S.

Ponnusamy

Foundations
of
Complex Analysis
With 114 Illustrations
 Dedi ated to

Professor O.P. Juneja

and
Professor M.S. Ranga hari
 Prefa e

The main aim of this book is to present the on epts and te hniques of
omplex fun tion theory in a way that will give the reader maximum assis-
tan e in mastering the fundamentals of the theory. The book is designed to
serve as a text for a rst ourse on the lassi al theory omplex fun tions or
as a supplement to other standard texts. The sele tion and the sequen ing
of the ontents are the result of the experien es I had during the ourse of
my studies and tea hing. As a prerequisite the reader is expe ted to have
adequate knowledge of the elements real analysis. However, in an eort to
make the book a essible to a wider audien e, I have tried my best to min-
imize the prerequisites and to keep the exposition at an elementary level.
Thus I have in luded a number of examples motivating the ideas involved
in most of the theorems and denitions. Most of the exer ises have been
provided with hints for their solutions. Some theorems have been given
more than one proof to help the reader a quire a deeper understanding of
the theory. The present edition has a large number of illuminating new
examples, observations, exer ises, and some additional materials overing
some advan ed topi s.
Within ea h hapter, all the numbered items (ex ept gures) eg. Corol-
lary, equation, Example, Lemma, Proposition, Remark, Theorem are num-
bered onse utively as they appear. For the sake of onvenien e, the sign
signals the end of the proofs of Theorem, Corollary, Lemma and Propo-
sition whereas the sign  indi ates the end of Remark, Observation and
Example.
It is a great pleasure for me to express my gratitude to Prof. M.S. Ran-
ga hari who has not only en ouraged me to write the rst edition of the
book but also has read several drafts with are and patien e. During my
do toral work at the Indian Institute of Te hnology Kanpur, I had opportu-
nities to be a tutor to graduate and undergraduate students on this subje t.
In this ontext, I would like to thank my tea her Prof. O.P. Juneja who
introdu ed me to the theory and has been a sour e of inspiration sin e then.
Many people have given me help, en ouragement, and inspiration. I
should take this opportunity to mention just a few. I express my deep
gratitude to Professors R. Balasubramanian, O. Martio, St. Rus heweyh,
C.S. Seshadri, V. Singh, M. Vuorinen, and G.P. Youvaraj whose ontin-
ued en ouragement has been invaluable for widening my resear h interest.
Parti ularly, I am deeply indebted to Prof. M. Vuorinen for his ontinued
support in bringing out this edition. In addition, a number of my resear h
visits to work with him has helped me to learn a lot.
It is my pleasant duty to thank Prof. G.P. Youvaraj who has been my
best friend and to this work. He has proofread the nal manus ript and his
onstru tive riti isms has improved the presentation lot. I take this op-
portunity to thank Prof. Roger W. Barnard for his support and friendship
during my visit to Texas Te h University. I greatly appre iate his areful
reading of the nal version of the manus ript and making suggestions. I
wel ome and appre iate any suggestions for improvements and omments
regarding errors and misprints.
I must also re ord my appre iation due to my daughter Abirami and son
Ashwin for their understanding and love during the long period that I have
taken to omplete this se ond edition of the book. Above all, my deepest
gratitude goes to my wife Booma (alias Geetha) for her innite patien e,
ontinued support, and loving en ouragements in all walks of my life.
Finally, I wish to express my thanks to the Center for Continuing Edu-
ation at the Indian Institute of Te hnology, Madras, India, for its support
in the preparation of the manus ript. Also, I thank Mr. N.K. Mehra, pub-
lisher and Managing Dire tor of Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. who
has been superb.

S Ponnusamy
IIT Madras, India
Contents

Prefa e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Denition of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Geometri Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Square roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Rational Powers of a Complex Number . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Topology of the Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Sequen es and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.7 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1 One-to-one and Onto Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Con epts of Limit and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3 Stereographi Proje tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Sequen es and Series of Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations . . 73
3.2 Harmoni Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3 Power Series as an Analyti Fun tion . . . . . . . . 101
3.4 Exponential and Trigonometri Fun tions . . . . . . 112
3.5 Logarithmi Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.6 Inverse Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.7 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4 Complex Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.1 Curves in the Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . 142
4.3 Cau hy-Goursat Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.4 Consequen e of Simply Conne tivity . . . . . . . . . 166
4.5 Winding Number or Index of a Curve . . . . . . . . 167
4.6 Homotopy Version of Cau hy's Theorem . . . . . . . 170
4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.8 Morera's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.9 Existen e of Harmoni Conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . 192

v
vi CONTENTS

4.10 Taylor's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

4.11 Zeros of Analyti Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.12 Laurent Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.13 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations . . . . . 223
5.1 Prin iple of Conformal Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.2 Basi Properties of Mobius Maps . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.3 Fixed Points and Mobius Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.4 Triples to Triples under Mobius Maps . . . . . . . . 245
5.5 The Cross-Ratio and its Invarian e Property . . . . 247
5.6 Conformal Self-maps of Disks and Half-planes . . . . 250
5.7 Prin iple of Symmetry and Mobius Maps . . . . . . 261
5.8 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's The-
orem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.1 Maximum Modulus Prin iple . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.2 Hadamard's Three Cir les/Lines Theorems . . . . . 275
6.3 S hwarz' Lemma and its Consequen es . . . . . . . . 279
6.4 Liouville's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.5 Doubly Periodi Entire Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.6 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . 299
6.7 Zeros of ertain Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.8 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
7 Classi ation of Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.1 Isolated and Non-isolated Singularities . . . . . . . . 307
7.2 Removable Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
7.3 Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.4 Further Illustrations through Laurent's Series . . . . 317
7.5 Isolated Singularities at Innity . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
7.6 Meromorphi Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
7.7 Essential Singularities and Pi ard's Theorem . . . . 327
7.8 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
8 Cal ulus of Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.1 Residue at a Finite Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.2 Residue at the Point at Innity . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.3 Residue Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
8.4 Number of Zeros and Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.5 Rou he's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
8.6 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
9 Evaluation of ertain Integrals
R 2+
. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. 369
9.1 Integrals of Type R R( os ; sin ) d . . . . . . . 369
9.2 Integrals of Type R 11 f (x) dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
9.3 Integrals of Type 11 g(x) os mx dx . . . . . . . . . 385
9.4 Singularities on the Real Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
CONTENTS vii

9.5 Integrals Involving Bran h Points . . . . . . . . . . . 396

9.6 Estimation of Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.7 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
10 Analyti Continuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
10.1 Dire t Analyti Continuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
10.2 Monodromy Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
10.3 Poisson Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
10.4 Analyti Continuation via Re e tion . . . . . . . . . 432
10.5 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
11 Representations for Meromorphi and Entire Fun tions . . . 437
11.1 Innite Sums and Meromorphi Fun tions . . . . . . 438
11.2 Innite Produ t of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . 446
11.3 Innite Produ ts of Analyti Fun tions . . . . . . . 453
11.4 Fa torization of Entire Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . 457
11.5 The Gamma Fun tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
11.6 The Zeta Fun tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
11.7 Jensen's Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
11.8 The Order and the Genus of Entire Fun tions . . . . 487
11.9 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
12 Mapping Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
12.1 Open Mapping Theorem and Hurwitz' Theorem . . 503
12.2 Basi Results on Univalent Fun tions . . . . . . . . 506
12.3 Normal Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
12.4 The Riemann Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 518
12.5 Bieberba h Conje ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
12.6 The Blo h-Landau Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
12.7 Pi ard's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
12.8 Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Index of Spe ial Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises . . . . . . . . . . 551
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Complex Numbers

In this hapter we review basi results su h as fundamental algebrai and

topologi al properties of omplex numbers. We assume that the reader
is a quainted with the familiar properties of the real number system. In
Se tion 1.1, we introdu e omplex numbers. Se tion 1.3 provides a way of
obtaining solutions of a quadrati equation in omplex variable. Se tion
1.2 dis usses polar representation of omplex numbers whereas Se tion 1.4
gives an easy method of nding solutions of a rational power of omplex
numbers. In Se tion 1.5, we introdu e topologi al properties of the omplex
plane. In Se tion 1.6, we present several fundamental theorems on erning
onvergen e of sequen es and series of omplex numbers.

1.1 Denition of Complex Numbers

Consider ordered pairs of real numbers (x; y). The word `ordered' means
that (x; y), (y; x) are distin t unless x = y. We denote the set of all ordered
pairs of real numbers by C . We shall all C as the set of all omplex num-
bers. In C , we dene addition (+) and multipli ation ( or juxtaposition)
between two su h ordered pairs (x1 ; y1), (x2 ; y2 ) by
(1.1) (x1 ; y1 ) + (x2 ; y2 ) := (x1 + x2 ; y1 + y2 )
and
(1.2) (x1 ; y1 )(x2 ; y2 ) := (x1 x2 y1 y2 ; x1 y2 + y1 x2 ):
If z1 = (x1 ; y1) and z2 = (x2 ; y2 ), then we say that
z1 = z2 () x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 :
In parti ular, z = (x; y) = (0; 0) () x = 0 and y = 0:
We an easily he k the following simple properties for equality of or-
dered pairs making it an equivalen e relation: For any z1; z2 and z3 in
C,
2 Complex Numbers

(i) z1 = z1
(ii) z1 = z2 =) z2 = z1
(iii) z1 = z2 and z2 = z3 =) z1 = z3 .
The asso iative and ommutative laws for addition and the multipli a-
tion and distributive laws et ., follow easily from the properties of the eld
of real numbers R. Further, it is lear from (1.1) and (1.2) that (0; 0) is
the additive identity, (1; 0) is the multipli ative identity, ( x; y) is the
additive inverse of z = (x; y) and
 
1 x y
:= 2 2 ; 2 2
z x +y x +y
6 (0; 0).1 Given two omplex
is the multipli ative inverse of z = (x; y) =
numbers z1 and z2 ,
 there is a unique omplex number, say z3 , su h that z1 + z3 = z2: If
zj = (xj ; yj ) (j = 1; 2; 3), then z3 = (x2 x1 ; y2 y1 ) and is denoted
by z2 z1 . [Subtra tion℄
 for z2 6= (0; 0), there is a unique z3 su h that z1 = z2 z3: In fa t, z3 =
z1:(1=z2 ) sin e z2 z3 = z2 :z1 :(1=z2) = (z2 :(1=z2)):z1 = 1:z1 = z1 : The
omplex number z3 is otherwise written as z3 = z1 =z2. [Division℄
The symbol ommonly used for a omplex number is not (x; y) but x + iy,
x; y real. Following Euler, we dene i := (0; 1) in the omplex number
system C of ordered pairs. We write a real number x as (x; 0). Then
a ording to (1.2)
i2 = (0; 1)(0; 1) = ( 1; 0); i3 = i2
i = ( 1; 0)(0; 1) = (0; 1);
and i4 = i2
i2 = (1; 0). Also, x + iy = (x; 0) + (0; 1)(y; 0) = (x; y): The
above dis ussion shows that C is also a eld. Further, writing a real number
x as (x; 0) and noting that
(x1 ; 0) + (x2 ; 0) = (x1 + x2 ; 0) and (x1 ; 0)(x2 ; 0) = (x1 x2 ; 0);
R turns out to be a subeld of C . The asso iation x 7! (x; 0) shows that we
an always treat R as a subset of C . Complex numbers of the form (x; 0)
are said to be purely real or just real. Those of the form (0; y) are said
to be purely imaginary whenever y 6= 0. In parti ular, we have, with the
above identi ation of R, i2 = 1: Every ( omplex number) z = (x; y) 2 C ,
denoted now by x + iy, admits a unique representation2
(x; y) = (x; 0) + (0; 1)(y; 0) = x + iy; with x; y 2 R:
1 We use `:=' to abbreviate \dened by" or \written as".
2 From now on if we write z = x + iy 2 C , x; y are real numbers unless otherwise
stated.
1.1 Denition of Complex Numbers 3

`Zero' viz. (0; 0) = 0 + i0 is the only omplex number both real and purely
imaginary. The onjugate of a omplex number z = x + iy is the omplex
number z := x iy. Note that z = z if and only if x + iy = x iy, i.e.
y = 0; i.e. z is purely real. The inverse or re ipro al z 1 of a omplex
number z = x + iy 6= 0 is
   
1 z x iy x y
= = 2 2= 2 2 i 2 2 ;
z zz x + y x +y x +y
whi h was dened earlier as the multipli ative inverse of z . We all x and
y the real part and imaginary part of z = x + iy, respe tively. We write
z+z z z
Re z := x and Im z := y; Re z = and Im z = :
2 2i
We know that ordered pairs of real numbers represent points in the geomet-
ri plane referred to a pair of re tangular axes. We then all the olle tion
of ordered pairs as R2 and the two axes as the x-axis and y-axis. Be ause
(x; 0) 2 R2 orresponds to real numbers, the x-axis is alled the real axis
and sin e iy = (0; y) 2 R2 is purely imaginary, the y-axis is alled the
imaginary axis.
Now, we an visualize C as a plane with x + iy as points in R2 and
we simply refer to it as the nite omplex plane or simply omplex plane.
Depending on the problems on hand, we use x + iy or (x; y), to represent
a omplex number.

1.3. Theorem. The eld C annot be totally ordered in onsisten e

with the usual order on R. (Total ordering means that if a 6= b, then either
a < b or a > b):
Proof. Suppose that su h a total ordering exists on C . Then for i 2 C
we would have either i > 0 or i < 0 sin e i 6= 0. This means that in either
ase
1 = i
i = ( i)( i) > 0
whi h is not true in R. This observation shows that su h an ordering is
impossible in C .

Theorem 1.3 means that the expressions z1 > z2 or z1 < z2 have no

meaning unless z1 and z2 are real.

1.4. Con epts of modulus/absolute value. The modulus or abso-

lute value of x 2 R is dened by

jxj := x if x  0
x if x < 0:
4 Complex Numbers

As it stands, there is no natural generalization of j
j to C , be ause, as we

have seen in Theorem 1.3, there is no total ordering on C . However, we
interpret jxj geometri ally as the distan e from x to the origin (zero) of the
real line. It is this fa t whi h leads p us topdene the modulus of a omplex
number z = x + iy 2 C by jz j := zz = x2 + y2 .It is easy to derive the
following simple fa ts:
(i) jz j = 0 i3 z = 0.
(ii) jRe z j  jz j; jIm z j  jz j; jz j = jzj, z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 ; z1 z2 = z1 z 2 .
Equality holds in the rst two inequalities i Im z = 0 and Re z = 0,
respe tively.  
z  jz j
(iii) jz1z2 j = jz1 j jz2 j;  1  = 1 (z2 6= 0).
z2 jz2 j
(iv) Re (z1 + z2 ) = Re z1 + Re z2 and Im (z1 + z2 ) = Im z1 + Im z2 :
1.5. Example. It is easy to see that if z1 z2 and z1 z2 are both real,
then either z1 and z2 are both real or one is the onjugate of the other.
Indeed, there is nothing to prove if one of z1 and z2 is zero. Therefore,
we may assume that both z1 and z2 are non-zero. By hypothesis
z1 z2(z1 z2 ) = z1 (z1 z2 jz2 j2 )
whi h is real. Therefore, we must have either z1 is real or z1 z2 jz2 j2 = 0
whi h is equivalent to saying that either z1 is real or z1 = z2 . This proves
the required on lusion. 
1.6. Example. We wish to show that
(i) jz1 + z2 j  jz1j + jz2 j,
(ii) j jz1j jz2 j j  jz1 z2 j for all z1 ; z2 2 C .
It is also easy to see that (i) and (ii) are equivalent.
To prove these, we rst observe that if z1 + z2 = 0, then there is nothing
to prove. If z1 + z2 6= 0, then jz1 + z2 j 6= 0. Sin e Re z  jz j, we have
       
z1   z2 
 Re z z+1 z + Re z z+2 z = 1

(1.7) 
z +
1 + z2   z1 + z2  1 2 1 2
from whi h (i) follows. To prove the se ond inequality, we write z1 =
z2 + (z1 z2 ) so that, by (i),
(1.8) jz1 j  jz2 j + jz1 z2 j; i.e. jz1 j jz2 j  jz1 z2 j:
Similarly, we obtain
(1.9) jz2 j jz1 j  jz2 z1 j = jz1 z2 j:
3 We use Paul Halmos's notation `i' to abbreviate the words `if and only if'.
1.1 Denition of Complex Numbers 5

Combining (1.8) and (1.9) we obtain (ii). A tually, (ii) implies (i) an be
seen similarly. Thus, (i) and (ii) are equivalent.
Finally, we dis uss the equalities in (i) and (ii). If one of z1 ; z2 is zero,
then equality in (i) holds obviously. If z1 + z2 = 0, then equality in (i)
is possible only when z1 = z2 = 0. So we assume that z1 6= 0, z2 6= 0,
z1 + z2 6= 0 and note that jz j = jRe z j () Im z = 0. From (1.7), we see
that the equality in (i) holds i for ea h k = 1; 2,
   
zk zk
Im
z1 + z2
= 0 and Re
z1 + z2
 0:
That is, i
jz1 z2 j = Re (z1 z2 ) ; i.e. jz z j = Re (z z ):
jz1 + z2 j2 jz1 + z2 j2 1 2 1 2

Equivalently, this holds when z1 z 2 is a non-negative real number. This is, in

fa t, equivalent to the relation z1 = tz2 with t  0, sin e z1 z 2 = z1 jz2 j2 =z2.
One an easily he k that the same ondition holds for the equality in (ii).
This ompletes the problem. 
Here is another proof of the two inequalities of Example 1.6:
jz1 + z2 j2 = (z1 + z2 )(z 1 + z2 )
= jz1 j2 + 2Re (z1 z 2 ) + jz2 j2
 jz1 j2 + 2jz1z 2 j + jz2 j2 ; sin e Re z  jRe z j  jz j;
= jz1 j2 + 2jz1j jz2 j + jz2 j2
 (jz1 j + jz2 j)2 ;
that is, jz1 + z2j  jz1 j + jz2 j whi h is known as the triangle inequality and
it is lear that the equality holds i jz1 z2 j = Re (z1 z 2 ); i.e. z1 = tz2 , where
t  0. Moreover, by nite indu tion, it is easy to see that
 
 n  n
X  X

 zj   jzj j:
j =1  j =1

The equality holds when zj (j = 1; : : : ; n) lie on the same ray emanating

from the origin.

1.10. Remark. If z1 = tz2 where t  0, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 =

x2 + iy2 6= 0, then it follows that x1 = tx2 and y1 = ty2 so that (0; 0),
(x1 ; y1 ) and (x2 ; y2 ) lie on a ray from (0; 0). In other words, the points in
R2 orresponding to z1 and z2 are on the ray from the origin. Note that
this means that z1 ; z2 are linearly dependent. 
6 Complex Numbers
y
z
π/3 π/3

π/3
O x

p p
Figure 1.1: Geometri representation of 3=2 + i= 2.

1.11. Remark. For z = x + iy, we have jz j2  2jxj jyj so that

2jz j2 = jz j2 + jz j2  x2 + y2 + 2jxj jyj = (jxj + jyj)2 :
p
Hen e, for any z = x +piy 2 C , we have jz j  jxj + jyj  2jz j and it is
lear that the onstant 2 annot be repla ed by a smaller number unless
x = 0 or y = 0. The latter inequality be omes equality if x = y. 
1.2 Geometri Interpretation
As we have pointed out in Se tion 1.1, for every point of the z -plane there
is one and only one omplex number z and onversely. A omplex number
z = x + iy may be thought of as a ve tor or as a dire ted line segment, in
the omplex plane and pi tured as an arrow from the origin to the point
(x; y) in C ; or as any ve tor obtained by translating this ve tor parallel to
itself, i.e. one whose starting point is irrelevant. For instan e the point
p
3 i
z= +
2 2
determines the ve tor
p from the origin to this point and so the dire ted line
segment fromp(a 3=2; b 1=2) to (a; b) also represents the same omplex
number z = 23 + 2i for any (a; b) 2 R2 . Both ve tors have the same length
and point in the same dire tion. Thus we have an innite number of line
segments that we an draw in order to represent a omplex number, be ause
all su h segments have the same length and point in the same dire tion (see
Figures 1.1 and 1.2). Here jz j is the length of the ve tor z . Some of the
simple geometri relations between z , z and z are outlined in Figure 1.3.
Geometri ally, addition of two omplex numbers orresponds to the ve tor
addition of ve tors representing them. Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2
be two omplex numbers su h that 0; z1 and z2 are not ollinear. Then
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 ) = (x1 + x2 ; y1 + y2 ):
We plot these ve tors in Figure 1.4. As indi ated in Figure 1.4, the ve tor
z1 + z2 is the diagonal of the parallelogram with z1 and z2 as adja ent sides.
1.2 Geometri Interpretation 7

y z2

y2 − y1
z1 = (x1 , y1 )
z2 = (x2 , y2 )
z1
x2 − x1
O x

Figure 1.2: z = z2 z1 = (x2 x1 ) + i(y2 y1 ).

y
z z = the mirror image of z
reflected across the real axis
−z = the mirror image of z
reflected through origin
O x

z −z

Figure 1.3: Relations between z , z and z .

y
z1 + z2
z2
z2

z1
O x
−z2 −z2
z1 − z2
z1

Figure 1.4: Law of parallelogram.

y
z2 |

z1
+

z2
1

|z2
|z

|
|z 1|
O x

Figure 1.5: Triangle inequality jz1 + z2 j  jz1 j + jz2 j.

8 Complex Numbers
y y

z = reiθ
O x
θ = Arg z θ = Arg z

O x z = reiθ

Figure 1.6: Argument of z 6= 0.

Now the triangle inequalities (see Example 1.6 and Figure 1.5) are obvious.

If r is the length of the ve tor represented by z , i.e. the distan e from

the origin to z , and  is the angle measured from the positive x-axis to the
radius ve tor joining z in the anti- lo kwise sense and z = x + iy, then the
oordinate systems, viz. the artesian and polar systems, are related by
(see Figure 1.6)
(1.12) x = r os  and y = r sin ;
and hen e
p
(1.13) r = x2 + y2 and tan  = y=x:
Thus, we dene z = r( os  + i sin ) = rei : Any value of  for whi h (1.12)
(or (1.13)) holds is alled an argument of z 6= 0 written as  = arg z: Clearly
z has an innite number of distin t arguments. Any two distin t arguments
of z dier by an integral multiple of 2. (Sin e z = 0 () jz j = 0, arg 0 is
indeterminate). In order to spe ify a unique value of arg z , we may restri t
its value to some interval of length 2. To make this statement pre ise, we
introdu e the on ept of \prin ipal value" of arg z as follows:
For an arbitrary z 6= 0, the prin ipal value of arg z is dened to be the
unique value that satises  < arg z   and it will be denoted by Arg z .
Thus, the relation between arg z and Arg z is given by

arg z = Arg z + 2k; k 2 Z:

For onvenien e the set of all the values of arg z is denoted by  arg z . For
example,
  3
Arg i = ; Arg (1 i) = ; Arg ( 1) = ; Arg ( 1 i) = :
2 4 4
While inverting the se ond equation in (1.13) we should note the following
1.2 Geometri Interpretation 9
y

Arg z = π + Arctan (y/x) Arg z = Arctan (y/x)

O x
Arg z = −π + Arctan (y/x) Arg z = Arctan (y/x)

Figure 1.7: Des ription of argument of a omplex number z = x + iy .

y

θ = 7π/6 (wrong)
x
√ θ = −5π/6 (correct)
− 3 − i = reiθ

Figure 1.8: To spe ify the orre t value when  = Arg z = 5=6.

(see Figure 1.7):

8
>
> Ar tan (y=x) if x > 0
>
>
>
<  + Ar tan (y=x) if x < 0, y  0
Arg z =  + Ar tan (y=x) if x < 0, y < 0
>
>
>
>
>
=2 if x = 0, y > 0
:
=2 if x = 0, y < 0
where Ar tan t is the prin ipal value of the ar tangent of a real number t
satisfying the inequality =2 < ar tan t  =2. The following are then
true:
y x y
sin(arg z ) = p 2 2 ; os(arg z ) = p 2 2 ; and tan(arg z ) = :
x +y x +y x
For instan e, we have the following:
(a) arg z = arg z unless z is a negative real number, be ause otherwise
arg z = arg z = . In fa t, we have  arg z = arg z + 2k; k 2 Z:
p
(b) If z = 3 i, then we have Arg z = 5=6 and so (see Figure 1.8)
 arg z = 5=6 + 2k; k 2 Z:
p
( ) The omplex number z = 1 i may be written as z = 2ei ; where
 = Arg z + 2k = 3=4 + 2k; k 2 Z:
10 Complex Numbers

We get non-prin ipal values if and only if k 2 f1; 2; : : : g.

p p p
(d) Similarly we easily derive 10 + i 30 = 2 10ei with  = 2=3 +
2k, k 2 Z:
Next we see that the polar representation of a omplex number simplies
the task of des ribing the produ t of two omplex numbers geometri ally.
To do this we onsider two omplex numbers z1 and z2 with polar repre-
sentations: z1 = r1 ei1 and z2 = r2 ei2 : Now,
ei1 ei2 = ( os 1 + i sin 1 )( os 2 + i sin 2 )
= ( os 1 os 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i(sin 1 os 2 + os 1 sin 2 )
= os(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 ) = ei(1 +2 ) ;
whi h gives
(1.14) z1z2 = r1 r2 ei1 ei2 = r1 r2 ei(1 +2 ) :
Note that jei j = 1 and ei = ei(+2k) , k 2 Z. Thus, we have
(1.15) jz1 z2 j = jz1 j jz2 j
and
(1.16) arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 (mod 2)
in the sense that they are the same but for an integral multiple of 2. For
z2 6= 0, we have
z1 r1 ei1 r1 i(1 2 )
= = e :
z2 r2 ei2 r2
Thus, for z2 6= 0, we have
 
z1
(1.17) arg = arg z1 arg z2 (mod 2):
z2
If we ombine (1.17) with the operation of subtra tion, learly the angle 
dened by  
z2 z1
 = arg
z3 z1
represents the angle at the vertex z1 (see Figure 1.9). For instan e, let us
hoose z1 = 1 and z2 = i: Then z1 z2 = i and hen e Arg (z1 z2 ) = =2.
Further Arg z1 + Arg z2 =  =2 = =2: Therefore, in this ase, we obtain
Arg z1 + Arg z2 = Arg (z1 z2 ):
As another example, suppose z1 = 1 and z2 = i. Then we see that
Arg (z1 z2) = =2 and Arg z1 + Arg z2 = 3=2:
Therefore, in this ase, we obtain the orre t answer by adding 2 to
bring within the interval ( ; ℄. These two examples show that when the
1.2 Geometri Interpretation 11
y z3 y z1 z2
z3 − z1 z2 θ2
φ z2 θ1 +
− z1 z1
z1 z 2 θ2
θ1
O x O x

Figure 1.9: Angle at the vertex z1 .

y
zeiφ z

O x

Figure 1.10: Rotation of z through an angle .

prin ipal arguments are added together in a multipli ation problem, the
resulting argument need not be a prin ipal value. Conversely, we also see
that when the non-prin ipal arguments are ombined, a prin ipal argument
may result. From this observation, we also see that if we are given two
omplex numbers z1 and z2, then z1 and z2 are equal i jz1 j = jz2 j and
arg z1 = arg z2 (mod 2):
(i) Suppose that z1 = ei , where  is real and z2 = z , any omplex
number. Then z1 z2 = ei z is obtained by rotating z through an
angle  (see Figure 1.10).

(ii) The set of all points given by the equation < arg(z 2 3i)  
6
is geometri ally represented in Figure 1.11.

Arg z = π/6
(2, 3)
Arg (z − 2 − 3i) = π
O x

Figure 1.11: The set of all points su h that 6 < Arg (z 2 3i)   .
12 Complex Numbers
y
a)
z −
g(
Ar
θ=
a

O x

Figure 1.12: The straight line Arg (z a) = , where a = m + in; m; n > 0.

y

π
θ+ θ
a

O x

Figure 1.13: The straight line arg(z a) =  +  .

(iii) The set of points des ribed by S = fz : j arg z =2j < =2g repre-
sents the upper half-plane, viz fz : Im z > 0g. Two more examples
of this kind are given in Figures 1.12 and 1.13.
(iv) Suppose z1 and z2 are non-zero omplex numbers. Then
 
z1 z2 z2 z22
z1z 2 + z 1 z2 = 0 () z1
=
z2
; i.e. 1 2 =
jz1 j jz2 j2
() 2 arg z1 =  + 2 arg z2 + 2k
() arg z1 = arg z2 + (2k + 1)=2; k 2 Z:

z1
z2

O x

z3
z3

Figure 1.14: Des ription for perpendi ular and parallel ve tors.
1.2 Geometri Interpretation 13
y
ζ2 − ζ3 ζ3
ζ1 − ζ2 ζ2
ζ1

O x

Figure 1.15: Des ription for parallel ve tors on the same straight line.

This means that the ve tors z1 and z2 are perpendi ular (see Figure
1.14) i z1 z2 + z1 z2 = 0, i.e. Re (z1 z 2 ) = 0 whi h is same as writing
z1 = isz2; for some real number s. Note that perpendi ularity is
equivalent to the Pythagorean equation jz1 z2 j2 = jz1 j2 + jz2 j2 :
(v) The line through points 1 and 2 is perpendi ular to the line through
points 3 and 4 i (the ve tors) 1 2 and 3 4 are perpendi ular.
Thus, we on lude that the two lines are perpendi ular if and only if
there exists a real number s su h that
 
1 2 1 2  
= is; i.e. arg =  2k or  2k
3 4 3 4 2 2
for k 2 N 0 := N [ f0g.
(vi) Similarly, for nonzero z1 ; z2 2 C it follows that
z1 z2 z1 z2 = 0 () 2Im(z1 z2 ) = 0
() Im zz1 = 0; i.e. zz1 is real
2 2
() arg z1 = arg z2 + k; k 2 Z:
This means ve tor z1 is parallel to ve tor z2 i z1 = tz2 , where t is
real.
(vii) Thus, three omplex numbers j (j = 1; 2; 3) lie on the same straight
line i 2 3 = 1 (3 1 ) for some real 1 (see Figure 1.15). Similarly
we also have
3 1 = 2 (1 2 ) and 1 2 = 3 (2 3 )
for the real numbers 2 and 3 .
The points 1 ; 2 ; 3 are ollinear i
1 (3 1 ) + 2 (1 2 ) + 3 (2 3 ) = 0
for some 1 ; 2 ; 3 2 R. Equivalently,
(2 1 )1 + (3 2 )2 + (1 3 )3 = 0:
14 Complex Numbers

Writing 2 1 = 1P , 3 2 = 2 and

P 1 3 = 3 , we an
state the ondition as 3j=1 j j = 0 and 3j=1 j = 0 for some real
j (j = 1; 2; 3) not all zero.

1.3 Square roots

Sin e the square of a real number is nonnegative, x2 = a has a real solution
only if a  0.
Now we onsider the question of square roots in C , for instan e w = i; i
are the solutions of w2 = 1. Moreover, our next theorem shows that if
z 2 C , then there is a solution w 2 C for w2 = z: Theorem 1.18 below gives
a purely algebrai proof of this fa t. Later we obtain this result, using polar
oordinates, as a spe ial ase of a more general result.
1.18. Theorem. For a given z = x + iy 2 C , the solutions of w2 = z
are given by
"r r #
w=
jz j + x + i sgn (y) jz j x ; sgn (y) =  +1 if y  0
2 2 1 if y < 0:
Proof. We have to solve the equation (u + iv)2 = x + iy for u and v.
This equation gives
(1.19) u2 v2 = x and 2uv = y
and therefore, u2 + v2 = jz j: Using this and the rst equation in (1.19), we
have
u2 =
jz j + x and v2 = jz j x :
2 2
(Note that jz j  x  0). From the se ond equation in (1.19) we observe
that
y > 0 () uv > 0; y < 0 () uv < 0:
Therefore, sele ting u and v so that their produ t has the same sign as that
of y, we obtain the required on lusion.
1.20. Corollary. For every omplex number z with jz j = 1 and
Re z  0, there exists
p a omplex number w with jwj = 1 su h that w2 = z
and jIm wj  (1= 2)jIm z j:
Proof. Let z = x + iy with x  0 and jz j = 1. Then x2 + y2 = 1 and
x  x2 . Using Theorem 1.18, we have (sin e jz j2 = 1 = jz j)
r 2
jIm wj2 =



jz j2 x  = x2 + y2 x  x + y2 x = jIm z j2
 2  2 2 2
whi h ompletes the proof.
1.3 Square roots 15

1.21. Remark. For a given omplex number z , the following fa ts

are easy to obtain:
(i) There are two values of w su h that w2 = z and these two values are
alled the square roots of z .
(ii) Ea h of the two values of w is real i z is real and positive.
(iii) Ea h of the two values of w is purely imaginary i z is real and
negative.
(iv) The two values of w oin ide with zero i z = 0.
(v) For ;  2 C , the equation
(1.22) z 2 + z +  = 0
has solutions
+w
(1.23) z= ;
2
where w is su h that w2 = 2 4 as obtained in Theorem 1.18.
Here the pro edure adopted to obtain the solution is the same as for
equations with real oeÆ ients, viz. that of ompleting the square.
(vi) Suppose that the equation (1.22) has real roots, say z = x. Then we
have x2 + x +  = 0, and x2 + x +  = 0: Thus, eliminating x, the
equation (1.22) has real roots if
(  )2 = ( )(  ); i.e. (Im  )2 + (Im )(Im ( )) = 0:
Similarly we see that the ondition under whi h (1.22) has purely
imaginary roots is that (Re )(Re ( )) = (Im  )2 :
(vii) On the other hand suppose that the equation (1.22) has a omplex
root, say z = z1 su h that jz1 j = 1. Then we have
(1.24) z12 + z1 +  = 0:
Sin e jz1 j = 1, z1 z1 = 1 so that z 1 = 1=z1. So (1.24) yields
z1 +  + z 1 = 0 and z 1 +  + z1 = 0:
Now, eliminating z 1 from the above two equations we get
(1 j j2 )z1 = ( ):
Thus, (1.22) has roots on jz j = 1 only if j j = j1 j j2 j: 
p
1.25. Remark. Let  a + ib denote the two square rootsp of a + ib
given by Theorem 1.18. More generally we use the notation  n a + ib to
denote the n n-th roots of a + ib. It is easy to see that
p p p
 3 + 4i = (2 + i);  3 + 4i = (1 + 2i);  2i = (1 + i): 
In Se tion 1.4, De Moivre's Theorem will be used to solve the equation
wn = z for w when z is given. In fa t, there are exa tly n n-th roots of any
non-zero omplex number z .
16 Complex Numbers

1.4 Rational Powers of a Complex Number

Repeated appli ation of (1.14) yields
(1.26) (rei )m = rm eim
or equivalently, jz mj = jz jm and arg(z m ) = m arg z (mod 2), where m is
a natural number. If z = rei 6= 0, repeated appli ation of (1.17) shows
that for a natural number m, z m = (rei ) m = r m e im : Of ourse, we
dene z 0 = 1 for z 6= 0. In parti ular, if we let jz j = 1, i.e. z = ei , then
we obtain the following:
1.27. Theorem. (De Moivre's Theorem) If m is an integer, then
(ei )m = eim , i.e. ( os  + i sin )m = os m + i sin m:
Further, the identity (1.26) is espe ially useful for nding n-th roots of
a omplex number z0 6= 0, when n is a natural number. For, if we have
z n = z0 with z = rei and z0 = r0 ei0 , then
p
rn ein = r0 ei0 =) r = n r0 and n = 0 + 2k;
p
where r = n r0 is the unique positive n-th root of r0 (> 0). Hen e, all the
roots of z = z01=n are given by
p
(1.28) n jz0 jei(0 +2k)=n
where k is any integer. Ea h value of k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1 gives a dierent
value of z . Any other value of k merely repeats one of the values of z
orresponding to k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1, sin e e2ik = 1. Thus, there are
exa tly n n-th roots of z0 6= 0. Also (1.28) shows that the n n-th roots of
z0 a tually
p lie on a ir le entered at the origin and having radius equal
to n jz0 j. Ea h of the roots obtained from (1.28) has the same modulus
and the arguments are equally spa ed. Geometri ally the n n-th roots of
z0 6= 0 are lo ated atpthe verti es of a regular n-sided polygon ins ribed in
the ir le of radius n jz0 j. Thus, we have proved
1.29. Theorem. Given a nonzero omplex number z = rei , the
equation wn = z has pre isely n distin t solutions given by
p
wk = n rei(+2k)=n ;
where k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1; and
pn r denotes the positive n-th root of r = jz j
and  = Arg z .

For instan e, the n-th roots of unity are given by

(1.30) !k = ei2k=n ; k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1:
1.4 Rational Powers of a Complex Number 17

2π3
i y
e ω1
=
ω

1 ω2 ω0 x

ω2 ω3

Figure 1.16: The n-th roots of 1 when n = 3; 4.

y
ω2
ω3 ω1

ω4 ω0 x

ω5 ω7
ω6

Figure 1.17: The n-th roots of 1 when n = 8.

The n-th roots of 1 when n equals 4 and 8 are pi tured in Figures 1.16 and
1.17.
Similarly, the 6-th roots of i are ei(4k+1)p
=12 , k = 0; 1; : : : ; 5: Further,
we easily derive that the values of [(1 i)=( 3 + i)℄1=6 are
2 1=12ei ;  = (4k 5)=12; k = 0; 1; : : : ; 5:

1.31. Remark. It is easily veried that (1.28) is valid when n is a

negative integer, sin e z 1=n = (1=z ) 1=n. Further, we an easily show that
if m and npare integers having no ommon fa tors then all the values of
z0m=n are n jz0 jm ei[(m=n)0 +(2mk=n)℄ ; k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1: 
If we set ! = e2i=n , then all the n-th roots of unity are expressed by
1; !; !2; !3 ; : : : ; !n 1 : From (1.28) it is lear that if ! 6= 1 is an n-th root
of unity, then the others are !2 ; !3 ; : : : ; !n 1 ; 1. Hen e if is any one of
n-th roots of z0 , then all the n-th roots of z0 are given by
; !; !2; : : : ; !n 1 :
Now, we see some of the immediate onsequen es of the above observa-
tions. Sin e !n 1 = (! 1)(1 + ! + !2 +


+ !n 1 ) = 0: If ! 6= 1, then
18 Complex Numbers

for n > 1, we have

1 + ! + !2 +


+ !n 1 = 0 (! = ei2=n ):
Thus, in parti ular, by equating real and imaginary parts on both sides
nX1   nX1  
2k 2k
os = 1 and sin = 0:
k=1 n k=1 n
Further, it is also evident that the sum of the produ ts of all n-th roots of
unity, taken 2; 3; : : : ; n 1 respe tively at a time, is zero, sin e they are
the roots of the equation z n 1 = 0: Now, for ! 6= 1, the ondition !n = 1
gives that
(1 !)(1 + 2! +


+ n!n 1 )
1 + 2! +


+ n!n 1 =
1 !
1 + ! + !2 +


+ !n 1 n!n
=
1 !
n
= :
1 !
Let h be any integer whi h is not a multiple of n, i.e. h = np + q (0 <
q < n). Then !h = !q ; q < n whi h implies that the sets
f1; !h; !2h ; : : : ; !(n 1)h g and f1; !; !2; : : : ; !n 1g

are the same in some order. Hen e if h is not a multiple of n or h is an

integer su h that 0 < jhj < n, then
1 + !h + !2h +


+ !(n 1)h = 0:
If h is a multiple of n, then !h = !np = (!n )p = 1 and so we have
1 + !h + !2h +


+ !(n 1)h = n:
Similarly, it is evident that
1 ( 1)n !nh 1 ( 1)n
1 !h + !2h


+ ( 1)n 1!(n 1)h =
1 + !h
=
1 + !h
:
That is, if ! is an n-th root of unity,
(
n
X 0 if n is even
( 1)k 1 !(k 1)h = 2
if n is odd.
k=1 1 + !h

1.32. Example. We wish to prove that all ir les that passes through
 and () 1 interse t the ir le jz j = 1 at right angles if jj 6= 1,  6= 0.
1.4 Rational Powers of a Complex Number 19

To do this, we onsider the equation of the ir le C with enter at z0

and radius r: C = fz 2 C : jz z0 j = rg: If C passes through the points
 (6= 0) and 1=, then we have
j z0 j2 = r2 ; i.e. jj2 + jz0 j2 2 Re (z0 ) = r2
and
j1 z0j2 = jj2 r2 ; i.e. 1 + jj2 jz0 j2 2 Re (z0 ) = jj2 r2 :
Subtra t the latter from the former to get (1 jj2 )(1 + r2 jz0 j2 ) = 0:
This implies either jj = 1 or jz0 j2 = 1 + r2 holds. The se ond ondition
yields the required on lusion if jj =
6 1. 
1.33. Example. Dis uss the nature of the set
(1.34) S = fz : jz aj + jz + aj = 2 g:
For two omplex numbers z1 and z2 we know that
jz1 z2 j; jz1 + z2j  jz1 j + jz2 j
so that j2aj = jz + a (z a)j  jz + aj + jz aj = 2 : Thus, there are
omplex numbers satisfying (1.34) only if jaj  .
Suppose that z 2 S . Then
2jz j = jz + a + z aj  jz + aj + jz aj = 2 ; i.e. max jz j = :
z2S

Here the maximum is attained at z = e i where  = arg( =a). If z 2 S ,

then we see that the sum of the distan es from the point z to the given
points a and a, is equal to the onstant 2 . This means that S represents
an equation of an ellipse with fo i at a. For instan e, if a is real then the
equation of the ellipse using re tangular oordinates is given by
x2 y2
+ = 1:
2 2 a2
Its enterpis at the origin and its semi-major and semi-minor axes are equal
to and 2 a2 , respe tively.
If a is real, then we an dis uss the set des ribed in (1.34) in the following
way: Let z = x + iy. Then, jz aj + jz + aj = 2 is equivalent to
jx + iy aj + jx + iy + aj = 2
() jx + iy aj = 2 jx + iy + aj
() jx + iy aj2 = (2 jx + iy + aj)2
() (x a)2 + y2 = 4 2 + (x + a)2 + y2 4 jx + a + iyj
20 Complex Numbers

|z − p| z
p

q|
|z −
q

Figure 1.18: Equidistant points from p and q : jz pj = jz q j.

() ( jx + a + iyj)2 = ( 2 + ax)2
() 2 [(x + a)2 + y2 ℄ = ( 2 + ax)2
() ( 2 a2 )x2 + 2 y2 = 2 ( 2 a2 )
x2 y2
() +
2 2 a2
= 1:
Using the te hnique of this example one an show that the set
S = fz : jz aj jz + aj = 2 g
des ribes a hyperbola with fo i at z = a and z = a. 
1.35. Example. If p and q are two distin t points in C , then it is
easy to see that the set des ribed by fz : jz pj = jz qjg gives the straight
line that is the perpendi ular bise tor of the line segment joining p and q
(see Figure 1.18). Next we see that the set of points des ribed by
(1.36) jz pj = jz qj (p 6= q; 0 <  < 1)
is a ir le. Upon squaring (1.36) we get
  
p 2 q 2 jq2 j jpj2
jz pj2 = 2 jz qj2 () jz j2 2Re z
1 2
=
1 2
  2
 p 2 q  jp 2 qj2 2 jqj2 jpj2
() z 1 2 
=
(1 2 )2
+
1 2
2 jp qj2
= ;
(1 2 )2
 
 p 2 q  jp qj
() z =
1 2  1 2
:

Thus, the set of the points des ribed by (1.36) is a ir le. 

1.5 Topology of the Complex Plane
In the earlier se tions we dis ussed some of the algebrai and geometri
properties of the omplex eld or plane as the ase may be. In this se tion
1.5 Topology of the Complex Plane 21

we study some of the topologi al properties of the omplex plane. This

is required for our study of Complex Analysis. If X is any set, then the
fun tion d : X  X ! R is alled a metri or a distan e fun tion if it
satises the following onditions for all a; b and in X :
(i) d(a; b)  0
(ii) d(a; b) = 0 () a = b
(iii) d(a; b) = d(b; a)
(iv) d(a; )  d(a; b) + d(b; ).
The set X together with a metri , i.e. (X; d) or, in short X , is alled a
metri spa e. As we have seen earlier, the fun tion
d : C  C ! R; (z; z 0) 7! jz z 0 j;
has the following properties:
(a) jz z 0 j  0
(b) jz z 0 j = 0 () z = z 0
( ) jz z 0 j = jz 0 z j
(d) jz wj  jz z 0j + jz 0 wj, where z; z 0; w 2 C ,
where d(z; z 0) = jz z 0 j is alled the Eu lidean metri . Thus, C is a metri
spa e with the Eu lidean metri d. For instan e, we have
(a) If X = R and d(x; x0 ) = jx x0 j, then (R; d) is a metri spa e.
(b) If Y  X and (X; d) is a metri spa e, then so is the restri tion (Y; d).
( ) Besides the Eu lidean metri we have another natural metri known
as the maximum metri on C . This is dened as
d(x + iy; x0 + iy0) = maxfjx x0 j; jy y0 jg:

For a detailed dis ussion on metri spa es, we refer to the book by Pon-
nusamy [8℄. In the Eu lidean metri spa e (C ; d), an open ball

(z0 ; ) = fz 2 C : jz z0j < g
is alled an open disk of radius  > 0 entered at z0 2 C or an  neighborhood
or simply a neighborhood of z0 . Geometri ally,
(z0 ; ) is just the disk
entered at z0 onsisting of all points at a distan e less than  from z0 .
Evidently,
(z0 ; 1) = C for any z0 2 C .
We use the term deleted neighbourhood of z0 to denote a set of the form
fz 2 C : 0 < jz z0 j < g; i.e.
(z0 ; ) nfz0 g:
22 Complex Numbers

y y

Re z > 0 Im z > 0
O x O x

Figure 1.19: Half planes.

y
∂1
1

Figure 1.20: Des ription for a non-open set.

We dene 
(z0 ; ) = fz 2 C : jz z0 j = g, the ir le of radius  > 0

entered at z0 . Throughout this book, we use the notation

R :=
(0; R) = fz 2 C : jz j < Rg and
:=
1 :
The unit disk
, as we shall see in later hapters, plays a ru ial role in
the theory of fun tions of a omplex variable.
A subset S  C is alled open (in C ) if for every z0 2 S there is a
Æ > 0 su h that
(z0 ; Æ)  S . This means that some disk around z0 lies
entirely in S . For instan e, the interior of a ir le, the entire plane C , and
the half-planes given by Re z < ; Im z >  and Im z < , are all examples
of open sets (see Figure 1.19). Here  is an arbitrary xed real number.
On the other hand \the interior of a ir le union ir umferen e" does not
form an open set, sin e no neighborhood of a point on the ir umferen e
lies entirely within the set; for instan e, S = fz : jz j  1g is not open (see
Figure 1.20). Observe that R when onsidered as a subset of C is not open.
To show that the disk
(z0 ; R) is open, let  2
(z0 ; R). If we hoose Æ
su h that 0 < Æ < R j z0 j, then
( ; Æ) 
(z0 ; R). As  2
(z0 ; R)
being arbitrary, this proves that
(z0 ; R) is open. On the other hand, this
fa t is geometri ally lear.
The omplement of a set S  C is C n S := fz 2 C : z 62 S g and is
usually denoted by S . A set S  C is said to be losed if its omplement
C n S is open. For ea h  > 0, the set
(z0 ; ) := fz 2 C : jz z0 j  g
1.5 Topology of the Complex Plane 23
y

O x

Figure 1.21: Des ription for onne ted set.

is losed and onsequently we all it a losed disk. We write
(0; ) as


and
1 simply as
. Here are some examples of losed sets.
(a)
= fz 2 C : jz j  1g;
= fz 2 C : jz j  1g; 
= fz 2 C : jz j =
1g;
(b) fz 2 C : Re z  0g; fz 2 C : Im z = 1g; fz 2 C : jz 4j  jz jg.
( ) The entire plane C and the empty set ;.
There is another way of hara terizing a losed set S using the notion
of limit point of S . A point z0 is a limit point of a set S if every
(z0 ; )
ontains a point of S other than z0. The point z0 itself may or may not
belong to the set S . For example, z0 = 0 is a limit point of
 
1 1 1
S = 1; ; ; : : : ; ; : : :
2 3 n
but 0 = z0 62 S . Similarly if
= fz : jz j < 1g, then ea h point on jz j = 1
is a limit point of
but again does not belong to the disk
. Ea h z 2

is also a limit point of S .
1.37. Example. We easily have the following:
(a) S = fz : z = x + iy with x and y rationalg is neither open nor losed.
(b) S = fz : z = 2g [ fz : jz j < 2g is neither open nor losed.
( ) C , ; are both open and losed.
(d) S = fz : 0 < jz j  1g is neither open nor losed.. 
As an alternative hara terization of losed sets in C , we have \a set S
is losed () S ontains all its limit points." We also note that, not every
point of a losed set S need be a limit point of S ; for instan e, if
S = fz : z = 0 or z = 1=n; for positive integers ng;
then z = 0 is the only limit point of S (whi h is in S ) and therefore, S is
losed. Note that no other point of S is a limit point of S , sin e, for
1 1
z0 = and  = ;
n n(n + 1)
24 Complex Numbers

(−a, 0) (a, 0) x

Figure 1.22: The set des ribed by S1 .

y

(−a, 0) (a, 0) x

Figure 1.23: Set des ribed by S2 and S3 .

the disk
(z0 ; ) ontains no point of S other than z0 itself. Points in a set
S whi h are not limit points are alled isolated points of the set S . Further,
it is lear from the denition that ea h element of an open set is a limit
point of the set.
A boundary point of a set S is a point for whi h every neighborhood
ontains at least one point of S and at least one point not in S . The
boundary of S , denoted by S , is dened as the set of all the boundary
points. For instan e, onsider
S = fz 2 C : jz 1j  1g:
The point z0 = 1+ i is a boundary point of S sin e every Æ-neighborhood of
it has a non-empty interse tion with both S and S . Although in this ase

(−a, 0) (a, 0) x

Figure 1.24: The set des ribed by S3 .

1.5 Topology of the Complex Plane 25

z0 2 S , this need not always be so. For example, z0 = 1 + i is a boundary

point but not in S = fz 2 C : jz 1j < 1g.
The boundary S is always losed in C , and S , the losure of S , is
dened by S = S [ S .
A point z0 is alled an interior point of S if there exists a Æ > 0 su h
that
(z0 ; Æ)  S . The interior of S , denoted by Int S , is the set of all
interior points of S . Thus, it is lear from the denition that \A set is open
() ea h of its points is an interior point."
A set S  C is said to be separated (or dis onne ted) if there exist two
nonempty disjoint open sets A and B su h that S  A [ B , S \ A 6= ;, and
S \ B 6= ;. If S is not dis onne ted, it is alled onne ted.
In any parti ular situation we generally an tell at a glan e if a given
set S in the omplex plane is onne ted, as illustrated in Figure 1.21. If
a > 0,
S1 = fz : jz aj  a or jz + aj  ag
S2 = fz : jz aj  a or jz + aj < ag;
S3 = fz : jz aj < a or jz + aj < ag;
S4 = fz : jz 2 1j < 1g;
then S1 and S2 are onne ted (see Figure 1.23) whereas S3 and S4 are not
onne ted (see Figure 1.24).
The fun tion : [0; 1℄ ! C ; dened by (t) = (1 t)z0 + tz1 is alled
the line segment with end points z0 and z1 and is designated by [z0 ; z1 ℄.
If (t) 2 S for ea h t 2 [0; 1℄, then the line segment [z0 ; z1 ℄ is said to be
ontained in S . A polygonal line from z0 to zn is a nite union of segments
of the form
[z0 ; z1 ℄ [ [z1 ; z2 ℄ [


[ [zn 1 ; zn ℄:
The points z0 and zn are then said to be polygonally onne ted. If the
segment [zk ; zk+1 ℄ is ontained in S , k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1, then the polygonal
line from z0 to zn is said to be ontained in S . A set S is said to be
polygonally onne ted if any two points of S an be onne ted by a polygonal
line ontained in S . In other words, S is onne ted i ea h pair of points
z;  of S an be onne ted by an ar lying in S . For instan e, any open
disk
(z0 ; Æ) is polygonally onne ted. For, if z1 ; z2 2
(z0 ; Æ) and (t) =
(1 t)z1 + tz2 ,
j (t) z0 j = j(1 t)(z1 z0 ) + t(z2 z0 )j  (1 t)Æ + tÆ = Æ
and so for ea h t 2 [0; 1℄, (t) 
(z0 ; Æ).
A domain is a nonempty open onne ted set in C . A domain together
with some, none, or all of its boundary points is referred to as a region. For
instan e, if
S5 = fz 2 C : Re z < a; a-realg and S6 = fz 2 C : Re z  a; a-realg;
26 Complex Numbers

(−a, 0) O (a, 0) x

Figure 1.25: The set des ribed by S7 .

y

R
e
z
=
O − a x
Im
ia z

Figure 1.26: The set fz = x + iy : y < xg.

then S5 des ribes a domain whereas S6 is a region but is not a domain,

sin e the set dened by S6 is not open but onne ted. On the other hand,
the set
S7 = fz 2 C : jRe z j > a for some a > 0g
does not onstitute a domain. Note that S7 is open but not onne ted (see
Figure 1.25). Further, the set
S8 = fz 2 C : a < Re z  b for some a < bg;
alled an innite strip, is not a domain but is a region. Also, S9 = fz 2
C : jIm z j < jRe z jg is dis onne ted while S10 = fz 2 C : jIm z j  jRe z jg
is onne ted. Similarly, the set
S11 = fz 2 C : jz + iaj < jz aj for some a > 0g
is onne ted and open. Note that (see Figure 1.26)
jz + iaj < jz aj () jz + iaj2 < jz aj2
() jz j2 + jaj2 + 2Re ( iza) < jz j2 + jaj2 2Re (za)
() 2Re (iza) < 2Re (za)
() y < x; sin e a > 0:
A set S is bounded if there is an R > 0 su h that S 
R : Geometri ally
S is ontained in a losed disk entered at 0 and radius R. A set that annot
1.6 Sequen es and Series 27

be en losed by any
R for R > 0 is alled unbounded. A simple example is

an innite strip, S8 above. Sets whi h are losed as well as bounded in C
are alled ompa t sets in C . Of ourse, the omplex plane C is not ompa t
as it is not bounded in C . Note that C is losed be ause C n C = ; is open.
Thus, C (with usual metri ) is not a ompa t metri spa e. On the other
hand,
R is ompa t.
A set S is ountable if the elements of S an be pla ed in a one-to-one
orresponden e with the set of positive integers. For instan e, ea h of the
sets dened by,
A = f2n : n = 1; 2; : : : g;
B = f2n + 1 : n = 1; 2; : : : g;
C = fr : r rationalg;
is ountable whereas the set of irrationals and the set of reals are both not
ountable, i.e. un ountable.

