposed in southern and northern parts of Spiti basin. ‘The Lahaul-Spiti-Kinnaur basins of Himachal Pradesh represent the southeastern extension of the Kashmir-Zanskar basin in Jammu-Kashmir and they together form the largest Tethyan basin in the Himalayan region. These basins are bounded on their south by the Vaikrita Group of the Central Crystalline Zone and by the Indus Tectonic Zone on its North. The Vaikrita also forms the basement of this Tethyan sedimentary sequence. These basins were evolved possibly due to a crustal sag during the Late Proterozoic as marginal basins. The Spiti basin extends from the Suru valley in the northwest to the border of Tibet-Uttarkhand in the southeast. ‘The Kinnaur basin has similar set up and it is separated from the Spiti basin by a narrow stretch of granitoid and crystalline rocks. Here, the author intends to describe the geology of the Spiti basin only. 9394 PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY op | 4.2 STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION The geology and stratigraphy of the Spiti basin have been carried out by severay Yat Some pioneer workers are Stoliczka (1865), Griesbach (1889), Hayden (1904, 1908), py and Haime (1853). Uhlig and Steigher (1904), Unlig (1907), Read (1912), and Dienes (1° Later significant contributions to the geology of this area have been made by Gothan ang," | (1937), Kohli and Sastri (1956), Gansser (1964), Srikantia (1981), Goel (1982), B} me al. (1982), Fuch (1982), Bhargava and Srikantia (1985), Kato et al., (1987). Kumar et al, (Ise, Bhargava (1987), Ranga Rao ef al. (1987), Bassi (1990), Bhargava et al. (1991), Bagati (ig, Pathak (1997) and Srikantia and Bhargava (1998). The original succession of the Spit tay was given by Hayden (1904, 1908). Later a pure lithostratigraphic succession was propose, Srikantia (1981). The entire succession of Spiti basin is given Table 4.1 where lithostratigs, subdivisions are also shown side by side. 4.3 STRATIGRAPHIC ACCOUNT 4.3.1 Basement Rocks The floor of the sedimentary column of Tethyan basins of the Himalaya was formed i metamorphic schists and granitoid socks, sometimes with high grade minerals. At presen, hz are designated as Vaikrita Group (Vaikrita System of Griesbach, 1891) representel metamorphosed and folded mica schists and phyllites. Vaikritas are superfically enveloped: places by some schists, granitoids and migmatitic rocks which are named as Salkhalas (Salih Group). Both Vaikritas and Salkhalas are considered Palacoproterozoic to Mesoproterozsc 2 age. 4.3.2 Proterozoics-Palaeozoics A. Haimanta Group Griesbach (1889) first proposed the name Haimanta System to designate the rocks overlying Vaikritas. It is now given a lithostratigraphic status, designated by Hainanta Gn Haimantas are subdivided into two litho-units, a lower Batal Formation and an Upper Kut™ La Formation (Srikantia, 1981). (a) Batal Formation : The Batal Formation is found resting with slight discordance crystalline Vaikritas. In many sections, they are found welded to the basement rocks. Th part of this formation comprises grey to green phyllites, grey quartzites and ¢ = phyllites. At its basal part, migmatization has yielded paragneisses at some places. TW ot part shows quarzites alternating with carbonaceous phyllites while its upper put 8 phyllitic. Except stratification, Batals are broadly devoid of any other sedimentary ‘The typical litho-assemblage with dominant grey to black phyllite especially at the UPFC indicates an environment, euxinic to broad peritidal conditions, Batals are at places by granitoid bodies as found in Chilling and Jsp, Baals ar considered NeOPR is tesminal Proterozoic on th is of its stratigraphic position, i ord of AY of typical Cambrian affinity from Batals. On the other on fe naa aaa is conf succeeded by the overlying Kunzam La Formation which yields undoubied Cat ian-Cambrian boundary, poseibly syns cuit So the Precambrian-Cam! oundary, possibly pas; in Spiti bas" oe eransitional without any significant beak,’ “PONe the Batals in Ses95 : Kunzam La Formation