1.6 Sequen es and Series

An innite sequen e of omplex numbers is a list of points z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn ; : : :
of C listed in some order. More expli itly a mapping N ! C , n 7! zn ; is
alled a sequen e. This is brie y denoted by fzn gn1 (or simply by fzng
when there is no onfusion) with the understanding that zn is the n-th term
of the sequen e. A sequen e is thus merely an assignment of a spe i point
zn to ea h n 2 N .
Suppose fzn g is a sequen e of points ( omplex numbers) in C and that
fnk g is a stri tly in reasing sequen e of natural numbers. Then the se-
quen e fznk g (think of znk as ak ) is alled a subsequen e of the sequen e
fzng. For instan e,
fzk+1 g; fz2k g; fz2k+5 g; and fz2k g
are some subsequen es of fzng. Roughly speaking subsequen es are ob-
tained by deleting some of the terms from the sequen e under onsideration.
Of ourse, fzng is trivially a subsequen e of itself. For instan e, fz2k+1 g
may be obtained by removing the terms z2 ; z4 ; z6 ; : : : . We remark that
the notion of sequen es is not onned to sequen es of omplex numbers.
In later hapters, we shall also onsider sequen es of sets and sequen es of
fun tions.
A sequen e fzng is said to onverge to a point z0 , and write zn ! z0 , if
for every  > 0 there exists an N () 2 N su h that
jzn z0j < ; for all n > N ():
That is, zn ! z0 if jzn z0j ! 0, as a real sequen e. If a sequen e fails to
onverge, it is said to diverge.
28 Complex Numbers

z0
z4
·z ·z7
·z3 2
·z1 ·z5

Figure 1.27: Des ription for a limit of a sequen e.

Geometri ally, zn ! z0 if every neighborhood of z0 ontains all but

nitely many terms of the sequen e fzn g; su h a point z0 is alled a limit
of the sequen e (see Figure 1.27). Sometimes we write
lim z
n!1 n
= z0

instead of zn ! z0 . A point z0 is a limit of the sequen e fzn g if there

exists a subsequen e that onverges to z0 .
To have a better understanding of series that will be introdu ed later, we
must dene the notion of limit superior (resp. limit inferior) of a sequen e
frn g of real numbers. If frn g is bounded above (resp. bounded below) and
has at least one onvergent subsequen e, then limit superior (resp. limit
inferior), written
 
L = lim sup rn or limn!1 rn resp. l = lim inf r or limn!1 rn ;
n!1 n
n!1
is the least upper bound (resp. the greatest lower bound) of the limits of
all onvergent subsequen es of frn g. If no su h L (resp. l) exists, we set
 
L = lim sup rn = +1 resp. l = lim inf r =
n!1 n
1 :
n!1
Note that this is possible only if frn g is an unbounded sequen e. Of ourse,
if frn g happens to be a onvergent sequen e then we note that
lim sup rn = nlim
!1 rn = lim inf r :
n!1 n
n!1
For instan e, let
an = ( 1)3n ; bn = 1 + ( 1)n ; n = n( 1)n ; dn = 1 4 n :
Then we have
(i) lim supn!1 an = 1 and lim inf n!1 an = 1
(ii) lim supn!1 bn = 2 and lim inf n!1 bn = 0
1.6 Sequen es and Series 29

(iii) lim supn!1 n = +1 and lim inf n!1 n = 1

(iv) lim supn!1 dn = 1 = lim inf n!1 dn .
How about the sequen e feng, where en = sin(n=2) + n os(n=2)?
For any omplex number z , we have
jRe z j; jIm z j  jz j  jRe z j + jIm z j:
Now, suppose zn = xn + iyn ! z0 = x0 + iy0: Then for a given  > 0, there
exists an N () su h that
jzn z0 j = j(xn x0 ) + i(yn y0 )j <  for all n > N ():
This implies
jxn x0 j <  and jyn y0 j <  for all n > N ();
i.e. xn ! x0 , yn ! y0 . Conversely, let xn ! x0 and yn ! y0 : Then for a
given  > 0, there exist N1 () and N2 () su h that
jxn x0 j < =2 for all n > N1 ()
and
jyn y0 j < =2 for all n > N2 ():
Hen e, for all n > N () = maxfN1(); N2 ()g, we have
jzn z0 j  jxn x0 j + jyn y0 j < :
The above dis ussion shows that
(1.38) zn ! z0 () Re zn ! Re z0 and Im zn ! Im z0:
A sequen e an have at most one limit if it exists; for, let zn ! z0 and
zn ! z0. Then for a given  > 0, we have
jz0 z0j = j(zn z0) (zn z0 )j
 jzn z0j + jzn z0 j
< =2 + =2 = ; for suÆ iently large n:
Re all that if x; y 2 R and x < y +  for any  > 0, then x  y. For,
suppose that x y > 0. Then for  = x y, the hypothesis yields  < .
This ontradi tion shows that x  y.
Note also that z0 ; z0 are independent of n and jz0 z0j <  = 0 + 
for every . So jz0 z0 j  0, and hen e we must have jz0 z0j = 0, i.e.
z0 z0 = 0 or z0 = z0. This shows that a limit of a sequen e is unique.
30 Complex Numbers

1.39. Remark. If zn ! `, then the limit ` is a limit point of the

sequen e fzng. However, the onverse is not true. For example, let
n
zn = ( 1)n + i ; n  1:
n+1
Then 1 + i and 1 + i are the limit points of the set fz1 ; z2 ; : : :g, but
zn 6! 1 + i, or 1 + i. Similarly, for zn = 21 n + n + ( 1)n n (n  1); we
have zn 6! 0, but 0 is the limit point of the set S = fz1; z2 ; : : :g. 
1.40. Example. To illustrate the on ept of the limit of a sequen e,
we shall present some more examples.
p
(a) For zn = n1 + (n n1)i , we have zn ! i sin e jzn ij = n1 j1 ij = n2 ! 0:
If we write zn = xn + iyn with xn = n1 and yn = nn 1 as real sequen es,
we have xn ! 0 = x0 and yn ! 1 = y0 (z0 = x0 + iy0 = i): Compare
with the observation in (1.38).
(b) If zn = in =n, then, for a given  > 0, there is an N () su h that4
 
jzn 0j = n1 <  for all n > N () = 1 + 1; i.e. zn ! 0.

( ) For zn = 1+ i=n and zn0 = 1 i=n, we have zn ! 1 and zn0 ! 1

whereas Arg zn !  and Arg zn0 ! :
(d) The sequen e fArg [( 1)n =n℄g is divergent, be ause the sequen e has
the form , 0, , 0, : : : and hen e has no limit. 
A sequen e fzn g is alled a Cau hy sequen e if for ea h  > 0 there
exists an N () su h that jzn zmj <  for all n; m > N (): Using this
denition, we an easily on lude the Cau hy riterion for onvergen e in
C:
fzng onverges () fzng is a Cau hy sequen e:
For, let zn = xn + iyn ! z0 = x0 + iy0 . Then, Re zn ! Re z0 ; Im zn !
Im z0 : As jzn zmj  jRe (zn zm )j + jIm (zn zm )j; fzng is learly a
Cau hy sequen e.
Suppose fzng is a Cau hy sequen e. As
jRe (zn zm )j; jIm (zn zm )jg  jzn zmj;
we see that fRe zng and fIm zn g are Cau hy sequen es in R. Be ause of
the ompleteness property (see [11℄) of R, fRe zn g and fIm zng onverge
and hen e, fzng onverges.
A onvergent sequen e with limit zero is alled a null sequen e. If the
sequen e fzng onverges to z0 , then the sequen e fzn z0 g is a null sequen e.
4 Here [x℄ denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x
1.6 Sequen es and Series 31

Sin e fzn g = z0 + fzn z0 g; any onvergent sequen e may be written as a

sum of a xed number and a null sequen e. Conversely, if fzn g = z0 + fzn0 g;
where fzn0 g is a null sequen e, then
jzn z0 j = jz 0 j <  for n > N ()
n
and so the sequen e fzn g is onvergent.
1.41. Example. It is easy to see that fz ng is a null sequen e for
jz j < 1. To prove this, let  > 0 be given. We must nd a value of N su h
that, for any n > N , jz n j = jz jn < : This is ertainly true if z = 0. So, for
a xed z 6= 0, we simply need to nd an N su h that, for any n > N ,
n ln jz j < ln ; i.e. n > ln = ln jz j
(sin e ln jz j is negative, for jz j < 1). This proves that if jz j < 1 then
jz jn <  for n > N = [ln = ln jz j℄ + 1:
Thus, z n ! 0 as n ! 1 if jz j < 1. For jz j > 1, the sequen e fz ng does
not onverge to any point of C . How about for points z on the unit ir le
jz j = 1? 
On many o asions we will need to work with an innite series. Given
a sequen e fzn g of omplex numbers the sequen e fsng dened by
n
X
sn = zk
k=1
P1
is alled the sequen e of partial sums of the (innite) series k=1 zk : For
onvenien e we shall use the equivalent forms:
X1 X
zk or zk
k=1 k 1
P
(whi h will be sometimes abbreviated as zk ). Sometimes it is onvenient
P with k =P
to start the series 0 (or perhaps even with some other integer p).
We then writeP 1 z
k=1 k or 1 z whi hever the ase may be.
k=p k
The series zk is said to be onvergent or summable or said to onverge
to s if sn !
P s. The number s is then alled the sum of the series and we
write s = zk : Otherwise, the series is said to be divergent or to diverge.
If the series is onvergent, the sequen e of its partial sums is bounded.
1.42. Remark. As in the ase of sequen es, if we let
zk = xk + iyk and s = u + iv; xk ; yk ; u; v real
32 Complex Numbers
P P P
then the series zk onverges to s i xk onverges to u and yk on-
verges to v. 
From the Cau hy riterion, i.e. \a sequen e is onvergent i it is a
Cau hy sequen e", we see that
X
zk onverges () fsn g is a Cau hy sequen e.
P
That is, \ zk onverges i for every  > 0 there exists an N su h that
 
n
 X 
jsn sm j = 


zk 

<  for n > m > N ."
k=m+1
Writing zn = sn sn 1 , we have, by hoosing m = n 1 in the above
inequality
X
(1.43) zk onverges =) nlim !1 sn = s =) nlim !1 zn = 0:
P
That is, \a ne essary ondition for the series zn to onverge is that
zn ! 0 as n ! P 1." However, this ondition P
is not suÆ ient for the
onvergen e of zn as the harmoni series n1 1=n shows.
1.44. Example.
P
(i) As the n-th term ( 1)n of the series n1 ( 1)n does not onverge
to zero, the series diverges.
(ii) Consider the series 1
P
n=1 an , where an = 1=[(n + 1)(n + 2)℄: Then
n n  
X X 1 1 1 1
sn = ak = =
k=1 k + 1 k + 2
k=1
2 n+2
P1
whi h onverges to 1=2. Thus, n=1 an = 1=2:
(iii) The series 1
P 1=2 diverges to 1, be ause
n=1 k
n
X
sn = k 1=2 > number of terms times the last term
k=1
= n(n 1=2 ) = n1=2 ;
so limn!1 sn  limPn!1 n1=2 = +1. A similar argument may be
used to show that 1 n=1 k
 diverges to 1 when  2 [0; 1). How
about when  = 1? If  = 1, then we easily have
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s2n > 1 + + + + + + +
2 4 4 8 8 8 8
 
1 1
+


+ n +


+ n
2 2
1 1 1 1 n
= 1+ + + +


+ = 1+ :
2 2 2 2 2
1.6 Sequen es and Series 33

This shows that the partial sum of the series is unbounded and hen e
fPsng is divergent. Note also that, sin e k p Pk 1 for all p  1 and
1 
k1 k diverges, we dedu e that the series k1 k diverges for
  1. 
The following result is easily established from the denition of onver-
gen e of a series. So we omit its proof.
P P P
1.45.
P Theorem. If zk = s and wk = t then (zk  wk ) = s  t
and zk = s; where is any omplex onstant.
P
As with real series, a series Pzk is said to onverge absolutely or be
absolutely onvergent if the series jzk j is onvergent. Further, using the
fa t that 
n 
n
 X  X
jsn sm j =  

zk  

jzk j;
k=m+1 k=m+1
we on lude that \every absolutely onvergent series is onvergent." Note
that the onverse of this result is generally false. For instan e, the series
P k 1
k1 zk , where zk = ( 1) =k , is onvergent, but not absolutely. This is
be ause
 
n
 X 
jsn sm j = 


zk 

k=m+1
1 1 1
=
m+1 m+2 m+3
+


n1
 
 m + 1 <  for n > m > N = 1  1 1
1

and so fsn g is a Cau hy sequen e. P FurtherP one1 an show that the sum of
this series is, in fa t, ln 2. But jzP k j = k1 k diverges as shown earlier.
On the other hand, the series zk , where zk = ( 1)k 1 =k2, is abso-
lutely onvergent (and hen e onvergent).P
Analogous
P to Remark
P 1.42 we have \ zk is absolutely onvergent i
ea h of xk and yk is absolutely onvergent." The following results are
often useful.
P
1.46. Theorem. If Pk1 jwk j is onvergent and if jzk j  jwk j ex ept
for nitely many k 's then k1 zk is absolutely onvergent.
The above theorem, popularly known as the omparison test for on-
vergen e, an be easily dedu ed from the Cau hy riterion for onvergen e.
For, let  > 0 be given. Then there is an N  1 su h that for all n > m  N ,
n
X n
X
jsn sm j  jzk j  jwk j < :
km+1 km+1
34 Complex Numbers
P
This
Pobservation proves the theorem. The series jwk j is alled a majorant
of jzk j.

P Example. If zn = e os(n )=n , then jzn j n

1.47. in 2 3=2 3=2 and
hen e zn is onvergent. 
P
1.48. Theorem. Let zk be a series with nonzero terms su h that
lim sup Ln = L and lim inf L = l where Ln = jzn+1 =znj:
n!1 n
n!1
Then we have the following:
(a) If L < 1, the series onverges absolutely.
(b) If l > 1, the series diverges.
( ) If l  1  L no on lusion an be made on erning the onvergen e
of the series.
Proof. Clearly L; l  0. Suppose that L < 1. Then, for  with
L <  < 1, there exists an integer N su h that
 
 zn+1 

 z 
 <  for all n  N
n
so that
     
 zN +1   zN +2   zn 
jzn j = jzN j

 z 


z





z
<
 jzN jn N :
N N +1 n 1
P
Therefore, jzN +pj <P jzN jp for
p  1. Sin e p1 jzN jp is a onvergent
(geometri ) series, n1 jzn j is onvergent (see also Example 2.54), by the
omparison test. This proves (a).
Next, we let l > 1. Then, by hypothesis, there exists an integer N su h
that l > k > 1 and  
 zn+1 
 z  > k for all n  N:
 
n
Therefore, for all n > N ,
     
 zN +1   zN +2   zn 
jzn j = jzN j

 z



z





z

 > jzN jkn N ! 1:
N N +1 n 1
P
Hen e, zn 6! 0 as n ! 1 and so zn diverges. This proves (b).
The last ase follows by onsidering the series with zn = 1=n and zn =
1=n2.
P
1.49. Corollary. Let zk be a series of non-zero omplex terms
su h that
!1 Ln ; where Ln = jzn+1 =znj:
 = nlim
1.6 Sequen es and Series 35

(a) If  < 1, the series onverges absolutely.

(b) If  > 1, the series diverges.
( ) If  = 1, the series may onverge or diverge.
P
1.50. Example. Consider a series zk with Ln = jzn+1 =znj:
p p p p
(i) If zn = (1 + i)n =n, then Ln = nn+12 = 2 n+12 ! 2 as n ! 1 and
hen e the series diverges.
p
(ii) If zn = (1 + i)n =n!, then Ln = n+12 ! 0 as n ! 1 and so the series
onverges absolutely.
p +2)
(iii) If zn = (n + 1)(1 + i)n =n!, then Ln = 2 ((nn+1) 2 ! 0 as n ! 1 and
therefore the series onverges absolutely.
(iv) If a; b; and d are real su h that ja2 + b2 j < j 2 + d2 j, then we see that
the series, with zn = (a + ib)n =( + id)n , is absolutely onvergent. 
P
1.51. Theorem. Let zk be a series of omplex terms su h that
lim sup jzn j1=n = L:
n!1
(a) If L < 1, the series onverges absolutely.
(b) If L > 1, the series diverges.
( ) If L = 1, the series may onverge or diverge.
Proof. (a) If L < 1, hoose  > 0 so that L <  < 1 Then for all
suÆ iently large values of n, we have
jzn j1=n < ; i.e jzn j < n
P
and so the onvergen e
P of jzn j follows from the omparison test with the
geometri series n .
L > 1, jzn j > 1 for innitely many n so that zn 6! 0 as n ! 1
(b) If P
and thus, zn diverges if L > 1.
( ) Examples relating to the proof of Theorem 1.48 an be used to
justify the last assertion.

P The Cau hy Pprodu t of two onvergent

P innite series of omplex terms
n0 a n and n0 b n is the series
n0 , where
n
n
X
n = ak bn k ; n = 0; 1; 2; : : : :
k=0
Next we state the following theorem. Proof of (a) follows dire tly from
the denition and the hypothesis.
1.52. Theorem.
36 Complex Numbers

(a) If fzng has a limit point at z0 , then there exist a subsequen e fznk g
of fzn g su h that fznk g ! z0 as k ! 1.
P
(b) If the sequen e f nk=1 ak g is bounded P and fbn g is a de reasing null
sequen e of positive numbers, then n1 an bn onverges.
Proof. To prove (b), by hypothesis, we note that there exists an M
su h that 
n 
X 

 an   M for all n:
 
k=1
Sin e fbng is a null sequen e, given any  > 0 there exists an N su h that
bn < =(2M ) for all n  N . Now, for all n  N
  " #
m
 X  m
X



ak bk 

M (bk bk+1 ) + (bn+1 + bm+1 )  2Mbn+1 < :
k=n+1 k=n+1
P
Thus, f mk=1 ak bk g is a Cau hy sequen e and the result follows by the
Cau hy riterion.

1.7 Exer ises

1.53. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true
or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) The set of points z su h that jz + bij < jz + bj is the half-plane
fz = x + iy : y < xg.
(b) The inequality jz1 z2 j < jz 1 + z2 j holds provided either Re z1 > 0
and Re z2 > 0, or Re z1 < 0 and Re z2 < 0.
( ) Two omplex numbers z1 and z2 whose sum and dieren e are real
and purely imaginary, respe tively, must satisfy z2 = z1 .
(d) The equation az + bz + = 0 has exa tly one solution, i jaj 6= jbj.
(e) If the sum and produ t of two omplex numbers are both real then
either both the omplex numbers are real or one is the onjugate of
the other.
(f) The inequalities Re z > 0 and jz 1j < jz + 1j are equivalent.
 
1+z
(g) The inequalities jz j < 1 and Re > 0 are equivalent.
1 z
 
1 1  1
(h) The inequalities Re z  Æ > 0 and   are equivalent.
z 2Æ  2Æ
(i) The roots of the ubi equation (z +  )3 = 3 ( 6= 0) form p the
verti es of a triangle ea h side of whi h is of length equal to 3jj.
(j) For Re zj > 0 (j = 1; 2), Arg (z1 z2 ) = Arg z1 + Arg z2 .
1.7 Exer ises 37

(k) For any positive integer n, jIm z nj  njIm z j jz jn 1.

(l) If jz j < 1, then both Re (1 + z ) > 0 and Re (1 + z )2 > 0 do not hold
simultaneously.
(m) If z 2 = (z)2 , then z is either real or purely imaginary.
1 + os  + i sin 
(n) The equation = ei( =2) ot(=2) holds for ea h
1 os  + i sin 
 6= 2n, n 2 Z.
(o) The non-real roots of (1 + z )4 = 16z 4 are ( 1  2i)=5.
(p) The produ t of the distin t n-th roots of unity is ( 1)n 1.
p
(q) All the solutions of z 4 + 81 = 0 are 3[1  i℄= 2.
(r) The omplex roots of a quadrati equation have the property that
one is the square of the other.
(s) If z = a + ib, where a and b both are integers, then
(i) j1 + z + z 2 +



+ z nj  jz jn if a > 0
(ii) j1 + z + z 2 +



+ z nj  jz jn if a < 0.
(t) The set of omplex numbers z su h that p arg(z i) = =3 represents
the equation of the straight line y = 3x + 1.
p
(u) If Arg (z + 3) = =3, then the least value of jz j is 3 3=2.
(v) If jz (4 3i)j = 2, then the greatest and least value of jz j are 7 and
3, respe tively.
(w) Convergen e of fzng implies the onvergen e of fZng, where Zn =
1 Pn z .
n k=1 k  n 
z an  jz jn jajn
(x) For z 6= a and n 2 N , we have 
  jz j jaj :
z a 
nX1
(y) If ! is an n-th root of unity, then jz1 + !j z2j2 = n[jz1 j2 + jz2 j2 ℄:
j =0
Note: For n = 2, this redu es to the Parallelogram identity.
(z) If zn 6= 0 and zn ! ` 6= 0, then Arg zn ! Arg `.
1.54. For any two non-zero omplex numbers z1 and z2 , prove the
following
(a) Arg (z1 z2 ) = Arg z1 + Arg z2 + 2k1
(b) Arg (z1 =z2) = Arg z1 Arg z2 + 2k2 ;
where kn (n = 1; 2), whi h depends on z1 and z2 , is given by
8
< 1 if 2 < Arg z1 + ( 1)n 1 Arg z2  
kn = 0 if  < Arg z1 + ( 1)n 1 Arg z2  
:
1 if  < Arg z1 + ( 1)n 1 Arg z2  2:
38 Complex Numbers

1.55. Prove Lagrange's identity (using the method of indu tion):

 2 ! !
Xm  m
X m
X X



zk wk 

= jzk j2 jwk j2 jzk wj zj wk j2 :
k=1 k=1 k=1 k j

1.56. If z1 ; z2; z3 are the verti es of an equilateral triangle, then show

that z12 + z22 + z32 = z1 z2 + z2z3 + z3z1 : If z1 = 1+ i and z2 = 1 i, determine
the two possible values of z3 so that z1 ; z2; z3 form an equilateral triangle.
1.57. Compute the limit of the sequen e fzng when zn equals
p
n1=n ; 3 n+i n ; 2n =n; n sin(1=n); n2 e n ; in!:
1.58. Test the onvergen e of 1 z when z equals
P
n=1 n n
n(3 + i)n ; n3 3n(2 + i) n ; n 1 in ; 5 n ; (n!)2 =(3n!); n 1=3 i3n :
1.59. Classify the following sets a ording to the properties open,
losed, bounded, unbounded, ompa t:
(a) S1 = fz : z = e2ki=5 ; k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : g
(b) S2 = fz : jz j > 2jz 1jg
( ) S4 = fz : Re (iz ) < 1g
(d) S5 = fz : jz + 2j  jz jg
(e) S6 = fz : z 2 + z2 = 1g.
1.60. Supply the geometri des ription of the following subsets of C :
(a) S1 = fz : 0 < Re (iz )  1g
   
z z1
(b) S2 = z : Im = 0; for z1 ; z2 2 C
z z2
   
z z1
( ) S3 = z : Re = 0; for z1 ; z2 2 C
z z2
(d) S4 = fz : jz 1j = 3jz + 1jg
(e) S5 = fz : jz 1j = Re (z )jg
(f) S6 = fz : jz + 1j > 2; 0 < Arg (z 2) < =4g
(g) S7 = fz : =4 < arg(z k) < 3=2; k = 1; 2; : : : ; 5g
(h) S8 = fz : =6 < arg(z 1=k) < 13=6; k = 1; 2; : : : ; 5g :
1.61. Find all ir les that are orthogonal to both jz 1j = 4 and
jz j = 1.
Chapter 2

Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

In this hapter we introdu e fundamental results on erning limits, onti-

nuity and uniform onvergen e of sequen es and series of fun tions. We also
introdu e sets in the extended omplex plane. This hapter lays the ground
work for a areful treatment of analyti fun tions of a omplex variable. In
Se tion 2.1, we dene fun tions in C and their elementary properties su h
as one-to-one and onto. In Se tion 2.2, we brie y present basi fa ts about
limits and ontinuous fun tions of a omplex variable. In Se tion 2.3, we
formalize the notion of `the point at innity'. This helps to extend the
notion of limit and ontinuity for fun tions dened on unbounded sets.
This se tion also provides a onvenient way for dis ussing the behavior of
fun tions as jz j gets large and for ertain generalization of domains in the
omplex plane.

2.1 One-to-one and Onto Fun tions

Let A and B be two non-empty subsets of C . A fun tion from A to B is
a rule, f , whi h assigns ea h z0 = x0 + iy0 2 A a unique element w0 =
u0 + iv0 2 B . The number w0 is alled the value of f at z0 and we write
w0 = f (z0 ): If z varies in A then w = f (z ) varies in B . We say that f is a
omplex fun tion of a omplex variable in A. We say that f is a fun tion
dened on A. We also write
(2.1) f : A ! B; z 7! w = f (z ):
Here z is alled the independent variable; w the dependent variable and A
the domain of f . If S  A, we an have f : S ! B and we all this new
fun tion the restri tion of f in (2.1) to S and denote it by f jS .
Let us examine the graphi al representation of (2.1), i.e. w = f (z ). By
denition, for ea h z = x + iy,
w = f (z ) = Re f (z ) + i Im f (z );
40 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

w being a omplex number. Identifying z = x + iy with (x; y) 2 R2 , we

have the fun tions
(x; y) 7! Re f (z ); (x; y) 7! Im f (z );
or equivalently
Re f : z 7! Re f (z ); Im f : z 7! Im f (z );
dened on the domain A, now onsidered a subset of R2 . We observe
that these are real-valued fun tions dened on A  R2 and denote them by
Re f; Im f , respe tively. Conversely, if A  R2 and we have two real-valued
fun tions
u : A ! R; v : A ! R;
then, by dening
f (z ) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y); (x; y) 2 A;
we obtain f : A ! C ; where A is now onsidered as a subset of C . Thus,
a omplex fun tion of a omplex variable is ompletely determined by the
fun tions Re f; Im f , known as the real and imaginary parts.
If we use the polar form for z , then f an be written as
f (z ) = u(r; ) + iv(r; ):
To illustrate these ideas let f (z ) = 2z 2 z + 1, z 2 C . Then
f (z ) = [2(x2 y2 ) x + 1℄ + i[4xy y℄:
Thus, (Re f )(z ) = 2(x2 y2) x + 1 and (Im f )(z ) = 4xy y: On the other
hand if we write z = rei , then
f (z ) = [2r2 os 2 r os  + 1℄ + i[2r2 sin 2 r sin ℄:
Sin e ea h of the variables z and w requires two dimensions for represen-
tation, a graphi al representation annot be given for a omplex fun tion.
Be ause of this, we need to employ two dierent opies of the omplex plane
to des ribe the nature of a omplex fun tion of a omplex variable. Thus,
to every z = x + iy of its domain in the z -plane, we determine the resulting
values of u = Re f and v = Im f (w = u + iv) and plot them in the w-plane
(see Figure 2.1).
If f is dened on A and S  A, then f (S ) = ff (z ) : z 2 S g is alled
the image of the set S under f . The set R = f (A) of all image points of A
is alled the range of f .
If R  B , the fun tion f on A to B is alled a mapping of A into B and
if R = B , we say that the fun tion f maps A onto the range R sin e every
element w 2 R is an image of at least one point in A. Clearly, a mapping
2.1 One-to-one and Onto Fun tions 41

y v
w = f (z)

z0 w0

O x O u

Figure 2.1: Des ription for mapping.

whi h is \onto" is \into" but the onverse is not ne essarily true. Point
w 2 R is alled an image of a point z 2 A and the point z is alled the
pre-image of w, under the mapping5 w = f (z ): A mapping is said to be an
open mapping if it maps open sets onto open sets.
We know that every omplex number z 2 C n f0g an be uniquely written
in polar form as
z (r; ) = rei (r = jz j;  2 ( ; ℄):
If we in rease  by 2,
z (r;  + 2) = rei(+2) = rei = z (r; )
returning to its original value. With this observation, the denition of
single-valuedness of a fun tion takes the following simple form in polar
oordinates. A fun tion f is said to be single-valued if f satises
(2.2) f (z ) = f (z (r; )) = f (z (r;  + 2)):
Otherwise, f is said to be multiple-valued.
Let us look at the fun tion f (z ) = z n: Then, when n is an integer, we
know that for every w 6= 0 there are n values of z satisfying w = f (z ) = z n :
We have
f (z (r; )) = rn ein ; f (z (r;  + 2)) = rn ein e2ni :
So, the ondition (2.2) is satised i n is an integer. This shows that the
fun tion f (z ) = z n is single-valued i n is an integer. If n is not an integer,
then e2ni 6= 1 and so f in this ase is multiple-valued.
If the elements of A are omplex numbers and those of B are real num-
bers, then we say that f is a real-valued fun tion of a omplex variable.
Similarly, if the elements of A are real and those of B are omplex num-
bers, then f is a omplex-valued fun tion of a real variable. Whenever we
speak of a fun tion we shall, unless otherwise stated expli itly, onsider a
single-valued fun tion.
5 `Mapping' is another word for fun tion, transformation.
42 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

Suppose we have a mapping of a set A onto a set R. It may happen

that some points of R have more than one pre-image. If ea h w 2 R is the
image of pre isely one point in A; that is
f (z1) = f (z2 ) =) z1 = z2 ; or z1 6= z2 =) f (z1) 6= f (z2 );
then the mapping w = f (z ) is said to be one-to-one. If the mapping
w = f (z ) is one-to-one then the fun tion f is said to be univalent, a fan y
term for one-to-one fun tions. (Note that the fun tion f is said to be
univalent at z0 if it is univalent in a neighborhood of z0 . This will be
dis ussed later in this book.) In this ase, we have a mapping from R
into the z -plane with A as the range and R as the domain of denition.
Denoting the latter mapping, alled the inverse of f , by f 1 we write
z = f 1(w) if w = f (z ):
Thus, if f maps A in a one-to-one fashion onto R, then there is an inverse
mapping z = f 1 (w) on R onto A. Note that f 1 (w) = f 1(f (z )) = z:
Observe that if f : A ! R is univalent on A, then f 1 is dened on R and
is univalent therein.
A fun tion f with domain A and range B is alled a onstant fun tion if
B ontains only one element, say . In this ase, we write f (z )  , z 2 A.
A fun tion f (z ) is said to be bounded on a subset S  C if there exists
an M > 0 su h that jf (z )j  M for all z 2 S .
Suppose we have a fun tion f with domain D1 and another fun tion g
with domain D2 . Suppose further that, for ea h z 2 D1 , f (z ) is in D2 .
Then for every z 2 D1 the asso iation g Æ f dened by (g Æ f )(z ) = g(f (z ));
is a fun tion alled the omposition of f and g. We indi ate this by
D1 f! D2 g! C :
gÆf
For instan e, let f (z ) = 2z + 1 and g(z ) = z 2 + 2 on C : Then,
g(f (z )) = (2z + 1)2 + 2 and f (g(z )) = 2(z 2 + 2) + 1; z 2 C :
If f (z ) = u(z ) + iv(z )  u(x; y) + iv(x; y); where u; v are real-valued fun -
tions, then
f (z ) = u(x; y) iv(x; y) and f (z) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y):
Thus, we note that f (z ) and f (z) are in general dierent fun tions. For
instan e, if f (z ) = (1 i)z , f may be rewritten as f (z ) = (x + y) + i(y x)
so that f (z ) = (1 + i)z and f (z ) = (1 i)z:
2.3. Examples. Consider w = f (z ) = z 2 ; jz j  1: Here the domain
of denition of f is
and the range is also
: An angular region with
2.1 One-to-one and Onto Fun tions 43

y v
i 2i α
e
iα
e
α 2α
x −1 u

Figure 2.2: Mapping under w = z 2 ; jz j  1.

vertex at 0 of  radians in the z -plane is mapped into an angular region of

2 radians in the w-plane, under this mapping (see Figure 2.2). The fa t
that f (z ) = z 2 is not univalent on
an be seen as follows: let z = rei
(0 < r  1), be the polar representation of the points on
. Then
w = r2 e2i = ei with  = r2 and  = 2, 0    4.
So, z1 = rei , z2 = rei(+) = z1 are su h that
z12 = r2 e2i = r2 e2i+2i = r2 e2i(+) = z22:
This shows that the fun tion is not univalent. In fa t, it maps
onto

twi e.
Next, we onsider w = f (z ) = z 2 , z 2 D = fz : jz j  1; 0  arg z < g:
Then the range is
: Thus, if z = rei then w = r2 e2i = ei with
p = r (0 <  < 1) and  = 2; 0   < 2:
If the two pre-images (why not more?) for w = ei , where  = r2 and
 = 2 by f (z ) = z 2, are z1 = rei and z2 = rei(+) , then only one of z1 or
z2 an lie in D sin e any two elements of D have their arguments diering
by less than . This shows that the fun tion is univalent in D.
Again we onsider the same fun tion f (z ) = z 2, but this time without
indi ating the domain of denition. Then, we have
f (z1 ) = f (z2) =) z12 z22 = 0 =) either z1 = z2 or z1 = z2:
The points z1 and z2 su h that z1 = z2 are symmetri with respe t to the
origin, i.e. lie at the same distan e from the origin on the same straight
line through the origin. This shows that f (z ) = z 2 is univalent in a domain
D i this domain does not have even a single pair of points symmetri with
respe t to the origin. For instan e, f (z ) = z 2 is univalent in the upper
half-plane U = fz : Im z > 0g, the lower half-plane L = fz : Im z < 0g,
respe tively. Note also that f maps U and L, into the w-plane with a ut
along the negative real semi-axis omitting the origin. 
44 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

2.4. Examples. Consider w = f (z ) = z: Observe that the ee t of

this mapping on the points of the plane is a re e tion on the real axis. This
fun tion is one-to-one and the inverse is z = w. It maps the entire z -plane
onto the entire w-plane.
On the other hand, the fun tion w = g(z ) = jz j maps the entire z -plane
onto the non-negative real axis of the w-plane. In fa t, it maps every ir le
entered at the origin to a point. It is not one-to-one and hen e no inverse
exists. 
2.5. Examples. It is easy to see that the fun tion f (z ) = 3z + z 2 is
one-to-one in
. Indeed, for z1 ; z2 in
,
f (z1 ) = f (z2) =) (z1 z2 )(z1 + z2 + 3) = 0 =) z1 z2 = 0
(z1 + z2 + 3 6= 0 in
, sin e Re (z1 + z2 + 3) > 1 1 + 3 = 1).
Similarly, it is easy to see that the fun tion f (z ) = (1 + z )2 is univalent
in
. More generally, f (z ) = z + z 2 is univalent for jz j < 1=(2jj) whi h
is in fa t the largest disk entered at the origin on whi h f is one-to-one.
This is easily seen using the argument relating to f (z ) = 3z + z 2 . 
A domain D is said to be symmetri with respe t to the origin, if for
every z 2 D, the point z 2 D. A fun tion f dened on the domain D
whi h is symmetri with respe t to origin is said to be even if f (z ) = f ( z )
is valid for every z 2 D. For example, f (z ) = z 2n (n 2 N ) is even in C . A
fun tion f is said to be odd on D if f (z ) = f ( z ) for every z 2 D. For
example, f (z ) = z 2n 1 (n 2 N ) is an odd fun tion in C .
A domain D is said to be starlike with respe t to a point z0 2 D if for
ea h z 2 D the line segment, [z0 ; z ℄, from z0 to z lies entirely in D. The
point z0 is alled a star enter of D. A starlike domain is a domain whi h
is starlike with respe t to the origin. A domain D is said to be onvex if
for ea h pair of points ; z 2 D, the line segment, [; z ℄, joining z and  lies
entirely in D. Obviously, a onvex domain is starlike with respe t to any
of its points.
An open disk, half-planes su h as Re z > 0, an open ellipse and an open
re tangle are examples of onvex domain. An example of a starlike domain
but non- onvex is the domain C n fz = x : x  1g, i.e. the plane minus the
negative real axis from 1. How about the set C n fx + iy : x = 0; jyj  1g?

2.2 Con epts of Limit and Continuity

The denitions of limit, ontinuity and uniform ontinuity are analogous
to those in Real Analysis. Suppose that a omplex-valued fun tion f is
dened on D  C and z0 2 D. Then f is said to have a limit ` as z ! z0
and we write
lim f (z ) = ` or f (z ) ! ` as z ! z0
z!z0
2.2 Con epts of Limit and Continuity 45

z
D z
z z0

z z

Figure 2.3: z ! z0 in C .

i for any given  > 0, there exists a Æ = Æ(; z0 ) > 0 su h that

jf (z ) `j <  whenever z 2 D and 0 < jz z0 j < Æ;
i.e. i for ea h  > 0 there exists a Æ > 0 su h that (see 1.6)
f (z ) 2
(`; ) whenever z 2 [
(z0 ; Æ) nfz0 g℄ \ D:
It is straightforward to state
lim f (z ) = l
z!z0
() zlim
!z0 jf (z ) `j = 0:
Less pre isely stated, this means that if z is near z0 , then f (z ) is lose to `.
First, it should be noted that the fun tion need not be dened at z0 in
order to have a limit at z0 . Se ondly, it is the pun tured disk
(z0 ; Æ) nfz0g
whi h is involved in D, i.e. z0 need not be in D. Thirdly, even if the
ondition that z0 2 D holds, we may have f (z0) 6= `. In real variable
theory, we do not have the freedom whi h a omplex variable produ es for,
if z0 = x0 2 R, a neighboring point z = x ! x0 has only two possible ways
either from the left or from the right. In the omplex ase, z an approa h
z0 in any manner in the omplex plane (see Figure 2.3).
As in Real Analysis, if the limit exists then it must be unique: Suppose
that
0 0
!z0 f (z ) = ` with ` 6= ` :
lim f (z ) = ` and zlim
z!z0
Then for a given  > 0 there exist Æ1 ; Æ2 > 0 su h that
jf (z ) `j <  whenever z 2 D and 0 < jz z0 j < Æ1
and
jf (z ) `0 j <  whenever z 2 D and 0 < jz z0 j < Æ2 :
Therefore, whenever z 2 D and 0 < jz z0 j < Æ = minfÆ1; Æ2 g,
j` `0 j = j(f (z ) `0) (f (z ) `)j  jf (z ) `0 j + jf (z ) `j <  +  = 2:
Both the left and the right side of the above inequality are independent of
Æ. As  is arbitrary, the inequality an hold i ` = `0 .
46 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

Suppose that f; g are fun tions dened on D  C . Then f + g is the

fun tion dened on D by
(f + g)(z ) = f (z ) + g(z ); z 2 D:
Similarly, we dene (fg)(z ) = f (z )g(z ) for z 2 D, and
 
f f (z )
(z ) = ; z 2 D when g(z ) 6= 0 in D:
g g(z )
The following theorem gives the \ omplex" theory of limits from the
\real" theory, and onversely.
2.6. Theorem. Let f (z ) = u(z ) + iv(z ), where u(z ) = u(x; y) and
v(z ) = v(x; y) are real-valued fun tions, be dened on D ex ept possibly at
z0 . Then for ` and `0 2 R,
(2.7) lim f (z ) = `1 + i`2
z!z0
i
(2.8) lim u(x; y) = `1 and lim v(x; y) = `2 :
(x;y)!(x0 ;y0 ) (x;y)!(x0 ;y0 )

Proof. The proof of this theorem follows immediately from Remark

1.42. However, we in lude the details here. Suppose that the limit (2.7)
exists. Using the triangle inequality it follows that the inequalities
ju(x; y) `1 j; jv(x; y) `2 j  jf (z ) (`1 + i`2 )j
and jx x0 j; jy y0 j  jz z0 j are satised.
Now if we allow z ! z0 , i.e. (x; y) ! (x0 ; y0 ), it is evident that the
two limits (2.8) exist. Conversely, suppose that the two limits (2.8) exist.
Then, for a given  > 0, there exist Æ1 and Æ2 su h that
ju(x; y) `1 j < =2 whenever 0 < j(x x0 ) + i(y y0 )j < Æ1
and
jv(x; y) `2 j < =2 whenever 0 < j(x x0 ) + i(y y0 )j < Æ2 :
By the triangle inequality
jf (z ) `j = j(u(x; y) `1 ) + i(v(x; y) `2 )j
 ju(x; y) `1j + jv(x; y) `2 j
< (=2) + (=2) = 
whenever 0 < jz z0j < Æ = minfÆ1 ; Æ2 g and the proof is omplete.
2.2 Con epts of Limit and Continuity 47

2.9. Example. For z 6= 0, onsider

z (z )2 x2 y2 2ixy
f (z ) = = = :
z jz j2 x2 + y2
If we set f (x + iy) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y), u(x; y); v(x; y) being real, then
x2 y2 2xy
u(x; y) = and v(x; y) = 2 2 :
x2 + y2 x +y
For ea h point z0 6= 0, it is lear that limz!z0 f (z ) exists and equals f (z0 ).
We shall see whether limz!0 f (z ) exists or not, by examining the limits as
z ! 0 in many ways. Let m be any real number and allow z ! 0 along the
line y = mx. Then
   
1 m2 2m
f (x + mxi) = i
1 + m2 1 + m2
whi h learly shows that limz!0 f (z ) does not exist. 
2.10. Theorem. Let f and g be dened in a neighborhood of z0
ex ept possibly at z0 . Given lim f (z ) = ` and lim g (z ) = `0 ; we have
z!z0 z!z0
0
!z0 [f (z ) + g(z )℄ = ` + `
(a) zlim
0
!z [f (z )g(z )℄ = ``
(b) zlim
0
f (z ) ` 0
!z0 g(z ) = `0 if ` 6= 0.
( ) zlim

In parti ular, For a, b omplex onstants, lim (az + b) = az0 + b:

z!z0
Proof. By hypothesis, given 1 > 0, there exists Æf = Æf (z0 ; 1 ) > 0
su h that
(2.11) 0 < jz z0 j < Æf =) jf (z ) `j < 1 :
Similarly, given 2 > 0, there exists Æg = Æg (z0 ; 2 ) > 0 su h that
(2.12) 0 < jz z0 j < Æg =) jg(z ) `0 j < 2 :
(a) Then for all z with 0 < jz z0 j < Æ = minfÆf ; Æg g it follows from
the triangle inequality that
jf (z ) + g(z ) (` + `0 )j  jf (z ) `j + jg(z ) `0 j < 1 + 2 :
Given  > 0, hoosing 1 and 2 so that 1 + 2 = , we see that (a) follows
from the last inequality.
48 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

(b) Now for all z su h that 0 < jz z0 j < Æ, it follows from the triangle
inequality that
jf (z )g(z ) ``0j = jg(z )(f (z ) `) + `(g(z ) `0 )j
 jg(z )j jf (z ) `j + j`j jg(z ) `0j
 [jg(z ) `0j + j`0 j℄jf (z ) `j + j`j jg(z ) `0 j
 [2 + j`0 j℄1 + j`j2
and the result follows as 1 and 2 are arbitrary.
( ) If we hoose 2 = j`0 j=2, as jg(z )j + `0  jg(z ) `0 j, (2.12) shows
that
(2.13) 0 < jz z0 j < Æg =) jg(z )j > j`0 j=2:
So g(z ) 6= 0 in the deleted neighborhood
(z0 ; Æg ) nfz0g. Now for all z su h
that 0 < jz z0 j < Æ, it follows that for 2  j`0 j=2
   
 f (z ) `   f (z )`0 g (z )` 
 = 
 
 g (z ) `0  g(z )`0 
 0 
 (f (z ) `)` `(g(z ) `0 ) 
 

g(z )`0 
 
 [1 j`0 j + 2 j`j℄ j`20 j
j`10 j ; by (2:13);
2(1 j`0 j + 2 j`j)
= :
j`0 j2
Again the result follows as 1 and 2 are arbitrary.
A fun tion f : D ! C is ontinuous at z0 2 D i limz!z0 f (z ) exists
and equals the fun tion value f (z0 ). We say that f is ontinuous on D or
f : D ! C is ontinuous when f is ontinuous at all points of D. Note
that f is ontinuous at z0 i the following three onditions hold:
f (z0) is dened, zlim
!z f (z ) exists, and zlim
!z f (z ) = f (z0 ).
0 0
In terms of our earlier notation, the denition of ontinuity is that for
a given  > 0, there exists a Æ > 0 su h that
jf (z ) f (z0 )j <  whenever z 2 D and jz z0 j < Æ;
or equivalently,
(2.14) f (z ) 2
(f (z0 ); ) whenever z 2
(z0 ; Æ) \ D:
A fun tion f : D ! C is dis ontinuous (or has a dis ontinuity) at a point
z0 if z0 2 D, yet f is not ontinuous at z0 .
2.2 Con epts of Limit and Continuity 49

2.15. Remark. If the domain D of f is su h that z0 2 D and

(z0 ; Æ)  D for some Æ > 0, then all the points in
(z0 ; Æ) for this Æ or a
smaller Æ0 are to satisfy (2.14). It might happen that z0 2 D is su h that
there exists a Æ > 0 with only z0 in
(z0 ; Æ) \ D; i.e. z0 is an isolated
point of D. In this ase (2.14) is trivially satised and f is ontinuous at
z0 . Avoiding this trivial ase we shall, hen eforth assume that when we
onsider z0 2 D for ontinuity of f : D ! C , z0 is an interior point of D. If
we are on erned with ontinuity of f on D we shall assume D to be open
(sin e D is open, there exists an r su h that z0 + h 2 D with jhj < r). 
In the denition of f at z0, the number Æ depends on z0 and . When,
given  > 0, there exists a Æ = Æ(), independent of z0, satisfying (2.14) for
all z0 2 D then we say that f is uniformly ontinuous on D. Clearly every
uniformly ontinuous fun tion on D is ontinuous on D, but the onverse
is not true in general (see Examples 2.28).
2.16. Example. Consider f : C ! C dened by
8
< 0 if z = (1 + 2i)
f (z ) = z2 3z 10i
: if z 6= (1 + 2i).
z + (1 + 2i)
As z 2 3z 10i = [z (4 + 2i)℄[z + (1 + 2i)℄; we may rewrite

0 if z = (1 + 2i)
f (z ) =
z (4 + 2i) if z 6= (1 + 2i);
so that
lim f (z ) = (5 + 4i) 6= f ( 1 2i):
z! (1+2i)
To verify this using ` Æ' notation, let  > 0 be given. For z 6= 1 2i,
we obtain that jf (z ) + 5 + 4ij = jz + (1 + 2i)j: Therefore,
jf (z ) ( 5 4i)j <  whenever 0 < jz ( 1 2i)j < Æ = 
so that limz! (1+2i) f (z ) = (5 + 4i): 
In the denition of limit, if ` 6= f (z0), then f is said to have a removable
dis ontinuity at z0 2 D (i.e. if the value of f is \ orre ted" at the point z0 , it
be omes ontinuous there). This an also be done when f (z0 ) is not dened
there. For instan e in the above example if we dene f ( 1 2i) = 5 4i,
then f be omes ontinuous at z = 1 2i and at all other points in C . As
an immediate onsequen e of Theorem 2.6 we have
2.17. Theorem. The fun tion f (z ) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y) is ontinuous
at z0 = x0 + iy0 i u(x; y ) and v (x; y ) are ontinuous at (x0 ; y0 ). In other
words, Re f , Im f are both ontinuous i f is ontinuous.
50 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

Consider f (z ) = jz j2 . As the real and imaginary parts of f are ontin-

uous fun tions of x and y for all (x; y) 2 R2 , f (z ) is ontinuous on C .
As a result of the properties of limits (see Theorem 2.10), we obtain the
following theorem.
2.18. Theorem. If f; g : D ! C are ontinuous at z0 2 D, then
their sum f + g , produ t fg , quotient f=g where g (z0 ) 6= 0, and jf j are also
ontinuous at z0 . In parti ular, every polynomial a0 + a1 z +


+ an z n is
ontinuous for every z in C .

Here are some examples of fun tions whose ontinuity follow from The-
orem 2.18. The fun tion f dened by
z3 + 3
f (z ) =
z2 + 4
is ontinuous on C n f2i; 2ig. More generally, Theorem 2.18 shows that any
rational fun tion p(z )=q(z ), where p and q are polynomials, is ontinuous
on C n fz : q(z ) = 0g. For example, a fun tion of the form
a n a (n 1) a
+ n 1 +


+ 1 + a0 + a1 z +


+ an z n
zn z z
is ontinuous on the pun tured plane C n f0g.
2.19. Theorem. If limz!z0 f (z ) = w0 and g is a fun tion whi h is
ontinuous at the point w0 , then limz!z0 (g Æ f )(z ) = g (w0 ):
Proof. Continuity of g at w0 implies that for a given  > 0, there exists
a Æg > 0 su h that
(2.20) jg(w) g(w0 )j <  whenever jw w0 j < Æg :
Further, by the ondition on f , for this Æg > 0, there exists a Æ > 0 su h
that
jf (z ) w0 j < Æg whenever z 2
(z0 ; Æ) nfz0g:
Now if we let w = f (z ) in (2.20) we see that for all z 2
(z0 ; Æ) nfz0g,
j(g Æ f )(z ) g(w0 )j = jg(f (z )) g(w0 )j < 
from whi h we obtain the required on lusion.
2.21. Corollary. The omposition of two ontinuous fun tions is
ontinuous; i.e. if f : D1 ! D2 is ontinuous at z0 2 D1 and if g : D2 ! C
is ontinuous at w0 = f (z0 ), then g Æ f dened by (g Æ f )(z ) = g (f (z )) is
ontinuous at z0 .
Proof. The proof is a onsequen e of Theorem 2.19, see Figure 2.4.
2.2 Con epts of Limit and Continuity 51

w = f (z) ζ = g(w)

0)
)
D1 f (z 0) g (f (z
w0 = )=
g (w 0
z0 D2

Figure 2.4: Des ription for a omposite map.

An alternative and useful hara terization of a ontinuous fun tion in

terms of sequen es is the following.
2.22. Theorem. A fun tion f is ontinuous at a point z0 2 D i
f (z0 ) = limn!1 f (zn ) for every sequen e fzng su h that zn 2 D for n =
1; 2; : : : and zn ! z0 as n ! 1.
Proof. =) : Consider a sequen e fzng in D su h that zn ! z0 as
n ! 1. Continuity of f at z0 implies that, for a given  > 0 there exists a
Æ with
jf (z ) f (z0 )j <  whenever jz z0 j < Æ:
For this Æ, sin e zn ! z0 , there exists an N su h that for all n  N ,
jzn z0 j < Æ. Thus,
jf (zn ) f (z0)j <  for all n  N
from whi h it follows that f (zn ) ! f (z0 ), as desired.
(= : Suppose that the onverse part is not true. Then, for some  > 0,
for every Æ > 0 there orresponds a point  su h that
j z0j < Æ and jf ( ) f (z0 )j  :
Fix su h an . Then for ea h n 2 N there exists  2 D \
(z0 ; 1=n), denoted
by n ,
jn z0 j < n1 and jf (n ) f (z0)j  :
So, n ! z0 but f (n ) 6! f (z0 ) as n ! 1. This is a ontradi tion to our
assumption, and so the onverse part is proved.
Consider the fun tion f dened by
z
f (z ) = ; z 2 C n f0g:
z
Note that the fun tion itself is not dened at 0 and so, it is not ontinuous
at 0. If zn = 1=n and zn0 = i=n, then f (zn ) = 1 and f (zn0 ) = 1. Note
52 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

δ ǫ

 z0 f (z0 )
f ()

Figure 2.5: Des ription for ontinuous mapping.

that zn ! 0 and zn0 ! 0. Can this fun tion be made ontinuous at 0, by

dening its value suitably at the origin?
2.23. Theorem. Let f : D ! C be a fun tion. Then f is ontinuous
on D i for every open set O  C , f 1 (O) = fz 2 D : f (z ) 2 Og is open
in D.
Proof. (= : Suppose that for ea h open set O  C ; f 1 (O) is open.
Let z0 2 D and  > 0 be given. Then A =
(f (z0 ); ) is an open set in C
and so by hypothesis f 1 (A) is open in D. Sin e f 1 (A) is open in D and
z0 2 f 1 (A), there exists an open disk
(z0 ; Æ) su h that
(z0 ; Æ) \ D 
f 1 (A): Hen e (see Figure 2.5),
f (
(z0 ; Æ) \ D)  A =
(f (z0 ); ):
Continuity of f at z0 is thus established.
=) : Suppose that f is ontinuous on D and let O be any open set
in C . If f 1 (O) = ;, then it is open. Otherwise, let z0 be any point of
f 1 (O). Then z0 2 D and f (z0 ) 2 O. As O is open, there exists an open
disk
(f (z0 ); )  O. Continuity of f at z0 then implies that
f (z ) 2
(f (z0 ); )  O whenever z 2
(z0 ; Æ) \ D:
Thus,
(z0 ; Æ) \ D  f 1 (O) and this shows that f 1 (O) is open in D.
One of the important results on erning ontinuous fun tions is that
they preserve onne tedness.
2.24. Theorem. Let f : D ! C be a ontinuous fun tion and let D
be a onne ted set. Then f (D) is a onne ted set.
Proof. Suppose that the theorem is not true. Then there exist two
non-empty disjoint open subsets V1 ; V2 of f (D) su h that f (D) = V1 [ V2 .
By Theorem 2.23, U1 = f 1(V1 ) and U2 = f 1 (V2 ) are both non-empty
open subsets of D su h that U1 \ U2 = ; and D = U1 [ U2 , ontradi ting
the onne tedness of D.
2.2 Con epts of Limit and Continuity 53

Our next theorem is helpful parti ularly in onstru ting uniformly on-
tinuous fun tions.
2.25. Theorem. A ontinuous fun tion on a ompa t set D is uni-
formly ontinuous therein.
Proof. Suppose that f is not uniformly ontinuous on D. Then, pro-
eeding as in the onverse part of Theorem 2.22, there exists an  > 0, and
two sequen es fn g and fn g in D su h that for every n 2 N ,
(2.26) jn n j < n1 and jf (n ) f (n )j  :
Sin e D is ompa t, fn g ontains a subsequen e fnk g onverging to a
point z0 , say, where z0 is a point of D; i.e. nk ! z0 . Let fnk g be the
orresponding subsequen e of fn g. Then nk ! z0. For, the triangle
inequality gives
jnk z0 j  jnk nk j + jnk z0 j
and so we have nk ! z0 . Therefore, for the subsequen es fnk g and fnk g,
(2.26) gives
(2.27) jnk nk j < n1 and jf (nk ) f (nk )j  
k
for every k. However, as f is ontinuous at z0, we have
f (nk ) ! f (z0 ) and f (nk ) ! f (z0) as k ! 1;
ontradi ting (2.27). Hen e, f is uniformly ontinuous.
2.28. Example. There are uniformly ontinuous fun tions on a set
whi h is not ompa t. For instan e, the identity fun tion z is obviously
uniformly ontinuous on C . But f (z ) = z 2 is not uniformly ontinuous on
C whereas it is uniformly ontinuous on
R = fz : jz j < Rg (also
R nf0g),
where R is a xed positive number. To verify this, hoose two points z0
and z on
R . Then
jz 2 z02 j = jz z0 j jz + z0j  jz z0 j(jz j + jz0 j)  2Rjz z0 j:
Therefore given any  > 0 there exists a Æ = =(2R) su h that
jz z0 j < Æ implies jz 2 z02j < ;
thus proving the uniform ontinuity on
R .
Suppose that z is not restri ted to
R and allow z; z0 to be C . We
hoose two points of C to be z = R + 1=R; z0 = 1=R so that jz z0 j = R,
where R > 0. Then,
 
2
jz z0 j = R + R R = R2 + 2 > 2
2 2

and so, f (z ) = z 2 is not uniformly ontinuous throughout C . 

54 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

2.3 Stereographi Proje tion

When dealing with the real line, we frequently use the on ept of innity
and speak of +1 and 1. For instan e, the sequen e f2ng diverges to
+1 whereas f ng diverges to 1 and fxn g = f( 1)nng is unbounded
above and unbounded below, so
lim sup xn = +1; lim inf x = 1:
n!1 n
n!1
Therefore, in the ase of real-valued fun tions, limits su h as
lim f (x) = 1; xlim 0
x!a !1 p(x) = 1
!1 g(x) = l; x!lim1 h(x) = l ; xlim
provide valuable information about the behavior of fun tions near these
points, namely a; 1; 1. In dealing with the omplex plane C , we too
speak of innity and denote it by the usual symbol `1'. In C , we do not
give a sign to the omplex innity. One of the main reasons for this is that
C has no natural ordering as R does.
In Se tion 1.5, we have dis ussed the topologi al properties of the om-
plex plane C with the usual Eu lidean metri . It turned out that the
ompa t sets were the bounded and losed sets. However, the innite set,
for instan e
S = fz 2 C : z = m + in; m; n 2 Ng
has no limit in C and is losed but is non- ompa t. Nevertheless, it will be
very mu h useful to develop the notion of limit points for su h unbounded
sets. Therefore, we shall extend the omplex plane C by adjoining one
extra point alled the \point at innity" whi h we shall denote by 1, i.e.
we onsider the extended omplex plane C 1 := C [f1g as a losed surfa e
having a single point at innity. We shall then introdu e a new metri to
analyze the behavior of a omplex fun tion at innity and to map the
points in C into the surfa e of a sphere. This pro ess will be referred to as
stereographi proje tion.
In fa t, su h an extra point `1' is dened so as to satisfy the following
omputational properties (see Figure 2.6): Whatever be z 2 C ,
z z
1 = 0; z + 1 = 1 (z 6= 1); 0 = 1 (z 6= 0);
z
1 = 1 (z 6= 0);
1 = 1 (z 6= 1):
z
We do not dene (or have no sense to dene)
0
; 1 + 1; 1 1; 0
1; and :
1
0 1
We dene z 0 = 1 for z 2 C 1 , and for ea h n 2 N , we set
0 n = 1n = 1; 0n = 1 n = 0:
2.3 Stereographi Proje tion 55
y
∞ ∞

∞ ∞

Figure 2.6: Complex `1'.

We use the following onstru tion due to Riemann. There are two om-
monly used methods. In one method, a orresponden e is set up between
the points of C and those of a sphere of radius 1=2 with enter at (0; 0; 1=2)
tangent to this plane. There is another method of orresponden e in whi h
the sphere of radius 1 has enter at (0; 0; 0) and the plane passes through
(0; 0; 0). We shall use the rst one.
Let C be the omplex plane. Through the origin onstru t a line per-
pendi ular to C . Let this be  -axis of a 3-dimensional Eu lidean spa e in
whi h a point has oordinates (; ;  ). Consider the sphere S of radius 1=2
with enter at (0; 0; 1=2). That is,

S = f(; ;  ) 2 R3 :  2 + 2 + ( 1=2)2 = 1=4g:

It is a ommon pra ti e to all the points N and O with oordinates

(0; 0; 1) and (0; 0; 0) the north pole and south pole of the sphere S , respe -
tively. The great ir le in the plane  = 1=2 is alled the equator. The
plane  = 0 oin ides with the omplex plane C and the  and  axes are
the x and y axes, respe tively. Let Q(x; y; 0) be any point in the plane
C . Through the points N and Q we draw a straight line NQ interse ting
the sphere S at a point, say, P (; ;  ). Then (; ;  ) is alled the stereo-
graphi proje tion, or image of (x; y; 0) on the sphere and is onsidered as
the spheri al representation of z = x + iy. This pro edure assigns a unique
point on S to every given omplex number z so that we are free to think
of C as sitting inside R3 . Conversely, to ea h point (; ;  ) on the sphere
other than N we an asso iate the omplex number z = (x; y; 0) where the
line from (0,0,1) through (; ;  ) interse ts C . Now we immediately see
that there is a one-to-one orresponden e between C and the points of S
with one ex eption, namely, the north pole (0,0,1) itself. By assigning to
the north pole N of the sphere to orrespond to the point at innity, we
obtain a one-to-one orresponden e between the points of the sphere S on
one hand and the points of the extended omplex plane C 1 on the other.
The sphere is often alled Riemann sphere or omplex sphere
It is easy to obtain expli it equations expressing ;  and  in terms of
56 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

ζ
N (0, 0, 1)

C(0, 0, 1/2)

O
y, η

x, ζ

Figure 2.7: Riemann's sphere.

x and y. The line in R3 passing through (0; 0; 1) and (x; y; 0) is given by

(2.29) ft(0; 0; 1)+(1 t)(x; y; 0) : t 2 Rg  f((1 t)x; (1 t)y; t) : t 2 Rg:
Sin e this line interse ts the sphere S , we must have
1
(1 t)2 x2 + (1 t)2 y2 + (t 1=2)2 =
4
so that (1 t)2 jz j2 = t(1 t): If (; ;  ) 6= (0; 0; 1), then we arrive at

t=
jz j2 ; i.e. 1 t = 1 :
1 + jz j2 1 + jz j2
Using the fa t that the points (0; 0; 1), (; ;  ) and (x; y; 0) are ollinear,
(2.29) now yields
8
> x z+z
>  = = ;
>
>
>
>
2
1+x +y 2 2(1 + jz j2 )
>
< y i(z z)
(2.30)  = = ;
>
>
2
1+x +y 2 2(1 + jz j2 )
>
>
>
>
: =
> x2 + y2
=
jz j2 ;
2
1+x +y 2 1 + jz j2
that is z = x + iy 2 C orresponds to
 
x y x2 + y2
2 2 ; 2 2 ;
1 + x + y 1 + x + y 1 + x2 + y2
2S
or equivalently to
 
z+z i(z z) jz j2
; ;
2(1 + jz j ) 2(1 + jz j2) 1 + jz j2
2 2 S:
2.3 Stereographi Proje tion 57
p
For instan e, the images of 1; i; (1 i)= 2 on the sphere are respe tively
given by Z1 ; Z2 ; Z3 , where
p p
Z1 = (1=2; 0; 1=2); Z2 = (0; 1=2; 1=2); Z3 = ( 2=4; 2=4; 1=2):
Using the three equations in (2.30) it is easy to see that
1 
(2.31) 1 = ; i.e. jz j2 =
1 + jz j2 1 
so that
   + i
(2.32) x= ; y= ; or z = :
1  1  1 
That is (; ;  ) orresponds to
   
 
1 
+i
1 
2 C:
The map z ! (; ;  ) is alled stereographi proje tion of C on S nf(0; 0; 1)g
or vi e versa. In fa t if  : C ! S nf(0; 0; 1)g is the stereographi proje tion
of C on S nf(0; 0; 1)g, then
 
z+z i(z z) jz j2
(z ) = ; ; :
2(1 + jz j2 ) 2(1 + jz j2 ) 1 + jz j2
The inverse of ,  1 : S nf(0; 0; 1)g ! C , is given by
 
 1 (; ;  ) = +i :
1  1 
2.33. Remark. If z is a omplex number orresponding to the point
Q(; ;  ) on the pun tured sphere S nf(0; 0; 1)g, then (2.31) shows that
2
(2.34) jz j ? R ()  ? 1 +R R2 ; R > 0:
In parti ular, the images of fz : jz j < 1g and fz : jz j > 1g are the southern
hemisphere and the northern hemisphere, respe tively. 
Now suppose that (n ; n ; n ) is a sequen e of points of S whi h on-
verges to (0; 0; 1) and let fzng be the orresponding sequen e of points in
C . It follows (as is obvious geometri ally) from (2.31) that jznj be omes
very large; i.e. as (n ; n ; n ) ! (0; 0; 1), jzn j ! 1. Conversely, in view of
(2.30), if jzn j ! 1 then (n ; n ; n ) ! (0; 0; 1). Thus, it is reasonable to
introdu e the symbol \1" to orrespond to (0; 0; 1) 2 S . We an now think
of C 1 either as `a plane + an ideal point' or as a sphere. Correspondingly,
as was pointed out earlier, we may think of C as a plane, or as a sphere
58 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

N
N → (0, 0, 1)
P → (ξ, η, ζ )
C C → (0, 0, 1/2)
O → (0, 0, 0)
P Q → (x, y, 0)
≡ (ξ, η, 0)
y, η

Q
x, ξ

Figure 2.8: Proje tion of a portion of the Riemann sphere.

without the north pole. Both points of view are useful, depending on the
problem on hand.
The notions su h as limit point of a sequen e and neighborhoods of a
point an now be dened for the extended omplex plane C 1 through this
identi ation with the Riemann sphere S .
2.35. Denition. A sequen e fzn g is said to diverge to the limit
1, written zn ! 1 or limn!1 zn = 1, if for any R > 0, there exists a
number N su h that jzn j > R for n > N:
Sin e fz : jz j > Rg orresponds to a ` ap' (see also Figure 2.7) it
makes sense to think of fz : jz j > Rg as a neighborhood of 1. Su h a
neighborhood be omes smaller as R gets larger and larger. This geometri
intuition allows us to dene the on ept of ontinuity on C 1 . We next give
a justi ation for this notion.
We dene (z; z 0) = d(Z; Z 0 )) to be the Eu lidean distan e between
Z = (; ;  ) and Z 0 = ( 0 ; 0 ;  0 ) in the three dimensional spa e whi h are
respe tively the pre-images of z = x + iy and z 0 = x0 + iy0 (under the
stereographi proje tion of the sphere S onto the omplex plane C ). Sin e
(; ;  ) and ( 0 ; 0 ;  0 ) are on the sphere S ,
(2.36)  2 + 2 +  2 =  and  02 + 02 +  02 =  0 :
The length of the segment joining Z and Z 0 , known as hordal distan e of
z from z 0 , is dened as (z; z 0) = d(Z; Z 0 ): Therefore, we have
p
(z; z 0) = (  0 )2 + ( 0 )2 + (  0 )2
p
=  +  0 2( 0 + 0 +  0 ); by (2:36);
= p
jz pz 0 j ; by (2.30) and (2.36).
1 + jz j2 1 + jz 0j2
2.3 Stereographi Proje tion 59

In parti ular, if z 0 is the point at innity then (z; 1), the spatial distan e
between the images of z and (0; 0; 1), is given by
1) =  2 + 2 + ( 1)2 = p1 ;
8 p
>
>
>
(z;
>
< 1
(2.37) = p ; by (2:31);
>
> 1 + jz j2
>
>
: = 0lim (z; z 0):
z !1
Further, we note that
(z; z 0) = 1() jz z 0 j2 = (1 + jz j2 )(1 + jz 0 j2 )
() j1 + zz0 j = 0
() zz0 = 1:
In other words, the points z and z 0 in C represent diametri ally opposite
(antipodal) points of the Riemann sphere S i zz0 = 1.
By (2.34) and (2.37), we see that the set fz : jz j > Rg; R > 0, orre-
sponds to the setpf(; ;  ) 2 S n(0; 0; 1) : (; ;  ) lies within the spheri al
ap of radius R= 1 + R2 g.
Conversely, if (; ;  ) 6= (0; 0; 1), as noted above, we have
p p 1
 2 +  2 + ( 1)2 = 1 = p :
1 + jz j2
Note that p
1 1 2
p <  () j z j > ( > 0):
1 + jz j2 
Therefore, the -neighborhood of (0; 0; 1) on S, namely,
p
f(; ;  ) 2 S :  2 + 2 + ( 1)2 < g
p1 2
is nothing but N (1; ) = fz 2 C : jz j >  g [ f1g; whi h we all an
-neighborhood of 1. Clearly,
(a) (z1 ; z2)  0
(b) (z1 ; z2) = 0 () z1 = z2
( ) (z1 ; z2) = (z2 ; z1 )
(d) (z1 ; z3)  (z1 ; z2 ) + (z2 ; z3 )
(e) (0; z1)  (0; z2 ) provided jz1 j  jz2 j  1
(f) (z1 ; z2)  jz1 z2 j = d(z1 ; z2).
In parti ular, we all  dened on C 1 , the hordal metri on C 1 . This
allows us to treat the point 1 like any other point. Thus, we have
60 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

2.38. Theorem. The hordal metri (: ; :) dened on C 1 satises

the properties of a metri .

By a ir le on the sphere S we mean the interse tion of S with some

plane a + b +  + d = 0: Let us now nd the equation of the ir le on
the sphere whi h is the stereographi image of the ir le fz : jz aj = Rg.
By (2.32) and jz aj2 = R2 , the required equation is given by
   
 2 + 2  i  + i
(1  )2
a
1 
a
1 
= R2 jaj2 ;
whi h upon simpli ation be omes
(a + a) + i(a a) + (jaj2 R2 1) = 1 + jaj2 R2 :
2.39. Theorem. Suppose T  C 1. Then the orresponding image
of T on the Riemann sphere S is
(a) a ir le in S not ontaining (0; 0; 1) if T is a ir le;
(b) a ir le in S minus (0; 0; 1) if T is a line.
Proof. First we onsider the general equation of a ir le in the plane:
(2.40) T = f(x; y) : A(x2 + y2 ) + Bx + Cy + D = 0g:
Using stereographi proje tion, i.e. by (2.32) and (2.31), we have
(A D) + B + C + D = 0
whi h is the equation of a plane in spa e when a general point has oordi-
nates (; ;  ). Note that a plane and a sphere interse t in a ir le. Suppose
A = 0, then (2.40) is a straight line in C . Thus, the orresponding set in
the sphere S is given by the interse tion of
 2 + 2 +  2 = ;
with B + C D + D = 0 whi h is a ir le minus (0,0,1). If we onsider
T  C 1 , then the orresponding image set governed by the above equations
is a ir le passing through the north pole (0,0,1). This proves (a).
Suppose A 6= 0 and D = 0. Then T redu es to
A(x2 + y2 ) + Bx + Cy = 0;
whi h is a ir le passing through (0; 0) and so the orresponding image is
given by the interse tion of
 2 + 2 +  2 = 
2.3 Stereographi Proje tion 61

with B + C + A = 0: This is in fa t a ir le passing through the south

pole (0,0,0). The general statement (b) is obvious.

The onverse of Theorem 2.39 takes the following form.

2.41. Theorem. If TS is a ir le on the Riemann sphere S and TI is

its stereographi proje tion on C 1 , then
(a) TI is a ir le if (0; 0; 1) 62 TS
(b) TI is a line if (0; 0; 1) 2 TS .
Proof. If TS is a ir le on the sphere S , then
TS = f +  +  + Æ = 0g \ f 2 + 2 +  2 =  g:
Thus, TS passes through (0; 0; 1) provided + Æ = 0. It follows from (2.30)
that the orresponding set of points of the plane in C satises
(2.42) ( + Æ)(x2 + y2 ) + x + y + Æ = 0; (x; y) 2 TI :
Clearly, this equation represents the equation of a ir le if + Æ 6= 0. If
+ Æ = 0, then (2.42) is the equation of a line. The on lusion now follows
from the fa t that + Æ = 0 () (0; 0; 1) 2 TS :

2.43. Example. Suppose that a ube has its verti es on the Riemann
sphere and its edges parallel to the o-ordinate axes. Let us now nd the
stereographi proje tions of the verti es. By hypothesis, the verti es are
Z1 = (; ;  ); Z2 = (; ; 1  );
Z3 = (; ; 1  ); Z4 = ( ; ; 1  );
Z5 = ( ; ; 1  ); Z6 = ( ; ;  );
Z7 = (; ;  ); Z8 = ( ; ;  ):
Further the length of the sides of the ube gives the relation
(2.44) j j = jj = j 1=2j :
For onvenien e, we let  > 0,  > 0 and  > 12 . As ; ;  lie on the
Riemann sphere
 2 + 2 + ( 1=2)2 = 1=4;
by (2.44), we have  2 +  2 +  2 = 1=4; i.e. 3 2 = 1=4: Thus, we get
  p p !
1 1 3+1 3 1
== p =  2
; i.e.  = p 1 = p :
2 3 2 3 2 3
62 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

Therefore, by (2.32), we have

   
 + i (1 + i) 1
z=
1 
=p = p +i p1
3 1 3 1 3 1
whi h is the stereographi proje tion of
p !
p ; p ; 3p+ 1 :
1 1
2 3 2 3 2 3
Similarly the stereographi proje tions of the other verti es are obtained as
follows:
p ! p !
Z2 = p ; p ; 3p 1 ;
1 1
Z3 = p ; p ; 3p 1 ;
1 1
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
p ! p !
Z4 = p ; p ; 3p 1 ;
1 1
Z5 = p ; p ; 3p 1 ;
1 1
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
p ! p !
Z6 =
1 1
p ; p ; 3p+ 1 ; Z7 =
1 1
p ; p ; 3p+ 1 ;
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
p !
Z8 =
1
p ; p ; 3p+ 1 ;1
2 3 2 3 2 3
and
   
1 1
Z2 ! z2 = p +i p

3 + 1  3 + 1
1 1
Z3 ! z3 = p i p

3 + 1  
3 +1 
Z4 ! z4 = p 1 +i p 1

3 + 1  3 + 1
Z5 ! z5 = p1 i p
1

3 + 1  
3 + 1
Z6 ! z6 = p 1 +i p 1

3 1  3 1
1 1
Z7 ! z7 = p i p

3 1  
3 1 
Z8 ! z8 = p1 i p
1
: 
3 1 3 1
2.45. Example. We wish to prove that the points z and z 0 in the
omplex plane will orrespond to symmetri points with respe t to the
equatorial plane (viz., the plane  = 1=2) i zz0 = 1.
2.3 Stereographi Proje tion 63

To prove this, we rst note that z and z 0 orrespond to symmetri

points with respe t to equatorial plane i z and z 0 orrespond to (; ;  )
and (; ; 1  ), respe tively. This holds if and only if
 + i  + i  2 + 2
z= and z 0 = ; i.e. zz0 = = 1: 
1  1 (1  ) (1  )
We shall now brie y indi ate how to extend the limit on epts dis ussed
in the previous se tion to the extended omplex plane.

2.46. Denition. (Limit at innity) Let f be dened on an un-

bounded set E . (Then for any R > 0, there exists z 2 E su h that jz j > R.)
We say that f (z ) ! ` as z ! 1 if for every  > 0, there exists an R > 0
su h that
jf (z ) `j <  whenever z 2 E and jz j > R:
In this ase, we write
lim f (z ) = ` or
z!1
lim f (z ) = `:
jzj!1
Re all (see Denition 2.35) that a set of the form fz : jz j > Rg [ f1g is
alled a neighborhood of 1. For onvenien e, we may introdu e

(1; 1=R) := fz : jz j > Rg [ f1g = C 1 n
(0; R):
The losed disk
(1; 1=R) and the pun tured disk
(1; 1=R) nf1g may
be dened similarly. For instan e,
(1; 1=R) nf1g := C n fz : jz j > Rg.

Let us show that

1 1
!1 z = 0;
(a) zlim (b) zlim
!1 z 2 = 0.
To do this, we rst note that 1=z and 1=z 2 are dened everywhere in
C n f0g. Then for every  > 0 there exists a R = 1= su h that
 
1 1
 
z  <  whenever jz j > = R:

() jz j > 1=p so, in this
 
For the se ond ase, wepnote that 1=z 2 < 
ase, we hoose R = 1= .

2.47. Denition. (Innite limit) Let f be dened on D ex ept

possibly at z0 of D. We say that f (z ) ! 1 as z ! z0 if for every R > 0,
there exists a Æ > 0 su h that
jf (z )j > R whenever z 2 D \
(z0 ; Æ) nfz0g:
64 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

In this ase, we write,

lim f (z ) = 1 or zlim
z!z0 !z0 jf (z )j = 1:
Note. Considering the real-valued fun tion jf j on D or D nfz0 g dened
by jf j(z ) = jf (z )j, z 2 D, we observe that
lim f (z ) = 1 i zlim
z!z0 !z0 jf j(z ) := zlim
!z0 jf (z )j = 1:
1 1
2.48. Example. We have (a) zlim !1 jz 1j
2 = 1 , (b) lim
z !0 z 2
= 1.
Note that the fun tion f dened by
1
f (z ) = 2
z 1
is dened for all z 2 C n f 1; 1g. Let R > 0 be given. Then we must show
that we an nd a Æ > 0 su h that
 
jf (z )j =  z 2 1 1  > R whenever 0 < jz 1j < Æ:
 

Note that jf (z )j > R () 0 < jz 2 1j < 1=R: Now 0 < jz 1j < Æ implies
that
jz 2 1j = jz 1j jz 1 + 2j  jz 1j[jz 1j + 2℄ < Æ(Æ + 2) = (Æ + 1)2 1
p
and therefore jz 2 1j < 1=R if Æ = 1 + R 1 1: Hen e
p
jf (z )j > R whenever z 2 [C n f 1; 1g℄ \ [
(1; 1 + R 1 1) nf1g℄
and the on lusion follows. The se ond ase is lear, be ause
 
1
  = 1 > R whenever jz j = jz 0j < Æ = p1 : 
 z2  jz j2 R
2.49. Denition. Let f be dened on an unbounded set E . If for
every R > 0 there exists K > 0 su h that jf (z )j > R for jz j > K and z 2 E;
then we say that f (z ) ! 1 as z ! 1 and write zlim !1 f (z ) = 1:
For instan e, if f (z ) ! 1 as z ! 1, then jf (z )j ! 1 as z ! 1: In
!1 z = 1.
parti ular, zlim

2.50. Remark. Using the hordal metri  on C [ f1g, it is easy

to see that the following are true:
(a) zn ! z0 () (zn ; z0 ) ! 0 (b) zn ! 1 () (zn ; 1) ! 0:
2.4 Sequen es and Series of fun tions 65

Part (b), in parti ular, helps us to give an alternate meaning to a state-

ment su h as jf (z )j > R for jz z0 j < Æ in the form
1
(f (z ); 1) < p for (z; z0 ) < jz z0 j < Æ: 
1 + R2
Let E be an unbounded set. Then f : E ! C 1 is ontinuous at z0 2 E
i for every  > 0, there exists a Æ > 0 su h that
jf (z ) f (z0)j <  whenever z 2
(z0 ; Æ) \ E;
or equivalently,
f (
(z0 ; Æ) \ E ) 
(f (z0 ); ):
In this denition, with the help of the above notation, we now admit the
ases where z0 = 1 and f (z0) = 1. We say f is ontinuous on E i f
is ontinuous at all points of E . For instan e, a rational fun tion in z is
a ontinuous fun tion from C 1 into C 1 . Many other basi notions may
also extended to the extended omplex plane. We postpone our dis ussion
on ertain aspe ts of fun tions on the extended omplex plane to a later
hapter.

2.4 Sequen es and Series of Fun tions

Next we dis uss the uniform onvergen e of sequen es and series of fun -
tions. Consider a sequen e of omplex-valued fun tions ffn(z )g, fn : D 
C ! C and n 2 N . For a xed z0 2 D, ffn (z0 )g is an ordinary sequen e
of omplex numbers and so the onvergen e of the sequen e of these fun -
tions for ea h z0 2 D is as in the denition of onvergen e of a sequen e of
omplex numbers in Se tion 1.6.
2.51. Denition. A sequen e ffng of fun tions is said to be onver-
gent at z0 2 D if the sequen e ffn (z0 )g onverges. We shall all this limit
f (z0 ). The sequen e ffn(z )g of fun tions is said to onverge `pointwise' to
f (z ) in D if ffn(z0 )g onverges to f (z0 ) at ea h point z0 2 D.
Sin e the limit of a sequen e, when it exists, is unique, in the ase of
`pointwise' onvergen e, we have a uniquely dened fun tion f from D into
C and we all f , the pointwise limit, or simply the limit fun tion of the
sequen e ffn(z )g and write f (z ) = limn!1 fn (z ), z 2 D: An equivalent
formulation of the above dis ussion is given by the following:
2.52. Denition. Let fn and f be fun tions from D into C . We say
that fn(z ) ! f (z ) on D i for every  > 0 and every z 2 D, there exists
N = N (; z ) su h that jfn (z ) f (z )j <  for all n  N: This onvergen e is
said to be uniform if it is possible that N (; z ) an be hosen independent
of z 2 D. That is, one N () works for all z 2 D.
66 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

We often write fn ! f uniformly on D, or limn!1 fn (z ) = f (z ) uni-

formly on D to denote the uniform onvergen e of fn to f on D. Also
note that the uniform onvergen e on D implies pointwise onvergen e.
The onverse is false, for example onsider fn (z ) = z n for z 2
(see also
Example 2.55). Then the sequen e fz ng onverges uniformly on jz j  r
(0 < r < 1); for if  > 0 is given, then
jz nj  rn <  whenever n > (ln )= ln r:
Note that

f (z ) = nlim
!1 zn = 01 ifif jzz=
j<1
1:
However, the onvergen e is not uniform on jz j < 1. Indeed if 0 <  < 1,
then for any positive integer n, it is possible to hoose z so that
1 > jz j  1=n :
Then jz n j   and so the hoi e of N depends on z . For instan e, given
any positive integer n, one an exhibit points z with jz jn  1=3 (note that
the hoi e z = exp( (1=n) ln 3) will do when  = 1=3).
Alternatively, it suÆ es to observe that (sin e jz j < 1),
jz jn <  whenever n ln jz j < ln  or n > (ln )= ln jz j:
Sin e ln jz j approa hes zero as jz j ! 1, the maximum value of n is innite
and so there annot exist an N independent of z satisfying the ondition
that is required for uniform onvergen e. P
We are frequently on erned with series of the form n1 fn (z ) for z in
some subset of C . In situations like this, as in the ase of series of omplex
terms, we have
P
2.53. Denition. The series k1 fk onverges `pointwise' in P
D to a
fun tion f in D if the orresponding sequen e of partial sums sn = nk=1 fk
onverges to f `pointwise' in D. Then we write
X1
f = fk
k=1
P
and say that the series n1 fn is pointwise onvergent in D with sum
f . This series is said to onverge to f uniformly in D i sn onverges to
f uniformly in D. The series is said toP onverge absolutely or said to be
absolutely onvergent in D if the series k1 jfk j is onvergent in D.
P
2.54. Example. Consider the geometri series k1 z k 1 : If z 6= 1,
then the n-th partial sum is
1 zn
sn = 1 + z +


+ z n 1 = :
1 z
2.4 Sequen es and Series of fun tions 67

Sin e fz ng is a null sequen e for jz j < 1, it follows that

X 1 zn 1
zk 1
!1 sn = nlim
= nlim !1 = ; jz j < 1:
k1 1 z 1 z

In fa t,
 

sn 1 jz jn <  whenever n ln jz j < ln(j1 z j):

=
 1 j1 z j
z
If 0 < jz j < 1, then ln jz j < 0 and so we have
 
 1  ln(j1 z j)
sn <  whenever n > N  :
 1 z  n ln jz j
Thus, the geometri series is pointwise onvergent in
with sum f (z ) =
1=(1 z ).
If jz j  1, jz jn  1 and sin e jz jn 6! 0, the series diverges in this ase.
These fa ts an also be veried with the help of Corollary 1.49 and Theorem
1.51.
Next we wish to show that the geometri series is not uniformly on-
vergent in jz j < 1. To do this, we need to show that sn does not onverge
uniformly in jz j < 1. Clearly, from the expression for sn , it suÆ es to show
that fSng, where Sn (z ) = z n=(1 z ), is not uniformly onvergent in jz j < 1.
Let  > 0 be given. If fSn g were uniformly onvergent for jz j < 1, then
there would exist an N su h that
 n 
 z 
 1 z  <  for all n > N and all z 2
:
 

Now, for a given  > 0 we hoose z0 = NN+++1

 in
. Then for this point,
we note that
z0N +1 [1 1=(N +  + 1)℄N +1 1 (N + 1)=(N +  + 1)
= > =
1 z0 1=(N +  + 1) 1=(N +  + 1)
(sin e (1 x)n > 1 nx if 0 < x < 1 and n is a positive integer  1); so
the onvergen e is not uniform for jz j < 1. 
2.55. Example. Consider the series
S (z ) = z + z (1 z ) + z 2 (1 z ) +


+ z n 1(1 z ) +



Then the n-th partial sum is
nX1
sn (z ) = z + (1 z ) zk = zn
k=1
68 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

so that the sequen e fsng (and, so the series) onverges to zero for jz j < 1.
We have already shown that the sequen e fz ng does not onverge uniformly
for jz j < 1. Consequently, the given series is not uniformly onvergent for
jz j < 1. 
Many results about the onvergen e of numeri al sequen es in C an be
arried over easily to the onvergen e of a sequen e of fun tions at a point
and so, for pointwise onvergen e. We list a few of them.
2.56. Theorem. Let ffng and fgng be sequen es of fun tions dened
on a set D  C .
(a) fn ! f pointwise in D () for ea h  > 0 and ea h z 2 D there
exists an N (; z ) su h that jfn (z ) fm (z )j <  for all n; m > N (; z ):
(b) If fn ! f and gn ! g both pointwise in D, then fn  gn ! f  g and
fngn ! fg pointwise on D.
f f
( ) If gn(z ) 6= 0 and g(z ) 6= 0 for ea h z in D and n 2 N , then n !
gn g
pointwise in D.
(d) ffn(z )g is uniformly onvergent in D i for every  > 0 and all z 2 D
there exists an N = N () su h that jfn (z ) fm (z )j <  for all n; m >
N ():
(e) If fn ! f and gn ! g both uniformly in a ommon region D then
fn  gn ! f  g uniformly in D and for a omplex onstant ,
fn ! f uniformly in D.
Theorem 2.56(d) is alled the Cau hy riterion for uniform onvergen e.
Uniform onvergen e does not arry over to the produ t of fun tions, in
general. To see this, onsider
1 1 1
fn (z ) = gn (z ) = + and f (z ) = g(z ) = in
nf0g:
z n z
Then, fn ! f and gn ! g both uniformly in
nf0g. Now
1 2 1
fn (z )gn (z ) f (z )g(z ) = 2 +
:
n n z
In parti ular, for z = n , or n in
, we nd that (fn gn fg)(z )  2
1 2
for all n  1: Hen e, fn gn 6! fg uniformly in
.
2.57. Theorem. The limit fun tion of a uniformly onvergent se-
quen e of ontinuous fun tions is itself ontinuous.
Proof. Let ea h fn be ontinuous in D and suppose that fn ! f
uniformly in D. Let z0 2 D be given. Now, for all z 2 D and for all indi es
n, the triangle inequality gives
jf (z ) f (z0 )j  jf (z ) fn (z )j + jfn (z ) fn (z0 )j + jfn (z0 ) f (z0)j:
2.4 Sequen es and Series of fun tions 69

The laim now follows from this inequality upon using the hypothesis.
P
2.58. Corollary. If n1 fn is uniformly onvergent
P in D and if fn
is ontinuous in D for ea h n, then so is the sum f = n1 fn .
Corollary 2.58 makes no assertion about the sum of a series of ontinuous
fun tions if the onvergen e is not uniform.
The Cau hy onvergen e riterion for series of omplex P numbers dis-
ussed in Chapter 1 takes the following form: \The series n1 fn(z ) on-
verges uniformly in D i for every  > 0 there exists an N = N () su h
that
 
n
 X 



fk (z ) =

jsn sm j <  for all z 2 D whenever n > m  N ":
k=m+1
The next theorem
P gives a suÆ ient ondition for the uniform onvergen e
of the series n1 fn (z ). This is one of the frequently used results in
omplex analysis.
P
2.59. Theorem. (Weierstrass' M-test) Let n1 Mn be a onver-
that jfn (z )j  Mn for all n 2 N
gent series of positive real numbers su h P
and for all z in a set D. Then the series n1 fn (z ) onverges absolutely
and uniformly in D.
Proof. To prove this, we note that, for all n > N and z 2 D,
 
n
 X  n
X n
X
(2.60) 


fk (z )

 jfk (z )j  Mk :
k=N +1 k=N +1 k=N +1
The Cau hy P riterion (see Theorem 2.56(a) and Denition 2.53) applied to
the series
P n1 Mn shows that for every  > 0; there exists an N () su h
that nN +1PMk <  for all n > N = N () This observation, by (2.60), im-
plies that n1 fn (z ) satises the Cau hy riterion (see Theorem 2.56(a))
for uniform onvergen e on D and so the assertion follows.
We illustrate the appli ation of Weierstrass' M-test
P with an example
whi h is already familiar for us. The geometri series n1 z n 1 onverges
uniformly for jz j  r, where 0 < r < 1. Finally, we end this se tion with
two more examples.
2.61. Example. Dene
1 + zn 2
fn (z ) = = 1; n 2 N :
1 zn 1 zn
Note that if jz j < 1, then jz jn ! 0 as n ! 1; and if jz j > 1, then
jz jn ! 1. Therefore, if jz j > 1 then for suÆ iently large values of n, we
70 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

have j1 z nj  jz jn 1 ! 1 as n ! 1: Hen e, for jz j 6= 1, limn!1 fn (z )

exists and

f (z ) = nlim 1 if jz j < 1
!1 fn (z ) = 1 if jz j > 1:
From this, we also on lude that it is not possible to dene the limit fun tion
f (z ) on jz j = 1 so that f be omes a ontinuous fun tion in C . 
2.62. Example. Let us dis uss the onvergen e of
X1 zk 1
(jz j 6= 1):
k=1
(1 z )(1 z k+1 )
k

For jz j 6= 1, the partial sums takes the form

n  
X zk 1
1 zk
Sn (z ) = k 1 z k+1
k=1 1 z 1 z
 
1 1 zn
= :
1 z 1 z 1 z n+1
Note that Sn (0) = 1. For 0 < jz j < 1, we have
 

 z n 
 jz jn = ! 0 as n ! 1
1 z n+1  1 jz jn+1
and for jz j > 1, we get
zn 1
1 z n +1 = n
z z
! 1z as n ! 1:
It follows that, as n ! 1,
8
1
>
>
< if jz j < 1
(1 z )2
Sn (z ) ! f (z ) = 1 1

1
>
>
: + if jz j > 1: 
1 z 1 z z

2.5 Exer ises

2.63. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true
or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) The fun tion f (z ) = z + 1=(z ) is univalent in fz : jz j > jj 1 g,
 6= 0.
(b) The fun tion f (z ) = (az + b)=( z + d); ad b 6= 0, is univalent in
C n f d= g.
2.5 Exer ises 71

( ) The fun tion f (z ) = (1 + z )3 is not univalent in
.

(d) For every positive integer n, the fun tion f (z ) = nz + z n is univalent
in
.
(e) If n is a positive integer, then jz j < 1=n is the largest disk entered
at 0 on whi h the fun tion f (z ) = z + z n is univalent.
(f) The Koebe fun tion k(z ) = z=(1 z )2 is univalent in
.
(g) The range of the Koebe fun tion k(z ) = z=(1 z )2 is ( 1; 1=4℄.
P P
(h) The series an onverges to a () an onverges to a.
(i) The fun tion f (z ) = z2 is uniformly ontinuous on
R (also
R nf0g),
where R is a xed positive number, but not in C .
Re z 2 Im z 2
(j) Ea h of the limits zlim!0 jz j 2 and lim
z!0 jz j2
does not exist.
(k) For f (z ) = [Re (z ) + Im (z )℄=jz j2, limz!0 f (z ) does not exist.
6
(l) The fun tion f (z ) = (Re z )=(Im z ) is ontinuous for all z with Im z =
0 and dis ontinuous for all z with Im z = 0. Also, no dis ontinuity of
f (z ) is removable.
(m) The fun tion f (z ) = (2 + z )Arg z does not have removable dis onti-
nuities.
(n) The fun tion f (z ) = (Arg z )2 is ontinuous on the pun tured plane
C n f0g.
(o) The fun tion F (z; h) = [(z + h)n z n℄=h nz n 1 (0 6= h; z 2 C )
satises the inequality jF (z; h)j  F (jz j; jhj).
(p) The sequen e ffn(z )g, where fn(z ) = 1=(1 + nz ), does not onverge
to f (z ) = 0 uniformly in any losed region ontaining the origin.
(q) The sequen e f nz 1g
n1 onverges for 0 < jz j < 1, but not uniformly.
If r > 0 is xed, the onvergen e is uniform for r < jz j < 1.
(r) The sequen e ffn(z )gn1, for jz j < 1, where fn (z ) = z 3 z=n, on-
verges uniformly to the limit fun tion f (z ) = z 3 for z 2
.
(s) The sequen e fz n=ngn1 onverges uniformly to 0.
P
(t) The series n0 3 n z n onverges uniformly for jz j  r, 0 < r < 3.
(u) The series 1
P 2 2 n
n=0 z =(1 + z ) onverges for all z exterior to the lem-
nis ate jz + 1j = 1.
2
(v) The transformation w = 2 1 [z + 2 z 1℄ ( 2 R), maps the ir le
jz j = r (r 6= ) into an ellipse in the w-plane.
P
(w) The series n0 z 2n =(1 z 2n) onverges uniformly for jz j  r, 0 <
r < 1.
(x) The mapping  dened for stereographi proje tion is a homeomor-
phism (i.e. bije tive and bi ontinuous).
72 Fun tions, Limit and Continuity

2.64. Dis uss the ontinuity of the following omplex-valued fun tions
at z = 0:
8
< (Re z ) (Im z ) if z 6= 0
(a) f (z ) =
:
jz j2
0 if z = 0:
8
< Im z if z 6= 0
(b) f (z ) = jz j
:
0 if z = 0:
( ) f (z ) = (Re z )=(1 + jz j) for z 2 C .
(d) f (z ) = jRe (z ) Im (z )j for z 2 C .
8
< sin jz j if z 6= 0
(e) f (z ) =
:
jz j
1 if z = 0:
8
< 1 exp( jz j ) if z 6= 0
2
(f) f (z ) =
:
jz j2
1 if z = 0:
2.65. Des ribe the position of the following points in relation to z in
the omplex plane, as viewed on the Riemann sphere:

z; z; 1=z; (z + z)=2;  iz; z 2 z ; zz ; jzz j :

Also, for ea h of the following points in C , give the orresponding points
on the Riemann sphere: 0; 1 + i; 1 i; 2 + 3i; 2 3i:
2.66. Let D  C and f : D ! C . Che k whether the following
statements are equivalent or not:
(a) f is not uniformly ontinuous in D
(b) there exists an  > 0 su h that for every Æ > 0 there are points Æ and
Æ in D su h that jÆ Æ j < Æ and jf (Æ ) f (Æ )j  
( ) there exists an  > 0, and two sequen es fn g and fn g in D su h
that for every n 2 N , jn n j < 1=n and jf (n ) f (n )j  :
 
2.67. Show that the eld of 2  2 matri es x y is isomorphi
y x
to the eld of omplex numbers x + iy.
Chapter 3

Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

In Se tion 3.1 we dis uss the fundamental dieren e between the deriva-
tive of a fun tion of a real and that of a omplex variable, by providing
ne essary and suÆ ient onditions for dierentiability. As a onsequen e,
a ontinuously dierentiable fun tion (brie y C 1 -fun tion) f dened in an
open set D is analyti if fz (z ) = 0 on D. There is an interesting relationship
between fun tions that are analyti in a domain and real-valued fun tions
that are harmoni in that domain. In Se tion 3.2 we dis uss this relation-
ship at an introdu tory level, espe ially in nding harmoni onjugates. In
addition, we dis uss the polar form of the Cau hy-Riemann equations and
the Lapla e equation whi h have many impli ations in various bran hes of
applied mathemati s. In Se tion 3.3, we investigate `innite polynomials'-a
generalization of `polynomials' and the innite series of omplex numbers.
The dis ussion allow us to hara terize the behavior of the power series
in a very natural fashion. Therefore, the aim of this se tion is to study
the onvergen e of the power series. In Se tion 3.4, we examine various
known properties of the so- alled standard or elementary fun tions from a
real variable to a omplex variable. Se tion 3.5 illustrates the relationship
between w = log z (z 6= 0) and z = ew and onsiders its lo al properties.
Several standard fun tions are asso iated with exponential fun tions or log-
arithmi fun tions. As a onsequen e, in Se tion 3.5, we dene the inverse
trigonometri and the inverse hyperboli fun tions.

3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations

Dierentiation in C is set against a ba kground of limits, ontinuity and
so on. To some extent the rules for dierentiation of a fun tion of a om-
plex variable are similar to those of dierentiation of a fun tion of a real
variable. Sin e C is merely R2 with additional stru tures of addition and
multipli ation of omplex numbers, we an immediately transfer most of
the on epts of R2 into those for the omplex eld C . In fa t, we have
74 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

already done so when we dened the on ept of distan e (modulus),

p
jz z 0 j = (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 (z = x + iy and z 0 = x0 + iy0)
whi h is the same as the Eu lidean distan e between the points z = (x; y)
and z 0 = (x0 ; y0 ) in R2 . We now start with
3.1. Denition. We say that a omplex fun tion f dened in a non-
empty open set D is dierentiable (or omplex dierentiable) at z0 2 D if
the limit
f (z ) f (z0 ) f (z0 + h) f (z0)
(3.2) lim
z!z0
= lim
z z0 h!0 h
exists. When this is the ase, the value of the limit, denoted by f 0 (z0 ), is
alled the derivative of f at z0 . The number f 0 (z0 ) is generally a omplex
number. The fun tion f is said to be dierentiable in (on) D if it is dif-
ferentiable at every point of D. A fun tion whi h is dierentiable in the
entire omplex plane is alled an entire fun tion.
We observe that \formally" the limit denition of the derivative given
by (3.2) is identi al in form to that of the derivative of a real (or omplex)-
valued fun tion of a real variable. In terms of ` Æ' notation, the limit in
(3.2) exists i given any  > 0, there exists a Æ = Æ(; z0) > 0 su h that
 
 f (z ) f (z0 ) 
 f 0 (z0 ) <  whenever 0 < jz z0 j < Æ:
 z z0
Letting
8
f (z ) f (z0 )
< f 0 (z0 ) for 0 < jz z0 j < Æ
 (z ) = z z0
:
0 for z = z0 ;
we have limz!z0 (z ) = 0 = (z0 ): Therefore  is ontinuous at z0 and we
get an expli it expression for f (z ) in the form
(3.3) f (z ) = f (z0) + f 0 (z0 )(z z0) + (z z0 )(z )
for jz z0 j < Æ. In on lusion, we have
3.4. Proposition. Let D  C be open, f : D ! C and z0 2 D.
Then f 0 (z0 ) exists i there exists a fun tion  : D ! C whi h is ontinuous
at z0 and satises (3:3) for all z 2 D. Equivalently, f is dierentiable at z0
i
(3.5) f (z ) = f (z0 ) + f 0 (z0 )(z
z0 ) + E (z )
where E is a fun tion dened in a neighborhood of a su h that
lim jE (z )=(z
z!z0
z0)j = 0:
3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations 75

By (3.5), we obtain a linear fun tion L(z ) = f (z0 )+ f 0 (z0 )(z z0) whi h
approximates f (z ) up to an \error" term E (z ), whi h, for z lose to z0 , is
small, in absolute value in omparison with jz z0 j. This may be treated
as an alternate and geometri des ription of dierentiability at a point. At
this pla e it is ne essary to make an important point to the reader. Sin e it
is not possible to graph a omplex fun tions in the usual way as we do with
real-valued fun tions, it is not meaningful to visualize f 0 (z0 ) as a `slope' of
some urve as we do in the real ase.
It is immediate that the derivative of a onstant fun tion is zero; for if
f (z )  , then for ea h z0 2 C we have
f (z0 + h) f (z0 )
lim = lim = 0:
h!0 h h!0 h

3.6. Theorem. A real-valued fun tion of a omplex variable either

has derivative zero or the derivative does not exist.
Proof. Suppose that f (z ) is a real-valued fun tion of omplex variable
whose derivative exists at a point a. Then
f (a + h) f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim :
h!0 h
If we take the limit h ! 0 along the real axis, then f 0 (a) is real. If we
take the limit h ! 0 along the imaginary axis, then f 0 (a) be omes a purely
imaginary number. So we must have f 0 (a) = 0.
There are several other immediate onsequen es of Denition 3.1 whi h
are worth mentioning. First along this line is to allow z ! z0 in (3.3) and
obtain
3.7. Theorem. If f has derivative at z0 , then it is ontinuous at z0 .
As in the real ase, ontinuity of f does not ne essarily imply dieren-
tiability of f in omplex ase also. The fun tion f (z ) = jz j demonstrates
this. For if h = h1 + ih2 (h1 ; h2 real), then
8
>
> 1 for h = h1 + i
0, 0 < h1 ! 0
f (h) f (0) jhj <
1 for h = h1 + i
0, 0 > h1 ! 0
(3.8)
h
=
h
!> i for h = 0 + ih2, 0 < h2 ! 0
>
:
i for h = 0 + ih2, 0 > h2 ! 0:
Thus, jz j is not dierentiable at z = 0 but is ontinuous at 0. Is f dieren-
tiable at other points in C ?
Note that f : R ! R dened by f (x) = jxj is (real) dierentiable on
R n f0g and ontinuous on R whereas its omplex analog map f : C ! C
76 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

dened by f (z ) = jz j is nowhere dierentiable although it is ontinuous in

C (see Example 3.10).
Next we give an example of a fun tion whi h is dierentiable at a single
point in C and nowhere else. For example, if f (z ) = jz j2 then f is learly
ontinuous in C . On the other hand (with h 6= 0), we have
f (h) f (0) hh
h
=
h
=h ! 0 as h ! 0
so that f is dierentiable at the origin with derivative f 0 (0) = 0. Is f
dierentiable at any other point? Now let z0 6= 0 be an arbitrary point in
C n f0g. With 0 6= h as neighboring variable point of 0, we have
f (z0 + h) f (z0 ) jz + hj2 jz0 j2
= 0
h h
z 0 h + z0 h + hh
=
h 
h
= z 0 + z0 + h:
h
As z0 6= 0, (3.8) shows that the expression on the right tends to dierent
values as h ! 0. Thus, the fun tion f (z ) = jz j2 annot be dierentiable at
z0 6= 0. How about the translated fun tion g dened by g(z ) = f (z a)?
Clearly, g(z ) = jz aj2 (a is a xed point in C ) is dierentiable only at a
and nowhere else.
Similarly, it is easy to verify that the fun tion f (z ) = z Re z is dier-
entiable at z = 0 only. Problems like this an be done also by using the
Cau hy-Riemann equations. Thus, there exist omplex fun tions whi h are
dierentiable at a given point but not in any neighborhood of that point.
Many formulas for the derivatives of omplex fun tions are the same as
those for the real ounterparts. For example, it follows that the monomials
f (z ) = z n (n 2 N ) are entire, i.e. dierentiable in the entire omplex plane.
In fa t, for ea h xed z0 2 C , we have
f (z ) f (z0 ) z n z0n
lim
z!z0
= zlim
!z0 z z0
z z0
n 1 n 2
!z [z + z z0 +
= zlim
0



+ z0n 1 ℄ = nz0n 1:
In onsonan e with Real Analysis we an write this in the form
d n
f 0(z ) = (z ) = nz n 1
dz
for every z 2 C and n = 0; 1; 2; : : : : By Denition 3.1, we have the following
standard theorems on dierentiation in omplex ounterpart.
3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations 77

3.9. Theorem. If f and g are dierentiable at z0 , then their sum

f + g, dieren e f g, produ t fg, quotient f=g (where g(z0) 6= 0) and the
s alar multipli ation f , are also dierentiable at z0 and
 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 f f 0 g fg0
(f  g) = f  g ; (fg) = f g + fg ; = ; ( f )0 = f 0 ;
g g2
where is a omplex onstant.
More generally, a nite linear ombinations (of the form 1 f1 + 2 f2 +



+ n fn; j 2 C , j = 1; 2; : : : n) and nite produ ts of fun tions dier-
entiable at z0 are also dierentiable at z0 .
Proof. For z 6= z0 , onsider the following:
   
(f  g)(z ) (f  g)(z0 ) f (z ) f (z0 )
z z0
=
z z0
 g(zz) gz (z0)
0
   
(fg)(z ) (fg)(z0 ) g(z ) g(z0 ) f (z ) f (z0 )
= f (z ) + g(z0 )
z z0 z z0 z z0
and, for g(z0) 6= 0,
       
f f f (z ) f (z0 ) g(z ) g(z0)
(z ) (z0 ) g(z0) f (z0 )
g g z z0 z z0
= :
z z0 g(z )g(z0)
The assertions then follow from the above equalities and the properties of
the limit by making z ! z0 and noting that if f; g are dierentiable at z0
they are ontinuous at z0 so that f (z ) ! f (z0 ), g(z ) ! g(z0) as z ! z0 .
Let f (z ) = 1 and g(z ) = z n (z 6= 0, n 2 N ). Then g0(z ) = nz n 1 and
Theorem 3.9 help us to get h0 (z ), where h(z ) = f (z )=g(z ) = 1=z n; z 6= 0:
 
d 1
h0 (z ) = = nz n 1
dz z n
and so h(z ) = z n is dierentiable in C n f0g. Further, Theorem 3.9 shows
that ea h polynomial of the form p(z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+ an z n; where n is
a non-negative integer, is dierentiable in C and has the derivative
p0 (z ) = a1 + 2a2 z +


+ nan z n 1; z 2 C ;
obtained by term-by-term dierentiation of the polynomial p(z ). In par-
ti ular, every polynomial is an entire fun tion. This fa t and Theorem 3.9
immediately imply that a rational fun tion of the form R(z ) = p(z )=q(z );
where p(z ) and q(z ) are polynomials in z , is dierentiable at all points ex-
ept where the denominator vanishes and the formula for R0 (z ) is obtained
by using Theorem 3.9.
78 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

3.10. Example. Let f (z ) = Re z and z0 be an arbitrary xed point

in C . Then, for h = h1 + ih2 (6= 0),

f (z0 + h) f (z0 ) Re (h)
= = 10 for h = h1 + i:0 2 R n f0g
h h for h = 0 + ih2 2 i(R n f0g)
so that
f (z0 + h) f (z0 )
lim
h!0 h
does not exist. Therefore, f (z ) = Re z is nowhere dierentiable even though
it is ontinuous in C .
Similarly, we see that Im z , jz j, z and Arg z are all nowhere dierentiable
in C . Is ea h of the fun tions listed here ontinuous in C ? Is ea h of these
fun tions innitely often real dierentiable in R2 ? Is a produ t of two
nowhere dierentiable fun tions always nowhere dierentiable? How about
g (z ) = (z )2 ? 
3.11. Denition. A fun tion f is said to be analyti , or holomorphi
at a point a 2 C if it is dierentiable at every point of some neighborhood
of a. Similarly, f is analyti in (on) an arbitrary set S if it is dierentiable
at every point of some open set ontaining S . An entire fun tion is then
the one whi h is analyti in (on) the whole omplex plane.