is named from the Kunzam La Pass in Lahaul. It is broadly divided into two members. The lower division, often called Debsa Khad Member, consists of grey quartzites with shale partings, greyish green shales, slates, siltstones, and sandstones. Quartzites exhibit ripplemarks, load casts and flute casts. The upper division, called Parahio Member is characterised by brown dolomitic limestones associated with cross bedded quartzites alternating with olive green shales and siltstones. The carbonate beds show algal mat of Epiphyton. Kunzam La Formation exhibits several types of sedimentary structures like wavy ripples, lenticular beddings, ripplemarks, syndeformational features at its lower part, herringbone cross beddings at its middle and mudcracks at its upper part. Vertical arrangement of such structures indicate a gradual shallowing up of the basin from subtidal-intertidal to local subaerial conditions. The basal part of Kunzam La Formation encloses several earliest Cambrian trace fossils (Bhargava et al. 1982, Bhargava and Srikantia 1985). The Cambrian body fossils are mainly collected from the rocks of the overlying Parahio Member that yield primitive brachiopods (inarticulates), trilobites and also microfossils like conodonts (Bhatt and Kumar, 1980). The chief fossils are : Trace fossils : Phycodus, Pedum, Plagiogmus, Rusophycus didymus, Diplichnites, Bilichnites, Skolithos, Planolites, Gordia. Trilobites : Ptychoparia spitiensis, P. stracheyi, Oryctocephalus saltori, Redlichia noetlingi, Olenus haimantensis, Microdiscus griesbachi, Conocephalites memor, Anomocare conjunctiva, Hundwarella, Tsinania, Brachiopods : Lingulella haimantensis, L. spitiensis, Nisusia depsaensis, Obolella cf crassa, Acrothela praestans, Codonts : Onestodus, Sagittodontus, Furnishiana. The overall fossils indicate the age of Kunzam La Formation ranging between Early Cambrian to Middle Cambrian. The trilobite and brachiopod faunas have a close affinity with those collected from the Cambrian Neobolus bed of Salt Range. Redlichia noetlingi, an index fossils of Lower Cambrian, is reported from both the areas and also from the adjacent Kashmir basin. B. Sanugha Group The Sanugha Group (proposed by Srikantia, 1981) overlying the Kunzam La Formation exhibits a transgressive relationship with it with the development of a basal gritty sandstone bed. As typical Upper Cambrian fossil is absent in the Spiti basin and a faunal cum sedimentological break is suggested between Kunzam La Formation and Sanugba Group. The Sanugba Group is subdivided into two formations, the lower Thango and the upper Takche. (i) Thango Formation : The Thango Formation initiates with a gritty conglomerate, followed upward by purple quartzites and sandstones interbedded with shales and siltstones. The conglomerate bed contains pebbles of dolomite and quartzite (derived from underlying formations) with arenaccous matrix. Purple quartzites and shales are the major litho-units of the Thango Formation. Quartzites are massive to bedded characterized by herringbone, festoon and planar cross beddings, ripplemarks and mudcracks indicating an overall shallow tidal environment varying from intertidal to supratidal setting. Badly preserved fossils and some traceTABLE 4.1 SUCCESSION OF SPITI BASIN SHOWING MAIN LITHO-TYPES AND LEADING FOSSILS Succession With Leading Zone Fossils Hayden 1908, Diener 1912, Krishnan 1968) Lithostratigraphic Divisions (Grikantia 1981, Srikantia & Bhargava, 1998) ‘Member Main Litho-types Other Leading Fossils | Terminal Flysch deposits Graywackes, basic we) 1 volcanics, Chert Blu ‘Chikkim seties : Limestones, shales Cephalopods : Belemnites & | Upper | Turonian En 8 Globotruncana spp. Se ee Pelecypods : Hippurites, Gryphaea Foraminiferas : Globotruncana gansseri, G. tricarinata ‘Giumal series : Hoplites Giumal Formation Glauconitic sandstones ‘Ammonoids : Acanthodiscus, Holostephanus Pelecypods : Pseudomonotis, Gryphaea [Spiti Formation LAGUDARSI GROUP Black shales ‘Ammonoids : Perisphinctes, Lytoceras, Spiticeras, Streblites, Acanthoceras Pelecypods : Goniomay, Homomya, Inoceramus Ferruginous oolites Ammonoids : Macrocephalites, Dolikephalites Midstrass | | Feeling stage ? Macro- Kioto Formation | Tagling ‘Ammonoids ; Macrocephalites jtLoees, | Hassle cephalites triangularis Limestones, Dolomites Brachiopods : Spiriferina Rheetic | PaF2 stage : Megalodon Para —_| shales Pelecypods : Eontolium, Pecten, Lima Ladakensis Brachiopods : Spiriferina, Spirigera. ‘Quantzite series : Spirigera ‘Nunuluka Formation Sandstones, shales : Monophyllites, Trachyceras, manicnsis Lobites Pinacoceras. Tibetites, Didymites Monotis shale + & | auor Fo. ‘Shak Dictiehttes, Proarcestes. Plictes, Jovites, Norie Monotis salinaria 3 ration _ Atractites e ~ . & Pelecypods : Lilangia, Lima, Pleuromya, & | Upper ‘Coral limestone: Spiriferina| Pecten a reisbachi 2 ‘ Brachiopods : Rkynchonella Spiriferina Hangrang Formation Dolomitic coral-rich pods = pi & Tuvavite bed TTuvavite | Beane limestone Menteelia, Diolasma angulatus “Tropites bed : Tropltes “Ammonolds : Monophyllires, Dalmanizes, subbulanus Prychites, Ceracites, Beyrichttes. Jimnires. ‘Comte Dolomitic shale limestones | Sturia Aspadires, Rimkinites, Pinacoceras. “Grey ped : Joannites eymbiformis Sanglung Formation J Pelecypods Daonelia, Pseudomonoris irachiopads = Riynchonelia. Spurigens MM ay 40 aHavwouivass S1OZOXINYHA 961: (aMod-isa TABLE 4.1 (Contd.) SUCCESSION OF SPITI BASIN SHOWING MAIN LITHO-TYPES AND LEADING FOSSILS 8 ‘Succession With ‘Lithostratigraphle Divisions i Leading Zone Fossils (Srikanta 1981, Scikantia & - g in Litho-types Other 7s a (Hayden 1908, Diener Bhargava, 1998) wpe: Loiding Fost g 1912, Krishnan 1968) | Group] Formation | Member ‘Daonella Limestone: ‘Chomote Formation Dolomites, Limestones, Ladinian Deonelia indica ‘shales: Deonelia shale: D-lammelt, Kaga Formation ‘Caleareous shales ‘Upper Muschelkafk = Prychites resifer —_ Lower Muschelkalk : Anisian | Keyserlingites dieneri & 2 ‘Nodular Himestone z 3 ‘Basal Muschelkalk : 2 | Rhynchonella griesbackt Limestones of variable : reat |B sec somaioe (SERRA Hedenstrocmia bed = a oe Flemingites rokilla | Ammonoids + Xenodiscus, Xenaspls, Aspidires, asaaeoe baal Hedenstroemia mojsltovisi, Sibirtes Lower | Scythian | Meekoceras Varaha Pekeypods: Prandomonertt ‘Ophiceras bed : Ophiceras ‘Ammodiscordes. Ammovertelta Bolivina, sakunsola Dentatina Glomospira ‘Otocerss bed ? Otoceras woodward! ‘Upper | Producms shale 5 . Binck calcareous and | Brachipods : Productus, Spiriferella rajah, Middle | Marginifera himalayansis i g Gungri Formation ‘carbonaceous shales Spirifer, fasciger, Chonetes, Athyris, Lyttonia PERMIAN lecypods : Ewrydesma spp. Deltopecten. Neospirifer ‘Calcareous seadstone Gechang Formation Grey micaceous sandstones | he We - “sel oe aoe Eurydesma cordatum ae ee y Coral : Waagenophyllum Upper __| Grit and conglomerates 5 Ganmachidam Formation | Conglomerates/grits 8 Plant fossil Po series : Sandstones, shales, idle 5 on Sphenopteridium sp. Lepidodendron z Middle | Rracopterts ovata g |e rerma Limestones Bryorons * Fenestella, Protaretipera ampla g 3 Se a Lipa series: ormation Limestones, Gypseous | Butonias Producras, Necapirfer. Athyri= EB | tower | SFingortors curpidate | | Heh Format tater Reus 1 Baplpsa of coor 8 = Plant : Lepids Sagillaria86 TABLE 4.1 (Contd.) SUCCESSION OF SPITI BASIN SHOWING MAIN LITHO-TYPES AND LEADING FOSSILS Succession With Lithostratigraphic Divisions | . Leading Zone Fossis (Srikantia 1981, Seikantia in ta i Agi amide pa aia 1981. Sika Main Litho-types Other Leading Fossils 1912, Krishnan 1968) | Group] Formation | Member VONIAN [Mi DEVONIAN [ical © | cin Quarcies Muth Formation Onhoquartes easy unfossiitrous Coral : Favorites, Conophyltum, Hatystes SILURIAN ‘Sturian System Catcarcous sandstones. | PrmmoPOue |, Otis, Dalmanclia oo | Gee renee néstones. | Pensamerus oblongus Hetystes wellcht Shales Algal limestones | Ceo eee ea — | g Cephalopod * Onhoceres | g Phamte ridophye) Pilophyton princes Coral: Streprolasma, Heliolives peers Purple sandsones ana |BngMeROa letter Leptona, - stem. wngo Formation le: sandstones an¢ finesquina Dinorthis ere Favosites forbesi & | Thanse Formatio Maroon shales ‘Telobites © Calymene, Maenus, Asaphus & Gastropod + Bellerophon = ‘Cephalopod : Cyrroceras, Gorioceras a Preropod : Tentaculltes s Midate | Paratio bed z Green 9 Gy soanoncs | Telos: Rede, Pochpaia 8 CAMBRIAN ans Kunzamla Formation Seo ‘Anomocare, Microdiscuss cone preaiienia|noeelte! g and carbonat Brachiopods : Lingulella, Nisusia, Obotella, ‘TERMINAL PROTEROZOIC Cee Grey. green purple Acrothele 2 (NEOPROTEROZOIC) Shalkhal quanteites GTEROZOI oa Metamorphic schists, MESOPROTEROZOIC Gopi ersten! gneisses Granitoid rocks in "N40 suavwoutSPIT! BASIN 99 fossils collected from the Thango Formations (mainly from its upper part) are: Brachiopods.: Leptaena rhomboidalis, Strophomena chamerops, Refinesquina umbrella, R. aranea, Plectambonites himalayansis, Dinorthis thakil. Trilobites + Ilaenus brachioniscus, Calymene rivalis, Asaphus sp. Molluscas : Prerinia thanamensis (pelecypod), Bellerophon ganesa (gastropod) Cyrtoceras centrifugum Gonioceras anceps (cephalopods). Corals: Streptolaesma, Heliolites. Bryozoas — : Propora himalaica, P. americana, Prilopora. Pteropod —: Tentaculites. Algae : Apidium indicum, Coeloshaeridium shianense (Kato, et al., 1987) (earliest plant record), Trace fossils : Phycodus circinatam, P. pipalmatum, Planolites, Trochonema, Teichichnus, Skolithos, Rusophycus, Isopodichnus, Bifungites, Spirophycus Stromatoporoids : Raphostoma pentamerids, Planolites, Sinusites. These fossils broadly suggest an Ordovician age for the Thango Formation. First record of articulate brachiopods from the Lower Thangoes indicates beginning of Ordovician, Phycodus circinatum is known to be an index fossil of Lower Ordovician, collected from the lower part of this formation. : Gi) Takche Formation : The overlying Takche Formation has a gradational or intercalated contact with the underlying Thango Formation although, at some place it rests unconformably over the Vaikritas. The Takche Formation comprises a sequence of limestones, dolomites shales- siltstones and sandstones. Lithology of Takche Formation shows several prograding cycles. Ill- preserved reefal structures of corals, stromatoporoids, sponges are also present at places. Algal fossils like Vermiporella and Girvanella along with fossils of stromatoporoids suggest a back- reef and foreslope facies environment. ‘The Takches are ricily fossiliferous. Some important forms are : Corals : Favosites spitiensis, F. forbesi, Halysites wallichi, H. catenularia Lindstraemia subduplicata, Chonophyllum, Heliolites, Plasoporella, Brachiopods : Orthis (Plectorthis) spitiensis, Dalmanella basalis, Pentamerus oblongus Leptaena rhomboidalis Gastropods ; Pleurotomaria, Bellerophon, Euomphalus cf triquetrus. Pelecypod _: Palaeoneile ef victorae. Cephalopod: Orthoceras cf annulatum. Bryozoas —_: Hollopora, Polypora himlaica, Mellopora, Algae : Girvanella, Apidicum indicum, Vermiporella, Pleridophytes : Psilophyton princeps (from upper patt,100 PHANEROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY op ny Trace fossils: Arthrophycus, Planulites, Chondrites, Skolithos, Rusophycus, Phy pedum. Stromatoporoid : Siromatopora concentrica. Although lot of Ordovician elements are present, Pentamerus oblongus, and Haly, wallichi, both index fossils of Silurian, confirm the age of Takche Formation as Late Ordo to Silurian. Psilophyton from the Upper Takche is possibly the earliest record of land ply India, C. Muth Formation ‘The original name, given by Stoliczka (1865), is derived from the Muth village of sj Srikantia (1981) used the term Muth Formation for this division, made up of dominaiy silicious sediments. It is a persistent marker litho-unit in the Palaeozoic sequence of the Tety Himalaya developed almost in all the Himalayan basins from Kashmir to Kumaun, It eri a sharp contact with the underlying Takches indicating a possible sedimentological brat, its upper boundary with the overlying Lipak Formation is intercalated. The Muth Formation is essentially composed of compact to granular, white colose quartzites, medium to fine grained, with upper part sporadically interbedded with dolonis and green shales. Quartzites show low angle cross beddings (tabular, trough shaped, feston herringbone type) and also ripplemarks at places. Overall absence of body fossil, paucy trace fossils and presence of some sedimentary structures are indicative of an upper shore fii, to beach environment and an over all regressive phase. Lateral extension of quartztes 0 wide areas also supports this view. A few trace fossils reported from the Muth Formaitt (Bhargava and Bassi, 1988) include Palaeophycus tubularis, Planolites, Skolithos, Ares etc. From its stratigraphic position between Silurian Takche and Lower Carboniferous Lit formation, a Devonian age is ‘suggested for the Muth Formation. D. Kanawar Group The name ‘Kanawar System’ was initially proposed by Hayden (1908) t0 desi Carboniferous strata of Spiti overlying the Muth Formation, which he divided into 0 lower Lipak Series and an upper Po Series, Later Kanawars were assigned to ‘Group’ and Lipak were designated as‘Formation’ by Srikantia who also put “Gritty Conglot considered as basal members of the overlying Kuling system by Hayden (1908), as the tog member of the Kanawars and named it Ganmachidam Formation, (a) Lipak Formation : Named after the Lipak Valley of Kinnaur (Original ‘LP SS) of Hayden, 1904), the Formation is found widely exposed in several Tethyan Dasins. 4 conformable contacts with both the underlying Muth and the overlying Po Form i Formation essentially comprises a carbonate rch horizon with grey to black or pitt i and dolomites. At the upper part it is interbedded with quartzites and 8?" wt Limestones, dolomnites and gypsum probably suggest an evaporite sequence: 1 ™¥, cJastic Muth phase to carbonate phas i q . cates & clastic pl Phase of Lipak (with associated coral reefs) invic a deepening, of the basin and hence a trangressive phase of sea, The environment of ‘was varying between subtidal (0 intertidal with ag ; part forming, an evaporite basin, yt quisition of supratidal condition e‘SPITI BASIN 0 Lipak Formation, especially its lower part, is rich in mari ils wilt P nation, 1» ine fossils with well- d brachiopod fauna. The chief fossils are : ns Brachiopods : Syringothyris cuspidata, S. lydekkeri, Strophomena analoga, Reticularia lineata, Productus cora, Chonetes handrensis, Buxtonia sp., Neospirifer bambadhurensis, Athyris royssi, A. subtilita, Gastropod —: Pleurotomaria. Trilobite : Phyllipsia cf chiffordi. Bryozoa _: Fenestella Pteropods —_: Tentaculites, Conularia quadrisulcata, Trace fossils : Gyrochorte, Rhizocorallum. Pelecypods _: Aviculopecten, Conocardium. Plant : Lepidosagillaria. Fossils in general, indicate a Lower Carbohiferous age for the Lipak Formation. Syringothyris cuspidata is considered to be an index fossil of Lower Carboniferous also found in other equivalent beds developed in the different Himalayan basins, (b) Po Formation : The name was proposed by Hayden (1904) (original Po series) from the village Po near the area of exposures of these rocks. The Po Formation has a gradational contact with the underlying Lipak but its upper contact is sharp for the presence of 2 gritty conglomerate at the base of overlying Ganmachidam Formation, It comprises a thick sequence of white to grey, medium grained sandstones and siltstones while its middle part contains carbonaceous and pyritiferous shales, The sandstone-shale-sandstone alternation probably indicates a prograding cycle. The basal part of the Po, designated as Thabo Member yielts some plant fossils belonging to Rhacopteris flora, a characteristic land-flora of Carboniferous (Gothan and Sahni, 1937). This is perhaps the undoubted record of the prolific pre-Gondwana Jand plants in India and it is essentially a cold water flora. The overall lithologic assemblage, and bedding features indicate presence of several prograding cycles from mid-shelf to uppershore face within the Po formation. At the end of each cycle, the basin became more and more shallower. The upper part of the Po Formation