Formally, we say that a point at whi h a fun tion eases to be analyti

is alled a singularity or a singular point. For a pre ise denition, we refer
to Se tion 7.1. Can we say f (z ) = z has every point in C as its singularity?
The answer is no, see Example 7.1.
Observe that even though f (z ) = jz aj2 is dierentiable at a, it is not
analyti at this point be ause there does not exist a neighborhood of a in
whi h jz aj2 is dierentiable at ea h point of the neighborhood. Moreover,
this fun tion is nowhere analyti in C .
The meaning of senten es su h as \f is analyti for jz j  R, R > 0"
should now be lear (meaning that f is analyti in some domain ontaining
the losed region
R . Further, it is also lear from the denition that if D
is an open set then the phrase \analyti in (on) D" means \dierentiable at
all points of D". The set of all analyti fun tions (mappings) in the open
set D is denoted by H(D), H standing for `holomorphi ', an alternative for
`analyti '. As usual, we write
f (0) = f; f (1) = f 0 ; f (2) = f 00 and so on:
Be ause of the inherent two-dimensional (R2 ) hara ter of a omplex
variable (C ), the usual rules of the derivative from al ulus may be used
when dierentiating analyti fun tions. The proofs extend without mu h
hange beyond the real ase by repla ing the real variables x; y by omplex
3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations 79

variables z; w. As an example, a dire t onsequen e of Denition 3.1 gives

the following hain rule for dierentiation of omposite fun tions.
3.12. Theorem. Let f : D1 ! C , g : D2 ! C be su h that f (D1 ) 
D2 . If f is dierentiable at z0 and g is dierentiable at w0 = f (z0), then
the omposition (g Æ f )(z ) = g (f (z )) is dierentiable at z0 and
(g Æ f )0 (z0 ) = g0(w0 )f 0 (z0 ) = (g0 Æ f )(z0 )f 0 (z0 ):
2 H(D1 ) and g 2 H(D2 ) then g Æ f 2 H(D1 ).
Further, if f
Proof. Let w = f (z ); z 2 D1 and assume the hypotheses. By (3.3),
sin e f is dierentiable at z0 , there exists a Æ1 > 0 su h that
f (z ) f (z0) = (z z0 )f (z ) for z 2
(z0 ; Æ1 )  D1 ;
where f ( f 0 (z0 ) + (z ) in (3.3)) is ontinuous in
(z0 ; Æ1 ) with
lim  (z ) = f 0 (z0 ):
z!z0 f
Further, sin e g is ontinuous at w0 , there exists a Æ2 > 0 su h that
g(w) g(w0 ) = (w w0 )g (w) for w 2
(w0 ; Æ2 )  D2 ;
where g is ontinuous in
(w0 ; Æ2 ) with limw!w0 g (w) = g0 (w0 ): Now
hoose Æ > 0 su h that Æ < Æ1 and
jz z0 j < Æ1 ) jf (z ) f (z0)j < Æ2 :
Then for z 2
(z0 ; Æ), we have by substitution
g(f (z )) g(f (z0 )) = (f (z ) f (z0 ))g (f (z ))
= (z z0 )f (z )
g (f (z ))
= (z z0 )gÆf (z ):
By Corollary 2.21, g Æ f is ontinuous at z0 and its value at z0 is g (w0 ) =
g0 (w0 ). By Theorem 2.18, the produ t f (z )
g (f (z )), i.e. gÆf (z ), is
ontinuous at z0 and
0 0 0 0
!z0 [f (z )
g (f (z ))℄ = f (z0 )
g (w0 ) = f (z0 )g (f (z0 )):
lim  (z ) = zlim
z!z0 gÆf
The assertion now follows from (3.3).
Theorem 3.9 leads qui kly to the following useful properties of analyti
fun tions.
3.13. Theorem. Linear ombinations and nite produ ts of analyti
fun tions in an open set D are all analyti in D. If f and g are analyti in
80 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

D, then the quotient f=g is analyti in D ex ept for those z in D at whi h

g vanishes.
3.14. Corollary. If f and g are entire then so are f  g, fg; and
f Æ g is entire when it is dened.
We know that if F (z ) = U (x; y) + iV (x; y) where U and V are real-
valued fun tions dened in a neighborhood of z0 , then the partial derivative
Ux(x; y) of U with respe t to x at (x; y) (where z = x + iy), if it exists, is
dened to be
U (x + h; y) U (x; y)
(3.15) Ux(x; y) = lim :
h!0 h
Similarly, the partial derivative Uy (x; y) of U with respe t to y at (x; y), if
it exists, is dened to be
U (x; y + h) U (x; y)
(3.16) Uy (x; y) = lim :
h!0 h
Sometimes (3.15) and (3.16) are denoted by the Leibnitz notation,
U U U U
(z ) = (x; y) and (z ) = (x; y);
x x y y
respe tively. Note that h in (3.15) and (3.16) is a non-zero real number
near 0. The partial derivatives Fx (x; y) and Fy (x; y) of the omplex-valued
fun tion of the omplex variable F (z ) = U (x; y) + iV (x; y) at z = x + iy
are dened by
Fx (z ) = Ux (x; y) + iVx(x; y) and Fy (z ) = Uy (x; y) + iVy (x; y);
respe tively, provided the partial derivatives on the right side of the orre-
sponding equations exist. We simply write these expressions as
Fx = Ux + iVx ; and Fy = Uy + iVy :
If Fy = iFx, then, by equating imaginary and real parts, we have a pair of
famous partial dierential equations
Ux = Vy ; Uy = Vx:
Conversely, the later two equations imply Fy = iFx . These two extremely
important partial dierential equations are alled the Cau hy-Riemann6
(brie y we write the C-R) equations. The former is a tually referred to as
6 These two equations are named in honor of Fren h a mathemati ian, Augustin-Louis
Cau hy (1789-1857), who dis overed them, and in honor of a German mathemati ian,
Georg Friedri h Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866), who made them fundamental in the
development of the theory of omplex analysis. Riemann is onsidered one of the three
founders of omplex fun tion theory; the others being Cau hy and Weierstrass.
3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations 81

the C-R equations in Cartesian form. We note that the existen e of the
derivative for real-valued fun tions of single real variable is a mild smooth
ondition while the same for omplex-valued fun tions of a omplex variable
leads to the above pair of partial dierential equations. We usually write
f (z ) = f (x + iy) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y) = Re f (z ) + iIm f (z )
or f (z ) = u(z )+ iv(z ) instead. However, we may abuse the notation slightly
by writing f (z ) = f (x; y), but when we write it like this, we a tually identify
u(x; y) + iv(x; y) 2 C with (u(x; y); v(x; y)) 2 R2 and use results from two
variable al ulus for our investigation.
If
 R2 and u :
! R is a ontinuous fun tion, then u is alled a
1
C - (or ontinuously dierentiable) fun tion in
if ux and uy exist and are
ontinuous in
. More generally, if k 2 N then u is said to be in C k (
)
(or simply a C k fun tion or k-times ontinuously dierentiable fun tion) if
all the partial derivatives of u up to and in luding order k exist and are
ontinuous in
. We indi ate this by writing u 2 C k . Note that C 0 (
)
denotes the set of all ontinuous fun tions in
. A fun tion f :
! C is
said to belong to C k (
), or simply all it a C k -fun tion, if both u and v
belong to C k (
).
From the inspe tion of fun tions su h as jz j, jz j2 and z Re z , we on lude
that it is not ne essarily an easy task to determine whether a given fun tion
does or does not have a derivative. Let us start deriving a simple riterion
whi h helps us to handle this problem.
3.17. Theorem. If f (z ) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y) is dierentiable at z0 ,
then the C-R equations hold at z0 = x0 + iy0 :
ifx(z0 ) = fy (z0 );
or equivalently,
ux(x0 ; y0 ) = vy (x0 ; y0 ) and uy (x0 ; y0 ) = vx(x0 ; y0 ):
Proof. Let f :
! C where
 C is a neighborhood of z0 . If f 0 (z0 )
exists for some point z0 = x0 + iy0, then the limit
f (z0 + h) f (z0 )
lim
h!0 h
exists and is independent of the path along whi h h = h1 + ih2 ! 0. In
parti ular, we have
f (x0 + h1 ; y0 ) f (x0 ; y0) f
f 0 (z0 ) = lim = (z0 );
h1 !0 h1 + i0 x
and
f (x0 ; y0 + h2 ) f (x0 ; y0 ) 1 f
f 0 (z0 ) = lim = (z ):
h2 !0 0 + ih2 i y 0
82 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

A omparison of the two expressions for f 0(z0 ) shows that the omplex
dierentiability of f at z0 implies that not only the partial derivatives of
f (with respe t to x and y) exist at z0, but also that they satisfy the C-R
equations{in omplex form
f 1 f
(3.18) (z ) = (z ); i.e. ifx(z0 ) = fy (z0 ):
x 0 i y 0
Equating the real and imaginary parts yields the C-R equations{in Carte-
sian form ux (z0 ) = vy (z0 ) and uy (z0 ) = vx (z0 ):
Another onvenient notation is to treat the pair of onjugate omplex
variables z and z as two independent variables by writing
 
z+z z z
x= ; y= i :
2 2
Now we introdu e the following dierential operators:
 
  x  y 1  
:= + = i
z x z y z 2 x y
and  
  x  y 1  
:= + = +i :
z x z y z 2 x y
It follows that if f = u + iv, then
 
f 1 f f 1
(3.19) fz = = i = ([ux + vy ℄ + i[vx uy ℄)
z 2 x y 2
and similarly,
 
f 1 f f 1
(3.20) fz = = +i = ([ux vy ℄ + i[uy + vx ℄) :
z 2 x y 2
Therefore, the C-R equations (3.18) are exa tly equivalent to fz (z0 ) = 0
whi h is also referred to as the omplex form of the C-R equations. With
this notation, we have the following alternate form of Theorem 3.17.
3.21. Theorem. A ne essary ondition for a omplex-valued fun tion
f = u + iv to be dierentiable at z0 is that fz (z0 ) = 0: In parti ular, if
f 2 H(D), then C-R equations hold at every point z 2 D.
The C-R equations are more helpful in proving non-dierentiability.
For example, onsider f (z ) = z and g(z ) = Re z . Then fz (z ) = 1 6= 0 and
writing g as
z+z
g(z ) = ;
2
3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations 83

it follows that gz (z ) = 1=2 6= 0. Thus, both f and g are nowhere dieren-

tiable.
On the other hand, the onverse of Theorem 3.17 (equivalently, Theo-
rem 3.21) is not true. We an demonstrate this by a number of examples
(for instan e, see Examples 3.23 and 3.24). That is, the ne essary ondi-
tion stated in Theorem 3.17 for dierentiability at a point is not generally
suÆ ient for dierentiability at that point.
3.22. Remark. Ea h of the fun tions
f1 (z ) = jz j; f2 (z ) = Re z and f3 (z ) = Im z;
is a non- onstant real-valued fun tion dened in C (see Theorem 3.6). Ea h
of them is nowhere analyti . If we rewrite these fun tions as
p
f1 (x; y) = x2 + y2 ; f2 (x; y) = x; f3 (x; y) = y;
then, ex ept f1 , ea h of these fun tions are real dierentiable in R2 . 
3.23. Example. It is easy to see that the fun tion f dened by
f (z ) = jRe z Im z j1=2
satises the C-R equations at the origin, but is not dierentiable at this
point. To see this, we may rewrite the given fun tion as

f (z ) =
jz 2 z 2 j1=2 or f = u + iv with u(x; y) = jxyj1=2 and v(x; y) = 0.
2
Note that f is identi ally zero on the real and imaginary axes. Therefore,
it is trivial to see that ux(0; 0) = uy (0; 0) = vx (0; 0) = vy (0; 0) = 0: For
example,
u(s; 0) u(0; 0)
ux (0; 0) = slim
!0 = 0:
s
Thus, the C-R equations hold at z = 0: However, taking h = rei 6= 0 with
r ! 0, we nd that

lim
f (h) f (0)
= rlim
jr2 os  sin j1=2 = e i j sin
p 2j1=2
h!0 h !0 r( os  + i sin ) 2
whi h is learly depending upon  (e.g. take  = 0 and  = =4). We
on lude that f is not dierentiable at z = 0 even though f satises the
C-R equations at the origin. Here, sin e v(x; y) = 0, v is a C 1 -fun tion in
R2 : Are the partial derivatives ux and uy ontinuous at the origin? How
about the fun tions
f (z ) = jRe z Im z j1=3 and f (z ) = jRe z Im z j1=4? 
84 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

3.24. Examples. Consider

8 3  
<x y3 x3 + y3
+ i if (x; y) 6= (0; 0);
f (z ) = u + iv = x2 + y2 x2 + y2
:
0 if x = y = 0:
For this fun tion the orresponding u and v are ontinuous at the origin
and therefore, f is ontinuous at the origin. Using the identi ation
f (x; y) = (u(x; y); v(x; y)) ! f (z ) = u(z ) + iv(z );
for 0 6= h 2 R and 0 6= k 2 R, we have
f (h; 0) f (0; 0) (h3 =h2 + ih3 =h2) 0
= = 1 + i; i.e. fx(0; 0) = 1 + i
h h
and
f (0; h) f (0; 0) ( h3=h2 + ih3=h2 ) 0
= = 1+i; i.e. fy (0; 0) = 1 + i
h h
whi h shows that ifx(0; 0) = fy (0; 0): Thus we see that the C-R equations
are ertainly satised at the origin. But f is not dierentiable at the origin,
be ause for h = h1 + ih1 , h1 2 R,
8
> ih1 1+i
f (0 + h) f (0)
>
< = for h = h1 + ih1
= hh1 ++ih 1 2
h > 1 ih1
>
: = 1 + i for h = h1 + i
0.
h1
This observation shows that the partial derivatives exist and satisfy the C-R
equations at the origin even though the fun tion is not dierentiable there.
A similar on lusion ontinues to hold for the following two fun tions:
8 8 3
z5 <z
< for z 6= 0 for z 6= 0
f (z ) = jz j4 = z2
: :
0 for z = 0 0 for z = 0;
and 8
Im (z 2 )
jz j2 for z 6= 0
<
g(z ) = u + iv =
:
0 if z = 0:
We shall provide details for the rst ase and leave the se ond ase as an
exer ise. As before, using the notation f (x; y) = (u(x; y); v(x; y)), we see
that
f (h; 0) f (0; 0) (h5 =jhj4 ) 0
= = 1; i.e. fx (0; 0) = 1;
h h
3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations 85

and
f (0; h) f (0; 0) ((ih)5 =jhj4 ) 0
= = i; i.e. fy (0; 0) = i;
h h
so that ifx(0; 0) = fy (0; 0) and the C-R equations hold at the origin. Then,
taking h = rei 6= 0 with r 6= 0, it follows that for h 6= 0;
f (h) f (0) h4
= 4 = ei4
h jhj
and therefore, as h ! 0 along dierent paths, the dieren e quotient does
not yield a unique value. Thus, f is not dierentiable at the origin. Again,
an f be dierentiable at other points in C ? For z0 6= 0, we observe that
 3
z
fz (z0 ) = 2 0
z0
whi h gives that jfz (z0 )j = 2 for z0 6= 0. Thus, f annot be dierentiable
at z0 6= 0 and hen e, it is nowhere dierentiable. 
Next we give suÆ ient onditions for a omplex-valued fun tion to be
dierentiable. To present this we need the following lemma whi h is a
well-known result from two variable al ulus.
3.25. Lemma. Let u :
 R2 ! R, where
is an open set ontain-
ing the point (x0 ; y0 ). Suppose that
(i) ux and uy exist at every point in a neighborhood of (x0 ; y0 ), and
(ii) ux and uy are ontinuous at (x0 ; y0 ).
Then, for suÆ iently small s and t in R,
u(x0 + s; y0 + t) u(x0 ; y0 ) = sux(x0 + s ; y0 + t) + tuy (x0 ; y0 + t )
with js j < jsj and jt j < jtj:
Proof. We onsider
u(x0 + s; y0 + t) u(x0 ; y0) = [u(x0 + s; y0 + t) u(x0 ; y0 + t)℄
+ [u(x0 ; y0 + t) u(x0 ; y0 )℄ :
By the mean value theorem of al ulus applied to the fun tion
(x) = u(x; y0 + t)
for x between x0 and x0 + s, we have
u(x0 + s; y0 + t) u(x0 ; y0 + t) = sux(x0 + s ; y0 + t)
86 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

with js j < jsj. (Indeed when we restri t u to a horizontal line segment
in the disk
(z0 ; Æ), then it redu es to a dierentiable fun tion of the real
variable x with derivative ux , whilst in the verti al segment in this disk u
is a fun tion of y alone and has the derivative uy . Note that orresponding
to (x0 ; y0 ), there exist points x in
[x0 ; x0 + s℄ = f(1 t)x0 + t(x0 + s) : t 2 [0; 1℄g 
(z0 ; Æ);
that is 
x0 < x < x0 + s if s > 0
x0 + s < x < x0 if s < 0,
so that jx x0 j < jsj: Thus, orresponding to z0 , there exist points x 2
[x0 ; x0 + s℄ with js j < jsj, satisfying the desired equation). Similarly, we
have
u(x0 ; y0 + t) u(x0 ; y0 ) = tuy (x0 ; y0 + t )
with jt j < jtj. Adding this with the previous expression gives the desired
result.

3.26. Theorem. Let f :

! C , where
is an open set in C
ontaining the point z0 , and f (z ) = u(x; y ) + iv (x; y ) for z = x + iy 2
:
Suppose that
(i) ux; uy ; vx ; and vy exist at ea h point in a neighborhood of z0 and are
ontinuous at z0
(ii) the C-R equations are valid at z0 .
Then f is dierentiable at z0 and f 0 (z0 ) = ux (z0 ) + ivx (z0 ):
Proof. Let z0 = x0 + iy0 . We wish to show that f 0 (z0 ) exists. Sin e

is open and z0 2
, there exists a Æ > 0 su h that
(z0 ; Æ) 
: Choose
h = s + it 6= 0 with 0 < jhj < Æ, so that z0 + h 2
(z0 ; Æ). Now we onsider
f (z0 + h) f (z0) = f (x0 + s; y0 + t) f (x0 ; y0)
= f (x0 + s; y0 + t) f (x0 ; y0 + t)
+f (x0 ; y0 + t) f (x0 ; y0 ):
The mean value theorem applied to both real and imaginary parts of f (z )
(see Lemma 3.25) shows that
(3.27) f (z0 + h) f (z0) = sfx (x0 + s ; y0 + t) + tfy (x0 ; y0 + t )
with js j < jsj and jt j < jtj. Remember that
h!0 () s ! 0 and t ! 0 =) s ! 0 and t ! 0:
3.1 Dierentiability and Cau hy-Riemann Equations 87

By assumption ux; uy ; vx and vy exist in some neighborhood of z0 and are

ontinuous at z0 and therefore, fx and fy exist in that neighborhood and
are ontinuous at z0. In parti ular, as fx is ontinuous, we note that
fx(x0 + s ; y0 + t) ! fx (x0 ; y0 ) as h ! 0;
or equivalently
(3.28) fx(x0 + s ; y0 + t) = fx (x0 ; y0) + (h);
where (h) ! 0 as h ! 0. Similarly, as fy is ontinuous at z0 , we nd that
fy (x0 ; y0 + t ) = fy (x0 ; y0) +  (h);
where  (h) ! 0 as h ! 0: Further, sin e the C-R equations are satised at
z0 , we have fy (x0 ; y0 ) = ifx(x0 ; y0) and so the last equation be omes
(3.29) fy (x0 ; y0 + t ) = ifx(x0 ; y0 ) +  (h):
By (3.28) and (3.29), (3.27) gives that for h = s + it with 0 < jhj < Æ
f (z0 + h) f (z0 ) s[fx(x0 ; y0 ) + (h)℄ t[ifx(x0 ; y0 ) +  (h)℄
= +
h s + it  
s + it 
s t
= fx(x0 ; y0 ) + (h) +  (h) :
s + it s + it
Note that s=(s + it) and t=(s + it) are bounded by 1, and ea h of (h) and
 (h) approa hes zero as h ! 0. Consequently, taking the limit as h ! 0 in
the above equation, we see that
f (z0 + h) f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
h!0 h
exists and is equal to fx(x0 ; y0 ) = ux(x0 ; y0 ) + ivx (x0 ; y0 ):
If the hypotheses of Theorem 3:26 hold at ea h point of a neighborhood

(z0 ; Æ) of z0 , then f is analyti in
(z0 ; Æ). Further, to minimize the
notational diÆ ulties, we ould assume z0 = 0 in Theorem 3.26, be ause
the result for z0 6= 0 an be retrieved from the ase z0 = 0 by merely
applying the latter to the fun tion g(z ) = f (z + z0 ) whi h exhibits the
same behavior at the origin that the fun tion f (z ) does for z0 6= 0.
3.30. Example. Consider f = u+iv, where u = x2 y2 and v = 2x2 y2 .
Then all the partial derivatives exist and are ontinuous in C . However,
the C-R equations are satised only when 2xy2 = 4x2 y and 2x2 y = 4xy2 ;
that is when
xy(y 2x) = 0 and xy(x + 2y) = 0:
88 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

These two equations show that the C-R equations hold only along the lines
x = 0; y = 0 and nowhere else. Thus, f = u + iv is dierentiable only along
points on the real and imaginary axes and nowhere else. Note that, every
neighborhood of every point on the line x = 0 (and y = 0, respe tively)
will ontain points o the line at whi h the C-R equations does not hold.
It follows that f = u + iv is nowhere analyti . 
If f is onstant in some domain D, then f 0 (z ) = 0 in D. As a onse-
quen e of the C-R equations, we shall now establish the onverse part of it
(see also Corollaries 4.21 and 12.3 for a proof). For more about the basi
properties on erning the range of non- onstant analyti fun tions, we refer
to Se tion 12.6.
3.31. Theorem. Suppose that f is analyti in a domain D. We have
(i) if f 0 (z ) = 0 in D, then f is onstant
(ii) if one of jf j, Re f , Im f , Arg f is onstant in D, then f is onstant.
Equivalently, we say that if the range f (D) lies in either a ir le or a
verti al line or horizontal line or any line with onstant slope, then f
is onstant.
Proof. (i) For z = x + iy 2 D and f = u + iv, we have
f 0 = ux + ivx = vy iuy :
Suppose f 0 (z ) = 0 in D. Then all the partial derivatives of u and v on
D are zero, i.e. ux (z ) = uy (z ) = vx (z ) = vy (z ) = 0 for z 2 D: We know
from Real Analysis that if  is a real-valued dierentiable fun tion of a real
variable and su h that 0 (x) = 0 on (a; b), then  is a onstant on (a; b).
Let z0 = x0 + iy0 be an arbitrary point in D and for a < b, let
L = fx + iy0 : x 2 (a; b)g:
If the horizontal line segment L lies in D, then  dened by
(x) = u(x; y0 )
satises 0 (x) = ux(x; y0 ) = 0 on L and so u is onstant on L. It follows that
u is onstant on ea h horizontal line segment in D. Likewise u is onstant
on ea h verti al line segment in D. Sin e D is open and onne ted, ea h
pair of points in D an be onne ted by a polygonal step path onsisting
entirely of su h line segments. Therefore, u is onstant in D. Similarly,
v is onstant in D. Consequently, f is onstant throughout D (see also
Corollary 4.21).
(ii) Now suppose that jf (z )j = k, so that u2 + v2 = k2 : If k = 0 it
is obvious that f = 0 in D. So, let k 6= 0. Dierentiating partially with
respe t to x and y, we see that
uux + vvx = 0; uuy + vvy = 0:
3.2 Harmoni Fun tions 89

By the C-R equations, these be ome

uux vuy = 0; uuy + vux = 0:
Squaring and adding, we obtain
0 = (u2 + v2 )(u2x + u2y ) = k2 jf 0 (z )j2
so that f 0 (z ) = 0 in D. Therefore from (i) we dedu e that f is onstant.
Suppose u is onstant. Then ux = uy = 0; therefore, by the C-R
equations, vx = vy = 0 so that f 0 (z ) = 0 in D. Hen e f is onstant.
If Arg f = , a onstant, then g(z ) = e i f (z ) is a real-valued analyti
fun tion and so, by part (i), g(z ) is onstant.
Suppose f and g are analyti in a domain D su h that f 0 (z ) = g0 (z ) in
D then applying part (i) of Theorem 3.31 to f g we on lude that f and
g dier from ea h other by a onstant.
The hypothesis that D is onne ted in Theorem 3.31 is not super uous.
For example, if D = C n fz : 1  jz j  3g and if f : D ! C is dened by

f (z ) = 0i for jz j < 1
for jz j > 3,
then f 2 H(D) and f 0 (z ) = 0 in D, yet f is non- onstant in D.
Here is another example. Dene

f (z ) = 0i for Re z > a
for Re z < a;
where a 2 R is xed. Then f 2 H(D), where D = C n fz : Re z = ag,
yet f is not onstant in D. Note that, in ea h of these two examples,
Re f (z ) = u(x; y) = 0 in D but Im f (z ) = v(x; y) is not onstant.

3.2 Harmoni Fun tions

We begin with the formal denition of a harmoni fun tion. A real-valued
fun tion  = (x; y) of real variables x and y is said to be harmoni in an
open subset
of C if it has ontinuous partial derivatives of se ond order
and satises the Lapla e's equation7 in two variables 52 = 0 throughout

, where 52 is the se ond order dierential operator given by

2 2
52 = x2 + y2 = xx + yy :
7 This equation that bears the name of the Fren h mathemati ian, Pierre Simon de
Lapla e (1749-1827), had been found by Leonhard Euler in 1752 in onne tion with
Euler's studies on hydrodynami s. Lapla e ontributed signi antly to the elds of
elestial me hani s and probability theory and his parents were farmers.
90 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

The operator  7! 52 is alled Lapla e operator or simply a Lapla ian.

A fun tion v is alled a onjugate harmoni fun tion (or, more brie y, a
harmoni onjugate) for a harmoni fun tion u in
whenever f = u +
iv is analyti in
. Note that the word onjugate here is not the same
as onjugate of a omplex number z . Further, the harmoni onjugate v
is unique, up to an addition of a real onstant. Indeed, if v1 is another
harmoni onjugate of u, so that F = u + iv1 is also analyti in
, then the
dieren e F f = i(v1 v) be omes analyti in
. But then by Theorem
3.31(ii), v1 v is a onstant.
Sin e if = v + i( u), we also observe that u is a harmoni onjugate
of v whenever v is a harmoni onjugate of u.
3.32. Remark. As an be observed from the C-R equations, we
annot hoose two arbitrary harmoni fun tions u and v and laim that
the resulting fun tion f = u + iv is analyti . For example, u(x; y)  x and
v(x; y)  y are harmoni fun tions in C , but f = u + iv = x + i( y) = z
is nowhere analyti . On the other hand,
v + iu = y + ix = i(x + iy) = iz
whi h is analyti in C . Further, it would be appropriate to have the Lapla e
equation to be satised not just for any set of points but for an open set or
a domain or more importantly a simply onne ted domain. For example,
if u = x3 y3 then
2u 2u
+ = 6(x y) = 0 only when y = x
x2 y2
and the set fz = x + iy : y = xg is not open in C and so, u annot be
treated as a harmoni fun tion in any open subset of C . 
Let us now dis uss some fa ts about this topi and onstru t simple
examples of harmoni fun tions. We rst introdu e a omplex Lapla ian.
Suppose that we are given a harmoni fun tion
 
z+z z z
u(x; y) = u ; :
2 2i
Then, formally treating z and z as independent variables, as before
u u x u y 1
= + = [u iuy ℄
z x z y z 2 x
so that
 
2u 1  x  y
= (ux iuy )
+ (ux iuy )

zz 2 x z y z
1
= [(uxx + uyy ) + i(uxy uyx)℄ ;
4
3.2 Harmoni Fun tions 91

where we have used the notation

       
 u  u  u  u
uxy = ; uyx = ; uxx = ; uyy = :
y x x y x x y y
Therefore any harmoni fun tion u satises the dierential equation
2u
52 u = zz = 0:
The operator 52 is sometimes alled the omplex Lapla ian. Thus if u and
its rst and se ond partial derivatives are ontinuous in an open subset

 C , then
52 u = (1=4) 52 u:
Hen e, the Lapla ian (operator) in omplex form is given by
 
 
(3.33) 52 = 4 z z
:
For example, if f = u + iv is a omplex-valued fun tion in a domain
then
   
   f
5 (zf ) = 4 z z (zf ) = 4 z f + z = 4fz + 4 52 f
2

whi h shows that if f and zf are harmoni in

, then fz = 0 in
and
hen e f is analyti in
, by Theorem 3.26. We say that a omplex-valued
fun tion is harmoni in an open set if both its real and imaginary parts are
harmoni thereat.
Harmoni fun tions play an important role in both mathemati s and
physi s. There are (at least) two important reasons why harmoni fun -
tions oupled with the C-R equations are dis ussed as an important part
of omplex analysis as demonstrated in the next two theorems. First, we
re all that if f = u + iv is analyti in an open set
, then the C-R equations
hold throughout
:
(3.34) ux = vy ; uy = vx:
The C-R equations have some interesting onsequen es. For instan e, if the
se ond partial derivatives exist and are ontinuous (in fa t, we shall later
see that the derivative of an analyti fun tion in a domain is itself analyti
there more generally innitely dierentiable, and so u and v both have
ontinuous partial derivatives of all orders) then by dierentiating the rst
equation with respe t to x and se ond with respe t to y, we get
uxx = vxy ; uyy = vyx :
The ontinuity of these partial derivatives implies that the mixed derivatives
are equal (whi h is an important fa t from two variable al ulus) and, in
parti ular, vxy = vyx and therefore,
uxx + uyy = vxy vyx = 0:
92 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

In a similar way, dierentiating the rst equation in (3.34) with respe t to

y and the se ond in (3.34) with respe t to x, we nd that v satises the
Lapla e equation 52v = 0: In on lusion we have
3.35. Theorem. Let
be an open subset of C . Then the real and
imaginary parts of an analyti fun tion in
are harmoni in
.

At this point it should be noted that the mixed se ond partial derivatives
do not oin ide in general. For instan e, for the real-valued fun tion u(x; y)
dened by 8 2 y2 )
< xy (x if (x; y) 6= (0; 0)
u(x; y) = x + y2
2
:
0 if x = y = 0;
it is easily seen that uxy (0; 0) 6= uyx(0; 0):
3.36. Example. If (x; y) is harmoni in a domain D, then, by
Theorem 3.26 with u (= x ) and v (= y ), we nd that f = x iy 2
H(D). Similarly, if (x; y) is harmoni in D then g = x i y 2 H(D).
In parti ular, we have
f  g = (x  x ) i(y  y ) 2 H(D)
f  ig = (x  y ) i(y  x ) 2 H(D)
if  g = (y  x ) + i(x  y ) 2 H(D):
This example gives a way of obtaining analyti fun tions from harmoni
fun tions. 
Theorem 3.35 provides numerous examples of harmoni fun tions as we
shall soon see. However, the fun tion u dened by u(x; y) = x2 + y2 annot
be a real part of an analyti fun tion sin e 52u = 4. We raise the question:
Given a real-valued harmoni fun tion u in an open set
, an it be written
as a real or imaginary part of an analyti fun tion f :
! C ? If so, under
what ondition this is possible. We need some preparation to answer this
question.
3.37. Denition. A domain D in C is simply onne ted if its om-
plement with respe t to C 1 (i.e. C 1 nD) is a onne ted subset of C 1 .
Topologi ally, a simply onne ted domain D in C an be ontinuously
shrunk to a point in D. Note that the pun tured unit disk A = fz : 0 <
jz j < 1g an be shrunk to an arbitrarily small domain, but not to a point
in A. Intuitively, a simply onne ted domain in C means that it does not
ontain any \holes". Consequently, a ording to Denition 3.37, exterior
of ir les (i.e. omplement of losed disks in C ) are not simply onne ted
3.2 Harmoni Fun tions 93

in C . Note that, in the extended plane, the exterior of a ir le is simply

onne ted be ause it an be \shrunk" to the point at 1. Some simple
examples of simply onne ted domains in C are
(i) disks
(a; r)
(ii) half-planes fz : Re (ei z ) >  g
(iii) onvex domains su h as in (i), (ii) and innite parallel strips, su h as
D = fz :  < Re (ei z ) <  g for some  and  with  < 
(iv) domains that are starlike with respe t to the origin su h as C n[0; 1)
and C n fiy : jyj > 1g
(v) the whole omplex plane.
The annular domain E = fz : 1 < jz j < 2g is not simply onne ted,
whereas the domain E with fz : 1 < Re z < 2; Im z = 0g removed from it
(i.e. E nf(1; 2)g), is simply onne ted.
We note that there are many equivalent denitions of simply onne t-
edness. One su h equivalent form of it is the following (see also Denition
4.50):

3.38. Denition. Let D be a domain in C and D1 be the set

orresponding to D on the Riemann sphere S . Then D is alled simply
= S nD1 is onne ted and ontains the north pole.
onne ted if D1

It would have been ni e if every harmoni fun tion is a real part of

some analyti fun tion. But this is not true in general. However, it is
indeed true lo ally, but globally provided
is a simply onne ted domain.
More pre isely, we have

3.39. Theorem. Let

be a simply onne ted domain and let  be
harmoni in
. Then  has a harmoni onjugate in
.

It is onvenient to supply a proof of Theorem 3.39 in Chapter 4 sin e a

motivation for an expli it onstru tion for the harmoni onjugate omes
from ( omplex) integration. On the other hand, one an give a simple and
a dire t proof of Theorem 3.39 espe ially when
(i) (x; y) is a real-valued harmoni polynomial in C
(ii) (x; y) is a real valued harmoni fun tion in
where
is either an
open disk or open re tangle, see Corollary 3.57.

3.40. Example. Consider u(x; y) = 4xy x3 + 3xy2 . Then

ux = 4y 3x2 + 3y2 and uy = 4x + 6xy
94 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

from whi h it is easy to see that u is harmoni in R2 . To nd the harmoni

onjugate v(x; y) in C for u(x; y), we may pro eed as follows. If f = u + iv
is the orresponding analyti fun tion, then
f 0 (z ) = ux iuy
= 4y 3x2 + 3y2 i(4x + 6xy)
= 3[x2 y2 + 2ixy℄ 4i(x + iy)
= 3z 2 4iz
whi h gives f (z ) = z 3 2iz 2 +ik, where k is a real onstant. The harmoni
onjugate v(x; y) may be obtained by taking the imaginary part of the last
expression.
Alternately, use the C-R equations to obtain
(3.41) vy = ux = 4y 3x2 + 3y2:
Integrate (3.41) with respe t to y to obtain
Z
(3.42) v= vy dy + (x) = 2y2 3x2 y + y3 + (x);

where  is a fun tion of x. If  in (3.42) is dierentiable with respe t to x

the equation vx = 6xy + 0 (x) (= uy ) is obtained whi h, together with
the C-R equation uy = vx, gives
0 (x) = 6xy uy = 6xy (4x + 6xy) = 4x
so that (x) = 2x2 + k, where k is some real onstant. Hen e, by (3.42),
the harmoni onjugate fun tion v(x; y) is given by
v = (2y2 3x2 y + y3) + ( 2x2 + k):
Now we an use x = (z + z )=2 and y = (z z)=2i to write f as a fun tion
of z . 
3.43. Theorem. If u and v are harmoni onjugates to ea h other in
some domain then u and v must be onstant there.
Proof. By the denition and the hypotheses, f = u + iv and g = v + iu
are analyti in D. But
f ig = 2u; and f + ig = 2iv:
By Theorem 3.9, these imply that the real-valued fun tions of a omplex
variable, namely u and v are analyti in D: Therefore, by Theorem 3.6,
f 0 (z ) = 0 in D. Sin e D is a domain, it follows that f and g are onstants
and hen e, u and v are onstants.
3.2 Harmoni Fun tions 95

3.44. Polar form of the C-R equations and Lapla ian. There are
ways to obtain the C-R equations in polar form. Here is a dire t method.
Let f (z ) = u(r; ) + iv(r; ) be dierentiable at a point z . Then f 0(z ) exists
and equals
f (z + h) f (z )
f 0(z ) = lim :
h!0 h
Set z = rei . The nearby points of z along the radial dire tion may be
given by z + h = (r +
r)ei . Therefore, for h =
rei 6= 0,
f (z + h) f (z ) u(r +
r; ) + iv(r +
r; ) u(r; ) + iv(r; )
=
h 
rei 
rei
1 u(r +
r; ) u(r; )
= i
e
r
 
i v(r +
r; ) v(r; )
+ i :
e
r
Allowing
r ! 0 shows that
1
(3.45) f 0 (z ) = i [ur + ivr ℄:
e
Next hoose nearby points of z along the ir ular path through the point z
so that
z + h = rei(+
) = rei ei
 ; i.e. h = rei (ei
 1)
and for
 6= 0,
f (z + h) f (z ) u(r;  +
) u(r; ) v(r;  +
) v(r; )
= +i
h rei (ei
 1) rei (ei
 1)
 
1 u(r;  +
) u(r; )
=
irei

 
v(r;  +
) v(r; ) i

+i :

 e  1
i

Now allowing
 ! 0, it follows that

1 1
(3.46) f 0 (z ) = i [u + iv ℄ = i [v iu ℄:
ire re
Comparing (3.45) and (3.46) produ es the C-R equations in polar form:
v u
(3.47) ur =  and vr =  :
r r
Alternatively, let f (z ) = f (re ), r 6= 0, be dierentiable at a point z0 :
i
Then both 
0 f r  
f (z0 ) = = (ur + ivr )e i z0
r z z=z0
96 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

and  
f   e i 
f 0 (z0 ) = = (u + iv )
 z z=z0
 ir z0
must be the same. Therefore, equating the right hand side of the last two
equations yields (3.47).
If we dierentiate the rst equation in (3.47) with respe t to r and the
se ond in (3.47) with respe t to  we get
  1
(v ) = ur + rurr ; (v ) = u
r   r r
and so, using the ontinuity of se ond partial derivatives, these two equa-
tions give
1 1
urr + ur + 2 u = 0:
r r
whi h is the polar form of the Lapla e equation. If u(r; ) depends on r
alone, then the above Lapla e equation be omes
1
urr + ur = 0:
r
For example, we have
 rn os n and rn sin n are harmoni for any positive integer n
 ln r = ln jz j is harmoni in the pun tured disk C n f0g. We note that
ln jz j has no harmoni onjugate in C n f0g, though it does have in
C n[0; 1), see Se tion 3.5.
Next we attempt to develop methods for nding an analyti fun tion
f whose real part is a given harmoni fun tion u(x; y) whi h is a rational
fun tion in x and y. For this we start with
f (z ) = f (x + iy) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y)
so that
f (z ) = f (x + iy) = u(x; y) iv(x; y);
where x = (z + z)=2 and y = (z z)=(2i). Adding the above two equations
we nd that
f (x + iy) + f (x + iy) = 2u(x; y):
Re all that analyti fun tions are ompletely hara terized by the ondi-
tion:
f
(3.48) fz = = 0:
z
For example, if we substitute z for f then we see that fz = 0 and fz = 1:
Thus we remark that f (z ), the onjugate of an analyti fun tion f (z ), has
3.2 Harmoni Fun tions 97

the derivative zero with respe t to z and so f (z ) may be onsidered as a

fun tion of z alone. Therefore, we an denote f (z ) simply by f (z). That is
f (x + iy) = f (x iy); and 2u(x; y) = f (x + iy) + f (x iy):
In parti ular, the last equation yields
z z  1 h z z z z i 1
u ; = f +i +f i = [f (z ) + f (0)℄
2 2i 2 2 2i 2 2i 2
whi h gives z z 
f (z ) = 2u ; f (0):
2 2i
Also we observe that
u(0; 0) = (1=2)[f (0) + f (0)℄ = Re f (0)
and so
f (0) = Re f (0) i Im f (0) = u(0; 0) ik;
where k = Im f (0) is a real number. Consequently, the fun tion f may be
omputed by the formula
z z 
f (z ) = 2u ; u(0; 0) + ik:
2 2i
Similarly, it follows that in a neighborhood of z0 , the analyti fun tion
f = u + iv asso iated with the harmoni fun tion u(x; y) is given by
 
z + z0 z z0
f (z ) = 2u ; u(x0 ; y0 ) + ik;
2 2i
where k is a real onstant. We shall illustrate the appli ation of this method
with two examples.
3.49. Example. Consider u(x; y) = x3 3xy2 : Then u is dened in
R2 and u satises Lapla e's equation for all points in R2 . Using the above
method, the orresponding analyti fun tion f is given by
z z     z   z 2 
z 3
f (z ) = 2u ; u(0; 0) + ik = 2 3 + ik = z 3 + ik;
2 2i 2 2 2i
where k is a real number. 
3.50. Example. We wish to nd the most general ubi form
u(x; y) = ax3 + bx2 y + xy2 + dy3 (a; b; ; d-real);
whi h satises Lapla e's equation, and to determine an analyti fun tion
whi h has u as its real part. To do this, for (x; y) 2 R2 , we ompute
uxx + uyy = 2[(3a + )x + (b + 3d)y℄
98 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

and so, 52u = 0 in R2 provided 3a + = 0 = b + 3d = 0: Thus, the most

general harmoni polynomial of degree three takes the form
u = ax3 3dx2 y 3axy2 + dy3 :
Further, using the above method of onstru tion of analyti fun tion, we
have
z z 
f (z ) = 2u ; + ik
 2 2i

z 3  z 2  z   z   z 2  z 3 
= 2 a 3d 3a +d + ik
2 2 2i 2 2i 2i
= (a + id)z 3 + ik
whi h is the required analyti fun tion having u as its real part, where k is
a real onstant. 
3.51. Dis ussion on nding harmoni onjugates. Let us arefully
look at the problem of whether a real-valued harmoni fun tion u, a C 2 -
solution of Lapla e's equation in some domain
, is a real or imaginary part
of some analyti fun tion. For the time being we suppose that a harmoni
fun tion u is given and we have found an analyti fun tion F (z ) in
su h
that F (z ) = u + iv, z 2
: Then, the C-R equations give vx = uy and
vy = ux whi h show that, vx and vy are ompletely determined from the
given fun tion u. Therefore, v may be found up to an additive onstant.
Again, in view of the C-R equations, we see that
   
uxx + uyy = 0 () (ux ) = ( uy ) () (vy ) = (vx ):
x y x y
Set f = uy and g = ux . This amounts to rephrasing our problem as
follow.
3.52. Problem. Given f; g 2 C 1 (
) with fy = gx, an we nd a
fun tion v 2 C 2 (
) su h that vx = f and vy = g in
? If so under what
onditions on
, is this possible?
First, we aim at giving a partial solution to this problem by dis ussing
a spe ial ase when
is an open re tangle (and the proof is similar when

is an open disk).
3.53. Theorem. Let
= f(x; y) 2 R2 : jx aj < Æ; jy bj < Æ0 g be
an open re tangle in R2 . Suppose that f; g 2 C 1 (
) su h that
(3.54) fy = gx in
:
Then there exists a fun tion v 2 C 2 (
) satisfying the onditions
(3.55) vx = f and vy = g
3.2 Harmoni Fun tions 99

in
. (We may take v as real-valued whenever f and g are also).
Proof. Choose an arbitrary point (x; y) 2
and dene
Z x Z y
v(x; y) = f (s; b) ds + g(x; t) dt:
a b
Observe that any other v may dier from the above merely by a onstant.
What motivates us to dene v(x; y) in this way? (see Remark 3.56). We
need to show that v has the desired properties. By the fundamental theorem
of al ulus for C 1 -fun tions,
vy (x; y) = g(x; y):
Next, on e again using the fundamental theorem of al ulus for the rst
integral and the theorem on dierentiation under the integral sign, it follows
that
Z y 

vx (x; y) = f (x; b) + g(x; t) dt
x b
Z y

= f (x; b) + g(x; t) dt
b x
Z y

= f (x; b) + f (x; t) dt (sin e gx = fy )
b y
= f (x; b) + f (x; y) f (x; b)
so that vx (x; y) = f (x; y): Thus, we have found a fun tion v with vy = g 2
C 1 (
) and vx = f 2 C 1 (
) whi h means that v 2 C 2 (
):
3.56. Remark. The fun tion v(x; y) that we need to dene must
satisfy (3.55). Indeed, integrating vy (x; y) = g(x; y) with respe t to y, we
get Z y
v(x; y) = g(x; t) dt + (x)
b
where  is some C 1 -fun tion
of x. Sin e we also need vx = f , by the rst
equation in (3.55), we ompute that
Z y Z y
 0 
vx (x; y) = g(x; t) dt +  (x) = f (x; t) dt + 0 (x)
b x b y
whi h gives
f (x; y) = f (x; y) f (x; b) + 0 (x); i.e. 0 (x) = f (x; b):
This has the solution
Z x
(x) = f (s; b) ds + ;
a
100 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

where is some onstant. Hen e, v(x; y) must be of the form

Z x Z y
v(x; y) = f (s; b) ds + g(x; t) dt + : 
a b
3.57. Corollary. If
is either an open re tangle (with sides parallel
to the axes) or open disk and if u is a real-valued harmoni fun tion in
,
then there exists an analyti fun tion F in
su h that u = Re F:
Proof. Set f = uy and g = ux: Then f; g 2 C 1 (
) and, sin e 52u = 0
in
, we have fy = gx in
: By Theorem 3.53, there exists a real-valued
fun tion v 2 C 2 (
) su h that
vx = f = uy and vy = g = ux in
:
By the theorem on suÆ ient onditions for analyti fun tions (see Theorem
3.26), we on lude that F = u + iv is analyti in
.
Theorem 3.53 is alled an antiderivative theorem (for real-valued fun -
tions). Now it is natural to raise the following
3.58. Problem. Given an analyti fun tion F in
, an we nd an
analyti fun tion G su h that G0 (z ) = F (z )?
If the answer to this problem is yes, then we all the fun tion G a
primitive or anti-derivative for F . Any other anti-derivative of F would
dier from G by a onstant. Indeed, if both G1 and G2 are primitives of a
fun tion F , then
(G1 (z ) G2 (z ))0 = G0 (z ) G0 (z ) = F (z ) F (z ) = 0
1 2
and so by Theorem 3.31, we see that G1 (z ) G2 (z ) is a onstant.
Here is a simplePillustration. The primitive
P of the polynomial fun tion p
dened by p(z ) = nk=0 ak z k is P (z ) = nk=0 (ak =(k + 1))z k+1 + K; where
K is an arbitrary onstant.
Is there any restri tion on
for the existen e of primitives? First we
give an aÆrmative answer when
is an open re tangle or onvex or open
disk in C . However, we shall later dis uss a more general theorem whi h
provides an aÆrmative answer to this problem whenever
is a simply
onne ted domain.
3.59. Theorem. (Antiderivative Theorem) Let
be either an open
re tangle (with sides parallel to the axes) or an open disk. Then every
analyti fun tion F (z ) in
possesses a primitive in
.
Proof. Set F (z ) = u(z ) + iv(z ). Sin e F is analyti in
,
uy = vx () fy = gx;
3.3 Power Series as an Analyti Fun tion 101

where u = f 2 C 1 (
) and v = g 2 C 1 (
): By Theorem 3.53, there exists
U 2 C 2 (
) su h that
Ux = f (= u) and Uy = g (= v) in
:
As F is analyti , we have vy = ux where v; u 2 C 1 (
). Again, by Theorem
3.53, it follows that there exists V 2 C 2 (
) su h that
Vx = v and Vy = u in
:
Finally, dene G(z ) = U + iV . Then, U; V 2 C 2 (
) and the C-R equations
are satised in
: Hen e, by Theorem 3.26, G is analyti in
. Note that
G0 (z ) = Ux + iVx = u + iv = F (z ):

3.3 Power Series as an Analyti Fun tion

In our earlier se tions we have seen that the polynomial of degree n 1
given by
(3.60) p(z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+ an z n (an 6= 0)
an be dierentiated term-by-term to get
(3.61) p0 (z ) = a1 + 2a2 z +


+ nanz n 1 :
P
Consider a series of fun tions of the form n0 an ( 0 )n ; where  is a
omplex variable and 0 , an , n = 0; 1; 2; : : : , are xed onstants. Su h a
series will be alled a (formal) power series with enter 0 and oeÆ ients
an . The substitution z =  0 transforms the above series into the power
series X
(3.62) an z n :
n0
So, for our dis ussion it is enough to onsider power series with enter 0
as the results about general power series an be obtained by translation.
Now the polynomial (3.60) may be thought of as a power series at 0 with
oeÆ ients ak = 0 for all k > n and so we say that the family of polynomials
is ontained in the family of power series. Further, we also note that a power
series dened by (3.62) is a spe ial ase of theP
limit of innite sequen es of
fun tions, namely, ffn(z )g, where fn (z ) = nk=01 ak z k . In any ase, (3.61)
suggests that for the power series (3.62) with sum f (z ), we should have
X
f 0 (z ) = nan z n 1
n1
P
and in that ase we all the R.H.S the derived series of n0 an z n. This
fa t of ourse requires justi ation and before giving a proof, we dis uss
some important fa ts about the onvergen e of (3.62) to appre iate fully
the ideas involved.
102 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

Now, we onsider the polynomials

z2 z4 z 2n
pn (z ) = 1 +
2! 4!



+ ( 1)n
(2n)!
;
z3 z5 z 2n+1
qn (z ) = z +
3! 5!



+ ( 1)n
(2n + 1)!
;
z2 zn
rn (z ) = 1 + z + +


+ :
2! n!
We know that these are entire. As n ! 1, we obtain that
pn (z ) ! os z; qn (z ) ! sin z; rn (z ) ! ez
and in all three ases, the orresponding limit fun tions are also entire.
How about the polynomial 1 + z + z 2 +


+ z n when n ! 1? How about
1 + rz + r2 z 2 +


+ rn z n (r > 1) as n ! 1?
We start with some interestingP fa ts due to Abel: Suppose 0 6= z1 2 C
is su h that the power series n0 an z1n onverges. The terms of the series
are then bounded (see Se tion 1.6). Indeed, as jan z1n j ! 0 as n ! 1, there
exists an M > 0 su h that jan z1n j < M for all n  0. We have then, for all
z with jz j < jz1 j,
 n  n
jan z nj = jan z1n j  zz  < M  zz  for all n:
   
1 1
P
Sin e jz=z1j < 1, the Pgeometri series n0 jz=z1jn onverges, so that, by
the omparison test,P n0 jan z n j onverges for all z with jz j < jz1 j. For
example, P if f (z ) = n1 z n =n then the series onverges for jz j < 1, sin e
f ( 1) = n1 (P1)n =n onverges.
If the series n0 an z2n diverges, then, for all z with jz j > jz2 j, we have
jan z nj  jan z2n j for ea h n  0:
P
So, by the omparison
P test, the series n0 an z n does not onverge.
P For
example, f (z ) = n1 z n=n diverges for jz j > 1, sin e f (1) = n1 1=n
diverges.
The above fa ts allow us to hara terize the behavior of the power series
(3.62) in a very natural fashion. Indeed, translating the series about `0' into
a series about a 2 C , the above dis ussion gives (see Figure 3.1)
3.63. Theorem. If the series 1
P n
n=0 an (z a) onverges at some
point z1 (6= a), then the series onverges (absolutely) at all points in the
disk
(a; jz1 aj). If the series diverges at z2 (6= a), then it diverges for all
z with jz aj > jz2 aj.
Be ause of the interesting information about the onvergen e from The-
orem 3.63, it is natural to ask: what is the largest disk about a on whi h
3.3 Power Series as an Analyti Fun tion 103

divergent
ring of doubt
z1

a z2
convergent

Figure 3.1: Des ription for Abel's test.

diverges
do not know
R
converges
a
uniformly converges

Figure 3.2: Illustration for the disk of onvergen e.

P
the series n0 an (z a)n onverges? We now make this issue more pre-
ise in the form of a denition for a series about the origin. The radius of
onvergen e R of the given power series (3.62) is dened by
X
R = supf : an z n onverges for all z satisfying jz j  g.
n0
P
Note that R =P0 if n0 an z n onverges only for z = 0. If R = 1,
then the series P nn0 n
a z n onverges for all z 2 C . Thus, by denition, if
0 < R < 1, jan z j onverges for all z su h that jz j < R and diverges for
all z su h that jz j > R. The series may onverge for some or all points on
the ir le jz j = R. The ir le jz j = R is then alled the ir le ofP
onvergen e
be ause this is the greatest ir le about a = 0 inside whi h n0 jan z n j
onverges at ea h point (see Figure 3.2).
The onventions 0 1 = 1 and 1 1 = 0 are observed so that R is the
unique number in [0; 1℄.
p
3.64. Theorem. (Root Test) Let L 1 = lim supn!1 n jan j. Then
P
(i) if L = 1, the series n
n0 an z onverges absolutely for all nite z
and uniformly in any bounded set
104 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

(ii) if L = 0, the series onverges only at z = 0 and diverges at all other

points other than 0
(iii) if 0 < L < 1, the series onverges absolutely for jz j < L, uniformly
for jz j  r, r < L and diverges for jz j > L
(iv) L = R.
Proof. As the series onverges for z = 0, we need to onsider only the
ase z 6= 0. So, for z 6= 0, we have

jan z nj = jz j lim sup n jan j = jLz j :

p p
lim sup n
n!1 n!1
P
By Theorem 1.51, the series n0 an z n onverges absolutely for jz j < L
and diverges for jz j > L. The uniform onvergen e of the series for jz j  r
(r < L) follows from the Weierstrass M-test (see Theorem 2.59). Thus, (i)
to (iii) follows. We leave (iv) as a simple exer ise.
p
3.65. Remark. Note that if nlim
!1
n jan j exists, then we have
p p
lim
n!1
n jan j = lim sup n jan j:
n!1
In this ase, the radius of onvergen e R is simply determined from
p
R 1 = nlim
!1
n jan j: 

3.66. Example. For ea h xed z 6= 0, we have nlim

!1 jz j = 1. This
1=n

an be proved as follows: Let Æn = n1=n 1. Then for ea h n > 1, Æn is a

positive real number. Now, for n  2, we have
n  
X n n(n 1) 2 n(n 1) 2 n2 2
)n
n = (1 + Æn = Ænk > 1 + Æn > Æn  Æn :
k=0 k 2 2 4

This implies that 0  Æn2 < n2 and so we have Æn ! 0 as n ! 1; i.e.

lim n1=n = 1. Applying this result for jz j  1, we get jz j1=n ! 1, sin e
n!1

1  jz j1=n  n1=n for suÆ iently large n:

If jz j < 1, apply the pre eding argument for 1=z . 
3.67. Remark. The above example shows that fzng, where zn =
n1=n 1, is a null sequen e. Sin e n1=n ! 1, we also have
1h i
1 + 21=2 + 31=3 +


+ n1=n ! 1 as n ! 1: 
n
3.3 Power Series as an Analyti Fun tion 105

The determination of the radius of onvergen e for the series (3.62) will
not always require an appli ation of Theorem 3.64, i.e. the Root test. In
most of the ases, the following theorem alled the Ratio test will serve the
purpose instead.
3.68. Theorem. (Ratio Test) If an 6= 0 for all but nitely many
values of n, then the radius of onvergen e R of (3:62) is related by
   
 an+1 
 1  lim sup  aan+1  =: L:
 
l := lim inf 
n!1  an  R n!1 n
 
 an+1 
In parti ular, if lim   exists either as nite or +1 then
n!1  a n
 
1  an+1 
= lim sup jan j1=n = nlim
!1  a :
 
R n!1 n
Proof. Proof of this theorem is an immediate onsequen e of Theorem
1.48. Again it suÆ es to onsider the ase z 6= 0. In this event,
   
 an+1 z n+1   an+1 z n+1 
lim sup 
  = jz jL and lim inf 
n!1  a z n 
 = jz jl:
n!1 a zn 
n n
P
By Theorem 1.48, the series n0 an z n onverges absolutely for jz j < 1=L
and diverges for jz j > 1=l. Thus, R must be at least 1=L and at most 1=l;
that is R is related by 1=L  R  1=l: Consequently, if limn!1 jan+1 =an j
exists then L = l and hen e
 
 an+1 
lim   = lim sup jan j1=n = lim inf jan j1=n = lim jan j1=n = 1 :
n!1  an  n!1 n!1 n!1 R
This ompletes the proof.
Note that if the sequen e fjan+1 j=janjg os illates, the limit does not
exist and therefore the Ratio test be omes of no use. For instan e, for
series su h as
X
an z n = 3 + z + 3z 2 + z 3 + 3z 4 +


+ 3z 2k + z 2k+1 +



n0
the ratio jan+1 j=jan j is alternately 1=3 and 3, so the limit does not ex-
ist. In this parti ular series, even though the Ratio test indi ates that
the value of R is lying between 1=3 and 3, it does not yield the exa t
value of R. However, as ja2k j = 3 and ja2k+1 j = 1, Example 3.66 gives
R 1 = lim sup jan j1=n = 1:
n!1
Thus in the above two examples the Ratio test gives no information
whereas the Root test gives the radius of onvergen e. We look now at a
string of examples.
106 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series
P
(i) Sin e (see Example 3.66) n1=n ! 1 as n ! 1, the series n1 nz n
onverges for jz j < 1 and diverges for jz j > 1. For jz j = 1, jnz nj = n ! 1
and so the series diverges for jz j = 1. In this ase we note that the series
diverges at all points on the ir le of onvergen e. Also, we observe that
the Root test is learly appli able.
P
(ii) Consider the series n0 ( 1)n z pn = 1 z p + z 2p


; where p 
is a xed positive integer. Then
 
1 if n = 1; 3; : : : ( 1)m=k if m = 0; k; 2k; : : :
anp = ; i.e. am =
1 if n = 0; 2; : : : 0 otherwise:
In this ase lim supn!1 jan j1=n = 1. Hen e, R = 1 and the series onverges
absolutely for jz j < 1, uniformly for jz j   < 1, and diverges for jz j > 1.
Sin e the sequen e of terms of the series does not approa h zero when
jz j = 1, it follows that the series diverges for jz j = 1. Note that the Ratio
test is not appli able dire tly, but we ould obtain the radius of onvergen e
by translating the given series into a new series with a new variable  ,
 = zp.
(iii) By means of the Ratio test we at on e see that ea h of the series
n
1z
X X X
( 1)n nk z n; ( 1)n ; nk z n (k = 1; 2; : : : )
n1 n1 nk n1
has 1 as the radius of onvergen e. For k  2, the se ond of the above
onverges absolutely on jz j = 1 sin e, on jz j = 1,
 
X ( 1)n z n  X 1
 =

n1 nk  n1 nk
onverges for k  2. For k = 1, the series be omes
n z2 z3
1z
X
( 1)n
n
=z
2
+
3



; jz j < 1:
n1
This series is alled the Logarithmi series (see Se tion 3.5). On the other
hand, the series
X zn
(3.69)
n1 n
at z = 1 be omes 1 + 12 13 + 41


Pand so onverges for z = 1,
but non-absolutely. At z = 1, this series is n1 n1 whi h is the harmoni
series and we know that this is divergent. What happens on the rest of

? To see this, we let z = ei ( 6= 0; 2) and ak = z k = eik . Then
   
n
X  1 z n+1 



z 
k

=   2
1 z  j1 ei j
k=1
3.3 Power Series as an Analyti Fun tion 107

showing that the partial sums are bounded provided  6= 0; 2. Hen e, by
Theorem 1.52(b) with bn = n 1 , the series (3.69) onverges
P for jz j = 1
ex ept at z = 1. Consequently, the logarithmi series n1 ( 1)n 1 z n =n
onverges for jz j = 1 ex ept
P at z = 1.
(iv) Consider a series n0 qn z kn ; where k  is a xed positive integer
and q 6= 0, independent of n. Note that
 n=k
q if n = 0; k; 2k; 3k; : : :
an =
0 otherwise:
Then, a ording to the Root test, one has lim supn!1 jan j1=n = jqj1=k and
so, the power series has the radius of onvergen e R = jqj 1=k . The series
onverges absolutely for jz j < jqj 1=k , uniformly for jz j   < jqj 1=k , and
diverges for jz j > jqj 1=k .
ForPinstan e, if q = 1 then an = ( 1)n for n  0 and the orresponding
series n0 ( 1)n z kn onverges absolutely for jz j < 1, uniformly for jz j 
 < 1, and diverges for jz j > 1. In this spe ial ase, the terms of the series
does not approa h zero when jz j = 1, and therefore, the series diverges for
jz j = 1. P
If we set q = 1=2 then we get the series n0 2 n z kn whi h onverges
absolutely for jz j < 21=k , uniformly for jz j   < 21=k , and diverges for
jz j > 21=k . For jz j = 21=k , j2 n z nk j = 1, showing that the series diverges.
In parti ular, for k = 2 the power series is

with an = 2 n=02 ifif nn =
= 1; 3; 5; : : : ;
X
2 n z 2n ;
n0
0; 2; 4; : : :
p
and so R = 2 is the radius of onvergen e for this series.
If we set q = 5, then the orresponding series
X X
5n z kn = (5z k )n
n0 n0

onverges absolutely for jz j < 5 1=k , uniformly for jz j   < 5 1=k , and
diverges for jz j > 5 1=k . For jz j = 5 1=k , j5n z nk j = 1, showing that the
series diverges. In parti ular, for k = 3 the above dis ussion gives the power
series  n=3
X if n = 0; 3; 6; : : :
5 z ; with an = 5 0 otherwise
n 3 n
;
n0
and so R = 5 1=3 is the radius of onvergen e for this series.
P
3.70. Theorem. A power series n0 an z n and the k -times derived
P
series dened by nk n(n 1)


(n k +1)an z n k have the same radius
of onvergen e.
108 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

Proof. Let An = n(n 1)


(n k + 1)an = n!an =(n k)!, k  1.

Then  1=n  
 n!   n! 1=n
jAn j =  (n k)! an  =  (n k)! 
jan j1=n :
1 =n   

Using the parti ular ase of Theorem 3.68 (see also Example 3.66) we have
 1=n  
n! (n + 1)!=(n + 1 k)!
lim sup = nlim
!1
n!1 (n k )! n!=(n k)!
n+1
!1 n + 1 k = 1:
= nlim

Therefore, lim sup jAn j1=n = lim sup jan j1=n whi h proves our theorem.
n!1 n!1

Sin e a power series of the form (3.62) with non-zero radius of on-
vergen e R onverges (absolutely) for jz j < P
R, we an study its behavior
as a fun tion f dened by the sum f (z ) = n0 an z n: The power series
obtained by dierentiating this series term-by-term gives
X
f 0 (z ) = nan z n 1 ; jz j < R:
n1
Next we have
P
3.71. Theorem. If n0 an z n has radius of onvergen e R > 0, then
P
f (z ) = n0 an z n is analyti in jz j < R, f (k) (z ) exists for every k 2 N and
X n!
(3.72) f (k) (z ) = k!ak + an z n k (jz j < R):
nk+1
(n k )!

where ak = f (k) (0)=k .

P n
For example, the geometri series (1 z ) 1 = n0 z whi h onverges
for jz j < 1, after k-times dierentiation yields
 
1 X n X (m + k )!
= z n k= z m for jz j < 1:
(1 z )k+1 nk k m0
k ! m !
P
In parti ular, z (1 z ) 2 = n1 nz n for jz j < 1:
P
Proof. Let f (z ) = n0 an z n with the radius of onvergen e R. We
have to prove the existen e of f 0 (z ) in
R . By Theorem 3.70 with k = 1,
the series X
nan z n 1
n1
3.3 Power Series as an Analyti Fun tion 109

onverges for jz j < R and denes a fun tion, say g(z ), in jz j < R. We show
that
f (z + h) f (z )
f 0 (z ) = lim = g(z ) for all z 2
R :
h!0 h
Let z 2
R be xed and let h 2 C , 0 < jhj < (R jz j)=2. Then

jz + hj  jz j + jhj < jz j + R 2 jz j = jz j 2+ R < R +2 R = R:

Now we onsider
 
f (z + h) f (z ) X (z + h)n zn
= an ;
h n1 h
where z and z + h are su h that maxfjz j; jz + hjg  r < R and jhj is positive.
So, we must show that as h ! 0,
 
    
 f (z + h) f (z )  X (z + h)n zn 

 h
g(z ) =  an

h
nz n 1  ! 0:
n2 

First we note that, for  6= 1 and n  2, we have the identity

1 n
= 1 +  + 2 +


+ n 1
1 
and dierentiating with respe t to  shows that
1 n
nn 1 = (1 )[1 + 2 + 32 +


+ (n 1)n 2 ℄:
1 
Repla ing  by z=w (w 6= z ) gives
wn z n
nz n 1 = (w z )[wn 2 + 2wn 3 z +


+ (n 1)z n 2℄
w z
so that for maxfjwj; jz jg  r,
 n 
w zn 1 

 w z
nz n  jw z j [jwjn 2 + 2jwjn 3 jz j +


+ (n 1)jz jn 2℄


 jw z jrn 2 [1 + 2 + 3 +


+ n 1℄
n(n 1) n 2
= jw z j r :
2
P
By Theorem 3.70, the derived series n2 n(n 1)jan jrn 2 is onvergent
for ea h r su h that jz j  r < R. Using this we see that as h ! 0,
 
  
(z + h)n zn
jan j n(n2 1) rn 2 ! 0:
X  X

 a n
h
nz n 1   jhj
n2  n2
110 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

Consequently, f 0(z ) exists and equals g(z ). Sin e z is arbitrary, this holds
at any interior point in the disk of onvergen e.
A repeated appli ation of this argument shows that all the derivatives
f 0 , f 00 , : : : , f (k) ; : : : exist in jz j < R and (3.72) holds. Putting z = 0 in
(3.72) we have the formula for the oeÆ ient ak : f (k) (0)=k = ak and we
are done.
P
Suppose z0 6= 0 and f (z ) = n0 an (z z0 )n , jz z0 j < R: Then
onsider a simple transformation w = z z0 so that z = z0 + w. Then by
Theorem 3.71 we see that the fun tion  dened by
X
(w) = f (w + z0 ) = an wn
n0
and the k-times derived series
X n!
(k) (w) = k!ak + an wn k ;
nk+1
(n k )!
have the same radius of onvergen e and note that
d(w + z0 )
(k) (w) = f (k) (w + z0 ) = f (k) (z ); jwj < R:
dz
From this P it follows that if R is the radius of onvergen e of the series
f (z ) = n0 an (z z0 )n , then
X n!
f (k) (z ) = k!ak + an (z z0 )n k ; jz z0 j < R;
nk+1
(n k )!
( k )
so that ak = f (z0 )=k!: Note that a0 ; a1 ; : : : ; ak ; : : : depend on z0 . Thus,
f be omes
X f (n) (z0 )
f (z ) = (z z0)n ; jz z0 j < R:
n0 n !
This is often alled the Taylor series expansion for f in jz z0j < R. In
the spe ial ase when z0 = 0, it is alled the Ma laurin series expansion.
One of the remarkable results in Complex Analysis is that the onverse
of Theorem 3.71 holds. If f is analyti in a domain D, then f an be
represented (lo ally about ea h point z0 2 D) as a Taylor series expansion
about z0: X
f (z ) = an (z z0 )n ;
n0
where z0 is a enter of the largest disk
(z0 ; R)  D and z 2
(z0 ; R). For
instan e if f (z ) = z 1 , then f is analyti in the pun tured plane C n f0g. If
z0 6= 0, then we have the Taylor expansion
1 1 X (z z0)n
f (z ) = = ( 1)n for jz z0 j < jz0 j:
z z0 + z0 z0 n0 z0n
3.3 Power Series as an Analyti Fun tion 111

However, we shall prove a more general result in Chapter 4 (see Corollary

4.95) whi h states that for a given analyti fun tion dened in a domain
D and for ea h z0 su h that
(z0 ; r)  D there is always a power series
onverging in
(z0 ; r) whose sum is f (z ).

3.73. Corollary. If f is entire and if z0 2 C , then f (n) (z0 ) exists

for n = 0; 1; : : : and has the power series expansion
X f (n) (z0 )
f (z ) = (z z0 )n for all z:
n0
n !

3.74. Remark. Now it is lear that entire fun tions

P are just those
fun tions whi h are dened by the sums of the series n0 an z n where
lim supn!1 jan j1=n = 0. 
In the next theorem ( alled the Uniqueness Theorem for power series),
we show that a power series representing a given fun tion, when obtained
by whatever method, is unique.
P P
3.75. Theorem. Suppose f (z ) = n0 an z n and g(z ) = n0 bn z n
onverge for jz j < R1 and jz j < R2 , respe tively. If f (zk ) = g (zk ) for
a sequen e fzk g of nonzero omplex numbers in 0 < jz j < Æ su h that
zk ! 0 as k ! 1, or if f (z ) = g(z ) for all z with jz j < Æ, where 0 < Æ <
minfR1 ; R2 g, then an = bn for every n 2 N 0 .
Proof. Sin e f; g are ontinuous in jz j  Æ, being analyti thereon,
zk ! 0 and f (zk ) = g(zk ) =) lim f (zk ) = lim g(zk )
k!1 k!1
=) f (0) = g(0):
Thus, a0 = b0 . To omplete the proof, we use the method of indu tion.
Now suppose that aj = bj for j = 0; 1; : : : ; m 1: Then
X X
f (zk ) = g(zk ) =) an zkn = bn zkn
nm nm
X X
=) an zkn m = bn zkn m; sin e zk 6= 0;
nm nm
=) F (zk ) = G(zk );
where X X
F (z ) = an z n m and G(z ) = bn z n m :
nm nm
112 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series
P P
Sin e the radius of onvergen e of n0 an z n and nm an z n m are the
same, F is ontinuous for jz j  Æ. Similarly, G is ontinuous for jz j  Æ.
Thus (see Theorem 2.22),
F (zk ) = G(zk ) =) lim F (zk ) = lim G(zk ) =) am = bm
k!1 k!1
and we on lude that an = bn for every n  0. Note that if f (z ) = g(z ) for
jz j < Æ, we an nd a sequen e fzk gk1 2 fz : jz j < Æg su h that zk ! 0
as k ! 1 (see Theorem 2.22). The proof is omplete.
P
3.76. Corollary. Suppose f (z ) = n0 an z n, with the power series
having radius of onvergen e R > 0. If 0 is a limit point of the set of zeros
of f , then f  0 for jz j < R.
It will be shown, more generally later (Theorem 4.103) that if f; g are
two analyti fun tions whi h agree at a sequen e of points fzk g having a
limit point in their ommon domain of analyti ity, then f  g therein.

3.4 Exponential and Trigonometri Fun tions

In this se tion we des ribe the omplex analogues of exponential and trigono-
metri fun tions of elementary al ulus. There are many approa hes whi h
lead to denitions of these fun tions although our approa h is intuitive and
dire t. Let us rst re all the following fa ts from al ulus:
(a) Trigonometri fun tions are dened by means of the ratios of the sides
of a right triangle; for instan e, sin2 x + os2 x = 1, x 2 R.
d d d x
(b) (sin x) = os x; ( os x) = sin x; (e ) = ex;
dx dx dx
( ) Further,
x2 x5
sin x = x +
3! 5!



;
x2 x4
os x = 1 +
2! 4!



;
x2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + +


:
2! 3!
The properties (b) and ( ) show that sin x and os x are the unique solution
of the se ond order ordinary dierential equation
f 00 (x) + f (x) = 0
subje t to the onditions f (0) = f 0 (0) 1 = 0 and f (0) = f 0(0) 1 = 1,
respe tively. On the other hand ex is dened to be the solution of
f 0 (x) = f (x); f (0) = 1:
P
In the same way we begin with a fun tion f (z ) = n0 an z n satisfying
3.4 Exponential and Trigonometri Fun tions 113

(i) f 0(z ) = f (z ) for z 2 C , i.e. f is analyti in C

(ii) f (x) = ex; x 2 R.
Using (i) we nd that an 1 = nan : Sin e f (0) = e0 = 1 = a0 , indu tion on
n yields an = 1=n!: Thus we dene the omplex exponential fun tion as
X zn
(3.77) f (z ) = exp(z ) = ez = :
n0 n!

Conversely, if the omplex exponential fun tion is given by (3.77) then (i)-
(ii) follow easily. By the Ratio test, the series (3.77) onverges absolutely
for all z 2 C and hen e, ez is an entire fun tion. In the same way one an
obtain the series representations of sin z and os z .
As (exp z )0 = exp z , we have the following: if g 2 H(D), then so does
F (z ) = exp(g(z )) and F 0 (z ) = g0 (z ) exp(g(z )) for z 2 D.
Next, for a xed  2 C , we dene
g (z ) = ez e z (= f (z )f ( z )):
Then for every z 2 C , we have g0 (z ) = 0. Therefore, by Theorem 3.31, g
is onstant. Sin e g (0) = e0 e = e , we must have
ez e z = e :
Taking z = z1 and  = z1 + z2 , we see that for every z1 ; z2 2 C ,
(3.78) ez1 +z2 = ez1 ez2 :
The result (3.78) is alled the \Addition theorem" for the exponential fun -
tion whi h is also a onsequen e of the Uniqueness theorem (Se tion 4.11).
This property an also be obtained dire tly using the Cau hy produ t of
series:
" k #
X zn X z2m X X z1p z2k p
ez1 ez2 = 1 =
n0 n! m0 m! k0 p=0 p! (k p)!
" #
k  
X 1 X k p k p
= z1 z2
k0 k ! p=0 p
X (z1 + z2 )k
= = ez1 +z2 :
k 0
k !

For any positive integer m, by indu tion, (3.78) with z1 = z2 = z shows

that
(3.79) emz = (ez )m :
114 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

For z = iy, y 2 R, (3.77) gives

X in y n X y2k X ( 1)k y 2k+1
eiy = = ( 1)k +i :
n0 n! k0 (2k)! k0 (2k + 1)!
Thus, we have the Euler formula
(3.80) eiy = os y + i sin y; y 2 R:
Therefore, for z1 = x and z2 = iy, x; y 2 R, (3.78) shows that
(3.81) ex+iy = ex ( os y + i sin y); ez = exeiy :
Sin e ez e z = ez z = e0 = 1; ez 6= 0 for ea h z 2 C . Further,
jez j2 = ez (ez ) = ez ez = ez+z = e2Re z
so that jez j2 = (eRe z )2 ; by (3.79). Thus, from (3.81) and the above, we
write
(3.82) jez j = eRe z ; arg(ez ) = Im z (mod 2):
In parti ular, we have jez j = 1 () z 2 iR: For m; n integers and k =
0; 1; : : : ; n 1, we have
(ez )1=n = (ex eiy )1=n = ex=n [ei(y+2k)=n ℄ = e(z+2ki)=n
and so we write
(3.83) (ez )m=n = em(z+2ki)=n :
From (3.80) we see in parti ular that, if z is real then
eiz + e iz eiz e iz
(3.84) os z = and sin z = :
2 2i
Thus the extension of the exponential to the omplex plane suggests to
make (3.84) as denitions of os z and sin z for any z 2 C although these
denitions an be realized as a onsequen e of the Uniqueness theorem.
Hen e we make the denition{the famous Euler formula:
eiz = os z + i sin z; z 2 C :
Now onsider f (z ) = sin z for z 2 C : Then, by the denition of sin z and
the fa t that (exp z )0 = exp z , (3.84) gives
ieiz + ie iz eiz + e iz
f 0 (z ) = = = os z
2i 2
and so using the denition of os z ,
ieiz ie iz eiz e iz
f 00 (z ) = = = sin z:
2 2i
3.4 Exponential and Trigonometri Fun tions 115

Consequently, we have

0 if n = 2k
f (n) (0) = ( 1)k if n = 2k + 1 ; k 2 N 0 :
Similarly, if f (z ) = os z , we obtain f 0(z ) = sin z and f 00 (z ) = os z so
that 
f (0) = ( 1)0k ifif nn =
( n ) 2k + 1 ; k 2 N :
= 2k 0

Now we use the Ma laurin series expansion (see just above Corollary 3.73),
P (n)
namely f (z ) = n0 f n!(0) z n , to get the series expansions for os z and
sin z . Therefore, for any z 2 C , the osine and sine series are now
X z 2n
(3.85) os z = ( 1)n
n0 (2n)!
and
X z 2n+1
(3.86) sin z = ( 1)n ;
n0 (2n + 1)!
respe tively. Also, note that (3.85) and (3.86) follow from the denition
of eiz and (3.84). Ea h of the series onverges absolutely for every z 2 C ,
be ause
X jz j2n X jz j2n+1
and
n0 (2n)! n0 (2n + 1)!
are
P the subseries
(i.e. terms hosen from those of) of the onvergent series
n0 [jz jn =n!℄ for z 2 C . The remaining ir ular fun tions are then dened
by
sin z 1  
tan z = ; se z = z 6= (2k+1)
2
 ;
os z os z
os z 1
ot z = ; s z = (z 6= k);
sin z sin z
where k 2 Z. These fun tions are analyti ex ept at points where the
denominators vanish. The hyperboli fun tions are dened by
os(iz ) = osh z and sin(iz ) = i sinh z
so that
ez + e z ez e z
osh z = ; sinh z = ;
2 2  
sinh z 1 (2k + 1)i
tanh z = ; se h z = z 6= ;
osh z osh z 2
osh z 1
oth z = ; s h z = (z 6= ki);
sinh z sinh z
116 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

where k 2 Z. Again these fun tions are analyti ex ept at points where the
denominators vanish. For z1 ; z2 2 C , the identity
(3.87) ei(z1 z2 ) = eiz1 eiz2
yields the addition formulae (whi h will be proved later also by using the
Uniqueness theorem)
(3.88) os(z1  z2 ) = os z1 os z2  sin z1 sin z2
and
(3.89) sin(z1  z2 ) = sin z1 os z2  os z1 sin z2 :
Putting z1 = z2 = z in (3.88) and (3.89), we get
os2 z + sin2 z = 1; os 2z = os2 z sin2 z ; sin 2z = 2 sin z os z:
Re all the known fa ts about the sine and osine fun tions of a real variable
indi ated by the following hart:
Interval os sin
[0; =2℄ 1& 1
0 0%
[=2; ℄ 0& 1&
1 0
[; 3=2℄ 0 0 & 1
1%
[3=2; 2℄ 1 0
0% 1%
as also the properties os 2k = 1; sin 2k = 0, k 2 N 0 : Therefore, we have
from (3.88) and (3.89)
(3.90) os(z + 2k) = os z and sin(z + 2k) = sin z
where k 2 Z. The above fa ts together with the equation in (3.84) im-
mediately yield the following ne essary and suÆ ient onditions for ertain
identities to be ome true:
(a) os z = 1 () z = 2k,
(b) sin z = 1 () z = (4k + 1)=2,
( ) tan z = 1 () z = (4k + 1)=4,
(d) os z1 = os z2 () either z1 + z2 = 2k or z1 z2 = 2k,
(e) sin z1 = sin z2 () either z1 + z2 = (2k + 1) or z1 z2 = 2k,
where k 2 Z. Note that (d) () (e). This fa t an be easily seen by taking
z1 = 1 =2 and z2 = 2 =2.
3.91. Denition. A fun tion f : D ! C is said to be periodi if
there exists an ! 6= 0 su h that f (z + !) = f (z ) for all z 2 D. The
3.4 Exponential and Trigonometri Fun tions 117

omplex number ! is then alled a period of f . The fun tion f is alled

doubly periodi in D if there are omplex numbers !1 ; !2 whi h are linearly
independent over R su h that f (z + !1 ) = f (z + !2 ) = f (z ) for all z 2 D:

Sin e e2ki = 1, we nd that ez+2ki = ez e2ki = ez : Suppose ! = u + iv

is a period for ez . Then by denition ez+! = ez ; i.e. e! = 1, and je! j =
eu = 1 and so u = 0. Hen e
eiv = 1; i.e. os v = 1 and sin v = 0.
By (3.90), this o urs only for v = 2k, where k is some integer. This
shows that ! is a period of ez i ! = 2ki. In parti ular, ez is a periodi
fun tion with period 2i. Similarly, we have
sin(z + !) = sin z; or os(z + !) = os z () ! = 2k; k 2 Z:

3.92. Example. Consider the fun tion f (z ) = ez : Then we have

f (z1 ) = f (z2 ) =) ez1 z2 = 1 =) z1 z2 = 2ki for some k 2 Z:
This shows that f is one-to-one in a domain D i D does not have even a
single pair of distin t points z1 and z2 satisfying
z1 = z2 + 2ki; k = 1; 2; : : : :
For instan e, f is univalent in jz j < ; but not in C . Similarly, we see that
f is univalent within any horizontal strip of the form:
b < Im z < a; 0 < a b  2:
In fa t we see that f is univalent in ea h strip
Dk = fz : 2(k 1) < Im z < 2kg; k 2 Z;
and maps ea h strip onto the w-plane with a ut along (i.e. omitting) the
positive real axis: 0  x < 1. 
3.93. Example. Note that for z = x + iy, we have
 x ib
ez = eea eeiy ifif xy = b, a onstant,
= a, a onstant.
As a further illustration of the exponential fun tion, we have
(i) The exponential fun tion ez maps ea h horizontal line y = b onto a
ray from the origin to innity, namely, freib : r 2 (0; 1)g.
118 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

(ii) The exponential fun tion ez maps ea h verti al line x = a onto a

ir le entered at the origin and radius ea. Observe that ea h point
on this ir le is the image of innitely many points on the verti al
lines as eiy is periodi . Note that these two families of urves (and
also their images) are orthogonal to ea h other.
(iii) The line y = b and the line x = a interse t at (a; b). How about their
images in the w-plane?
(iv) The re tangle D = fz : a1 < Re z < a2 ; b1 < Im z < b2 g is mapped
into D0 = fw : ea1 < jwj < ea2 ; b1 < arg w < b2g. In parti ular,
exp z maps the innite strip fz : 0 < Im z < =2g onto the open rst
quadrant fw : Re w > 0; Im w > 0g. 
3.5 Logarithmi Fun tions
It is natural to think of a logarithmi fun tion as the inverse of the expo-
nential fun tion. Re all that, when x is real,
(a) ex > 0 for all x 2 R
(b) ex ! 1 as x ! 1
( ) e x = 1=ex whi h by (a) gives ex ! 0 as x ! 1
d
(d) (ex ) = ex and so ex is monotoni ally in reasing for all x.
dx
This shows that ex denes a stri tly in reasing dierentiable fun tion from
R onto R+ , the set of positive reals. Hen e it has a ontinuous stri tly
in reasing inverse fun tion alled the natural logarithm (with base e)
ln : R+ ! R
with the property that ln x = y is the solution of ey = x. In parti ular, for
ea h x > 0 there is exa tly one y su h that ey = x.
We would like to mimi the real variable ase and say that a omplex
number w in C is alled a logarithm of a omplex number z in C , denoted
by w = log z , if ew = z holds. Sin e ew 6= 0 for any w 2 C , the number 0
has no logarithm; hen e, the equation ew = z has no solution in C when
z = 0 and z = 1. Consider an arbitrary xed z 6= 0 in polar form
z = jz jeiArg z = rei (r = jz j > 0;  <   ):
Let us now solve the equation w = log z . If we let w = u + iv, u; v real,
then ew = z be omes eu+iv = rei whi h yields
eu = r; e(v )i = 1; i.e. u = ln r; v =  + 2k; k 2 Z:
A ordingly, we therefore have for z 6= 0,
(3.94) w = log z = ln jz j + i(Arg z + 2k); k 2 Z:
3.5 Logarithmi Fun tions 119

The prin ipal value of a logarithm, sometimes denoted by Log , orresponds

to the value of the prin ipal value of the argument; that is for z 6= 0,
(3.95) Log z = ln jz j + iArg z;  < Arg z  :
This agrees with the meaning of ` Log z ' for positive real numbers z = x,
for whi h Arg z = 0, with whi h the reader is already familiar. We use the
notation  log z to denote the innite set of values
fln jz j + i(Arg z + 2k) : k 2 Zg:
It is often onvenient to single out a parti ular member in this set. Thus,
we formulate the following
3.96. Denition. If w 2 C satises ew = z for an arbitrary xed
z 6= 0, then w dened by
8
> ln
>
>
jz j + i(Arg z + 2k)
>
< (or)
(3.97) w =  log z = Log z + 2ki
>
>
>
> (or)
:
ln jz j + i arg z;
is alled the logarithm of z , where k 2 Z.
Note that z 7! Log z is a fun tion dened in C n f0g and every non-zero
omplex number has innitely many logarithms whi h dier from ea h other
by integral multiples of 2i. This shows that w = log z is not a fun tion
in general and is in fa t an innitely-valued asso iation or relation, with
innitely many values for ea h z 6= 0. For ea h k, the strip of the type
Dk = fu + iv : (2k 1) < v  (2k + 1); k 2 Zg
is alled a fundamental region for log z (Note that a region in the z -plane
whose image just overs the w-plane on e is alled a fundamental region for
the fun tion w = log z ). Sin e the union is the w-plane, the set fDk g1
k= 1
is a omplete set of fundamental regions for the logarithm. In parti ular,
this observation proves that for ea h k 2 Z, exp(Dk ) = C n f0g: It is also
easy to see that for ea h k 2 Z, exp : Dk ! C n f0g is one-to-one and onto.
We have
p
(a) Log (i) = i=2, Log (1 + i) = ln 2 + i=4
p
(b) Log ((1  i)= 2) = i=4, ln( 1) = i
p
( ) Log (2 3i) = ln 13 iAr tan (3=2)
p
(d) Log ( 2 + 3i) = ln 13 + i( Ar tan (3=2))
(e) Log i1=4 = i=8, Log (z ) = ln  + Log z ( > 0).
120 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

From these examples, we an see that it is not even true in general that
Log (z1 z2 ) = Log z1 + Log z2
6 0 and
when we limit our attention to prin ipal values. However, for z1 =
z2 6= 0, the statements
log(z1 z2 ) = log z1 + log z2 (mod 2);
log(z1 =z2) = log z1 log z2 (mod 2)
hold. Suppose that z1 = jz1 jeiArg z1 and z2 = jz2 jeiArg z2 : Then, for the
omplex numbers z1 ; z2 , we write
z1 z2 = jz1 z2 jeiArg (z1 z2 ) :
There is a k1 2 f 1; 0; 1g (see Exer ise 1.54(a)) su h that
Log (z1 z2 ) = ln jz1 z2 j + iArg (z1 z2)
= ln jz1 j + ln jz2 j + i(Arg z1 + Arg z2 + 2k1 )
= Log z1 + Log z2 + 2ik1 :
Thus, Log (z1 z2 ) = Log z1 + Log z2 () Arg z1 + Arg z2 2 ( ; ℄: In
parti ular, this statement leads to
Log (z1 z2 ) = Log z1 + Log z2
for all z1 ; z2 2 C with Re z1 > 0 and Re z2 > 0. A serious trouble ensues
if the onditions Re z1 > 0 and Re z2 > 0 are dropped in the last equation.
This point an also be he ked on taking z1 = i and z2 = i. Similarly, we
see that the ondition Arg z1 + Arg z2 2 ( ; ℄ is met whenever Im z1 < 0
and Im z2 > 0. This means that
Log (z1 z2 ) = Log z1 + Log z2
for all z1 ; z2 with Im z1 < 0 < Im z2.
In fa t, by Exer ise 1.54(b), we similarly have
Log (z1 =z2 ) = Log z1 Log z2 + 2ik2 ;
where k2 = k2 (z1 ; z2 ) is dened in Exer ise 1.54(b). For instan e, let z1 = i
and z2 = 1: Then
Log z1 = i=2; Log z2 = i and Log (z1 z2 ) = i=2:
Therefore, Log (z1 z2 ) = Log z1 + Log z2 2i sin e k1 (i; 1) = 1. Simi-
larly, we have
(a) Log 1 = Log ( 1) + Log ( 1) + 2i; sin e k1 ( 1; 1) = 1.
3.5 Logarithmi Fun tions 121
y

z = x0 + iy
Lim Arg z = π
z→x0
z0 O x
Lim Arg z = −π
z→x0

z′ = x0 + iy ′

Figure 3.3: Des ription for ontinuity of Arg z at z0 = x0 < 0.

(b) Log ( 1 i) = Log i + Log ( 1 + i) 2i, sin e k1 (i; 1 + i) = 1.

( ) Log (r1 r2 ei3=2 ) = Log (r1 ei3=4 ) + Log (r2 ei3=4 ) 2i.
It is often onvenient to single out a parti ular set in the set  log z .
One immediate possibility is to onsider the prin ipal value of the loga-
rithm Log z and to study analyti ity of the fun tion Log z whose domain
of denition is C n f0g. For z 6= 0, let
z = rei and u + iv = Log z;
where jz j = r and  <  = Arg z  . Re all that
Log z = ln jz j + iArg z:
If Log z = u(x; y) + iv(x; y), u; v real, then
(3.98) u(r; ) = ln r and v(r; ) = :
The fun tion Log z is not ontinuous at points on the negative real axis,
sin e Arg z fails to possess a limit at the points along this axis; for, let
z0 = x0 < 0. Then, for z = x0 + iy with y > 0, we have
lim Arg z = ylim
z!z0 !0 Arg (x0 + iy ) = 
y>0
and for z = x0 + iy with y < 0, we have
lim Arg z = lim
z!z0 y!0
Arg (x0 + iy) = :
y<0
Sin e every neighborhood of z0 interse ts both se ond and third quadrants
making it possible to approa h z0 in two dierent ways (see Figure 3.3),
Arg z annot onverge. However, Log z is single-valued and ontinuous in
the domain D, where D = C n fx + iy 2 C : y = 0; x  0g: Now we an
ompute the derivative of the logarithm. From (3.98), it follows that
v 1 u
ur =  = and vr =  = :
r r r
122 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

up
y y

p e ed
lo
we

r
ed e o
r

ge f t
g

of he
th cu
e
α
branch cut

cu
t
x x

Dα t Dπ

Figure 3.4: Slit plane D = C n fRei : R > 0;  2 < arg < g:

Thus u and v satisfy the C-R equations (3.47). Moreover, the partial deriva-
tives ur ; vr et ., are all ontinuous in D. This implies the existen e of the
derivative of Log z in D and so Log z is analyti therein. Sin e
dw w
= e i ;
dz r
we readily have
d  e i 1 1
( Log z ) = e i (ln r + i) = = i = ; z 2 D:
dz r r re z
In the same way, we see that arg z with z = rei (r > 0,  2 <  < ),
is ontinuous in the `slit plane' D = C n fRei : R  0g where  2 R is
xed (see Figure 3.4). Thus, in D , the fun tion f := log dened by
(3.99) f (z ) := log z = ln jz j + i arg z;
where arg z denotes the unique hoi e of arg z in the interval ( 2; ),
is ontinuous with derivative
d 1
(f (z )) = ; z 2 D :
dz  z
Clearly, f is not ontinuous at points on the ray frei : 0  r < 1g.
Evidently, exp(f (z )) = z . For the analyti property of multiple-valued
fun tions, we regard a multiple-valued fun tion as a olle tion of single-
valued fun tions. More expli itly we have
3.100. Denition. Suppose F is a multiple-valued fun tion dened
in S . A bran h of F is a single-valued analyti fun tion f in some domain
D  S obtained from F in su h a way that at ea h point of D, f assumes
exa tly one of the possible values of F .
3.5 Logarithmi Fun tions 123

For example, from our dis ussion above, for ea h xed  2 R, the
fun tion f dened by (3.99) represents a bran h of log z in the slit plane
D . We have reated a ut along  = , so that the restri tion on  = arg z
makes the fun tion f single-valued and analyti . This ut orresponding
to  = , i.e. the semi innite line fRei : R  0g,  2 R xed, is regarded
as a bran h ut for the bran h f of log z . For  = , f be omes Log z
in D and is often alled the prin ipal bran h of log z . The bran h ut for
Log z is then the negative-real axis from the origin, i.e. f R : R  0g.
3.101. Denition. A multiple-valued fun tion F dened in S is said
to have a bran h point at z0 2 C if, when z des ribes an arbitrarily small
ir le about z0 , then for every bran h f of F , f (z ) does not return to its
original value.
For example every z 6= 0 is not a bran h point of log z , sin e on a
suÆ iently small ir le en losing the point z , every bran h of log z returns
to its original value.
3.102. Denition. A fun tion f 2 H(D), where D is a domain
D, is alled an analyti /holomorphi bran h of log z in D if f is ana-
lyti /holomorphi in D and exp(f (z )) = z for ea h z 2 D.
Let  2 H(D) su h that 0 2= (D). We say f 2 H(D) is an analyti -
logarithm of  if exp(f (z )) = (z ) for ea h z 2 D. Clearly, if (z ) = z
in D then the on ept of analyti -logarithm oin ides with that of the
(analyti ) bran h of log z . Analyti /holomorphi bran hes of log (z ) are
alled logarithmi fun tions.
For instan e, in the slit plane D , the fun tion f dened by (3.99) is
an example of a logarithmi fun tion.
3.103. Theorem. Let D be a domain in C . Then, any two logarith-
mi fun tions f , fe : D ! C are related by
(3.104) fe(z ) = f (z ) + 2ki
for some k 2 Z. Conversely, if a logarithmi fun tion f : D ! C is related
by (3.104) with fe : D ! C , then fe is also a logarithmi fun tion.
Proof. Let f and fe be two logarithmi fun tions in D. Then by de-
nition
expffe(z )g = expff (z )g; i.e. expffe(z ) f (z )g = 1 for all z 2 D;
whi h implies that
fe(z ) f (z )
F (z ) =
2i
2 Z:
124 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

Note that F is an analyti fun tion in D and, in parti ular, F is ontinuous

in the open and onne ted set D. But F is an integer-valued and so F
maps a onne ted set onto a onne ted subset of Z, viz. a single point, k,
say. Thus, f and fe are related by (3.104).
Conversely, if f is a logarithmi fun tion in D and fe : D ! C is related
by (3.104) for some k 2 Z then for all z 2 D, we have
expffe(z )g = expff (z )g expf2ikg = expff (z )g = z
and so fe be omes a logarithmi fun tion in D, by denition.
Theorem 3.103 shows that, given a bran h of logarithm in a domain,
one an obtain all the bran hes of logarithm on that domain. For example,
we let  = 3=2 and onsider (3.99). Then f3=2 is an analyti bran h of
log z for z 2 D3=2 . Thus to nd a numeri al value of f3=2 (z0 ), where
z0 = 1 i, we write
p p 5i
f3=2( 1 i) = ln 2 + i arg3=2 ( 1 i) = ln 2 + :
4
From Theorem 3.103, we also note that the value of f3=2 ( 1 i) for any
other bran h of log z whi h is analyti in the slit plane D3=2 is given by
p 5i
ln 2 + + 2ki; for some k 2 Z:
4
As another hara terization of logarithmi fun tions, we have
3.105. Theorem. Let f : D ! C be analyti in a domain D not
ontaining 0. Then f is a bran h of log z in D i f 0 (z ) = 1=z for all z 2 D
and expff (a)g = a for at least one a 2 D.
Proof. Suppose that f is a bran h of log z in D. Then, expff (z )g = z
for all z 2 D so that
f 0 (z ) expff (z )g = 1; i.e. f 0 (z ) = 1=z for all z 2 D:
To prove the onverse, we need to show that
(3.106) expff (z )g = z for all z 2 D:
To do this, we onsider g(z ) = z expf f (z )g: Then g is analyti in D and
satises
g0(z ) = [1 zf 0(z )℄ expf f (z )g = 0 for all z 2 D:
By Theorem 3.31, g is a onstant, say k. Thus, z expf f (z )g = k for all
z 2 D: Sin e expff (a)g = a, we must have k = 1.
3.5 Logarithmi Fun tions 125

3.107. Example. We now demonstrate that there an be no bran h

of logarithm in the domain
= C n f0g. This fa t an be proved by a
number of ways.
Suppose on the ontrary that f (z ) is a bran h of log z in
. The restri -
tion of f to the slit plane D = C n ( 1; 0℄ is then a bran h of logarithm
in D . As Log z is the prin ipal bran h in D , Theorem 3.103 shows that
for z 2 D , f must be of the form
f (z ) = Log z + 2ki
for some k 2 Z. But then, f being analyti in
, f is ontinuous at x0 < 0
so that
f (x0 ) = lim
y !0
f (x0 + iy) = ylim
!0 Log (x0 + iy ) + 2ki = (2k + 1)i
y>0 y>0

and
f (x0 ) = lim
y !0
f (x0 + iy) = ylim
!0 Log (x0 + iy ) + 2ki = (2k 1)i
y<0 y<0

whi h is a ontradi tion. Thus, no su h f an exist. 

It follows from Theorem 3.105 that every bran h f of log z in D is
innitely dierentiable in D. A natural question is whether f an be rep-
resented by a power series valid in appropriate disks in D. For example,
the following result onveniently stated in a dierent form shows that
X ( 1)n 1
Log z = (z 1)n for jz 1j < 1:
n1 n
P n =n)
3.108. Theorem. In the unit disk
, the power series n1 (z
represents the logarithmi fun tion Log (1 z ).

Proof. Let f (z ) = Log (1 z ). Note that the radius of onvergen e

of the given series is 1 and so by Theorem 3.71, it represents an analyti
fun tion, say g(z ), in the unit disk
= fz : jz j < 1g. Then, as we have seen
earlier, f 0(z ) = (1 z ) 1 and sin e the power series an be dierentiated
term-by-term for z 2
, by Theorem 3.71, we must have
X 1
g0 (z ) = zn 1 =
n1 1 z

so that f 0(z ) g0 (z ) = 0: Therefore, by Theorem 3.31, f g is onstant in

. Sin e f (0) = Log 1 = 0 = g(0), it follows that f (z ) g(z ) = 0 in
.
126 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series
y
<1
|z − 4| ut
chc
an
br

O 4 5 x

Figure 3.5: Choosing suitable bran h.