designated as Fenestella Shale Member contains ‘a rich assemblage of bryozoas and brachiopods. The chief fossils of Po Formation are > Plant Fossils : Racopteris ovata, R. inaguilatera, R. cf circulars, Sphenopteridium furcllatum, Sphenopteris sp., Rhodea sp., Lepidodendron schurmani (Dhar et al, 1981) Ostracods —: Kegelites, Polytyltes, Geffenina jhingrani, G. spitiensis, Bairdia haydeni Cavellina wadiai. Bryozoas —_: Fenestella cf blebi, Protoretipora ampla Brachipods : Productus scabriculus, P. lineatus, P. undatus, Dielasma sp.. Reticularia lineata, Trace fossils : Aulichrites, Cochlichnus, Rusophycus, Rhizocorallium, Skolithos.ROZOIC STRATIGRAPHY 102 PHANE! OF iy fiddle Carboniferous but its inven From plant remains, Po Formation is considered Mi i ese, 1589) ha faunas are suggestive of Lower-Middle Carboniferous (©) Ganmachidam Formation : Originally ths is identified 35 Grity Conslonee Hayden (1908) considering it as the basal member of the eee ae a roUup. Hayeen later Ranga Rao et al. (1987) intended to consider this as an Upper ferous horizon . : ity marking: the Upper P; i tion as an unconformity ‘king: the Upper Palaeoy, its lower contact with the Po Formatior ian Orogeny of Europe, ine break corresponding to Middle Carboniferous Hercyni ny f considered it equivalent to basal Talchir Conglomerates of the Peninsu la occurring Gondwanas and Pre-Gondwana rocks, as basal Talchirs Wer" also considered Upper Carboife, in age. However, discovery of “Burdesma fauna’ from the marine beds associated with ty basal Talchir at Manendragarh, Central India and in other parts confirms the age of basal Tale; as the lowermost Permian. Almost indentical Eurydesma fauna has been also reported frog the basal Gechang Formation of the overlying Kuling Group and thus it should be considesy lowermost Permian age. In that case, the Upper Palaeozoic break is actually passing in betwee, the Gritty conglomerate horizon ‘and the overlying Gechang Formation. For this reason, Srikaniz (1981) put this conglomerate horizon as the top member of the Kanawar Group and named ‘Ganmachidam Formation’. In the field, it shows a gradational boundary with the underlying Po Formation but a sharp unconformable contact with the overlying Gechang Formate Ganmachidam Formation comprises pebbly mudstones, pebbly sandstones intercalated wit shales at places. These pebbles are of variable sizes and are subrounded to rounded in natu, composed of sandstone, siltstone, dolomite and vein quartz. The matrix-clast ratio is varjg between 20:80 to 40:60. There are several pebble beds and the successive beds become thim: with coarsening upward grain-size. This coarsening upward sequence clearly indicates: regressive phase of sea when the basin changed from upper-shore face to beach to delta bp Several basic dykes and sills are found intruding the Ganmachidam Formation at places. Foss are in general, absent here. E. Kuling Group ‘The name Kuling System was proposed by Stolczka (1865) fora sequence of rsis Pin valley of Spiti overlying the ‘Po Series’, Hayden (1908) divided the Kuling Syst® * three divisions, a basal Grity Conglomerate, middle Calcareous Sandstones andthe UF Producus Shale. Seikamta (1981) gave these subdivisions lihostatigraphie status and desig ““Kuling” as 2 ‘Group’ and divided it into a lower Gechang Formation (correspon * “Calcareous Sandstone’) and an upper Gungri Formation (Productus Shales) #* conglomerate horizon as the topmost fc i P " coat Formation pus formation of underlying Kanwar Group which he ™ ) Gechang Formation : The Gechang Formatio f early Pe i orm Om represents a major phase of early marine trangression in the Himalayan basins including § iti, erate ae is warittl ae tia fond ying tos oder htm ike Ganmactisam, Tase® uth, Lipak and Po with sharp contacts which g ochon ; fi : : f se widely spreading unconformity. The Gechang Fermaloe compres wna sao, mostly calcareous and cross bedded. The litho-units of Gechars tre types ndict transgressive cycle, pointing 10 sublidal environment that al ee inte changed to foresho! fa.