3.109. Example. Suppose we wish determine the sum of the series

1+ 1
P
n=2 (z 4) =n. We know that the series onverges for jz 4j < 1 and
n
so, we may let its sum by f (z ):
X1 1
f (z ) = 1 + (z 4)n ; jz 4j < 1:
n=2 n
The term-by-term dierentiation gives
X1 z 4 1
f 0(z ) = (z 4)n 1 = = 1+ ; jz 4j < 1:
n=2 1 (z 4) 5 z
Antiderivative gives
f (z ) = z log (5 z ) +
where the bran h ut must lie to the right of the disk jz 4j < 1, i.e. in the
half-plane Re z > 5 (see Figure 3.5). As f (4) = 1, we see that = 5+log 1
whi h gives
f (z ) = (z 5) log (5 z ) + log 1:
For instan e if  = 0, then log0 1 = ln 1 + iArg 1 = 0. In this hoi e, we get
f (z ) = (z 5) Log (5 z ): 
We on lude this se tion with a dis ussion on the generalized `power
fun tions'. Given 0 6= z 2 C , the prin ipal value of z a, i.e. the a-th power
of z , is dened by z a = exp(a Log z ) and this is what most mathemati ians
mean by z a on most o asions, espe ially if z is real and positive. The
other values of z a ould be obtained from exp(a log z ) in whi h ase z a is
multi-valued be ause arg z (and hen e log z ) is multiple-valued.
When a is an integer, exp(a log z ) = z a is single-valued. For let a = n,
n an integer. Then, be ause log z = ln jz j + i(Arg z + 2k).
z a = en[ln jzj+i(+2k)℄ ( = Arg z; k 2 Z)
= en Log z ei2(kn) = en Log z ;
3.5 Logarithmi Fun tions 127

and hen e z a produ es the single point. Note that Log z is single-valued.
Conversely, z a is single-valued only if a is an integer.
When a is a real rational number with the redu ed form m=n, then
p a log z ) produ es exa tly n distin t values and may be represented as
exp(
 n z m as in Remark 1.25. For,
z a = e(m=n)[ Log z+i2k℄ = e(m=n) Log z ei(m=n)2k ; k 2 Z
and sin e e(m=n) Log z is single-valued and ei(m=n)2k are the n-th roots
of unity, we infer that z a has exa tly n values orresponding to k =
0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1.
When a is an irrational (real) number or an imaginary number, then z a
is innite-valued. That is the set of all values of z a is an innite set. For
example,
p p p
1 2 = expf 2( Log 1 + i2k)g = e2 2ki ; k 2 Z:
The values orresponding to dierent k's are distin t.
As another example all the values of ii are obtained from the expression
expfi( Log i + 2ki)g = expfi((i=2) + 2ki)g = e (4k+1)=2 ;

where k 2 Z, and so e =2 is the prin ipal value of ii . Similarly, all the
values of ( i)i and i1= are obtained from
( i)i = e (4k 1)=2 and i1= = ei(4k+1)=2 ;
where k 2 Z, respe tively.
We emphasize that the prin ipal bran h and other bran hes of z a are
obtained from Log z and log z , respe tively. Dierent bran hes of log z
yields dierent bran hes of z a. For instan e, z a = ea Log z denes a prin ipal
bran h of z a whi h is analyti in D = C n fz : z = x; x  0g. More
generally, we have
3.110. Theorem. If we hoose f dened by (3.99) to be a bran h
of log z , then, in the ut plane D , (z a )0 = az a 1 (same bran hes).
Proof. By hypothesis, z a = exp(af (z )) is analyti in the ut plane
D , where  2 R is xed. By the Chain rule
d a a  a 
(z ) = eaf (z) = eaf (z) f (z) = ae(a 1)f (z) = az a 1
dz z e
whi h gives the result.
3.111. Corollary.
For n 2 N , z 1=n is analyti in the domain of a
0
bran h of log z and z 1=n = (1=n)z 1=n 1 :
128 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

Observe that if a = 1=n (n  2), then

  n
1
exp f (z ) = exp(f (z )) = z
n
making exp ((1=n)f(z )) a bran h of the n-th root fun tion in D , the
bran h of the n-th root fun tion in D asso iated with f (z ). A proof
similar to Theorem 3.108 gives
3.112. Theorem. (Binomial Series) For z 2
= fz : jz j < 1g,
X a(a 1)


(a n + 1) n
(1 + z )a = 1 + z ;
n1
n!
where a is an arbitrary omplex number.
Proof. Sin e the radius of onvergen e of the series is 1, the sum on-
verges for all z 2
(and denes an analyti fun tion in
). Call it f (z ).
Now the power series an be dierentiated term-by-term. Thus,
(1 + z )f 0 (z ) = af (z ):
Further the fun tion (1 + z )a = expfa Log (1 + z )g is well-dened and
analyti in the unit disk
. Let
f (z )
g (z ) = = f (z ) expf a Log (1 + z )g:
(1 + z )a
Thus, g is analyti in
and
a
g0 (z ) = f 0 (z ) expf a Log (1 + z )g f (z ) expf a Log (1 + z )g
 
1 + z
a
= expf a Log (1 + z )g f 0 (z ) f (z ) = 0:
1+z
Theorem 3.31(i) gives that g(z ) is onstant in
. So, f (z ) = k(1 + z )a ;
where k is some onstant. Sin e f (0) = 1 and sin e 1a = ea Log 1 = e0 = 1,
it follows that k = 1. This proves the theorem.
Note. Unless otherwise stated expli itly, from now onwards, z a will
denote the value of expfa Log z g. Further, in the parti ular ase z = e the
expression z a  ea is single-valued for all values of a, sin e ea = eRe a+i Im a
is dened to be
ea Log e = e(Re a+iIm a) Log e = eRe a Log e ( os(Im a Log e)+i sin(Im a Log e));
whi h is learly a unique omplex number. This note is to aution the
reader when omparing with Euler's notation (see Equation (3.81)).
3.6 Inverse Fun tions 129

3.6 Inverse Fun tions

The inverse trigonometri fun tion w = trig 1 z or ar trig z is dened by
the equation
(3.113) z = trig w:
Similarly we dene the inverse hyperboli fun tion w = hyp 1 z or ar hyp z
by the equation
(3.114) z = hyp w:
Here `trig w' (\hyp w") denotes any of the trigonometri (hyperboli ) fun -
tions sin w; os w et . (sinh w; osh w, et .). Re all that, as ez is 2i-
periodi , dening the logarithm fun tion as its inverse led to a multivalued
fun tion. As trigonometri and hyperboli fun tions are periodi , it is nat-
ural to expe t a similar situation when we dene their inverses. Indeed, we
will see that the fun tions w dened by the equations (3.113) and (3.114)
are multiple-valued, sin e trig and hyp fun tions are periodi . For instan e,
the fa t that
os w = os( w)
shows that the rst and third quadrants, and the se ond and fourth quad-
rants map into the same regions by the osine. First, we wish to show
that given a omplex number z , there exist innitely many solutions of
z = sin w: To nd w, in terms of z , we note that
eiw e iw
z= ; i.e. (eiw )2 2izeiw 1 = 0;
2i
whi h is a quadrati equation in eiw . Note that eiw 6= 0. Solving for eiw ,
we have
eiw = iz + Zj ; j = 1; 2;
where Z1 and Z2 denote the two numbers su h that Z12 = Z22 = 1 z 2 .
Therefore,
1
w = log(iz + Zj ); j = 1; 2
i
(This also gives that sin(C ) = C ). This fun tion is alled the inverse sine
fun tion and is denoted by sin 1 (z ) := ar sin z :
p
(3.115) w = sin 1 (z ) = i log(iz  1 z 2 ):
For instan e, if z = 0, (3.115) be omes w = i log(1): If we sele t +1
and the prin ipal value for log 1, we have w = 0 and if we sele t 1 and
prin ipal value for log( 1), we have w = i. Therefore if Z denotes any
of the two values Z1; Z2 ;
sin w = sin( i log(iz + Z ))
exp(log(iz + Z )) exp( log(iz + Z ))
=
 2i 
1 1
= (iz + Z ) = z:
2i iz + Z
130 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

Note that log 1 = 2ki and log( 1) = i + 2ki (k 2 Z) also leads us to

sin w = z . This shows that any of the values
i log(iz + Z1 ) + 2k; i log(iz + Z2 ) + 2k (k 2 Z)
are the values and the only values of sin 1 z . Be ause of this, for a given
z , there are an innite number of solutions for the equation z = sin w (and
so for (3.113) and (3.114) in general). For instan e,
p p
sin 1 (i) = i log( 1  2) = i[ Log ( 1  2) + 2ki℄; k 2 Z;
so that
( p
1 (i) = i[ln(1 + p2) + (2k + 1)i℄ orresponding to sign,
sin
i[ln(1=( 2 + 1)) + 2ki℄ orresponding to + sign:
Therefore (sin e ln(1=jxj) = ln jxj),
p
sin 1 (i) = i( 1)k ln( 2 + 1) + k; k 2 Z:
Similarly, all possible values of w = sin 1 (2) are given by
1h p i p
w= ln(2  3) + i(=2 + 2k) = (2k + 1=2)  i ln(2 + 3); k 2 Z
i
p p p p
(Note that (2 + 3)(2 3) = 1 and so ln(2 3) = ln(2 + 3)).
The idea used to derive the values of sin 1 z would help us to derive the
following:
p p
os 1 z = i log(z  z 2 1) = i log(z + i 1 z 2 )
 
1 1 + iz
tan 1 z = log
2i 1 iz
p
sinh 1 z = log(z + z 2 + 1)
p
osh 1 z = log(z + z 2 1)
 
1 1+z
tanh 1 z = log ;
2 1 z
p p
where z 2 1, 1 z 2 stands for one of the omplex numbers Z su h that
Z 2 = z 2 1 or Z 2 = 1 z 2 as the ase may be. Besides `=' signies one of
the values.
The inverse trig and hyp fun tions an be made single-valued by hoos-
ing a parti ular bran h of the log fun tion (and the parti ular bran h of
the square root fun tion if ne essary). When the prin ipal bran h of log is
hosen in the formulas trig 1 and hyp 1 , the resulting single-valued fun -
tion is alled the prin ipal bran h of trig 1 and hyp 1 , respe tively. For
3.7 Exer ises 131
p
example, with 1 z 2 = exp((1=2) Log (1 z 2)) the prin ipal square root
fun tion, we have
p
Sin 1 z := Ar sin z = i Log (iz + 1 z 2 );
is alled the prin ipal bran h of sin 1 z := ar sin z . The derivatives of the
(single-valued) inverse trig and hyp fun tions an be obtained from the
above formulas or from dierentiating z = trig w and z = hyp w impli itly
(see Exer ise 3.141).

3.7 Exer ises

3.116. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true
or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) The fun tion f : D ! C is analyti at z0 2 D if and only if there is
a Æ > 0 su h that if fzng is a sequen e in
(z0 ; Æ) nfz0 g with zn ! z0 ,
then
f (zn ) f (z0)
lim
n!1
= f 0 (z0 ):
zn z0
(b) The fun tion f (x + iy) = x3 + ax2 y + bxy2 + y3 is analyti in C only
if a = 3i, b = 3 and = i.
( ) If f = u + iv is analyti in a domain D su h that au + bv is onstant,
where a, b are real onstants (not both zero), then f is onstant.
(d) Let D be a domain in C and D = fz 2 C : z 2 Dg. Then, f 2 H(D)
i g 2 H(D), where g(z ) = f (z ) = f (z).
n
X
(e) Let fj (j = 1; 2; : : : ; n) be analyti in a domain D su h that jfj (z )j2
j =1
is onstant in D. Then ea h fj is a onstant fun tion.
(f) If u is a real-valued fun tion in a disk
R su h that u 1 +iu is analyti
in
R , then u is onstant throughout the disk.
(g) There exists a homeomorphism (bije tive and bi ontinuous map) be-
tween the unit disk
and the upper half-plane.
(h) The mean value theorem of a real-valued fun tion of a real variable
does not hold in general for omplex-valued fun tions.
(i) A real-valued fun tion u in domain D annot be analyti in D unless
it is a onstant fun tion.
(j) There exists a non- onstant real-valued fun tion u in an open set D
whi h is analyti in D.
(k) The fun tion f (x + iy) = x2 y2 + x + i(2xy + y) represents an analyti
fun tion in C whereas g(x + iy) = x2 + y2 + x + i(2xy + y) is not.
132 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

(l) If f and g are fun tions that satisfy the C-R equations at a point
a 2 C , then f + g and fg also satisfy the C-R equations at a.
(m) The fun tion f dened by
8
Im (z 2 )
<
if z 6= 0
f (z ) = u + iv = z
:
0 if z = 0
satises the C-R equations at the origin, yet it is not dierentiable
there.
(n) The fun tion f dened by

f (z ) = exp( 01=z 4) ifif zz = 0
6= 0
is not ontinuous at the origin but satises the C-R equations at the
origin.
(o) The fun tion f (z ) is analyti in a domain D i both real and imagi-
nary parts of f (z ) and zf (z ) are harmoni in D.
(p) If
is a domain whi h is symmetri about the real axis and if f is dif-
ferentiable at a 2
as well as at a 2
, then f (z) is not dierentiable
at a.
(q) The fun tion f (x + iy) = x3 + i(y 1)3 is nowhere analyti but is
ontinuous in C and dierentiable on fx + iy : x + y = 1g [ fx + iy :
x y = 1g.
(r) An entire fun tion f su h that f (x + iy) = u(x) + iv(y) must be of
the form f (z ) = z +  with  2 R and  2 C .
(s) If f = u + iv and g = u + iV are two analyti fun tions dened in a
domain
, then Im (f g) is ne essarily a onstant.
(t) If f (z ) and f (z ) are analyti fun tions in a domain, then f is ne es-
sarily a onstant.
(u) There exist no analyti fun tions f su h that Re f (z ) = y2 2x.
(v) There exist no analyti fun tions f su h that Im f (z ) = x3 y3 .
(w) An analyti fun tion f = u + iv in a domain
su h that v = u2 is
ne essarily a onstant.
(x) A real-valued fun tion u(x; y) is harmoni in D i u(x; y) is har-
moni in D.
(y) If f : D ! D0 is analyti and u : D0 ! R is harmoni , then the
omposition u Æ f is harmoni in D.
Note: If u(x; y) is harmoni in R2 , then u(x2 y2 ; 2xy) is harmoni
in R2 . Similarly, if f : D ! C n f0g is analyti then log jf (z )j is
harmoni in D. In parti ular, if f (z ) = z then log jz j is harmoni in
C n f0g.
3.7 Exer ises 133

(z) Let ffn (z )g be a sequen e of analyti fun tions in a domain D su h

that fn ! f uniformly in D. Then, fn0 ! f 0 uniformly in D.
3.117. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is
true or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexam-
ple.
(a) limn!1 (n!)1=n = 1.
(b) If an  0, bn  0 and bn ! b, then lim sup an bn = b lim sup an :
n!1 n!1
( ) The set of all power series with positive radius of onvergen e forms
a ve tor spa e over the eld C .
(d) A power series has an anti-derivative everywhere inside its disk of
onvergen e.
P
(e) If R is the radius of onvergen e of n0 an zpn , then the radii of on-
P P
vergen e of n0 an z 2n and n0 a2n z n are R and R2, respe tively.
P
(f) The radius of onvergen e of n0 (Re aP n )z n is always greater than
or equal to the radius of onvergen e of n0 an z n.
P kn
(g) If k  1 is a xed positive integer, then the series n1 zn onverges
for jz j = 1 ex ept when z = !j , j = 0; 1; : : : ; k 1, the k-th roots of
unity.
P n
(h) The radius of onvergen e of the series n1 n((n1)+1) z n(n+1) is 1.
P
(i) The series n0 ((z +1)=(z 1))n onverges for Re z  0 and diverges
for Re z > 0.  
(j) The series 1
P z n onverges for Re z < 1=2.
n=0 1 z
 n 4
(k) The series 1 z + n onverges for jz j > 1 and diverges every-
P
n=0 n! zn
where else.
Ea h of the series 1
P nzn P1 zn
(l) n=1 1 zn and n=1 (1 zn )2 onverges uniformly
in the losed disk jz j  r, r 2 (0; 1). The two series are a tually the
same.
(m) If f is analyti in a domain D and if a; b are onstants, then f (z ) =
aebz and f 0 (z ) = bf (z ) are equivalent statements in D.
(n) ez assumes all values ex ept zero; i.e., the equation ez = ! is solvable
for any 0 6= ! 2 C .
(o) For z = x + iy,
(i) ez > 0 when y is an even multiple of 
(ii) ez < 0 when y is an odd multiple of 
(iii) ez is purely imaginary when y is an odd multiple of =2
(iv) jeiz j < 1 when y > 0
134 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

(v) jeiz j > 1 when y < 0

(vi) jez 1j  ejzj 1  jz jejzj for any z 2 C
(vii) j exp(z 2 )j  exp(jz j2 )
(viii) j sin z j2 + j os z j2 = 1 () z = x, a real.
(p) For z = x + iy,
 
os
sinh y   (x  iy)  osh y:
sin
(q) If f is any one of the six hyperboli ( ir ular) fun tions, then, for all
z 2 C , f (z ) = f (z).
(r) Ea h of the trigonometri , hyperboli fun tions os z , sin z , osh z and
sinh z takes every value 2 C ountably many times.
(s) For x real, os 1 (x) + sin 1 (x) = =2:
(t) The roots of the equation tan z + ot z = 2 are at z = (4k + 1)=4,
k 2 Z.
(u) If f (z ) = e1=z , then jf (z )j is onstant on jz rj = r (r > 0).
(v) If z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn 2 C su h that ReQ(zk ) > 0 and
P Re (z1


zk ) > 0 for
ea h k = 1; 2; : : : ; n, then Log ( nk=1 zk ) = nk=1 Log zk .
(w) Re z 1=2 > 0 for all z 2 C n f0g.
(x) If f (z ) = z i = ei Log z (prin ipal bran h is hosen), then there exists
a onstant C > 0 su h jf (z )j  C for all z in the domain of denition
of f .
Note: What happens if i in this problem is repla ed by ib, where b
is nite real number.
(y) There does not exist an analyti fun tion f in a neighborhood of 0
whose square is z .
(z) For z = rei with  2 ( ; ), we have jz aj  jz jRe a ejIm aj.
3.118. Let f (z ) = x2 + iy2. Does it satisfy the C-R equations at the
origin? Is f dierentiable at the origin? Is f analyti at the origin?
3.119. If f (z ) = jx2 y2 j + 2ijxyj, then show that

f (z ) = z 2 if 0 < Arg z < =4 and  < Arg z < 3=4
z 2 if =2 < Arg z < 3=4 and =2 < Arg z < =4.
3.120. An entire fun tion f = u+iv has the feature that uxvy uy vx =
1 in C . Demonstrate that f has the form f (z ) = az + b, where a and b are
some onstants with jaj = 1.
3.121. Suppose that f = u + iv is entire su h that ux + vy = 0 in
C . Demonstrate that f has the form f (z ) = az + b where a; b are some
onstants with Re a = 0.
3.7 Exer ises 135

3.122. Suppose that f (z ) is dened in the unit disk
su h that both

f 2 (z ) and f 3 (z ) are analyti in
. Prove or disprove that f (z ) is analyti
in
.

3.123. If f is analyti in a neighborhood N of the origin su h that

f (z1 + z2 ) = f (z1) + f (z2 ) for all z1 ; z2 2 N , then show that f (z ) = az for
some omplex onstant a.

3.124. If a 2 R, then show that u(x; y) = e 2axy os a(x2 y2 ) is

harmoni in R2 . Find all its harmoni onjugates v(x; y) in R2 . Write
f = u + iv as a fun tion of z with f (0) = 1.
3.125. If f 2 H(
) and jf j is harmoni in
, then show that f is a
onstant fun tion.

3.126. Is it always possible to nd a fun tion v whi h is a harmoni

onjugate to u in the same domain where u is harmoni ? Justify your
answer by giving an example.

3.127.
P Let R1 and R2 be the P radius of onvergen e of the power series
f (z ) = n0 an z n and g(z ) = n0 bn z n, respe tively. Find the radius of
onvergen e
P of f (z )  gP
(z ) and f (z )g(z ). Also nd the radius of onvergen e
of n0 n an z n , and n0 n an z n ; where  > 0.

3.128. Find the region of onvergen e and uniform onvergen e of the

series:
X  z n X zn
(i) (ii) 2n :
n0 1 + z n0 1 + z

3.129. If f (z ) = z (1 z ) 2, then use the relation (1 z )2 f (z ) = z to

ompute the Ma laurin series of f (z ).

3.130. We know that f (z ) = ez is a solution of the dierential

0
equation f (z ) f (z ) = 0. Suppose that g is a solution of the rst order
dierential equation g0 (2z ) + g(z ) = 0 su h that g is analyti at 0. Then
show that g is entire.

3.131. Let a 2 R be xed. Find the set of z 2 C for whi h

P1 i(z2 +a)
n=1 n
represents an analyti fun tion.

3.132. Using the `-Æ' denition verify the ontinuity of f (z ) = z 2 at

z0 2 C . For z 6= 0, letpz = rei (r = jz j;  =pArg z ). Find the region of
ontinuity for g1 (z ) = rei=2 and g2 (z ) = i rei=2 .
136 Analyti Fun tions and Power Series

3.133. If z1 and z2 satisfy one of the following onditions

(a) Re z1 > 0, Re z2 > 0 ( ) Im (z1 z2 ) > 0; Im (z1 z2)  0
(b) Im z1 < 0 < Im z2 (d) Im (z1 z2 ) < 0; Im z2 < 0;
then show that z1az2a = (z1 z2)a (Assume that all the powers involved have
their prin ipal values). pz z = p( 1)( 1) = p1 = 1 whereas
Note:
pz pz If=z1p= 11p= z12 == i 1,
i then 1 2
1 2 = 1. Thus, one needs to be areful when
performing algebrai manipulations with real/ omplex powers.
3.134. Let z 62 ( 1; 0℄. Using the prin ipal logarithms on ea h side,
show that z a = (z)a :
3.135. Suppose f (z ) = z z . Using the prin ipal logarithm nd f 0 (z ),
0
f (i), Re f (z ) and Im f (z ).
3.136. Let a be a onstant. Consider the prin ipal value of z a and a
non-prin ipal value of z a.
(a) In general, is z az a = 1 always true?
(b) Suppose the prin ipal values of both z a and z a are used. Is z az a =
1 true?
3.137. Let F (z ) be the bran h of the fun tion (z + i)1=4 su h that
F (1) equals the value 21=8ei=16 . Find F (0), F (i) and F ( 1).
3.138. Find all the values of log(z 1=2) and log(z 1=3 ) in Cartesian form.
3.139. At what points is ea h of the fun tions Log (1 z 2), Log (1+z 2 ),
Log (1 iz 2), Log (1 + iz 2), analyti ? Explain.
3.140. If f (z ) is the prin ipal bran h of z 1=3 , nd f 0 ( 1 i).
3.141. Prove the following formulas for the inverse trigonometri fun -
tions:
d
1 d
1
Ar sin 1 z = p ; Ar sinh 1 z = p 2
dz 1 z 2 dz z 1
d
1 d
1
Ar os 1 z = p ; Ar osh 1 z = p 2
dz 1 z 2 dz z 1
d 1
1 d 1
1
Ar tan z = ; Ar tanh z = :
dz 1 + z2 dz 1 z2
3.142. Find all solutions of
(a) ez = 2i (b) ez = 1 + i ( ) sin z = 2:
Chapter 4

Complex Integration

The purpose of Se tion 4.1 is to develop the te hni al ma hinery that is

required to introdu e the omplex line integral, also alled the ontour
integral. In Se tion 4.2, we dene the omplex line integral and dis uss
some basi properties and examples of omplex line integrals. In Se tion
4.5, we present a powerful on ept of \the number of times" a losed ontour
winds around a point. In Se tion 4.7, we show that every analyti fun tion
in a simply onne ted domain possesses derivatives of all orders. As a
onsequen e, in Se tion 4.10, we dis uss ertain important properties of
analyti fun tions. For example, every analyti fun tion whi h is analyti
at a point a an be expressed as a Taylor series in the `vi inity of a' and
as an appli ation of the integral representation for the Taylor oeÆ ient an
of f , we obtain an estimate for an . We present the Uniqueness/Identity
theorem in Se tion 4.11. Se tion 4.12 fo uses on Laurent series whi h is
a tually a natural generalization of the Taylor's series where the enter of
expansion is not a point of analyti ity. Essentially, our eort is to nd a
Laurent series expansion for a fun tion that is analyti in an annulus region
fz : r < jz j < Rg.
4.1 Curves in the Complex Plane
A ontinuous urve (or simply a urve or a path) in C is a ontinuous
mapping from a losed interval [a; b℄, a < b, a; b 2 R, into C . Here the
points (a) and (b) are alled initial and terminal points of the urve,
respe tively. A parametri representation of a ontinuous urve is given
by
(t) = x(t) + iy(t); t 2 [a; b℄;
where x(t) and y(t) are ontinuous real-valued fun tions on [a; b℄. Here the
interval [a; b℄ is alled a parametri interval of . A urve with parametri
interval [a; b℄ su h that (a) = (b) is alled a losed urve. If (t) is one-
138 Complex Integration

to-one, that is, for t1 ; t2 in [a; b℄ with t1 6= t2 we have (t1 ) 6= (t2 ), we

all the urve a Jordan ar . For example, (t) = eit ; t 2 [0; ℄, is a Jordan
ar . A Jordan ar su h that (a) = (b), is alled a Jordan urve.8 A
domain D bounded by a Jordan urve is alled a Jordan domain. With this
notation, we refer to the point (t) as \a point on the urve ", although
stri tly speaking, (t) is on the image of the mapping in C :
([a; b℄) = f (t) : t 2 [a; b℄g:
So, we regard a urve as the range of a ontinuous omplex fun tion dened
on the interval [a; b℄. If [a; b℄ and [ ; d℄ are two losed bounded intervals in
R, then (by letting (t) = At + B with (a) = and (b) = d and then
solving for A and B ) we observe that : [a; b℄ ! [ ; d℄ dened by
d ad b
(t) = t+ ; t 2 [a; b℄;
a b a b
is a bije tive and bi ontinuous map of [a; b℄ onto [ ; d℄. If : [ ; d℄ ! C is a
urve with parametri interval [ ; d℄, then Æ is a path with parametri
interval [a; b℄, whose image is the same as that of . Thus, we an make a
hoi e of the parametri interval at our onvenien e.
Note that it is possible for two dierent urves to have the same image.
For instan e, 1 and 2 dened by
1 (t) = 2t(1 + i); 0  t  1=2; and 2 (t) = t2 (1 + i); 0  t  1;
both represent the same straight line segment [0; 1 + i℄ in C . If we let
3 (t) = eit and 4 (t) = e2it , then we see that the images 3 ([0; 2℄) and
4 ([0; 2℄) are the same in ea h ase. But they represent dierent urves.
If a urve : [a; b℄ ! C is given by (t) = x(t) + iy(t); t 2 [a; b℄, then
the opposite/reverse urve of is dened by
( )(t) = (a + b t); a  t  b:
Thus des ribes the same urve as , but in the \reverse dire tion"
with the initial and terminal points inter hanged. For example, let (t) =
eit ; 0  t  : If t varies from 0 to , then (t) des ribes the upper half
of the unit ir le jz j = 1 with initial point (0) = 1 and terminal point
() = 1. Therefore, the reverse urve of is dened by
( )(t) = ( t); 0  t  ;
with starting point ( )(0) = 1 and terminal point ( )( ) = 1.
8 A prominent result used in the theory of omplex variables is the elebrated Jordan
Curve Theorem whi h says that every Jordan urve divides the omplex plane into
two parts, the interior and the exterior of . For this deep result, for instan e we refer to
M.H.A. Newman, Elements of topology of the plane sets of points, Cambridge University
Press, London, 1964.
4.1 Curves in the Complex Plane 139

(t )
γ2
γ2 (d)

γ1 (t)
γ1

γ2
γ1 (b) = γ2 (c)

a t b γ1 (a) c t d

Figure 4.1: Sum 1 + 2 .

If 1 , 2 are two urves with [a; b℄ as their parametri interval, then 1

and 2 dened by
   
a+b a+b
1 (t) = 1 (2t a); t 2 a; ; 2 (t) = 2 (2t b); t 2 ;b
2 2
also dene same urves, and
   
a+b a+b
1 = 1 (b); 2 = 2 (a):
2 2
If 1 , 2 are su h that 1 (b) = 2 (a), then we an dene a ontinuous
fun tion 1 + 2 ( 1 [ 2 ) on [a; b℄ by
 
(t) if t 2 [a; (a + b)=2℄
1 + 2 = 1
2 (t) if t 2 [(a + b)=2; b℄:
Thus, the formal sum 1 + 2 is said to represent the sum or union or join
of 1 and 2 . Roughly speaking, 1 + 2 onsists of the points of 1 followed
by those of 2 . Similarly, 1 2 is dened to be 1 + ( 2 ). For instan e,
if, for a xed r > 0,
1 : 1 (t) = rt (0  t  1) and 2 : 2 (t) = reit (0  t  3=2);
then, with the notation = 1 + 2 (see Figures 4.2 and 4.1), we write

rt for 0  t  1
1 + 2 : (t) = 1) for 1  t  3(=2) + 1:
rei(t
A urve : [a; b℄ ! C an be written, sin e we an hoose the parametri
interval onveniently, equivalently in the form
e : [0; 1℄ ! C ; i.e. e(t) = (a + (b a)t); t 2 [0; 1℄:
140 Complex Integration

γ2 (t)
γ2
r = γ1 (1) = γ2 (0)

3π


γ2 2
0 t 3π 0 1
2

Figure 4.2: Sum of two urves 1 , 2 .

A polygon with verti es z0 ; z1 ; z3 ; : : : ; zn is parameterized by

k (t) = (k + 1 t)zk + (t k)zk+1 ; t 2 [k; k + 1℄;
where 0  k  n 1 and = 0 + 1 +


+ n 1 .
A urve dened on [a; b℄ is alled simple if it does not interse t itself,
that is, if (t1 ) 6= (t2 ) for t1 6= t2 , where the possible ex eption (a) = (b)
is allowed. In the latter ase the urve is said to be a simple losed urve.
For example, ir les, ellipses, re tangles, and triangles are simple losed
urves. For instan e, urve dened by (t) = os t (   t  ) is the
segment [ 1; 1℄ traversed twi e from 1 to 1 and then from 1 to 1, and
therefore onsidered as a losed urve. But ea h point of [ 1; 1℄ is a self
interse tion point for the urve so that it is not simple. Note that a simple
losed urve is a Jordan urve.
Now we shall deal with ontinuously dierentiable urves.
4.1. Denition. A urve : [a; b℄ ! C is said to be ontinuously
dierentiable on [a; b℄ or a urve of lass C 1 on [a; b℄ or simply a C 1 - urve
on [a; b℄ if the fun tion (t) = x(t) + iy(t) is ontinuously dierentiable on
[a; b℄, i.e. x0 (t) and y0 (t) exist on [a; b℄ and are ontinuous fun tions on [a; b℄
(Note that (t) is dierentiable on [a; b℄ means that 0 (t) exists on (a; b),
and
(a + h) (a) (b + h) (b)
lim ; lim
h!0+ h h!0 h
both exist. We denote these limits by (a+) (or +0 (a)) and 0 (b ) (or
0
0 (b)), respe tively. We all 0 (a+) and 0 (b ) as the right-hand deriva-
tive at a and the left-hand derivative at b, respe tively). A ontinuously
dierentiable urve is referred to as a smooth urve.9
For example, (t) = t3 , t 2 [ 1; 1℄, is a Jordan ar of lass C 1 , sin e
1  s < t  1 implies (s) < (t)
9 While dening "smooth urve" some authors insist an additional ondition that
0 (t) =
6 0 on [a; b℄. So the reader is advised to be aware of this in onsisten y while
referring other texts in omplex variables.
4.1 Curves in the Complex Plane 141

γ (b)
γ (t3 )
γ (t)
γ (t2 )

γ (t1 )

a t1 t2 t3 b γ (a)

Figure 4.3: Des ription for pie ewise C 1 urve.

and (t) is a dierentiable fun tion of t on [ 1; 1℄. Similarly, (t) = t3 + it2,

t 2 [ 1; 1℄, is also a Jordan ar of lass C 1 , sin e (t) is a ontinuously
dierentiable fun tion of t on [ 1; 1℄ and
p p
1  s < t  1 implies j (s)j = s6 + s4 < t6 + t4 = j (t)j:
Further, the line segment [z1 ; z2 ℄ from z1 to z2 parameterized by
(t) = (1 t)z1 + tz2; t 2 [0; 1℄;
is ontinuously dierentiable. Similarly, the ir ular ar parameterized by
(t) = z0 + reit ; t 2 [a; b℄  [0; 2℄;
is ontinuously dierentiable. The ase a = 0 and b = 2 yields a ir le
with enter z0 and radius r.
A urve (t); a  t  b, is alled pie ewise C 1 (or pie ewise smooth
urve) if there is a subdivision a = t0 < t1 <


< tj


< tn = b of
the interval [a; b℄ su h that the restri tion of to ea h subinterval [tj ; tj+1 ℄,
0  j  n 1 is a smooth urve (see Figures 4.3). A ontour is just a
ontinuous urve that is pie ewise smooth. Given a domain D in C and
two points z1 and z2 in D (need not be distin t), there exists a ontour in
D with initial point z1 and terminal point z2 . This fa t is lear be ause
any two points in D an be onne ted by a polygonal path in D.
Consider (t) = t + ijtj; t 2 [ 1; 1℄: Then (see Figure 4.4)

t it if t 2 [ 1; 0℄
(t) =
t + it if t 2 [0; 1℄:
It is easy to see that the restri tions of to [ 1; 0℄ and to [0; 1℄ are smooth,
even though is not smooth be ause 0 (t) fails to exist at t = 0. Note that
0 (t) is dis ontinuous at 0 but is pie ewise ontinuously dierentiable,
sin e 0 (t) = 1 i on [ 1; 0) and 0 (t) = 1 + i on (0; 1℄. A ordingly, is a
pie ewise smooth urve.
142 Complex Integration

y(t)
z(−1) = −1 + i z(1) = 1 + i

−1 1 −1 O 1 x(t)

Figure 4.4: The urve z (t) = t + ijtj; t 2 [ 1; 1℄.

4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals

We assume the following fa ts from real analysis: if a Rreal-valued fun tion
F is ontinuous on [a; b℄, then the Riemann integral ab F (t) dt exists. It
is a trivial exer ise to extend this denition for a ontinuous fun tion F :
[a; b℄ ! C , where F = U + iV . Indeed,
Z b Z b Z b
F (t) dt = U (t) dt + i V (t) dt:
a a a
A omplex-valued fun tion f is said to be ontinuous on a ontinuously
dierentiable urve : [a; b℄ ! C (or more generally on a ontour) if
(t) = f (z ) = f ( (t)) = u(t) + iv(t) is ontinuous for a  t  b.
Suppose f is a omplex-valued fun tion that is ontinuous on an open
set D  C and that : [a; b℄ ! C is a ontour with ([a; b℄)  D. We
dene the omplex
R line integral or ontour integral of f along the ontour
, denoted by f (z ) dz , as follows:
Z Z b X n 1 Z tj+1
(4.2) f (z ) dz = f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt = f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt;
a j =0 tj
where a = t0 < t1 <


< tn 1 < tn = b, and [tj ; tj+1 ℄, j = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1,
being the intervals in whi h is dierentiable, and the integrals in the sum
are Riemann integrals. The ontour is alled the path of integration of
the ontour integral. Note that the produ t given by F (t) = f ( (t)) 0 (t) is
pie ewise ontinuous on [a; b℄. So the se ond integral in (4.2) is well-dened.
For example, if (t) = a+reit is a ir le, then for an arbitrary ontinuous
fun tion f dened on : jz aj = r,
Z Z 2
f (z ) dz = f (a + reit )ireit dt:
jz aj=r 0
In the most important spe ial ase, namely, f (z ) = (z a) 1 , we easily
have Z Z 2
ireit
f (z ) dz = it dt = 2i:
jz aj=r 0 re
4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals 143

Note that the expression under the integral sign on the right of (4.2) an
be obtained by the formal substitution
z = (t); dz = 0 (t) dt:
If f = u + iv and z = x + iy, x; y; u; v being real-valued, i.e.
f ( (t)) = f (x(t) + iy(t)) = u(x(t); y(t)) + iv(x(t); y(t));
then (4.2) is really
Z nX1 (Z tj+1
f (z ) dz = [u(x(t); y(t))x0 (t) v(x(t); y(t))y0 (t)℄ dt
j =0 tj
Z tj+1 )
+i [v(x(t); y(t))x0 (t) + u(x(t); y(t))y0 (t)℄ dt :
tj

Using a hange of variable in the denition of the Riemann integral, one

has
Z Z Z
f (z ) dz = [u(x; y) dx v(x; y) dy℄ + i [u(x; y) dy + v(x; y) dx℄;

sin e 0 (t) = x0 (t) + iy0(t). In the above equality it is ta itly assumed that
in the integrands (x(t); y(t)) being on the urve , that either y is a fun tion
of x or x is a fun tion of y. Also note that the limits of integration will
depend on the values of x(a); x(b) or y(a); y(b) as the ase may be. It should
be observed that the expressions under the integral signs an be formally
equated as
f (z ) dz = (u + iv)(dx + i dy) = (u dx v dy) + i(v dx + u dy):
Note that if in (4.2) is real-valued, then the path of integration is part of
R. On the other hand the path of integration is in the z -plane.
4.3. Denition. A pie ewise smooth urve with parametri inter-
val [a; b℄ is said to be a reparameterization of (t) (A  t  B ) i there is
a C 1 -map  : [A; B ℄ ! [a; b℄ su h that 0 (t) > 0, (A) = a, (B ) = b and
(t) = ((t)). Sometimes and are said to be equivalent.

The onditions, 0 (t) > 0, (A) = a and (B ) = b are to ensure the

dire tion of tra ing as does. Suppose that f is ontinuous in an open
set D ontaining all the points of (t). Then, we have
Z Z
f (z ) dz = f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt
144 Complex Integration
Z B
= f f ((t)g 0((t))0 (t) dt
A
Z (B )
= f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt
(A)
Z b
= f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt
Za
= f (z ) dz:

Therefore, it is immaterial whi h parameterization is used. Often the om-
putation is simplied if we use some parti ular equivalent path in evaluating
an integral. For ertain situations, the hoi e is by an important property
whi h will be stated in later theorems (see Theorem 4.16). Suppose we
want to evaluate Z
(4.4) I = f (z ) dz; f (z ) = z n ;

where (t) = eit , 0  t  2, and n is any integer. It follows that
8  it(n+1) 2
Z 2 < n+1 e
> 
I = rn+1 ie(n+1)it dt = r  if n 6= 1
>
n + 1 
0
0 :
2i if n = 1;
that is, Z 
0 if n 6= 1;
(4.5) f (z ) dz =
2i if n = 1:
We also note that (4.5) ontinues to hold if and f in (4.4) are repla ed
by any ir le entered at z0 and (z z0)n , respe tively. This means that
Z 
n 0 if n 6= 1 and integer
(z z0 ) dz =
jz z0j=r 2i if n = 1:
We now have the following useful appli ation. For n 2 N ,
Z 2  it 
+ e it 2n
Z 2
e
os2n (t) dt = dt
0 0 2
Z 2n  
1 2 X 2n i(2n 2k)t
= 2n e dt
2 0 k=0 k
2n   Z 2
1 X 2n
= e2i(n k)t dt
22n k=0 k 0
 
 2n
= 2n 1 :
2 n
R
4.6. Example. We evaluate Ij = j x dz , j = 1 to 7, where
4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals 145

(i) 1 is the straight line segment from 0 to a + ib (a; b 2 R)

(ii) 2 is the ir le jz j = R
(iii) 3 is the boundary of the square [0; 1℄  [0; 1℄ with C onsidered as R2
(iv) 4 is the ellipse x2 =a2 + y2 =b2 = 1
(v) 5 is the line from 0 to 2i and then from 2i to 4 + 2i
(vi) 6 is the line segment from 0 to 1, 1 to 1 + i and then from 1 + i to 0
(vii) 7 is given by 7 (t) = t + it2 on [0; 1℄.
(i) 1 may be parameterized by 1 (t) = (a + ib)t; 0  t  1: Clearly,
Z 1 Z 1
a(a + ib)
I1 = [Re 1 (t)℄ 10 (t) dt = ta(a + ib) dt = :
0 0 2
(ii) Parameterizing 2 by 2 (t) = Reit , 0  t  2, we have
Z 2
I2 = (R os t)(iReit ) dt
0
Z 2
= iR2 [ os2 t + i sin t os t℄ dt
0
Z 2 Z 
1 + os 2t i 2
= iR2 dt + sin 2t dt
0 2 2 0
"     #
2 1 sin 2t 2 i os 2t 2
= iR t+ +
2 2 0 2 2 0
= iR2:
(iii) In this ase, we have (see Figure 4.5)
Z A Z B Z C Z O!
I3 = + + + x dz:
O A B C
For the sake of onvenien e, we parameterize OA; AB; BC and OC , as
follows:
C1 (t) = (1 t)
0 + t
1 = t
C2 (t) = (1 t)
1 + t
(1 + i) = 1 + ti
C3 (t) = (1 t)
(1 + i) + t
i = 1 t + i
C4 (t) = (1 t)
i + t
0 = (1 t)i;
where t 2 [0; 1℄ and 3 = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 (see Figure 4.5). Utilizing
these, i.e. without reparameterizing, we have
4 Z 1
X
I3 = (Re Ck (t))Ck0 (t) dt
k=1 0
146 Complex Integration

y
C3
C(0, 1) B(1, 1)

C4 C2

O C1 A(1, 0) x

Figure 4.5: Curve 3 = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 .

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
= t dt + 1
i dt + (1 t)( 1) dt + 0
( i) dt
0 0 0 0
1 1
= +i + 0 = i:
2 2
(iv) Write 4 as 4 (t) = a os t + ib sin t; 0  t  2: Then,
Z 2
I4 = (a os t)( a sin t + ib os t) dt
0
Z Z
a2 2 2
= sin 2t dt + iab os2 t dt = iab:
2 0 0
The ases (v), (vi) and (vii) may be evaluated similarly and are left as a
simple exer ise. 
4.7. Denition. If : [a; b℄ ! C is a smooth and re tiable urve
su h that (t) = x(t) + iy(t), then its (Eu lidean) length L( ) is dened by
Z Z b Z bp
(4.8) L( ) = jd (t)j = j 0 (t)j dt = x0 (t)2 + y0 (t)2 dt:
a a
If is merely pie ewise smooth and re tiable, then its length is the sum
of the integrals (4.8) over all the smooth paths of .
We onsider a few simple examples to demonstrate the use of the formula
(4.8). The length of a ir le of radius r (use the parametri equation (t) =
a + reit , 0  t  2, so that 0 (t) = ireit ) is found to be
Z 2
jireit j dt = 2r
0
as expe ted. The line segment [z1 ; z2℄ parameterized by (t) = (1 t)z1 +
tz2 , 0  t  1; has its length
Z 1 Z 1
L( ) = j 0 (t)j dt = jz2 z1 j dt = jz1 z2 j:
0 0
4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals 147

Similarly, the perimeter of the re tangle may be obtained using this formula
with a onvenient parameterization. Finally, if is an ellipse given by
x2 y2
+ = 1;
a2 b2
then its parametri form is (t) = a os t + ib sin t, t 2 [0; 2℄, so that
Z 2 p Z 2 q
L( ) = a2 os2 t + b2 sin2 t dt = a 1 + [(b2 =a2 ) 1℄ sin2 t dt:
0 0
What is the value of this integral? Does there exist a simple formula to
ompute the ar length of an ellipse with semi-axes of length a and b?
There is a se ond type of line integral that may be introdu ed. Let
: (t), a  t  b, be a smooth urve and s(t) denote the ar -length
R for . Let f be a ontinuous fun tion on D with ([a; b℄)  D.
fun tion
Then, f (z ) jdz j is dened to be the approximating sums of the form
n
X
S ( ; P ) = f (zj )js(tj ) s(tj 1 )j;
j =1
where P : a = t0 < t1 <


< tn 1 < tn = b ranges over all possible
partitions of the interval [a; b℄. Here zj lies on between (tj 1 ) = zj 1 and
(tj ) = zj . The standard pro edure then shows that (with s0 (t) = j 0(t)j)
Z Z Z b
f (z ) jdz j = f ds = f ( (t))j 0 (t)j dt:
a
R
If f isR real-valued, then f ds is a real number. Clearly, f (z ) = 1 gives
that f ds = L( ).
As we have seen earlier, the omplex integral may be put in the form
Z Z Z
f (z ) dz = (u dx v dy) + i (v dx + u dy):

Therefore, the usual rules of integration for real integrals must also apply
to ontour integrals. The following theorem summarizes some useful prop-
erties of omplex line integrals. The on lusion of Theorem 4.9 ontinues
to hold if ; 1 ; 2 are pie ewise smooth (= ontour) although we state and
prove the theorem for smooth urves for the sake of simpli ity .
4.9. Theorem. Let be a smooth urve dened on [a; b℄ and let f
and g be ontinuous fun tions on an open set D ontaining ([a; b℄) and let
 be a omplex onstant. Then,
Z Z
(i) f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz:

148 Complex Integration
Z Z Z
(ii) [f (z ) + g(z )℄ dz =  f (z ) dz + g(z ) dz:

(iii) If L = L( ) is the length of the urve and M = max jf ( (t))j; then
R  t2[a;b℄
 f (z ) dz   ML: This property is alled the standard estimate for
 

integrals,
Z
or M-LZinequality. Z
(iv) f (z ) dz =
f (z ) dz + f (z ) dz whenever 1 and 2 are two
1 + 2 1 2
smooth urves su h that 1 (b) = 2 (a) and j ([a; b℄)  D for j = 1; 2.
Proof. Note that
Z Z b
f (z ) dz = f ( (b + a t)) d( (b + a t))
a
Z a
= f ( (s)) d( (s)); by a hange of variable s = b + a t,
b
Z b
= f ( (s)) d( (s))
Za
= f (z ) dz:

The ase (i) now follows. The ase (ii) follows from the denition and the
linearity property of the Riemann integral.
R R
To prove (iii), we noti e that L = jdz j = ab j 0 (t)j dt and for a real-
valued Riemann integrable fun tion  on [a; b℄, we know that
Z  Z b
 b 
(4.10) 

 a
(t) dt

 j(t)j dt:
a
R R
If f (z ) dz = 0, there is nothing to prove. Therefore, we let f (z ) dz 6= 0
and write Z Z b
f (z ) dz = f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt = Rei ; say,
a
R 
where R > 0 and  = Arg f (z ) dz : We have
Z b Z b
R= e i f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt = Re [e i f ( t)) 0 (t)℄ dt:
a a
We apply (4.10), with (t) = Re [e i f ( (t)) 0 (t)℄, to get
 
(t)  e i f ( (t)) 0 (t)℄
R
so that R  ab jf ( (t))j j 0 (t)j dt: Sin e jf ( (t))j  M for all t 2 [a; b℄
and sin e for positive integrands the Riemann integral is larger for a larger
integrand, we have the assertion in (iii).
4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals 149

(iv) As 1 and 2 are smooth urves with 1 (b) = 2 (a), = 1 + 2 is

then dened by

1 (2t a) if a  t  (b + a)=2
(t) =
2 (2t b) if (b + a)=2  t  b:
The assertion now follows from the denition after noting that for 1 and
2 a reparameterization has been made.
hR i R
4.11. Remark. In general, Re f (z ) dz 6= Re [f (z )℄ dz as an
be seen by hoosing (t) = it and f (z ) = 1. This is to aution the reader
to be areful while taking real and imaginary parts of an integral. 
4.12. Example. From Theorem 4.9(iv) we obtain the following:
(i) If (t) = (1 + i)t; t 2 [0; 1℄, the p
line segment from 0 to 1 + i, then for
any point  on we have j j  2, j 3 + 2j  23=2 + 2 = M , say, and
j 3 + 2j  23=2 2. As a result of this, we have the estimates
Z
 
 Z
p p

 (z 3 + 2) dz   M jdz j = (23=2 + 2) 2 = 4 + 2 2

and Z  p
  2 1

 (z 3 + 2) 1 dz    23=2 2
= p;
2 2
p
sin e the line segment [0; 1 + i℄ has length 2.
R 
(ii) Consider (t) = eit , 0  t  . Then,  z 1ez dz   ML( ) = e
be ause the length L( ) is  and
 
M = max e (t) = (t) = max e os t = e:
t2[0;℄ t2[0;℄

(iii) If (t) = (1 t)(1 + i) + t(1 + 3i), 0 t  1, the dire ted line segment

R
from 1+ i to 1+3i, then  z 2 dz   ML( ) = 1 be ause the length
L( ) is j1 + 3i (1 + i)j = 2 and
 
 1  1 1
M = max  2  = max = :
t2[0;1℄ (t) t2[0;1℄ 1 + (1 + 2t)2 2
R 
(iv) If jf (z )j  M on , then we dire tly have  f (z ) dz   ML( ):
(v) The following inequalities may also be he ked in a similar fashion:
150 Complex Integration
Z  Z  Z 
    
1 
(a) 

 jzj=1
z  2e,
e dz 

 2e,


 jzj=1
e dz 
1=z dz   2.
z 



 jzj=1
Later, we shall a tually see that the value of rst integral is 0
while  and the third ea h has the value 2i.
the se ond

Z
 p
(b)  (z + 1) dz   9 5, where is the line segment parameter-
 2

ized
Z
by (t) = 2 t(2 i); t 2 [0; 1℄.
 2   (e 1)
( )  eiz dz   , where (t) = eit , 0  t  =4.
 4 e 
Z
 
(d) 
 [(Re z )2 + i(Im z )2 ℄ dz   2, where is the interval [ i; i℄ on

the imaginary axis. 
4.13. Denition. Let be a urve with parametri interval [a; b℄ and
let ffn g be a sequen e of fun tions on an open set D ontaining ([a; b℄).
If for a fun tion f dened on D, jfn ( (t)) f ( (t))j ! 0 uniformly on
[a; b℄, we say that fn ! f uniformly on . If for a fun tion
P f on D,
jSn ( P(t)) f ( (t))j ! 0 uniformly on [a; b℄, where Sn = nk=1 fk , we say
that n1 fn ! f uniformly on .
4.14. Theorem. (Inter hange of limit and integration) Let ffng
be a sequen e of ontinuous fun tions dened on an open set ontaining a
ontour . Suppose that fn ! f uniformly on . Then,
Z Z
lim f (z ) dz
n!1 n
= f (z ) dz:

Proof. Let  > 0 and let fn onverge uniformly on with parametri
interval [a; b℄. Then, there is an N su h that
jfn ( (t)) f ( (t))j <  for t 2 [a; b℄ and n  N:
First we observe that f is ontinuous on (see Theorem 2.57). Using
Theorem 4.9(iv), we have
Z Z  Z 
   b 

 fn (z ) dz f (z ) dz  = 
 [fn ( (t)) f ( (t))℄ 0 (t) dt
 a 
Z b
 jfn ( (t)) f ( (t))j j 0 (t)j dt
a
Z b
<  j 0 (t)j dt for n  N:
a
As  > 0 is arbitrary, the proof is omplete.
A straightforward proof gives
4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals 151

4.15.
P Corollary. (Inter hange of summation and integration)
Let n1 fn be a series ofP ontinuous fun tions dened on an open set
ontaining a ontour and n1 fn ! f uniformly on a ontour . Then,
XZ Z
fn (z ) dz = f (z ) dz:
n1

There are two versions of the fundamental theorem of al ulus for real-
valued fun tions:
Z x 
d
(i) f (t) dt = f (x) for x 2 [a; b℄ where f is ontinuous on [a; b℄
dx a
and one-sided derivatives are meant at a or b
Z b
(ii) f 0 (t) dt = f (b) f (a) whenever f 0 (t) is ontinuous on [a; b℄.
a
The following weaker form of Cau hy's Theorem (see Theorem 4.33), whi h
is a tually the analogue of the se ond statement of the fundamental theorem
of al ulus, is helpful, and integration of familiar fun tions is fa ilitated by
this result.
4.16. Theorem. (Weak form of Cau hy's theorem) If f = u + iv is
analyti in an open set D ontaining a ontour with parametri interval
[a; b℄, i.e. ([a; b℄)  D, then
Z
f 0 (z ) dz = f ( (b)) f ( (a)):

That is, the
R value of the integral is independent of the path. In parti ular,
we have f 0 (z ) dz = 0 if is losed.
Proof. Let f be analyti on D and be, initially, a smooth urve with
([a; b℄)  D. Then, we must have (see Corollary 2.21 and (3.3))
f ( (t)) = f ( (t0 )) + ( (t) (t0 ))f 0 ( (t0 )) + ( (t) (t0 ))( (t));
for t near t0 2 [a; b℄, where  Æ is a ontinuous fun tion of t on [a; b℄ su h
that limt!t0 ( (t)) = 0. Therefore, as t0 is arbitrary, the Chain rule for
dierentiation gives
d
[f ( (t))℄ = f 0( (t)) 0 (t)
dt
on [a; b℄ and f ( (t)) is ontinuously dierentiable for t 2 [a; b℄. The result
now follows from the \se ond statement of the fundamental theorem of
al ulus for real variable". Indeed, we let
f ( (t)) = f (x(t)+ iy(t)) = u(x(t); y(t))+ iv(x(t); y(t)) = U (t)+ iV (t); say;
152 Complex Integration

so that
d d d
[f ( (t))℄ = f 0 ( (t)) 0 (t) = (U (t)) + i (V (t)):
dt dt dt
Sin e is smooth, we integrate both sides of the last expression to get
Z Z b
d
f 0 (z ) dz = [f ( (t))℄ d t
a dt
b
= U (t) + iV (t)ja
= f ( (b)) f ( (a)):
Suppose that is pie ewise smooth. Then, we an by denition hoose a
partition P : a = t0 < t1 <


< tn = b su h that the restri tion k of
to (tk ; tk+1 ); k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1, is smooth. In view of Theorem 4.9(iii)
and what has been just proved,
Z nX1 Z nX1
f 0 (z ) dz = f 0 (z ) dz = f ( k (tk+1 )) f ( k (tk ))
k=0 k k=0
= f ( (b)) f ( (a));
again as asserted.
Theorem 4.16 is also known as the fundamental theorem of line integrals
(or ontour integration) in the omplex plane. Moreover, Theorem 4.16
shows that, if F (z ) = f 0 (z ) then one has
Z z2
F (z ) dz = f (z2 ) f (z1):
z1

R parti ular, for losed urves independent of paths, we on lude that

In
F (z ) dz = 0.
One of the obje tives in Se tion 4.3 is to extend this for those fun tions
F (z ) for whi h no f su h that F (z ) = f 0 (z ) is at hand. The examples of
su h fun tions are os(z 2), sin(z 2 ), exp(z 2), et . On the other hand, it will
be shown that
Z Z Z
os(z 2 ) dz = sin(z 2) dz = exp(z 2 ) dz = 0

for ea h losed ontour .
R
4.17. Example. Consider Ij = j z dz; j = 1; 2; 3; where
(i) 1 is the dire ted line segment from 0 to 1 + i;
(ii) 2 is the ar of the ir le 2 (t) = 1 + eit joining 0 and 1 + i;
4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals 153

(iii) 3 is the dire ted line segment from 0 to 1 and then from 1 to 1 + i.
R
In this example we observe that f (z ) = z is nowhere analyti and so z dz
need not be independent of the hoi e of the urve onne ting the points
0 and 1 + i. In fa t, it an be he ked easily that
I1 = 1; I2 = 1 + i(=2 1) and I3 = 1 + i:
Thus I1 6= I2 , I2 6= I3 and I1 6= I3 , even though 1 , 2 and 3 have the
same initial and the same terminal points. 
Let z1 = 1, z2 = 1 and z3 = i. Consider 1 = [z1 ; z2 ℄ [ [z2 ; z3 ℄, and
2 = [z1 ; z3 ℄. Then both 1 and 2 are urves of lass C 1 whose initial and
the terminal points are the same. But it is easy to see that
Z Z
z dz = i and z dz = i:
1 2
Re all that f (z ) = z is nowhere analyti and hen e, has no primitive in a
domain ontaining the points 1; 1 and i. The above examples show that
the integral of a omplex fun tion depends on the path of integration.
However, there are a few important Corollaries to Theorem 4.16. Keep-
ing in mind the denition of primitive, we have
4.18. Corollary. If RF is a primitive of f on D and : [a; b℄ ! C is
a smooth urve in D, then f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt = F ( (b)) F ( (a)):

For instan e, if n  0 is an integer then

Z z2
z2n+1 z1n+1
z n dz =
z1 n+1
sin e `z n+1=(n + 1) + onstant' is a primitive of z n on C . If n < 1 is an
integer, the above equality
R holds provided the path of integration omits the
origin. In parti ular, z n dz = 0 if is any smooth losed path omitting
the origin and n 6= 1.
4.19. Example. Let : [0; 1℄ ! C be dened by
(t) = 1 t sin t + i(t + os t)
whi h is an ar onne ting 1 + i to 0 as in Figure 4.6. To evaluate
Z Z 1
I= z 2 dz = 2 (t) 0 (t) dt
0
we rst note that, sin e z 2 is analyti in C , lies in the domain of denition
of z 2 . Sin e the value of the integral is independent of the hoi e of the
154 Complex Integration
y
i 1+i

0 1 0 1 x

Figure 4.6: Curve (t) = 1 t sin t + i(t + os t).

urve onne ting 1 + i to 0, we have

Z 1
I= 12 (t) 10 (t) dt;
0
where 1 (t) = (1 t)(1 + i) + t
0; t 2 [0; 1℄: Thus, we easily nd that
Z 1
(1 + i)3
I= (1 + i)2 (1 t)2 [ (1 + i)℄ dt = :
0 3
Indeed, by Corollary 4.18, we dire tly obtain that I = F ( 1 (1)) F ( 1 (0));
where F (z ) = z 3=3 + K , and so I = F (0) F (1 + i) = (1 + i)3 =3: 
P
4.20. Corollary. Let f (z ) = n0 an z n with its radiusR
of onver-
gen e R > 0. Then, for any losed ontour in
R , we have f 0 (z ) dz = 0:

P from the fa t that f possesses a primitive F in

Corollary 4.20 follows

R , namely, F (z ) = n0 (n + 1) 1 an z n+1.
4.21. Corollary. Theorem 3.31(i) follows from Corollary 4.18.
Proof. By the assumption of Theorem 3.31(i), we note that f is a
primitive of the zero fun tion g(z ) = 0 on D. Therefore, for any disk

(z0 ; r) entirely within D and ea h  2
(z0 ; r),
Z z0
0= 0
dz = f ( ) f (z0 )

so that f (z ) = f (z0 ) for z 2
(z0 ; r).
R
4.22. Example. Let us evaluate (z 2 + z ) dz where = 1 + 2 + 3
as in Figure 4.7. First we note that f (z ) = z 2 + z is analyti in C and so
it is analyti in any domain ontaining the points 1 and 1. Therefore,
Theorem 4.16 allows us to hoose any path onne ting 1 and 1. The most
onvenient path in this ase is the line segment onne ting 1 and 1:
(t) = (1 t)( 1) + t(1) = 2t 1; t 2 [0; 1℄:
4.2 Properties of Complex Line Integrals 155

γ2
γ1
γ2 γ3

γ1
γ3
−1 γ 1

Figure 4.7: Curves onne ting 1 and 1.

2i
1 + 2i

−1 + i

−1 1

Figure 4.8: Region for the analyti ity of Log (1 + z ).

Therefore, as f ( (t)) 0 (t) = [(2t 1)2 (2t 1)℄(2) = 8t2 4t, we have
Z Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
8 4 2
f (z ) dz = f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt = 8 t2 dt 4 t dt = = :
0 0 0 3 2 3
z3 z2
Moreover, sin e f (z ) = FR0 (z ) with F (z ) = 3 + 2 + K; we an dire tly use
Corollary 4.18 to obtain f (z ) dz = F ( (1)) F ( (0)) = 2=3: 
R
dz , where is any on-
4.23. Example. We next evaluate I = 1+ z
tour in D = fz : Im z > 0g, whi h joins 1 + i to 1 + 2i (see Figure
4.8). Suppose that we onsider the prin ipal logarithm. We observe that
(1 + z ) 1 is the derivative of F (z ) = Log (1 + z ) and, sin e F is analyti
in C n f( 1; 1℄g, F is analyti in D. Then the value of the integral is
independent of the path joining 1 + i and 1 + 2i and hen e,
Z Z
dz
= F 0 (z ) dz
1+z
= F (1 + 2i) F ( 1 + i)
= Log [2(1 + i)℄ Log i
p   p
= [ln 8 + i ℄ i = ln 8 i=4:
4 2

156 Complex Integration
R
4.24. Example. Suppose we wish to evaluate the integral dzz ,
where is an ar joining 1 i to 1 + i. Then, in this ase, it is ne essary
to onsider a domain D ontaining the ar . Note that the integrand
1=z is analyti in C n f0g. As we have observed before if  2 R is xed,
D = C n fRei : R > 0g and arg z is the hoi e of arg z in ( 2; ),
then
f (z ) = ln jz j + i arg z
is the anti-derivative of 1=z in D . Suppose we hoose  = . Then,
j arg z j < ; D = D = C n f R : R > 0g
and therefore, f (z ) be omes the prin ipal logarithm Log z . So if is any
urve in D whi h joins 1 i to 1 + i, then by Corollary 4.18
1+i 1+i
I = f (z )j1 i = Log z j1 i
whi h gives
 
I = Log (1 + i) Log (1 i) = i[Arg (1 + i) Arg (1 i)℄ = i +
4 4
so that I = i=2:
Suppose we hoose  = 2. Then,
0 < arg z < 2; D2 = C n fR : R > 0g:
Therefore if is any urve in D2 whi h joins 1 i to 1 + i, then
1+i h   i
I = f2 (z )j1 i = i[arg2 (1 + i) arg2 (1 i)℄ = i 2
4 4
so that I = 3i=2:
If 1 and 2 are given by
1 (t) = eit ; t 2 [ =4; =4℄ and 2 (t) = eit ; t 2 [=4; 2 =4℄;
then 1 2 D and 2 2 D2 . Then = 1 + 2 is a losed urve and, in
this ase, we have
Z Z Z  
dz dz dz i 3i
= = = 2i:
jzj=1 z 1 z 2 z 2 2
R
With this idea, it is also lear that jzj=r<1 Log (1 + z ) dz = 0; sin e the
fun tion Log (1 + z ) is analyti in C n f( 1; 1℄g. 
4.3 Cau hy-Goursat Theorem 157

4.3 Cau hy-Goursat Theorem

The simplest version of Cau hy's theorem utilizes a theorem from al ulus
known as `Green's Theorem' whi h states that given two real-valued fun -
tions M = M (x; y) and N = N (x; y), whi h are ontinuous together with
their partial derivatives inside and on a simple losed ontour
Z ZZ  
N M
(4.25) M dx + N dy = dx dy;

x y
where
is the interior of .
4.26. Theorem. If f is Ranalyti with f 0 ontinuous inside and on a
simple losed ontour , then f (z ) dz = 0:
Proof. Let f (z ) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y) and
= Int , the interior of .
Then, a ording to the dis ussion in Se tion 4.2, the integral of f over
an be written as
Z Z Z
(4.27) f (z ) dz = (u dx v dy) + i (u dy + v dx):

Sin e f is analyti in
(and hen e f is ontinuous in
), u and v are also
ontinuous therein and f 0(z ) = ux(z ) + ivx(z ) = vy (z ) iuy (z ). Further, as
f 0 is ontinuous in
, the partial derivatives of u and v are also ontinuous
in
. By applying Green's Theorem (see (4.25)) to ea h of the integrals on
the right of (4.27), we obtain
Z ZZ ZZ
f (z ) dz = ( vx uy ) dx dy + i (ux vy ) dx dy:

But, in view of the C-R equations, both terms of these double integrals are
zero in
.
The ontinuity requirement on f 0 may be dropped from Theorem 4.26.
The result without this ondition is alled the Cau hy-Goursat Theorem.
More expli itly, the Cau hy-Goursat theorem asserts that the integral of a
fun tion, that is analyti in a simply onne ted domain D, along any losed
ontour  D is always zero.
In the following theorem we show that Cau hy's theorem is true for
arbitrary analyti fun tions in D if we restri t the urve to be the triangular
urve ontained in D. By a ( losed) triangle in C we mean T , the set of
points in C of the form 1 z1 + 2 z2 + 3 z3, where 0  j  1 (j = 1; 2; 3),
with 1 + 2 + 3 = 1. Denote by T the boundary of T , omposed of the
three line segments [z1 ; z2 ℄, [z2 ; z3 ℄, [z3 ; z1℄, des ribed on e in the positive
dire tion. Note that T is geometri ally the losed triangle and is therefore
ompa t.
158 Complex Integration

z3
z2

z1

Figure 4.9: Triangular urve.

4.28. Theorem. (Cau hy-Goursat Theorem) Let f be analyti

in an open set D  C and let z1 ; z2 ; z3 be in D. Assume Rthat the losed
triangle T with verti es z1 ; z2 ; z3 is ontained in D. Then, T f (z ) dz = 0:
Proof. Let m1 ; m2 and m3 be the mid points of the segments [z1 ; z2 ℄,
[z2 ; z3 ℄ and [z3 ; z1 ℄, respe tively. Then we get four smaller triangles Tk ,
1  k  4, as shown in Figure 4.9. We note that
 
z + z z2 + z3  jz1 z3 j
jm1 j
m2 =  1 2
2 2 
=
2
:

Similarly,
jm2 m3 j = jz2 2 z1 j ; jm3 m1 j = jz3 2 z2 j
and hen e, L(Tk ) = 12 L(T ) for ea h k = 1; 2; 3; 4; where Tk denotes the
boundary of Tk and L( ), as usual, denotes the length of . Dene
Z Z
I= f (z ) dz and Ik = f (z ) dz for k = 1; 2; 3; 4:
T Tk
Then, from the properties of omplex integrals, we see that
4
X Z 4 Z
X
(4.29) I= Ik ; i.e. f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz;
k=1 T k=1 Tk
sin e we are integrating the R.H.S of (4.29) twi e in the opposite dire tions
(as we see learly in Figure 4.9) over ea h of the boundary Tk whi h is not
part of the sides of the triangle T and onsequently orresponding boundary
integrals an el ea h other (by the reversal rule, see Theorem 4.9(i)). The
triangle inequality gives us that
4
X
jI j  jIk j:
k=1
4.3 Cau hy-Goursat Theorem 159

Consequently, there exists at least one k in f1; 2; 3; 4g su h that the in-

equality
jIk j  jI j=4
P4
is satised, for otherwise jI j  k=1 jIk j < 4(I=4) = I whi h is a ontra-
di tion. If more than one k satises the inequality, we retain the least. We
relabel su h a triangle as T 1 . The diameter of T 1 , viz. the length of its
largest side, is one-half of the diameter of T , that is
1
diam (T 1 ) = diam (T );
2
where the diameterRof a bounded set S is dened to be supfja bj : a; b 2 S g.
Thus, with I (1) = T 1 f (z ) dz , we obtain

jI j  4jI (1) j; L(T 1) = 12 L(T ); and diam (T 1 ) = 12 diam (T ):

Apply the argument with T 1 in pla e of T to obtain another triangle T 2.
Repeating the subdivision pro ess to su essively obtained triangles, we
have following relations:
(i) for ea h n, T n  T n 1 (T 0 = T ),
R
(ii) if I (j) = T j f (z ) dz , then jI (j) j  4jI (j+1) j (I (0) = I ),
(iii) L(T j+1) = 21 L(T j ),
(iv) diam (T j+1 ) = 12 diam (T j ), where j = 1; 2; : : : :
Note also that diam (T j )  L(T j ): In parti ular, at the n-th stage
(i)0 T n  T n 1 


 T 2  T 1  T 0 = T ,
(ii)0 jI j  4n jI (n) j,


(iii)0 L( (T n) = 21 n L(T ),


(iv)0 diam (T n ) = 12 n diam (T ).
Sin e limn!1 diam (T n ) = 0 and, by (i)0 , T 1  T 2 


 T n 



is a nested sequen e of non-empty ompa t subsets of C , the interse tion
\1 n
n=0 T is non-empty and so it follows that this interse tion ontains at
least one point, say z0 , ommon to all triangles T n (a use has been made
of Cantor's theorem). In parti ular, z0 2 T , so f is analyti at z0 . Sin e f
is analyti at z0 , for a given  > 0, there exists Æ > 0 su h that
f (z ) = f (z0 ) + (z z0 )f 0 (z0 ) + (z z0 )(z );
with  ontinuous and j(z )j <  for jz z0 j < Æ: Therefore, we have
Z Z Z
f (z ) dz = [f (z0 ) z0 f 0 (z0 )℄ dz + f 0 (z0 ) z dz
T n Z T n T n
+ (z z0 )(z ) dz:
T n
160 Complex Integration
R R
We know that if is any losed ontour, then dz = (z z0 ) dz = 0:
As the rst two integrals vanish,
Z Z
f (z ) dz = (z z0)(z ) dz:
T n T n
By (i)0 , we also note that, for suÆ iently large n, the triangle T n is on-
tained in fz : jz z0 j < Æg. Using the standard estimate (see Theorem
4.9(iv)) together with the above observations, we get
Z 
 
jI (n) j = 
 n
f ( z ) dz 

Z T 
 
= 
 ( z z 0 )  (z ) dz 

T n
  zmax
2T n
jz z0 j
L(T n)
 
diam
 n
(T n)L(T n)
 n
 
2 diam (T ) 12 L(T ); by (iii)0 and (iv)0 ;
1

= 4 ndiam (T )L(T ):
Taking (ii)0 into a ount we have the inequalities
4 njI j  jI (n) j  4 ndiam (T )L(T ):
Consequently, we have jI j  diam (T )L(T ). Sin e  > 0 in this inequality
is an arbitrary positive number, we must have I = 0 and so the proof is
omplete.
If is a quadrilateral, it an be divided into two triangles T and T 0 (see
Figure 4.10) so that
Z Z Z
f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz + f (z ) dz = 0;
T T 0
sin e the integrals along AC and CA an el ea h other. In general, if is
any simple
Z polygon then we an de ompose su h a polygon into triangles
so that f (z ) dz = 0:

An important point in the above proof is that it is not ne essary to as-
sume the ontinuity of the derivative f 0 (z ) of f (z ). Next we present a simple
extension of Theorem 4.28 with a relaxed ondition on the dierentiability
of f .
4.30. Theorem. Let D be an open set and let f be analyti on D
ex eptR possibly at a 2 D. Assume that f is ontinuous on D. Then, we
have T f (z ) dz = 0 for every losed triangle T in D.
4.3 Cau hy-Goursat Theorem 161
D(z4 ) C(z3 )
D(z4 )

C(z3 )

A(z1 ) B(z2 ) A(z1 ) B(z2 )

Figure 4.10: Triangles T = [z1 ; z2 ; z3 ℄ and T 0 = [z1 ; z3 ; z4 ℄.

Proof. For a losed triangle T in D, we may simply assume that a

lies in T , for the result is a onsequen e of Theorem 4.28 otherwise. Given
a positive integer, we an subdivide T into n2 ongruent triangles Tjk by
adjoining the midpoints of opposite sides. Then, we have
Z n Z
n X
X
f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz
T j =1 k=1 Tjk
sin e the dividing segments
R an el in pairs. If a is not a point of Tjk , then,
by Theorem 4.28, Tjk f (z ) dz = 0. If a belongs to the triangle Tjk , then
the M-L inequality shows that
Z  Z
 


 Tjk
f (z ) dz 

 jf (z )j jdz j  M L(Tjk ) = MLn(T ) ;
Tjk

where M = maxz2T jf (z )j. Note that jf (z )j is a ontinuous fun tion on

the ompa t set C . Note that the point a at the worst an belong to one
of the four triangles Tjk . It follows that
   
Z   Z 
X Z 
 4MLn (C ) :
   X 

 f (z ) dz  = 
 f (z ) dz   

f (z ) dz 

T a2Tjk Tjk  a2Tjk Tjk
R 
Sin e n was arbitrary,  T f (z ) dz  = 0 and the proof is omplete.
4.31. Theorem. Let D be a domain that is starlike with respe t to
a and f be analyti on D. Then, there existsR an analyti fun tion F on D
su h that F 0 (z ) = f (z ) in D. In parti ular, C f (z ) dz = 0 for every losed
ontour C in D.
Proof. Sin e D is starlike (see Figure 4.11) with respe t to a, [a; z ℄  D
for every z 2 D. Dene F on D by
Z
F (z ) = f ( ) d:
[a;z℄
162 Complex Integration

h
|h| z+
z b
a
a
b

Figure 4.11: Starlike domain with respe t to a.

Note that F (a) = 0. Fix z 2 D nfag. Then there exists h 2 C with jhj
suÆ iently small su h that
(z ; jhj)  D and [z; z + h℄ 
(z ; jhj)  D.
As D is starlike, the triangle T = [z; a; z + h℄ lies in D. By Theorem 4.28,
Z Z a Z z +h Z z !
0= f ( ) d = + + f ( ) d;
T z a z+h
or Z z+h Z z Z z +h
f ( ) d f ( ) d = f ( ) d:
a a z
Therefore, we have
Z Z
F (z + h) F (z ) 1 z+h f (z ) z+h
f (z ) = f ( ) d d
h h z h z
and so
   Z 
 F (z + h) F (z )  z+h 
 1
 f (z ) =  [f ( ) f (z )℄ d 
 h h z 
" #
1
 jhj  2[sup jf ( ) f (z )j jhj;
z;z+h℄

using the standard integral estimate (see Theorem 4.9(iv)). Continuity of

f immediately yields that
 
 F (z + h) F (z ) 
 f (z ) ! 0 as h ! 0;
 h
and so F 0 (z ) exists and is equal to f (z ). Sin e z is arbitrary, F 0 (z ) = f (z )
in D. That is, F is a primitive of f on D, as required. The se ond part
follows from Theorem 4.16.
Sin e every disk is a starlike domain, Theorem 4.31 yields the "lo al
form" of Cau hy's theorem.
4.3 Cau hy-Goursat Theorem 163

z0 = zn zn−2 zn−3
zn−1
z1
z5
D

z2 z4
z3

Figure 4.12: Closed polygon with verti es on C .

4.32. Corollary. (Cau hy's Theorem for a Disk) Let f be analyti

in a disk
(z0 ; R) (or more generally, f is ontinuousRin
(z0 ; R) and
analyti in
(z0 ; R) nfag for some a 2
(z0 ; R)). Then, f (z ) dz = 0 for
every losed ontour in
(z0 ; R).

The fun tion f (z ) = 1=z dened in the annulus A = fz : 1 < jz j < 2g

shows that the on lusion of Theorem 4.31 fails if D is not a starlike domain
with respe t to a point in D. Further, the ontour in Theorem 4.31 an
have self-interse tion.
Now we are in position to prove the long waited \Cau hy integral the-
orem".

4.33. Theorem. (Cau hy's Integral Theorem) If f is analyti in a

simply onne ted domain D, Rthen there exists a fun tion F in D su h that
F 0 (z ) = f (z ). In parti ular, f (z ) dz = 0 for ea h simple losed ontour
in D.
Proof. Let C be a simple losed ontour in D, and D0 = C [ int C .
So, D0  D is ompa t and hen e, for every z 2 D0 there exists Æz > 0
su h that
(z ; Æz )  D. Now D1 = [z2D0
(z ; Æ) is ompa t and so f is
uniformly ontinuous on D1 . Let  > 0 be given. Then there exists a Æ > 0
su h that
jf (z ) f ( )j < 2L(C )
for all z;  2 D1 and jz  j < Æ. Here L(C ) denotes the length of C .
Now without loss of generality we may assume that Æz  Æ=2 for every
z 2 D0 . Sin e C is ompa t, there exist points z0 ; z1; : : : ; zn = z0 in
C su h that C  [nk=01
(zk ; Æzk ): Let  be a losed polygon in D1 with
verti es z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn , see Figure 4.12. Therefore,
(4.34) jf (z ) f (zk )j < 2L(C ) for k = 1; 2; : : : ; n,
164 Complex Integration
1
C2
γ
C2
γ C1
C1

Figure 4.13: Region bounded by two urves C1 ; C2 .

whenever z 2 [zk 1 ; zk ℄, k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1. Further,

Z n Z zk
X
0= f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz
 k=1 zk 1
Xn Z zk
= [f (z ) f (zk ) + f (zk )℄ dz
k=1 zk 1
Xn Z zk n
X Z zk
= [f (zk ) f (z )℄ dz + f (zk ) dz
k=1 zk 1 k=1 zk 1
Xn Z zk Xn
= [f (zk ) f (z )℄ dz + f (zk )(zk zk 1 );
k=1 zk 1 k=1
that is,
n
X n Z zk
X
(4.35) f (zk )(zk zk 1 ) = [f (zk ) f (z )℄ dz:
k=1 k=1 zk 1
By (4.34) and (4.35), we have
 
Xn  n
 2L(C ) jzk zk 1 j < 2 :
 X
 f (zk )(zk zk 1 )
 
k=1 k=1
Sin e n Z
X
lim
n!1
f (zk )(zk zk 1 ) = f (z ) dz
k=1 C
and sin e  is arbitrary, the theorem is proved.
Suppose f is analyti in a ring shaped spa e bounded by two simple
losed ontours C1 and C2 as shown in Figure 4.13.
Let be any ontour or a line from C1 to C2 , also shown in Figure 4.13.
Then the region bounded by C = C1 + C2 is simply onne ted.
4.3 Cau hy-Goursat Theorem 165

Cn

C3 C4
C2 C

C1

Figure 4.14: Illustration for Cau hy's deformation of ontour

From Theorem 4.33,

Z Z Z Z Z
0= f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz + f (z ) dz f (z ) dz f (z ) dz
C C1 C2
Z Z
= f (z ) dz f (z ) dz; by Theorem 4.9(i);
C1 C2
R R
whi h gives C1 f (z ) dz = C2 f (z ) dz: This result is referred to as the
Cau hy deformation theorem. In Figure 4.14, we illustrate Cau hy's theo-
rem for domain with (n 1) holes. In a manner similar to that used above,
we get Z
(4.36) f (z ) dz = 0:
C1 +C2 +


+ n
Equation (4.36) an be written in the form
I I I 
f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz +


+ f (z ) dz
C1 I
C2 I
Cn
= f (z ) dz +


+ f (z ) dz:
C2 Cn
In other words, by integrating along ea h inner ontour in the ounter lo k-
wise dire tion, so that the (n 1) inner ontours have negative orientation,
it follows that the value of the integral along the outer ontour is equal to
the sum of the values along the inner ontours.
Annulus regions are lassied as follows: Let a 2 C and 0  r < R  1.
Then the open subset
D = D(a; r; R) = fz 2 C : r < jz aj < Rg
of C is alled the annulus or ir ular ring around a with inner radius r
and outer radius R. If r = 0 and R < 1, then D is a disk with enter
removed, i.e. the pun tured disk: D = D(a; 0; R) =
(a; R) nfag. If r = 0
and R = 1, then D(a; 0; 1) = C n fag. Finally, D dened above is the
exterior ir le ex luding the point 1 if R = 1 and r > 0. In parti ular,
the theorem of Cau hy's deformation of ontour gives the following:
166 Complex Integration

4.37. Theorem. Let 0  R1 < r < R2  1, and g(z ) be analyti

in the annulus domain
R D = fz 2 C : R1 < jz aj < R2 g: If Cr = fz :
jz aj = rg, then Cr g(z ) dz is independent of r.
4.4 Consequen e of Simply Conne tivity
How do we produ e a non-vanishing analyti fun tion f in a simply on-
ne ted domain
? Take an arbitrary analyti fun tion h in
. Then, the
desired fun tion f is given by f (z ) = exp(h(z )): In the following theorem
we a tually show that every non-vanishing analyti fun tion f arises in this
way.
4.38. Theorem. Let
be a simply onne ted domain and f 2 H(
)
with f (z ) 6= 0 on
. Then, there exists a h 2 H(
) su h that eh(z) = f (z ):
Proof. As f (z ) 6= 0 on
, f 0 (z )=f (z ) is analyti on
. By Theorem
4.33 (see also Corollary 4.61) there exists an h 2 H(
) su h that
f 0 (z )
h0 (z ) = for z 2
:
f (z )
We laim that f (z )e h(z) = 1 for z 2
. To do this, we dene g(z ) =
f (z )e h(z). Clearly, g 2 H(
) and
g0 (z ) = (f 0 (z ) f (z )h0(z ))e h(z) = 0 for z 2
:
Fix 2
. Then, Z z
g(z ) g( ) = g0( ) d = 0

6 0, we an set
so that f (z )e h(z) = g( ) or f (z ) = eh(z)g( ): As g( ) =
g( ) = ek for some k. Then
f (z ) = exp(h(z ) + k) = exp(H (z ));
where H (z ) = h(z ) + k.
Another onsequen e of this result is the following square root property.
4.39. Theorem. Assume the hypotheses of Theorem 4:38. Then, f
has an analyti square root- that is there exists a g 2 H(
) with g 2 (z ) =
f (z ) for z 2
:
Proof. The desired on lusion follows if we hoose h as in the previous
theorem and set g(z ) = exp(h(z )=2).
We have a dire t proof of Theorem 4.38 at least when
= C .
4.5 Winding Number or Index of a Curve 167

4.40. Theorem. Let f 2 H(C ) with f (z ) =6 0 on C . Then, there

exists a h 2 H(C ) su h that f (z ) = eh(z) .
Proof. By hypothesis, f 0 (z )=f (z ) belongs to H(C ) and therefore, it
admits a Taylor series (about the origin) onverging in the whole of C :
f 0 (z ) X1
= a z k for z 2 C :
f (z ) k=0 k
Dene 1
X ak k+1 f 0 (z )
(4.41) z = g(z ); i.e. = g0 (z ):
k=0
k+1 f (z )
Sin e
 
 an 1=n
lim sup 
  = lim sup(n + 1) 1=n jan j1=n = lim sup jan j1=n = 0;
n!1 n + 1  n!1 n!1
the radius of onvergen e of the series (4.41) that represents the fun tion g
is innity and therefore, g 2 H(C ). Set H (z ) = eg(z) : Then,
H 0 (z ) f 0 (z )
= g0 (z ) = ; i.e. f (z )H 0 (z ) f 0 (z )H (z ) = 0 for z 2 C ;
H (z ) f (z )
whi h gives  
d H (z )
= 0 for z 2 C ;
dz f (z )
so that H (z ) = kf (z ) for some onstant k. Note that H (0)=f (0) = k, k 6= 0
and so there exists a 2 C su h that ea = k. Thus, H (z ) = ea f (z ) so that
eg(z) a = f (z ): Hen e, h(z ) = g(z ) a is the desired fun tion.

4.5 Winding Number or Index of a Curve

Suppose that is a losed ontour in C . Let a be a given point in C n f g.
Then, there is a useful formula that measures how often winds around a.
For example if : (t) = fz : z a = reit ; 0  t  2kg, then en ir les
the point a k times ( ounter lo kwise). Further,
Z Z 2k Z
dz ireit 1 dz
= it dt = 2ki; i.e. = k:
z a 0 re 2i z a
From this we also observe that if en ir les the point a k-times in the
lo kwise dire tion, then
Z
1 dz
= k:
2i z a
168 Complex Integration

b
a c
a
a b
b
n(γ ; a) = 1 n(γ ; a) = −1 n(γ ; a) = 1
n(γ ; b) = 0 n(γ ; b) = 0 n(γ ; b) = 0
n(γ ; c) = 2

Figure 4.15: Des ription for winding number.

R
In either ase, 21i zdza is an integer. Here is the analyti denition of the
winding number of a, whi h aptures the intuitive notion of \the number
of times wraps around a in the ounter lo kwise dire tion" (see Figure
4.15):
4.42. Denition. Let be a losed ontour in C that avoids a point
a 2 C . The index (or winding number) of about a, denoted by n( ; a) or
Ind ( ; a), is given by the integral
Z
1 dz
n( ; a) = :
2i z a
A tually, from our later dis ussion, Cau hy's theorem will imply that
n( ; a) = n( 0 ; a) for all losed urves 0 that are homotopi to as losed
urves in C n fag.
In the following we will olle t some properties of the index n( ; a).
4.43. Theorem. For every losed ontour in C and a 2 C n ,
n( ; a) is an integer.
Proof. If the parametri interval of is [0; 1℄, then (0) = (1). Con-
sider the fun tions g : [0; 1℄ ! C and h : [0; 1℄ ! C , dened by
Z t 0
(s) ds
(4.44) g(t) = and h(t) = ( (t) a)e g(t) ;
0 (s) a
respe tively. Then, g(0) = 0 and g is ontinuous on [0; 1℄. Likewise h is
ontinuous on [0; 1℄. Moreover, for t 2 [0; 1℄, g is pie ewise smooth and has
the derivative
0 (t)
g0 (t) =
(t) a
at every point t where 0 (t) is ontinuous. Consequently, h has the deriva-
tive
h0 (t) = [ 0 (t) g0 (t)( (t) a)℄e g(t) = 0
4.5 Winding Number or Index of a Curve 169

at every point t where 0 (t) is ontinuous. Be ause is pie ewise smooth,

h0 (t) = 0 fails to hold only at a nite number points in the interval [0; 1℄.
Thus, by the ontinuity of h, it follows that h must redu e to a onstant k
on [0; 1℄. In parti ular,
h(0) = h(1); or (0) a = e g(1) ( (1) a):
Sin e (1) = (0), the last equation means that e g(1) = 1. We on lude
that g(1) = 2ik for some integer k. Hen e, by (4.44), we have n( ; a) =
k 2 Z.

To avoid the little te hni ality, one ould simply supply the proof of
Theorem 4.43 just for smooth urves as it is easy. For onvenien e, we
shall repla e a in Theorem 4.43 by  and obtain

4.45. Theorem. If is a losed ontour in C , then the mapping

7 ! n( ;  ) is a ontinuous fun tion of  at any point  62 .
Proof. Let D be an open set ontaining no point of , a 2 D, and
Æ = dist (a; ). Then Æ > 0 and for z 2 , jz aj  Æ. Now, for all h with
jhj < Æ=2, we have
jz a hj  jz aj jhj  Æ Æ=2
and so, using the standard estimate for integrals (see Theorem 4.9(iv)), we
have
 Z   
jn( ; a + h) n( ; a)j =  21 1 1
 
dz 
z a h z a
Z  
 j2hj  (z a 1h)(z a)  jdz j
 

 j hj
L( )
2(Æ=2)Æ
whi h tends to zero as h approa hes 0, where L( ) denotes the length of .
Hen e, as a is arbitrary, n( ;  ) is a ontinuous fun tion of  in C n f g.

Integer-valuedness and the ontinuity of n( ;  ) yield

4.46. Corollary. The fun tion n( ;  );  2 C n f g, is onstant in

the omponents of C n f g.

4.47. Theorem. We have n( ;  ) = 0 in the unbounded omponent

of the losed ontour .
170 Complex Integration

Proof. Suppose that 
R . Then, for any  in the unbounded

omponent of C n
R , we have
 Z 
 1 dz  1 L( )
jn( ;  )j = 
 2
<
2 j j R
;
z 
sin e jz  j  j j jz j > j j R. So jn( ;  )j < 1 for j j suÆ iently large
(for instan e for j j > L2( ) + R). Sin e jn( ;  )j is a non-negative integer
and is onstant for every  , it follows that n( ;  ) = 0 for every  in the
unbounded omponent of .
R
Returning to the initial example where we had 21i zdza = k 2 Z
whenever (t) = a+re2ikt , we an use this result to on lude that n( ; a) =
k for jz aj < r and n( ; a) = 0 for jz aj > r.
The on ept of the winding number is useful to hara terize what is
meant by the inside (interior) and the outside (exterior) of a losed urve
, respe tively, in the following way:
Int ( ) = fz 62 : n( ; z ) 6= 0g and Ext ( ) = fz 62 : n( ; z ) = 0g:
Moreover, a losed urve : [a; b℄ ! C is said to be positively oriented if
n( ; z ) > 0 for every z inside and is negatively oriented if n( ; z ) < 0 for
every z outside . As we have seen, for the ir le 
(z0 ; r) about z0 , the
positive orientation is ounter lo kwise. More pre isely, we have following
results whi h we state without proof.
4.48. Theorem. If onsists of nitely many losed ontours 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; k
in C , then for every a 62 k (i.e. not on any one of the j ),
(i) n( ; a) = n( 1 ; a) + n( 2 ; a) +


+ n( k ; a)
(ii) n( 1; a) = n( 1 ; a):

4.6 Homotopy Version of Cau hy's Theorem

In this se tion we dis uss more generalR onditions under whi h we may vary
the urve ontinuously and so that f (z ) dz un hanged when f 2 H(D)
and is ontained in D. For this, we introdu e the important notion of
homotopy of ontinuous maps. We onsider two urves whi h are parame-
terized by the same interval [0; 1℄ and formulate the following denition.
Let 0 ; 1 be two urves in a domain D  C with parametri interval
[0; 1℄ having ommon initial and terminal points:
a = 0 (0) = 1 (0); b = 0 (1) = 1 (1):
The set of all urves in D whi h onne t a and b is denoted by (D; a; b).
If a = b, then we say that the urve is losed and a is alled the base point.
4.6 Homotopy Version of Cau hy's Theorem 171

γ1

a = γ0 (0) = γ1 (0) b = γ0 (1) = γ1 (1)

γ0

Figure 4.16: Des ription for homotopi urves.

(D; a; a) is then the family of all losed urves (loops in D with base point
a).

4.49. Denition. Let 0 and 1 2 (D; a; b). We say that 0 and

1 are homotopi (or that 0 is homotopi to 1 ) with xed end points if
there exists a ontinuous map F : [0; 1℄  [0; 1℄ ! C su h that
(i) F (t; u) 2 D for all 0  t; u  1
(ii) F (t; 0) = 0 (t) and F (t; 1) = 1 (t) for all 0  t  1
(iii) F (0; u) = a and F (1; u) = b; for all 0  u  1.
We write 0 ' 1 (or F : 0 ' 1 ) to indi ate that 0 is homotopi to 1 .

To have a better understanding of the denition, we write

u (t) = F (t; u)
and say that F is a homotopy between 0 and 1 . Note that, for ea h
u 2 [0; 1℄, u : [0; 1℄ ! D is a ontinuous map with u (0) = a and u (1) = b.
At the start, u = 0 and u = 0 ; as u varies, the map u varies ontinuously
so that at the end u = 1 we have u = 1 , i.e. 0 an be transformed
ontinuously into 1 in D (see Figure 4.16). We observe the following:
(i) Denition 4.49(iii) means that the homotopy F xes both initial and
terminal points.
(ii) If 1 2 (D; a; b) is a losed urve (i.e. a = 1 (0) = 1 (1) = b),
0 (t)  a for all t 2 [0; 1℄ (i.e. 0 is a onstant urve) and 0 ' 1 ,
then we say that the urve 1 an be ontinuously deformed into the
point a. The point a is alled the base point of 1 . In other words, if
is a losed urve with base point a then is said to be homotopi
to 0 in D, or simply null-homotopi (written as ' 0) if ' 0 . The
family of losed urves in D with base point a is denoted by (D; a).
(iii) Homotopy is an equivalen e relation in (D; a; b). Clearly 0 ' 0 .
For 0 ; 1 2 (D; a; b), we have
0 ' 1 =) 1 ' 0 :
172 Complex Integration

To he k this, let F : 0 ' 1 be a homotopy arrying 0 into 1 .

Then, H dened by H (t; u) = F (t; 1 u) is a homotopy arrying 1
into 0 , i.e. H : 1 ' 0 .
For 0 ; 1 ; 2 2 (D; a; b); we have
0 ' 1 and 1 ' 2 =) 0 ' 2 :
To verify this, let F : 0 ' 1 and G : 1 ' 2 . Dene H by

F (t; 2u)
H (t; u) = G if 0  u  1=2
(t; 2u 1) if 1=2  u  1:
Then, H : 0 ' 2 . This proves our laim.
4.50. Denition. A domain D is said to be simply onne ted if every
losed urve in D is homotopi to a point in D.
If D is a simply onne ted domain, then for any pair 0 ; 1 2 (D; a; b)
we have 0 ' 1 by (iii) above, whereas any losed urve in D is homotopi
to zero.
Suppose D is starlike with respe t to a, and 1 be a losed urve in D.
Putting
F (t; u) = u 1(t) + (1 u)a; u 2 [0; 1℄;
we see that F (t; u) is a ontinuous fun tion dened on the re tangle f(t; u) :
t; u 2 [0; 1℄g su h that F (t; u) 2 D. Also
F (t; 0) = 0 (t); F (t; 1) = 1 (t); for all 0  t  1
F (0; u) = u 1 (0) + (1 u)a = ua + (1 u)a = a
and
F (1; u) = u 1 (1) + (1 u)a = ua + (1 u)a = a;
sin e 1 2 (D; a). So, 1 ' 0 in D and thus D is simply onne ted.
If D is a onvex domain then it is starlike and so it is simply onne ted.
Therefore, if 0 and 1 are any two losed urves in (D; a) then 0 ' 1
in D.
4.51. Denition. Let D be an open set and 0 and 1 be two urves
dened on [0; 1℄. We say that 0 and 1 are lose together if there exists
a partition P of [0; 1℄, P : 0 = t0 < t1 <


< tn = 1, and a sequen e
of disks Dj ; j = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1, ontained in D su h that for ea h j =
0; 1; : : : ; n 1, Dj ontains the images 0 ([tj ; tj + 1℄) and 1 ([tj ; tj + 1℄).
Let 0 and 1 be losed urves in D that are lose together. Let 0 (tj ) =
zj , 1 (tj ) = j : Consider f 2 H(D) and let gj be a primitive of f on Dj ,
4.6 Homotopy Version of Cau hy's Theorem 173

zn = γ0 (tn ) = γ1 (tn ) = ζn
zn
zj +1
zj
ζj +1
ζj
z0

z0 = γ0 (t0 ) = γ1 (t0 ) = ζ0

Figure 4.17: Des ription for lose together urves.

whi h exists by Theorem 4.31. Further, if 0 and 1 are losed urves of

lass C 1 and are lose together, then
Z nX1
I0 = f (z ) dz = [gj (zj+1 ) gj (zj )℄
0 j =0
and Z nX1
I1 = f (z ) dz = [gj (j+1 ) gj (j )℄
1 j =0
so that I0 I1 = [gn 1(zn ) gn 1 (n )℄ [g0(z0 ) g0 (0 )℄: Sin e 0 and
1 are losed and sin e the primitives gn 1 and g0 dier by a onstant,
I0 I1 = 0 and hen e I0 = I1 .
The following theorem summarizes the above dis ussion.
4.52. Theorem. Let D be an open set in C and 0 and 1 be two
losed ontours in D. Suppose
R that 0 Rand 1 are lose together. Then, for
ea h f 2 H(D), we have 0 f (z ) dz = 1 f (z ) dz:

Let : [0; 1℄ ! D be a urve in an open set D. Then, ([0; 1℄) is

ompa t. Dene
(t) = min j (t)  j:
 2C nD
Then, (t) > 0 on [0; 1℄. Clearly  is ontinuous and  has a minimum on
[0; 1℄. Further, is uniformly ontinuous on [0; 1℄. Let R = min0t1 (t).
Therefore, for  = R=2 > 0 there exists a Æ > 0 su h that
j (t) (u)j < R=2 whenever jt uj < Æ (t; u 2 [0; 1℄):
Choose points t0 = 0 < t1 <


< tn = 1 in [0; 1℄ su h that jtj tj+1 j < Æ.
Then (see Figure 4.17),
([tj ; tj+1 ℄) 
( (tj ); R=2) = Dj  D:
174 Complex Integration

For all su h j , let j : [tj ; tj+1 ℄ ! D be the restri tion of to [tj ; tj+1 ℄.
Sin ethe disk
( (tj); R=2) is onvex and lies in D, by Theorem 4.31, we
R Pn 1 R
have j =1 j f (z ) dz = 0 for ea h analyti fun tion f on D. That
is,
Z nX1 Z
(4.53) f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz:
j =1 j
This also follows from the properties of the Riemann integral. Note also
that, by Theorem 4.31, there exists an Fj on Dj su h that Fj0 (z ) = f (z ) on
Dj . Thus, if j is of lass C 1 , (4.53) and Corollary 4.18 give
Z nX1 Z
f (z ) dz = f ( j (t)) j0 (t) dt
j =1 j
nX1 Z
= Fj0 ( j (t)) j0 (t) dt
j =1 j
nX1 Z
= d[Fj ( j (t))℄
j =1 j
nX1
= [Fj (zj+1 ) Fj (zj )℄
j =1
where (tj ) = zj .
Our next result is the famous Cau hy's theorem.
4.54. Theorem. (Homotopy Version of Cau hy's Theorem) Let
D be domain in C and 0 and 1 be two losed R ontours in DR su h that
0 ' 1 in D. Then, for ea h f 2 H(D), we have 0 f (z ) dz = 1 f (z ) dz:
Proof. Let F : 0 ' 1 be a homotopy in D. Sin e F is ontinuous on
the square R = [0; 1℄  [0; 1℄ whi h is ompa t, the image F (R) is ompa t
and F is uniformly ontinuous on R. Hen e, F (R) has a positive distan e
from C n D. Choose partitions
u0 = 0 < u1 <


< um = 1
t0 = 0 < t1 <


< tn = 1
and let Rjk = [tj ; tj+1 ℄  [uk ; uk+1 ℄ (j = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1; k = 0; 1; : : : ; m 1),
a re tangle. Then, F (Rjk ) = Djk  D. Dene k by
k (t) = F (t; uk ); k = 0; 1; : : : ; m:
Then, k 's are ontinuous and the urves k , k+1 are lose together. By
Theorem 4.52,
Z Z
f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz; k = 0; 1; : : : ; m 1:
k k+1
4.6 Homotopy Version of Cau hy's Theorem 175

As 0 = 0 and m = 1 , the desired equality follows.

4.55. Corollary. If D is a simply onne ted domain

R in C , then, for
any f 2 H(D) and any losed ontour in D, we have f (z ) dz = 0:
R
Proof. Let 0 be a onstant urve. Then, 00 (t) = 0 and so 0 f (z ) dz =
0: The result follows from Theorem 4.54 upon taking 1 = .

Another version (see also Corollary 4.61) of Corollary 4.55 is the follow-
ing.

4.56. Corollary. If D is a simply onne ted domainR in C , then,

for any f
R
2 H(D), and 0 ; 1 2 (D; a; b) in D, we have 0 f (z ) dz =
1 f ( z ) dz:
R
Proof. Using Corollary 4.55, we obtain 0 1 f (z ) dz = 0 and the
desired on lusion now follows.

4.57. Corollary. If 0 and 1 are two losed ontours in a domain D

of C su h that 0 ' 1 then, for ea h a 2 C n D, we have n( 0 ; a) = n( 1 ; a):

4.58. Example. Let 0 and 1 be dened by

0 (t) = e2it and 1 (t) = e 2it ; t 2 [0; 1℄:
Then, 0 and 1 are the ir le jwj = 1. Dene F (t; u) = e2it 2iu sin(2t):
Then, F : 0 ' 1 in D = C .
Further, if D = C n f0g and f (z ) = 1=z then
Z Z Z 1
1 1
f (z ) dz = dz = 2ie2it dt = 2i
0 0 z 0 e2it
so that n( 0 ; 0) = 1. Similarly we see that n( 1 ; 0) = 1. Thus, 0 and 1
are not homotopi in D = C n f0g. 
4.59. Example. Consider two ir les
0 (t) = Re2it and 1 (t) = (R + 1)e2it (t 2 [0; 1℄);
where R > 0 is xed. Dene F (t; u) = (R + u)e2it : Then, for t; u 2 [0; 1℄,
F (t; 0) = 0 (t); F (t; 1) = 1 (t) and F (0; u) = F (1; u) = R + u:
Further, we also have jF (t; u)j  R + 1 for all u 2 [0; 1℄. Therefore, F is a
homotopy of 0 to 1 in any region D ontaining
R+1 . 
176 Complex Integration

4.60. Example. Let 0 (t) = 2t and 1 (t) = 1 + ei(1 t) , t 2 [0; 1℄:

Dene F (t; u) = (1 u) 0 (t) + u 1 (t): Then, jF (t; u)j  2 for all u 2 [0; 1℄.
Clearly, F : 0 ' 1 in any region D ontaining
2 . 
Next we give an alternate proof of Theorem 4.33 in the following form.
4.61. Corollary. If f is analyti in a simply onne ted domain D,
then there is a fun tion F in D su h that F 0 (z ) = f (z ), and F is unique
up to an additive onstant.
Proof. Let z0 2 D. For ea h z 2 D, let z be a urve in D from z0 to
z . Dene F by Z
F (z ) = f ( ) d:
z
By Corollary 4.57, the value of F (z ) is independent of the hoi e of z .
Therefore, for any ontour in D from z1 to z2 we have
Z
(4.62) F (z2 ) F (z1 ) = f ( ) d:

In parti ular, (4.62) holds for any line segment in D onne ting z1 and z2 .
That is Z z2
F (z2 ) F (z1 ) = f ( ) d:
z1
Here z2 is suÆ iently lose to z1 so that [z1 ; z2℄  D. It follows, from the
method of proof of Theorem 4.31 (take z = z1 , z + h = z2 in Theorem
4.31), that F 0 (z ) = f (z ) in D.
Now let G be any other fun tion in D su h that G0 (z ) = f (z ). Applying
Corollary 4.18, it follows that for any points z1 ; z2 in D and any ontour
in D from z1 to z2 , we have
Z Z Z
F (z2 ) F (z1 ) = F 0 (z ) dz = f (z ) dz = G0 (z ) dz = G(z2 ) G(z1 )

and therefore, F G is onstant in D.

4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula

The Cau hy integral formula expresses a remarkable fa t about an analyti
fun tion. Its values everywhere inside a simple losed ontour are om-
pletely determined by its values on the boundary. The integral representa-
tion allows us to show that analyti fun tions are innitely dierentiable.
In fa t the values of ea h derivative of an analyti fun tion are determined
just by the values of the fun tion on the boundary. Later in Se tion 4.10,
we use the integral representation to obtain power series expansions for
analyti fun tions.
4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula 177

4.63. Theorem. (Cau hy Integral Formula) If D is a simply on-

ne ted domain and is a losed ontour in D, then for f 2 H(D) and
a 2 D nf g, Z
1 f ( )
(4.64) f (a)n( ; a) = d:
2i  a
Proof. Let f 2 H(D) and onsider
8
f (z ) f (a)
< for z 6= a
F (z ) = z a
f 0 (a) for z = a:
:

Then,R F is analyti in D nfag and ontinuous on D. Hen e, by Corollary

4.32, C F ( ) d = 0 for every losed ontour C in some disk
(z0 ; Æ)  D
with a 2
(z0 ; Æ). If we rearrange this, then we obtain
Z Z
1 f ( ) f (a) 1 f ( )
d = d f (a)n(C ; a) = 0:
2i C  a 2i C  a
Thus, we have proved a lo al version of the Cau hy integral formula. The
general version follows on e we prove that F 2 H(D). This an be done
with the same idea used in Theorem 4.30.
Most of the appli ations of the above theorem are in the ase when f is
analyti inside and on where is a simple losed ontour and a is inside
. We have then n( ; a) = 1, so that (4.64) be omes
Z
1 f ( )
f (a) = d:
2i  a
From the formula given by (4.64), in the ase of a point a for whi h n( ; a) 6=
0, it follows that \the value of f at an interior point" is determined by \its
boundary values." This fa t has many valuable onsequen es in omplex
analysis, whi h we shall soon see in a number of examples.
4.65. Example. Using the Cau hy integral formula for simple losed
ontour (i.e. when n( ; a) = 1) we have
Z
sin z
(a) dz = 2i(sin z )jz=0 = 0
j zj=1 z
Z
os z os z 
(b) dz = 2i jz =0 = i
jzj=1 z (z 4) z 4 2
Z
e2z
( ) dz = 2ie2a
jz aj=1 z a
Z
ez + z 2
(d) dz = 2i[e + 1℄
jzj=2 z 1
178 Complex Integration

(e) If f (z ) = sin(z 2 ) + os(z 2 ), then by Cau hy's deformation of on-

tour
Z Z
f (z ) f (z )=(z 3)
dz = dz
jzj=4 (z 2)( z 3) jz 2j=1=2 z 2
Z
f (z )=(z 2)
+ dz
jz 3j=1=2 z 3
= 2i( f (2) + f (3)) = 0:

(f) By Cau hy's deformation of ontour

Z Z Z
ez ez =(z 1) ez =z
dz = dz + dz
jzj=4 z (z 1) jzj=1=2 z jz 1j=1=2 z 1
= 2i( 1 + e):
Z
os(ez )
(g) dz = 2i os 1 = i(ei + e i ). 
jzj=1 z

Suppose that f (x) is a ontinuous real-valued fun tion dened on the

interval [a; b℄ and F 0 (x) = f (x) on [a; b℄. Then, the \mean/average value"
of f (x) on [a; b℄ is given by
Z b
1 F (b) F (a)
f (x) dx = :
b a a b a
In view of the mean-value theorem, the right hand side expression is equal
to F 0 ( ) (whi h is now f ( ) be ause of our assumption) for some 2 (a; b).
As an immediate spe ial ase of Theorem 4.63, we have an important
result whi h shows that for fun tions analyti inside and on a ir le, the
average of the values on the ir umferen e is equal to the value of the
fun tion at the enter of the ir le.

4.66. Theorem. (Gauss's Mean-Value Theorem) If D is a domain

and
(z0 ; r)  D, then for f 2 H(D) and a 2
(z0 ; r),
Z Z 2
1 f ( ) 1
f (a) = d = f (a + ei ) d
2i 
(z0;r)  a 2 0

where  > 0 is su h that
(a; ) 
(z0 ; r):

Proof. By hypothesis, n( ; a) = 1 with = 
(z0 ; r). Let  a = ei .

Then, d = iei d and the result follows.
4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula 179

If f 2 H(
) and L is the length of the image urve r of 
r (0 < r < 1)

under f , then it is easy to see that L  2rjf 0 (0)j. Indeed,
Z Z
L= jdwj = jf 0 (z )j jdz j
r 
r
Z 2
= r jf 0 (rei )j d
0
Z 2 
 0 
 r
 i
f (re ) d
0
= 2rjf 0 (0)j; by the mean value property.
R
4.67. Example. Let us evaluate the integral I = jzj=r Re z dz: On
the ir le jz j = r, we have z = rei and zz = r2 so that jdz j = rd = rdz=iz
and  
z+z 1 r2
Re z = = z+ :
2 2 z
Using this simple observation, the given integral may be rewritten as
Z Z
1 r2 dz
I= z dz + :
2 jzj=r 2 jzj=r z
Observe that the rst integral vanishes by Cau hy's theorem while the value
of se ond integral is 2i, by Cau hy's integral formula. Thus, the value of
the given integral I is ir2 . Similarly, we obtain the following:
Z Z Z  
r r2 dz
Im z dz = r2 and Im z jdz j = z = 0:
jzj=r jzj=r 2i jzj=r z iz
Finally, on the ir le jz aj = r, we have (z a)(z a) = r2 so that
z = a + r2 =(z a) and therefore,
Z Z Z
dz
z dz = a dz + r2 = 2ir2 : 
jz aj=r jz aj=r jz aj=r z a

4.68. Example. Let f be analyti inside and on the ellipse C given

by  
x2 y2
z = x + iy : 2 + 2 = 1 ; a  b > 0:
a b
Suppose that
(i) jf (z )j  M1 for z 2 C1 = fz 2 C : Re z  0g and,
(ii) jf (z )j  M2 for z 2 C2 = fz 2 C : Re z < 0g.
180 Complex Integration

Using the Cau hy integral formula, let us nd an upper bound for jf (0)j.
To do this, we onsider an auxiliary fun tion (z ) dened by
(z ) = f (z )f ( z ) for z 2 C = C1 [ C2 :
Clearly, (z ) is analyti inside and on the ellipse C . First we observe the
following:
p p
(i) z 2 C () fz : jz a2 b2 j + jz + a2 b2j = 2ag, see Example
1.33.
(ii) z 2 C1 i z 2 C2 , whenever Re z > 0 and z 2 C . This observation
shows that j(z )j = jf (z )f ( z )j  M1 M2 for z 2 Cj (j = 1; 2). Note
that Re z = 0 i Re ( z ) = 0, and so j(z )j < M12 when Re z = 0 but
z 6= 0.
(iii) For z 2 C , we have b  jz j  a.
By the Cau hy integral formula,
Z Z Z 
1 (z ) 1 (z ) (z )
(0) = dz = dz + dz :
2i C z 2i C1 z C2 z
Therefore, if L( ) denotes the length of the urve then L(C ) = L(C1 ) +
L(C2 ) and we obtain the estimate
Z  Z 
1  (z )   (z ) 
jf (0)j2 = j(0)j 
2  C1 z
dz  +  dz 
C2 z
 
1 M1 M2 M1 M2
 2 b
L(C1 ) +
b
L(C2 )
M M L(C )
= 1 2
2b
whi h gives that r
jf (0)j  M1 M2b2 L(C )
:
What happens when a = b? In this spe ialp ase, the ellipse be omes the
ir le jz j = a. So, L(C ) = 2a and jf (0)j  M1 M2: 
4.69. Example. Let us dis uss the pro ess of evaluating the integral
Z
Ar tan z
I= 2 1 dz;
z
where losed ontour is yet to be spe ied. Using the partial fra tion
de omposition, we an rewrite
Z Z
1 Ar tan z 1 Ar tan z
I= dz dz:
2 z 1 2 z+1
4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula 181
y y

i i

−1 1 x −1 1 x

−i −i

(i) γ encloses both − 1 and 1 (ii) γ does not enclose both − 1 and 1

Figure 4.18: Illustration for winding number.

Here Ar tan z is the prin ipal bran h of the inverse tangent fun tion dened
by  
i 1 + iz
Ar tan z = Log :
2 1 iz
What is the region of analyti ity of Ar tan z ? To nd this we need to
remove those points z 2 C for whi h
1 + iz
= u; u 2 R with u  0:
1 iz
Note that
1 + iz (1 + iz )(1 + iz) 1 jz j2 + 2iRe z
=
1 iz j1 iz j2 = j1 iz j2
and therefore, the points to be removed from C are those points z for whi h
Re z = 0 and jz j  1. This gives x = 0 and jyj  1 and thus, Ar tan z is
analyti on C n fiy : y 2 R; jyj  1g: Now, ould be spe ied as any
losed ontour whi h does not tou h the two slits. For example,
(i) if is as in Figure 4.18(i), then
I = 2 1[2i n( ; 1)f (1) 2i n( ; 1)f ( 1)℄
where f (z ) = Ar tan z . We ompute
 
i 1+i i i
f (1) = Log = Log i and f ( 1) = Log ( i):
2 1 i 2 2
Therefore,
h     i 32
I = i 2 1 =i :
4 4 4
182 Complex Integration

y y
γ
i i
γ

−1 1 x −1 1 x

−i −i

(iii) n(γ , 1) = 1, n(γ , −1) = 0 (iv) n(γ , 1) = 0, n(γ , −1) = −2

Figure 4.19: Curve en loses either 1 or 1.

(ii) if is as in Figure 4.18(ii), i.e. does not en lose both 1 and 1,

then Z
Ar tan z
dz = 0:
z2 1
(iii) if en loses only one of the two points 1 and 1, namely, the point
1 (see Figure 4.19(i)) then
Z Z
Ar tan z g(z ) Ar tan z
2 1 dz = dz; g(z ) = :
z z 1 z+1
We ompute g(1) = (1=2)Ar tan 1 = =8 and therefore, in this ase,
Z
Ar tan z  i2
dz = 2 i n( ; 1)g (1) = 2i = :
z2 1 8 4
(iv) Similarly, if en loses only the point z = 1, then we write
Z
Ar tan z Ar tan z
2 dz = 2i n( ; 1) ( 1); (z ) = :
z 1 z 1
Sin e n( ; 1) = 2 and ( 1) = (1=2)Ar tan( 1) = =8; it fol-
lows that (see Figure 4.19(ii))
Z  
Ar tan z i2
dz = 2 i ( 2) = : 
z2 1 8 2
For the proof of our next theorem, we need the following:
4.70. Theorem. Let  be a omplex-valued fun tion whi h is on-
tinuous in an open set D ontaining a ontour . Then, for all z 62 , the
fun tion Fn dened by
Z
( )
(4.71) Fn (z ) = d; n = 1; 2; : : : ;
( z )n
4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula 183

δ/2
z
γ

Figure 4.20: A disk
(z ; Æ ) disjoint from ([a; b℄).

is analyti and satises the equation Fn0 (z ) = nFn+1 (z ); or equivalently

Z
( )
(4.72) F (k) (z ) = k! d; k = 1; 2; : : : ;
( z )k+1
with F1 (z ) = F (z ).
Proof. Let : (t), 0  t  1, be a given ontour in D. Then, being
ontinuous on [0; 1℄, ([0; 1℄) is ompa t. The fun tion  being ontinuous
on ([0; 1℄), there exists M > 0 su h that
j( )j  M on ([0; 1℄):
For z 62 , let
(z ; Æ) (e.g. hoose Æ = dist (z; )) be a disk about z disjoint
from ([0; 1℄) so that j z j  Æ for  on the urve . Suppose further that
a 2
(z ; Æ=2) and
 
jhj  12 2Æ ja z j = Æ0 ; say :
Then, as

ja + h z j  ja z j + jhj  4Æ + ja 2 z j < 4Æ + Æ4 = Æ2 ;
a + h 2
(z ; Æ=2) (see Figure 4.20) and so (with F1 (z ) = F (z )), we have
Z
F (a + h) F (a) ( )
= d:
h ( a)( a h)
Hen e,
Z Z
F (a + h) F (a) ( ) ( )
(4.73) 2 d = h 2 d:
h ( a) ( a) ( a h)
For  on , we note that j aj  j z j ja z j  Æ Æ=2 = Æ=2 and
 
j a hj  j aj jhj  2Æ 12 2Æ ja z j = Æ4 + ja 2 z j  4Æ :
184 Complex Integration

Therefore, using the standard estimate for integrals (see Theorem 4.9(iv)),
it follows that the modulus of the right hand side of (4.73) is less than or
equal to
jhjML( )
(Æ=2)2 (Æ=4)
whi h learly approa hes zero as h ! 0. Sin e a was an arbitrary point of D,
this implies that F1 (= F ), dened by (4.71), is analyti for all z 2 D nf g
and that Z
0 ( )
F (z ) = d; i.e. F10 (z ) = 1
F2 (z ):
( a)2
Now the ase when n = 1, i.e. k = 1 in (4.72), follows. Therefore, to prove
the general ase we pro eed by indu tion on n. Assume that the result
holds for some value of k  1. The integral formula (4.72) for F (k) (z ) then
yields the expression
Z  
1 1
F (k) (a + h) F (k) (a) = k! ( ) d:
( a h)k+1 ( a)k+1
Now, we must show that (4.72) holds for F (k+1) (a). To do this, sin e
Z
du 1 1
(k + 1) = ;
[a;a+h℄ ( u)k+2 ( a h)k+1 ( a)k+1
we write
Z
F (k) (a + h) F (k) (a) ( )
(k + 1)! d
h ( a)k+2
Z " Z #
1 du 1
= (k + 1)! ( ) d
h [a;a+h℄ (  u)k+2 ( a)k+2
Z Z"   #
(k + 1)! 1 1
= du ( ) d
h [a;a+h℄ ( u)k+2 ( a)k+2
Z "Z Z ! #
(k + 2)! dv
= du ( ) d
h [a;a+h℄ [a;u℄ (  v)k+3
= M (h); say.
Now v 2 [a; u℄  [a; a + h℄ and so for all  on ,
 
j vj  j aj jv aj  j aj jhj  2Æ 12 Æ2 ja z j = 4Æ + ja 2 z j
and therefore, j vj  Æ=4: Hen e

jM (h)j  (k j+hj2)! M
L( ): (jÆ=hj4)
jkh+3j ;

4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula 185

whi h approa hes zero as h ! 0. Hen e, F (k+1) exists at a and is given by

Z
( )
F (k+1) (a) = (k + 1)! d; k = 1; 2; : : : :
( a)k+2
Sin e a was an arbitrary point of D, the on lusion of the theorem follows
by indu tion.
We now apply Theorem 4.70 to the Cau hy integral formula to obtain
4.74. Theorem. (Cau hy Integral Formula for Derivatives) Under
the assumptions of Theorem 4:63, we have
Z
f (k) (a) 1 f ( )
n( ; a) = d; k = 0; 1; 2; : : : :
k! 2i ( a)k+1
In parti ular, for n( ; a) = 1, we have
Z
f (k) (a) 1 f ( )
= d; k = 0; 1; 2; : : : :
k! 2i ( a)k+1
Proof. Let (z ) = f (z ) in Theorem 4.70. Then
Z
f ( )
F1 (z ) = d = 2if (z )n( ; z );
 z
by the Cau hy integral formula for all points z inside . Note that n( ; z )
is an analyti fun tion of z on D nf g and is ontinuous on D nf g. Sin e
n( ; z ) is an integer, it is onstant in the neighborhood of z . Thus, n( ; z )
is lo ally onstant. Therefore,
F1(k) (z ) = 2if (k)(z )n( ; z ):
But, by Theorem 4.70, we have
F 0 (z ) F 00 (z ) (k)
Fk+1 (z ) = k = k 1 =
k k(k 1)



= F1 k!(z ) = 2ki! f (k) (z )n( ; z );
that is, Z
1 f ( ) f (k) (z )
d = n( ; z )
2i ( z )k+1 k!
and the result follows, by repla ing z by a.
4.75. Corollary. If f is analyti in a domain D then the derivatives
of all orders exist and ea h of its derivatives f (k) is analyti in D and may
be obtained by dierentiating under the integral sign in the Cau hy integral
formula.
186 Complex Integration

Proof. In Theorem 4.74 take a 2 D and = f : j aj = rg  D.

Then f (k) (a) exists for all k = 1; 2; 3; : : : , so f (k) (z ) is dierentiable in a
neighborhood of a and is therefore analyti at a. Sin e a 2 D was arbitrary,
the result follows.
Let us now demonstrate how dierent this orollary is from the situation
of a fun tion of a real variable. For example, onsider f (x) = (x + 1)5=3 for
x 2 R: Then for x 2 R we have
5
f 0 (x) = (x + 1)2=3 and f 0 ( 1) = 0:
3
On the other hand,
10
f 00 (x) = (x + 1) 1=3 for x 6= 1
9
00
but f ( 1) does not exist. For the omplex analog of the same fun tion,
namely f (z ) = (z + 1)5=3 , the point z = 1 is a bran h point and the
analyti bran h of f (z ) exists in C n fx + i0 : x  1g.
Thus, it is possible for a fun tion of real variable g(x) in (a; b)  R
to have a derivative g0(x) without g0 (x) being ontinuous therein. Here is
another example. Consider g : R ! R dened by
 2
x sin(1=x) for x 6= 0
g(x) =
0 for x = 0:
Then, we see that g is ontinuously dierentiable on R but g0 (x) is not
ontinuous at the origin. How about h(x) = jxj3 on R?
4.76. Example. Let D = f(x; y) : jxj  a; jyj  b; a  bg, a
re tangular region. Suppose that f 2 H(D) satises the inequality jf (z )j 
M on D. Then,
jf 0 (0)j  2M b
(a + b)
2 :
Indeed, by Theorem 4.74 and the fa t that j j  b on D, we have the
inequality
 Z 
0  1 f ( )  1 M M (4a + 4b)
jf (0)j =  2i

2 d   2 L(D) =
2b2
D  2 b
whi h gives the desired result. 
4.77. Corollary. If f = u + iv is analyti in a domain D, then all
the partial derivatives of u and v exist and are ontinuous in D.
Proof. As f 0 = ux + ivx = vy iuy in D and sin e f 0 is analyti , the
on lusion for the rst partial derivatives follows. As
f 00 = uxx + ivxx = vyx iuyx = vxy iuxy = uyy ivyy
4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula 187

and sin e f 00 is analyti , the result for the se ond partial derivatives follows.
Finally, the proof follows by indu tion.

R 4.78. Example. Let us use the Cau hy integral formula to evaluate

jz 1j=1 (z) dz , n 2 Z. To do this, we use the parameterization z 1 = e
n it
so that
1 z
z = 1 + e it = 1 + = :
z 1 z 1
Therefore, Z Z
zn
(z)n dz = dz
jz 1j=1 jz 1j=1 (z 1)n
whi h is learly 0, by Cau hy's theorem, whenever n = 0; 1; 2; : : : . If
f (z ) = z n (n 2 N ), then, by Cau hy's integral formula, the value of the
integral is seen to be 2in. 
4.79. Theorem. (Cau hy's Inequality) Let f be analyti in the
open disk
(a; R) and jf ( )j  M for  2 
(a; r), 0 < r < R. Then, for
ea h k 2 N one has jf (k) (a)j  Mk !r k :
Proof. Apply the standard estimate (see Theorem 4.9) to the Cau hy
integral formula for derivatives with = 
(a; r) and nd that
jf (k) (a)j  2k!
rM Mk!
k+1
2r = rk :

4.80. Remark. The number M in Theorem 4.79 depends on the

ir le j aj = r. But noti e that for k = 0, one has jf (a)j  M for
any ir le entered at a as long as this ir le lies entirely within the disk

(a; R). This observation shows that an upper bound M of jf (z )j on any
ir le about a annot be smaller than jf (a)j.
It is also important to know how dierent this result is from the ase of
a real-valued fun tion of a real variable. So we raise the following question:
Does the Cau hy inequality hold in the real variable ase? Consider
u(x) = sin(1=x) for x 2 R+ = fx 2 R : x > 0g:
Then, u is dierentiable on R+ , ju(x)j  1 for x 2 R+ and
u0(x) = x 2 os(1=x)
whi h is unbounded, sin e u0 (1=(2n)) = 4n22 for every n 2 N :
Another simple example may be given by the fun tion un(x) = sin nx.
Then, for ea h n 2 Z, jun (x)j  1 on R. Further, u0n (x) exists for all x 2 R
and u0n (0) = n so that u0n (x) is unbounded on R when n ! 1. 
The above theorem ombined with Theorem 3.71 gives the following
result known as Cau hy's Inequality for Taylor's oeÆ ients.
188 Complex Integration
P
4.81. Theorem. Let f (z ) = n0 an (z z0)n be a series with posi-
tive radius of onvergen e R. If 0 < r < R and M (r) = maxjz z0 j=r jf (z )j,
then, for ea h k 2 N , jak j  r k M (r).

4.82. Example. Consider the geometri series (1 z ) 1 = 1

P k
k=0 z ,
jz j < 1: Then, for this fun tion (with z0 = 0; R = 1, and f (z ) = (1 z ) 1
in Theorem 4.81), we have M (r) = (1 r) 1 for 0 < r < 1, sin e the
fun tion w = (1 z ) 1 maps jz j = r onto
 

w 1  r
2
= :
 1 r  1 r2
So, jak j  (1 r) 1 r k for k 2 N : But we note that ak = 1 for ea h k 2 N
and hen e, the estimate is not good! 
4.83. Example. Suppose that f 2 H(
), f (z ) = 1
P n
n=1 an z and
jf (z )j  jz j=(1 jz j). Then, by Cau hy's inequality, it an be easily seen
that jan j < ne for n 2 N . Indeed, for ea h r 2 (0; 1),

jan j  (1 r1)rn 1 :
In parti ular, for r = 1 1=(n + 1), this inequality gives
jan j  (n + 1) n+1
n 1

= n 1 + n1 n < ne: 
n
Next we give a straightforward appli ation of the Cau hy integral for-
mula.
4.84. Theorem. (Weierstrass' Theorem for Sequen es) Let D be
open and fn : D ! C be analyti for ea h n 2 N . If fn ! f uniformly on
ea h ompa t subset of D, then f is analyti in D. Moreover, for ea h k ,
fn(k) (z ) ! f (k) (z ) uniformly as n ! 1 for ea h ompa t subset of D.
Proof. Sin e D is open, there exists an open disk, D0 =
(z0 ; ),
entered at z0 with D0  D. By hypothesis, fn ! f uniformly on D0 : In
D0 , f is the uniform limit of ontinuous fun tions;
R hen e f is ontinuous
on D0 . It follows from Cau hy's theorem that C fn (z ) dz = 0 for any
losed ontour C su h that C and its interior lie in D0 . But, sin e fn ! f
uniformly on the ompa t set C , we have
Z Z  Z 
   

 fn(z ) dz f (z ) dz  =  [fn (z )
 f (z )℄ dz 
C C 
C 
 sup jfn (z ) f (z )j  length of C
z2C
! 0 as n ! 1:
4.7 Cau hy Integral Formula 189

Thus, Z Z
f (z ) dz = nlim
!1 fn(z ) dz = 0
C C
and, sin e C is arbitrary, it follows from Morera's Theorem (see Theorem
4.86) that f is analyti in D.
Next let = fz : z z0 = reit ; 0  t < 2g. Then, the length of is
L( ) = 2r. The Cau hy integral formula yields
 Z Z 
jfn(k) (z0 ) f (k) (z0 )j =  2ki! (z fnz(z))k+1 dz 2ki! (z f (zz) dz
 

0 C 0 )k+1 
  
 sup  f(nz(z ) z )fk+1
(z )  k!

z2 
2 (2r)
0
 
k!
= k
sup jfn (z ) f (z )j
r z2
! 0 as n ! 1;
whi h proves the se ond part. Sin e z0 2 D is arbitrary, for ea h k,
fn(k) (z ) ! f (k) (z ) lo ally uniformly on D.

We observe that, in the real ase, a sequen e of innitely dierentiable

fun tions an onverge uniformly to a nowhere dierentiable fun tions.
Theorem 4.84 applied to partial sums of a series gives the following:

4.85. Theorem. (Weierstrass' Theorem for Series) P Let D be open

and fn : D ! C be analyti for ea h n 2 N . If a series n1 fnP onverges
uniformly on ea h ompa t subset of D, then the sum f = n1 fn is
analyti in D. Moreover, the series an be dierentiated term-by-term for
ea h z0 2 D.
P
Note that Weierstrass' theorem an be applied to the series n1 an z n ,
sin e ea h term in thisPseries is analyti in C . Further, we note that the uni-
form onvergen e of n1 fn on D does not ne essarily imply the uniform
P
onvergen e of n1 fn(k) on D. For example, let

z n+1
fn (z ) = :
n(n + 1)
Then, jfn (z )j < n 2 for z 2 P
and all n 2 N . By Weierstrass' M-test
(see Theorem 2.59), the series n1 fn is uniformly onvergent
P
on
. On
00
the other hand, fn (z ) = z n 1 00
and so, by Example 2.55, n1 fn (z ) is not
uniformly onvergent on
.
190 Complex Integration

h
z1 z+
z

C1

a C2

Figure 4.21: Two urves onne ting a and z1 .

4.8 Morera's Theorem

If n 2 N and jaj > 1, then Cau hy's theorem immediately yields that
Z
dz
I= = 0:
jzj=1 (z a)n
This is due to the fa t that the integrand in I is analyti for all z in
,
sin e jaj > 1. On the other hand, we know that
Z 
dz 0 if n 2 Z nf1g,
J= n =
jz aj=r (z a) 2i if n = 1:
Here the non-zero result arises be ause of the fa t that the integrand in J
is not analyti at z = a and this point lies inside the ir le jz aj = r whi h
violates the ondition of Cau hy's theorem. A partial onverse of Cau hy's
theorem is the following. The power of this theorem resides in the fa t that
only the ontinuity of f is assumed.
4.86. Theorem. (Morera's Theorem) R Suppose that f is ontinuous
in an open set D with the property that C f (z ) dz = 0 for ea h losed
ontour C in D. Then, f is analyti in D.

R Proof. Let a be an arbitrary xed point in D. Sin e the integral

C (z ) dz = 0 holds for ea h losed ontour C , for any two ontours C1
f
and C2 in D (see Figure 4.21) whi h onne t a with z1 , we have
Z Z Z
0= f (z ) dz = f (z ) dz f (z ) dz:
C1 C2 C1 C2
R
This means that the value of the integral az1 f (z ) dz does not depend upon
the path whi h onne ts a with z1 . Dene
Z z
F (z ) = f ( ) d for z 2 D:
a
4.8 Morera's Theorem 191

Sin e D is open, there exists an r > 0 su h thatR
(z ; r)  D. Let jhj be

suÆ iently small so that z + h 2
(z ; r). Sin e az f ( ) d is independent
of the path, as usual, we may write
Z z+h
F (z + h) F (z ) = f ( ) d
z
so that Z
F (z + h) F (z ) 1 z+h
f (z ) = [f ( ) f (z )℄ d:
h h z
Sin e f is ontinuous, as in the proof of Theorem 4.31, it follows that
 
 F (z + h) F (z ) 
 f (z ) ! 0 as jhj ! 0
 h
and so F is dierentiable with F 0 (z ) = f (z ) in
(z ; r). Sin e F is analyti
in
(z ; r), it follows from the Cau hy integral formula for derivatives that
f is analyti in
(z ; r). Sin e z was an arbitrary point of D, we on lude
that f is also analyti in D.

4.87. Remark. Suppose that

8 8
1 os z
< if z 2
(1; r) nf1g < if z 2
nf0g
f (z ) = (z 1)2 ; g(z ) = z2
: :
1 if z = 1 0 if z = 0:
Then (see Example 4.4), for any simple losed ontour C
R in
(1; r), we have
C f ( z ) dz = 0 : However f is not analyti for z 2
(1; r), sin e f is not
even ontinuous at z = 1. Note that Morera's Theorem is not appli able
sin e the ontinuity requirement is not satised. R
Similarly for the g(z ) dened above, we know that jzj=1 g(z ) dz = 0:
Again g is not analyti in
, sin e g is not ontinuous at z = 0. 
Most often we use Morera's Theorem but for a dierent situation other
than that is stated.

4.88. Corollary. (Riemann's Removability Theorem) Suppose

that f is ontinuous on a domain D and analyti on D nfz0 g for some
z0 2 D. Then, f is analyti on D.
Proof. It is enough to prove theR result for a disk jz z0 j < . By
Cau hy's theorem for a disk, we have C f (z ) dz = 0 for all losed ontours
C inside the disk jz z0j < . Hen e, f is analyti on jz z0 j <  by
Morera's Theorem.
192 Complex Integration

z
z0 R1
R2

Figure 4.22: Curve in a ring shaped region.

4.9 Existen e of Harmoni Conjugate

Corollary 4.75 helps us in nding a harmoni onjugate of a harmoni fun -
tion. We shall now give the idea behind the formal solution to the statement
of Theorem 3.39. Suppose  = (x; y) is the real part of an analyti fun -
tion f in a simply onne ted domain D and suppose we an nd = (x; y)
su h that f =  + i . The C-R equations would then imply f 0 = x iy
and so if is a path whi h onne ts z to z0 in D,
Z Z
f (z ) f (z0) = f 0 ( ) d = [x iy ℄ d

whi h is the only possible solution if we are given . The following example
shows that we annot hoose D to be just a domain.
p
4.89. Example. For u(x; y) = ln x2 + y2 in D = fz : R1 < jz j <
R2 g where R2 > R1  0, there does not exist a v(x; y) su h that f = u + iv
is analyti in D. To prove this assertion, we suppose that f = u + iv is
analyti in D. Then, f 0 is also analyti in D. By hypothesis,
x y
ux(x; y) = 2 2 and uy (x; y) = 2 2
x +y x +y
so that
x iy z 1
f 0 (z ) = ux(x; y) + ivx(x; y) = ux (x; y) iuy (x; y) = 2 2 = = :
x +y zz z
Rz 0
So, by Theorem 4.16, the value of the integral z0 f (z ) dz is independent
of the path joining z0 and z in D (see Figure 4.22). Thus, we have
Z z Z z
1
f (z ) f (z0 ) = f 0 ( ) d = d:
z0 z0 
In parti ular, if we hoose the losed ontour j j = R with initial point
z0 = R and the terminal point z = Re2i (R 2 (R1 ; R2 ) ), then the above
gives that
Z Z 2
2i 1 iRei
0 = f (Re ) f (R) = d = i d = 2i
j j=R  0 Re
4.9 Existen e of Harmoni Conjugate 193

z = (x, y)

(x, y0 )
z0 = (x0 , y0 )

Figure 4.23: Determination of onjugate harmoni .

and this ontradi tion shows that no su h v(x; y) an exist in D su h that

f = u + iv is analyti in D. 
Proof of Theorem 3.39. Sin e  is harmoni in D, Mx Ny = 0;
where M = x and N = y . Now M and N are dierentiable fun tions
of (x; y) in D and Ndx + Mdy is an exa t dierential for (x; y) 2 D, i.e.
there exists a fun tion su h that
d = Ndx + Mdy; for (x; y) 2 D:
With respe t to a referen e point (x0 ; y0 ) 2 D, let be a path (see Figure
4.23) onsisting of the line segment onne ting (x0 ; y0 ) to (x; y0 ) and (x; y0 )
to (x; y). Dene
Z
(x; y) = N dx + M dy + k

Z x Z y
(4.90) = y (t; y0 ) dt + x (x; s) ds + k
x0 y0
where k is some real onstant. The partial derivative of (4.90) with respe t
to y is given by
Z y 

y (x; y ) = x (x; s) ds = x (x; y);
y y0
sin e the rst integral in (4.90) is independent of y. Similarly, taking the
partial derivative of (4.90) with respe t to x yields
Z y 

(4.91) x (x; y ) = y (x; y0 ) + x (x; s) ds :
x y0
Using the dierentiation formula under the integral sign for the se ond term
in (4.91), we have (as in the proof of Theorem 3.53)
x (x; y ) = y (x; y); y (x; y ) = x (x; y ):x
194 Complex Integration

Thus,  and satisfy the C-R equations for F =  + i and is harmoni

in D. By Theorem 3.26, F =  + i is analyti in D. Thus, a harmoni
onjugate always exists in D and the proof is ompleted.
4.92. Remark. We observe the following:
(i) If the domain is multiply onne ted and  is harmoni there, then the
onjugate fun tion be omes multiple-valued. For instan e if
p
(x; y) = ln x2 + y2 ;
then the orresponding multiple-valued onjugate fun tion is
y 
(x; y) = Ar tan + 2k + onstant; k 2 f1; 2; : : : g:
x
(ii) From Theorem 4.33, we note that an arbitrary harmoni fun tion 
in a simply onne ted domain an always be onsidered as the real
(or imaginary) part of an analyti fun tion in D. 
4.10 Taylor's Theorem
P
In Theorem 3.71, we have shown that every power series n0 an (z a)n is
innitely dierentiable in its disk of onvergen e
(a; R). Moreover, an =
f (n) (a)=n! and it does not depend on R. Now, we use omplex integration
to show that every analyti fun tion in a domain an be expressed lo ally
as a onvergent power series. This fa t opens the door to a systemati
dis ussion of the lo al stru tural properties of analyti fun tions.
4.93. Theorem.
P If f is analyti in
R , then f has a Ma laurin series
n0 n for all z 2
R , where
expansion f (z ) =a z n
Z
f (n) (0) 1 f ( )
an = = d; n = 0; 1; 2; : : :
n! 2i  n+1
with = f : j j = rg and 0 < r < R.
Proof. For a given z 2
R , hoose r su h that r < R and let be
= f : j j = rg. By the Cau hy integral formula,
Z
1 f ( )
f (z ) = d:
2i  z
We know that, for all jz= j < 1,
1 1 1 X zn
 z
=
=
 1 z= n0  n+1
4.10 Taylor's Theorem 195

and the onvergen e is uniform on , and for a xed z . Now f ( ) is bounded

on , sin e it is a ontinuous fun tion on the ompa t set . We form
f ( ) X f ( )
(4.94) = f ( ) with fn ( ) = n+1 z n :
 z n0 n 

Viewed as a series of fun tions of  , the series (4.94) onverges uniformly

on . Indeed, in
 , f ( ) is bounded for ea h  < r, with bound M , say,
and " #
 n
jfn ( )j  sup jfn ( )j  rnM+1 n = Mr r
j j=
P
and so n0 fn ( ) is uniformly onvergent on
 , by the Weierstrass M -
test. Therefore, the series (4.94) may be integrated term-by-term so that
Z  Z 
1 f ( ) X 1 f ( ) X
d = n+1 d z n = an z n:
2i  z n0
2i  n0
P
Sin e z 2
R is arbitrary, we have f (z ) = n0 an z n for all jz j < R and
so the assertion now follows from Cau hy's integral formula for derivatives.
Uniqueness of the oeÆ ients an follows from the Uniqueness theorem for
Taylor series. By Theorem 4.16, the value of the integral is independent of
the hoi e of the urve in jz j < R.
Using the simple transformation z a = w, we obtain the following
result whi h shows that every analyti fun tion an be expressed lo ally
as a onvergent power series. However, we observe that several power se-
ries (sometimes perhaps innitely many) may be required to represent f
throughout the domain.
4.95. Corollary. (Taylor's Theorem) If f is analyti in a domain
D then for z 2
(a; R)  D, f has the Taylor series expansion
Z
X f (n)(a) 1 f ( )
f (z ) = an (z a)n ; an = = d;
n0 n! 2i C ( a)n+1

where C = f : j aj = rg and 0 < r < R.

If f is analyti in a domain D P with a 2 D, then f admits a Taylor
series expansion about a: f (z ) = 1 n
n=0 an (z a) : What is the radius
of onvergen e of the series we have obtained? It may happen that the
ir le of onvergen e en loses points outside D. By Corollary 4.95 what we
know is that if f is analyti in
(a; r), then the series about a onverges to
f (z ) in that disk. The series onverges in at least the largest disk entered
at a that is ontained in D. Clearly, r may be in reased until the ir le
196 Complex Integration

jz aj = r en ounters a singularity of f (z ). Thus, the radius of onvergen e

R is the largest number R su h that f (z ) extends to be analyti on the disk
jz aj < R and the extended fun tion is alled an analyti ontinuation of f .
We shall have a preliminary dis ussion on this issue in Chapter 10. However,
the example given below will give a little avor of this idea. When f (z )
is a single-valued analyti bran h of a multi-valued fun tion, then bran h
points give obsta les just as mu h as a singularity. Thus, the radius of
onvergen e is the distan e from the enter of the expansion to the nearest
singularity or bran h point.
4.96. Examples. We know that f (z ) = Log (1 z ) is analyti in
the ut plane C n fx + i0 : x  1g. In parti ular, f is analyti in jz j < 1
and has a Taylor series expansion in jz j < 1 about 0:
X1 f (n) (0)
f (z ) = an z n ; an = :
n=0 n!
Note that 1 is the largest number R su h that f extends to be analyti in
the disk jz j < R. It follows that f (0) = Log 1 = 0 and for n  1,

1
2


(n 1) 
f (n) (0) = = (n 1)!:
(1 z )n z=0
So, for jz j < 1,
1 zn
X
Log (1 z ) = :
n=1 n
Note that an appli ation of the Ratio/Root test qui kly onrms that the
series onverges absolutely for jz j   < 1. Next, we onsider the fun tion
g dened by
Log (1 + z )
g(z ) = :
z
Then g 2 H(D), D = C n (fx + i0 : x  1g [ f0g). Although z = 0 is
a singularity, g an be extended to be analyti at z = 0 (it is a removable
singularity of g but we shall dis uss various singularities in Chapter 7)
be ause 1
X zn
Log (1 + z ) = ( 1)n 1 ; jz j < 1:
n=1 n
Moreover, if we let
Log (1 + z ) X 1
= an (z 6)n
z n=0
then the radius of onvergen e of this series is R = 7 (the distan e from the
bran h point 1 to 6) not the distan e from 0 to 6. 
4.10 Taylor's Theorem 197

4.97. Example.
p z for z 2 C n fx + i0 : x  0g and
Let f (z ) = Logp
a = 1 + i = 2e3i=4 . Then f (a) = ln 2 + 3i=4 and for n  1,
( 1)n 1 (n 1)!
f (n) (z ) =
zn
and
f (n) (a) ( 1)n 1 3in=4
an = = e
n! n2n=2
so that the power series expansion of f about a is
X1 ( 1)n 1 e 3in=4
f (z ) = n=2 (z a)n :
n=0 n2
It is easy to see (for example, by the Ratio
p test) that the radius of onver-
gen e of the series on the right is R = 2. Again, this does not ontradi t
the dis ontinuity of Log z at theppoint z = 1, be ause Log z extends to
be analyti for jz ( 1 + i)j < 2 although the extension does not oin-
ide with Log z in the part of the disk that lies in the lower half-plane, see
Chapter 10 for a dis ussion on analyti ontinuation. 
4.98. Example. Consider f : R ! R given by
1
f (x) = :
1 + x4
This fun tion admits a real power series about any point a 2 R. Yet the
power series about a = 0, given by
1
X
f (x) = ( 1)n x4n
n=0
has ( 1; 1) as its interval of onvergen e. On the other hand, its omplex
analog
1
f (z ) =
1 + z4
has singularities at zk = ei(1+2k)=4 ; k = 0; 1; 2; 3. Clearly, the distan e
from 0 to the nearest singularity is 1, whi h ne essarily is the radius of
onvergen e for the orresponding series about 0. 
Consider the fun tion f (z ) = z 1: Then, f is analyti on C n f0g. There-
fore, for all z 6= 0,
( 1)n n!
f (n) (z ) = ; n = 0; 1; 2; : : : ;
z n+1
198 Complex Integration

and so by Taylor's Theorem, we have the Taylor series expansion of f about

z0 6= 0,
1 X ( 1)n
= (z z0 )n for z 2
(z0 ; jz0 j):
z n0 z0n+1
After k-fold dierentiation this gives
1 X n 1
= ( 1)n k (z z0 )n k
z k+1 nk k z0n+1

for z 2
(z0 ; jz0 j). The substitution z0 = 1 with the transformation

z = w 1 yields the Ma laurin series of (1 w) k 1 :
1 X n
(4.99) = wn k for w 2
;
(1 w)k+1 nk k
P
whi h is the k-fold dierentiation of the geometri series n0 wn .
We remark that the oeÆ ient formulae (see Corollary 4.95) may not
be dire tly useful in writing the Taylor expansion for analyti fun tions.
The formula (4.99), the orresponding formulae for ez , sin z , os z et ., and
formulae for the Cau hy produ t are more often useful in su h problems.
4.100. Example. Let us develop the fun tion f dened by
1
f (z ) =
1 z z2
into a Taylor series about 0. By partial fra tion de omposition we nd that
 
1 1 1
f (z ) =
  z  z 
    
1 1 1 1 1
= ;
   1 z=  1 z=
where p p
5 1 5+1
= ; = :
2 2
p
Note that  < j j,  = 1 and   = 5. Therefore, the Taylor series
of f about 0 is
2 3
1 X zn X zn 5
f (z ) = 4 (jz j < );

 n0 n0  n+1 n+1
 
1 X  n+1 n+1 n
= p z (jz j < );
5 n0 ( )n+1
4.11 Zeros of Analyti Fun tions 199

sin e the rst series onverges for jz j < j j while the se ond series onverges
for jz j <  so that the ombined series onverges for jz j < minf; j jg = .
As  = 1, we rewrite the above equation as
2
p !n+1 p !n+1 3
1 1 X 5+1 1 5
=p 4 5 zn; jz j < :
1 z z2 5 n0 2 2
p
For jz j <  = ( 5 1)=2, we may write
2 3
1 X X
= a z n ; i.e. 1 = (1 z z 2) 4 an z n5 :
1 z z 2 n0 n n0

By uniqueness of Taylor's oeÆ ients of f about 0, on equating the oeÆ-

ients of z n on both sides, we see that
a0 = a1 = 1 and an+1 = an + an 1 :
Note that the sequen e fan gn0 obtained here gives the Fibona i sequen e
1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; : : : . 
4.11 Zeros of Analyti Fun tions
We now dis uss the zeros of analyti fun tions using the Taylor series ex-
pansion as a tool. Suppose that f is analyti , f (z ) 6 0 in an open set D
and f vanishes at some point a 2 D. Then f admits a Taylor series about
a:
f (z ) = a1 (z a) + a2 (z a)2 +


; jz aj < R;
where fz : jz aj < Rg  D. Sin e f (z ) 6 0, not all the oeÆ ients ak an
vanish. This shows that there is a positive integer m  1 su h that
a1 =


= am 1 = 0; but am 6= 0:
Then we say that f has a zero (nite) of order m at a. Also, the integer
m is referred to as the multipli ity of the zero of f at a. Zeros of order 1
are often alled simple zeros. In ase f has a zero of order m at a, we may
rewrite f (z ) as
f (z ) = am (z a)m + am+1 (z a)m+1 +


= (z a)m g(z );
where g(z ) is analyti at a and g(a) = am 6= 0 (Note that the radius of
onvergen e of am + am+1 (z a) +


is exa tly same as that of
am (z a)m + am+1 (z a)m+1 +


):
The above dis ussion leads to
200 Complex Integration

4.101. Proposition. A fun tion f analyti at a has a zero of order

m at a i f (z ) = (z a)m g(z ), where g is analyti at a and g(a) 6= 0.
Further, one an use this Proposition to establish the L'H^ospital rule
for omplex fun tions, see Exer ise 4.161.
A zero of an analyti fun tion f is said to be isolated if it has a neigh-
borhood in whi h there is no other zero of f . An important onsequen e of
the following result is the Identity theorem for analyti fun tions.
4.102. Theorem. Every zero of an analyti fun tion f (6 0) is iso-
lated.
Proof. Suppose that f has a zero of order m at a. Then there exist an
R > 0 su h that
f (z ) = (z a)m g(z ); jz aj < R;
where g is analyti at a and g(a) 6= 0. Let jg(a)j = 2 > 0. Then for this ,
sin e g is ontinuous at a, there exists a Æ > 0 su h that
jg(z ) g(a)j <  whenever jz aj < Æ:
Therefore when jz aj < Æ we have
jg(z )j = jg(a) [g(a) g(z )℄j  jg(a)j jg(z ) g(a)j > 2  = :
Thus, g(z ) 6= 0 in
(a; Æ) (We remind the reader that we have already
noti ed this point while dis ussing the limit of a fun tion, see Theorem
2.10). But jz ajm 6= 0 in 0 < jz aj < Æ. Hen e, f (z ) = g(z )(z a)m 6= 0
in this neighborhood ex ept at a. This ompletes the proof.
The following theorem plays an important role in omplex fun tion the-
ory. In simplest terms this theorem, whi h is an extension of Theorem
3.75, ompletely hara terizes an analyti fun tion in a domain D just by
its behavior in a small subset of D.
4.103. Theorem. (Identity/Uniqueness Theorem) Suppose that
f is analyti in a domain D. If S , the set of zeros of f in D, has a limit
point z  in D. Then f (z )  0 in D.
The hypothesis that D is onne ted in Theorem 4.103 is ne essary. For
example, if D = C n fz : 1  jz j  3g and if f : D ! C is dened by

for jz j < 1
f (z ) = 20 for jz j > 3,
then f 2 H(D) and its zero set ( jz j < 1) has a limit point in D, yet f is
not identi ally zero in D.
4.104. Remarks. The following observations are important:
4.11 Zeros of Analyti Fun tions 201

(i) Consider a real-valued fun tion f of a real variable dened by


f (x) = e 0 ifif xx 
1=x 0
< 0:
For x 6= 0, it is lear that f has derivatives of all orders. In fa t, it is
a simple exer ise to see that f is innitely dierentiable at all points
of R and, in parti ular,
f (n) (x) = 0 for x  0 and all n = 0; 1; 2; : : : :
However, f (x) does not vanish in R. Thus, in the ase of real-valued
fun tions the behavior of innitely dierentiable fun tions in one re-
gion of its domain of denition has no ee t on its behavior on some
other region. However, the Uniqueness theorem shows that this is not
the ase with fun tions of a omplex variable as we shall soon see its
remarkable role in a number of elementary onne tions as well.
(ii) The hypothesis that the limit point a lies in D is not super uous. For
example, onsider  
1
f (z ) = sin :
1 z
Then, f 2 H(
) and the zeros of f are given by z = 1 1=(n)
(n 2 Z). But the zeros of f that lie inside
are
1
zn = 1 (n 2 N )
n
and zn ! 1 as n ! 1 yet, f (z ) 6 0. Obviously, f is not analyti at
1 and 1 62
.
(iii) Consider f (z ) = exp (z=(1 z )) 1 for z 2
. Then, f 2 H(
). The
zeros of f are obtained from solving z=(1 z ) = 2ni: This gives
2ni
zn = (n 2 Z)
1 + 2ni
so that f has innitely many zeros and, sin e jzn j < 1 for ea h n 2 Z,
it follows that ea h of them lies inside
. In fa t,
   

zn 1  1  1 + 2ni  1
= =
 2  2  1 + 2ni  2
whi h implies that the zeros of f a tually lie in
\ 
(1=2; 1=2).
Thus, f (z ) 6 0 and yet f has innitely many zeros in
on whi h f
is analyti . Obviously, f is not analyti at z = 1 and the point 1 is
a limit of point of the above sequen e of zeros of f . In fa t, we may
rewrite f (z ) as  
1
f (z ) = e 1 exp 1:
1 z
202 Complex Integration

The reader with knowledge of isolated singular points an qui kly

re ognize the point z = 1 as an essential singularity of f and also of
the fun tion f onsidered in (ii).
(iv) From the last two examples in (ii) and (iii), we also observe that there
are non- onstant analyti fun tions in
having innitely many zeros
in
. 
A dire t onsequen e of Theorem 4.103 is that if a set of zeros of an
analyti fun tion in a domain D ontains an innite sequen e of distin t
points that has its limit point in D, then the fun tion is identi ally zero in D.
Sets su h as an interval (a; b) of R and an open disk in C always an ontain
an innite sequen e of points that onverges in the set itself. Consequently,
the Uniqueness theorem is often helpful in he king the validity in the
omplex plane of ertain fun tional identities known to be true in R or in
an open subset of R. For instan e, onsider
f1 (z ) = sin2 z + os2 z 1 and f2(z ) = osh2 z sinh2 z 1:
We know from elementary mathemati s that the identities
(4.105) f1 (z ) = 0 and f2 (z ) = 0
hold when z is real. Sin e trigonometri fun tions sin z; os z; osh z and
sinh z are all entire, both f1 and f2 are analyti in C . Sin e the x-axis
ontains a sequen e of distin t points (for example 1=n, 1=n) onverging
to an element in it, the Uniqueness theorem immediately shows that the
identities in (4.105) hold for all z 2 C (Note that every point of R is a limit
point).
Similarly, we an easily derive the following identities as easy onse-
quen es of the Uniqueness theorem:
1 + tan2 z = se 2 z; for all z 2 C n f(2k + 1)=2 : k 2 Zg ;
1 + ot2 z = s 2 z; for all z 2 C n fk : k 2 Zg;
1 tanh2 z = se h 2 z; for all z 2 C n f(2k + 1)i=2 : k 2 Zg ;
1 + s h 2 z = oth2 z; for all z 2 C n fki : k 2 Zg;
(see also Se tion 3.4). Another interesting identity we derived earlier in
(3.78) is
ez1 +z2 = ez1
ez2 :
Assume that this holds when z1 and z2 are real. Then to he k the validity
of this for all z1 and z2 in C , using the Uniqueness theorem, we pro eed as
follows: Let z2 = x2 , a xed real and z1 = z , a omplex variable. Then
ez+x2 = ez
ex2
4.11 Zeros of Analyti Fun tions 203

holds when z is real and so, by the Uniqueness theorem, this identity is
true for all z 2 C . Fixing z as z1 , in parti ular, ez1+x2 = ez1
ex2 : This
being true for all real x2 , it follows, by the same argument that
ez1 +z = ez1
ez for all z 2 C :
Taking z = z2 we get ez1 +z2 = ez1
ez2 : Similarly, it an be seen that
sin(z1 + z2 ) = sin z1 os z2 + os z1 sin z2
os(z1 + z2 ) = os z1 os z2 sin z1 sin z2 ;
whi h hold for all real values of z1 and z2 , ontinues to hold for omplex
values of z1 and z2 .
At this point we remind the reader that not all the familiar properties
of the fun tions sin, os, tan et . as fun tions of a real variable remain true
when these are viewed as fun tions of a omplex variable. We know that
sin x and os x are bounded by 1 for all real x. On the other hand if y > 0
we have
ey + e y y2 ey e y
os(iy) = >1+ and j i sin(iy)j = >y
2 2 2
whi h shows that there exists no onstant K for whi h j os z j < K and
j sin z j < K in C .
Our next example deals with the binomial expansion. Let
1 X n
f (z ) = ; and g(z ) = zn k:
(1 z )k+1 nk
k
Then, from real variable al ulus, we know that f (z ) g(z ) = 0 when
z = x is real and jxj < 1. Clearly f is analyti for z 2 C n f1g. The radius
of onvergen e of the series with sum g is 1. Therefore, in parti ular, f
and g are analyti for z 2
. The Uniqueness theorem immediately yields
f (z ) = g(z ) for all z 2
, i.e.
 
1 X n
= z n k for all z 2
:
(1 z )k+1 nk k
Using the same method, we an obtain a generalized version of the
binomial expansion
a(a 1) 2 a(a 1)(a 2) 3
(1 z )a = 1 az + z + z


; jz j < 1;
2! 3!
where a is an arbitrary omplex number (see also Theorem 3.112).
Proof of Theorem 4.103. Let fzng be a sequen e of zeros of f in D
su h that zn ! z  , where z  is also a point in D. Then we note that, sin e
zn ! z , f (zn ) = 0 for all n, and f is ontinuous at z  ,
f (z ) = nlim
!1 f (zn) = 0:
204 Complex Integration

Then, by Theorem 4.102, either f (z )  0 in a neighborhood of z  or f (z ) 6=

0 in some pun tured neighborhood
(z  ; Æ) nfz g  D. The se ond part
of the statement ontradi ts f (zn) = 0 sin e, for suÆ iently large n, zn
lies in this pun tured neighborhood of the limit point z  . So we must have
f (z )  0 in any disk
(z  ; R)  D.
To omplete the proof we have to show that f (z )  0 in the whole of
D, and for this we split D into two sets:
A = f 2 D :  is a limit point of S g
B = f 2 D :  62 Ag;
where S is the set of zeros of f in D. Then
D = A [ B and A \ B = ;:
Let  2 A. Then, sin e  2 A is a limit point of S , f (z )  0 in a neigh-
borhood of  . Thus ea h point in A is an interior point of A. Indeed, if
z 0 2
( ; Æ) for some Æ > 0, then jz 0  j < Æ. Set
 = Æ jz 0  j and z 2
(z 0 ; ), i.e. jz z 0 j < :
Then
jz  j  jz z 0j + jz 0  j <  + jz 0  j = Æ:
It follows that
(z 0 ; ) 
( ; Æ); so A is open and is non-empty, by hy-
pothesis.
To show B is open, let  0 2 B . Sin e  0 is not a limit point of S , by
ontinuity of f at  0 , there exists Æ > 0 su h that f (z ) 6= 0 throughout

( 0 ; Æ)  D. Sin e D is onne ted and nonempty, it annot be written as
the union of two non-empty disjoint open sets. Hen e we must have either
A = ; or B = ;. But by hypothesis z  2 A. It now follows that A 6= ; and
therefore B = ;.
Thus A = D and every  2 D is a limit point of the zeros of f so that
f  0 in D.
The following result is also referred to as the Uniqueness theorem whi h
is onsidered to be a fundamental result for an introdu tion to the on ept
of analyti ontinuation (see Chapter 10).
4.106. Theorem. Suppose that f and g are analyti in a domain
D. If S , the set of zeros of f g in D, has a limit point z  in D, then
f (z )  g(z ) in D.
Proof. Apply Theorem 4.103 to h = f g.
4.107. Example. The Uniqueness theorem provides another exam-
ple of fundamental dieren es between omplex-valued fun tions and real-
valued fun tions. For example, for k 2 N , dene fk : R ! R by
 2k
x sink (2=x) for x 6= 0
fk (x) =
0 for x = 0:
4.11 Zeros of Analyti Fun tions 205

Then, for ea h k, fk is ontinuously dierentiable on R and fk (1=n) = 0

for all n 2 N , yet fk and fm are distin t fun tions for k 6= m.
Next, we onsider a new fun tion gk : C ! R dened by gk (z ) = fk (jz j);
where fk is as above. Then, for ea h k, gk is ontinuous in C and gk (1=n) =
0 for all n 2 N , yet gk and gm are distin t fun tions in C for k 6= m. This
example demonstrates that two dierent ontinuous fun tions in a domain
D an assume the same values on an innite set whi h has a limit point
in D. It follows that the Uniqueness theorem does not hold for ontinuous
fun tions. 
4.108. Corollary. Suppose that f and g are analyti in a domain
D su h that f (z )g(z ) = 0 for ea h z 2 D. Then either f (z ) = 0 for z 2 D
or g (z ) = 0 for ea h z 2 D.
Proof. Suppose that f (a) 6= 0 for some a 2 D. Then, by the ontinuity
of f , there exists a disk
(a; Æ)  D su h that f (z ) 6= 0 in
(a; Æ). But
then g(z ) = 0 for all z 2
(a; Æ). By the Uniqueness theorem, g(z )  0 in
D.
4.109. Corollary. Suppose that f is analyti in a domain D and
f 0 (z ) = 0 in some disk ontained in D. Then f (z ) is onstant in D.
Proof. By Theorem 3.31, f is a onstant in a disk D1  D, say .
Therefore, every point of D1 is a limit point of fz : f (z ) = 0g. By the
Uniqueness theorem, f (z ) = 0 throughout D.
4.110. Example. Let S = f1=n : n = 1; 2; : : : g. Then S  [0; 1℄
and S has a limit point 0.
(i) Suppose that f 2 H(C ) and f (z ) = os z for z 2 S . Then by the
Uniqueness theorem, sin e 0 2 C , f (z ) = os z in C . Note that f is
determined throughout C just by its values at the points 1=n.
(ii) Let f (z ) = e2i=z 1, z 6= 0. Then f is analyti for all z 2 C n f0g
and f (zn) = 0 for zn = 1=n, n 2 Z. Even though zn ! 0 as n ! 1,
we annot laim f (z )  0, sin e the ondition that the limit point 0
must lie in C n f0g is not satised. Noti e that zn is an isolated zero
of f for ea h n = 1; 2; : : : whereas 0 is not in C n f0g. In this example,
f annot even be dened at z = 0 so as to make f to be ontinuous
at 0. Similarly, the fun tion F dened by F (z ) = sin(=z ) for z 6= 0,
is analyti in C n f0g and F (1=n) = 0 for n 2 Z. Is F identi ally zero?
Is it possible to extend F to make it ontinuous at 0?
(iii) Let f (z ) = expf Log z g. Sin e Log z is seen to be analyti in D ,
where D = C n fz = x : x  0g, f is analyti in D . We know that
expf Log z g = z for z = x > 0. Therefore, we have
expf Log z g = z for z 2 D ;
206 Complex Integration

as we have obtained this fa t earlier but by a dierent approa h. 

In general, using the Uniqueness theorem, we on lude the following:

4.111. Corollary. If f1 (z ), f2(z ), : : : are analyti fun tions dened

in a domain D and satisfy a ertain algebrai identity (or fun tional identity
su h as in (4.105)) on a set with a limit point in its domain of analyti ity,
then these fun tions satisfy the same identity throughout the domain of
analyti ity.

4.112. Example. If f 2 H(
) and jf (z )j  1 jz j in
, then it is

easy to see that f (z ) = 0 in
. Indeed, if a 2
r (0 < r < 1) is xed, then,
by the Cau hy integral formula
Z Z 2
1 f ( ) 1 f (rei )rei
f (a) = d = d
2i j j=r  a 2 0 rei a
so that the standard estimate (see Theorem 4.9(iv)) gives

jf (a)j  (1r jra)jr ! 0 as r ! 1:

Thus, f (z ) = 0 on
r as a is arbitrary. By the Uniqueness theorem,
f (z ) = 0 on
. 
By the method of proof of Theorem 4.103, we next show that an analyti
fun tion in a domain annot vanish together with all its derivatives at some
point inside the domain unless it is identi ally zero.

4.113. Theorem. (Uniqueness Theorem for Power Series) Let f

be analyti in a domain D. Suppose that at some point a 2 D, f (n) (a) = 0
for all n = 0; 1; 2; : : : . Then, f (z )  0.

Proof. Let a 2 D. There exists an r > 0 su h that
(a; r)  D. By

Corollary 4.95,
X f (n) (a)
f (z ) = (z a)n
n0 n !
holds for z 2
(a; r)  D so that, by hypothesis, f (z ) = 0 on
(a; r);
whi h in turn implies that f (z )  0 on D by Theorem 4.103.

We now dis uss analyti fun tions in relation to the simple operation of
multipli ation on their Taylor series.
4.12 Laurent Series 207
P
P 4.114. Theorem. Suppose that the power series n0 an z n and
n0 bn z are onvergent for jz j < R1 and jz j < R2 with sums f (z ) and
n
g(z ), respe tively. Then, we have
X n
X
f (z )g(z ) = n z n ; n = ak bn k ; for jz j < minfR1 ; R2 g = R:
n0 k=0
Proof. By Theorem 3.71, f and g are analyti for jz j < R with
an = f (n) (0)=n! and bn = g(n) (0)n!
and fg is analyti for jz j < R. Therefore, by the Cau hy produ t
X
f (z )g(z ) = n z n
n0
onverges for jz j < R and hen e is analyti . Thus, by Taylor's theorem
n n
(fg)(n)(0) X X 1 n!
n = = ak bn k = f (k) (0)g(n k) (0):
n! k=0 k=0
n ! k !( n k )!

4.12 Laurent Series

Suppose that f is not dened, or is not analyti , at a point a. Then,
we annot express it in a neighborhood
P of a as a onvergent power series
expansion of the form f (z ) = n0 an (z a)n ; for, if we ould do so then,
by Theorem 3.71, f would be analyti at a.
For instan e, onsider f (z ) = sin(1=z ): The series representation for f
is obtained by onsidering the series for sin z and repla ing z by 1=z , whi h
gives a series involving negative powers of z :
1 1 1
f (z ) = +


; z 6= 0:
z 3! z 3
It onverges for all z with z 6= 0. More generally, a series of the form
X
(4.115) bn (z a) n
n0
an be thought of as a power series in the variable 1=(z a). Letting
 = 1=(z a), the above series be omes an ordinary power series in  :
X
(4.116) bn  n :
n0
The next theorem shows how the properties of power series in negative
powers su h as (4.115) an be dedu ed from the orresponding properties
of ordinary power series. In view of (4.116) and Theorem 3.64, we have
4.117. Theorem. Let r = r 1 = lim supn!1 jbn j1=n .
208 Complex Integration

(i) If r = 0, then the series (4.115) onverges absolutely for every z 2

C 1 nfag.
(ii) If 0 < r < 1, then the series (4:115) onverges absolutely for all z
with jz aj > r, the onvergen e being uniform on jz aj   > r
and diverges for jz aj < r.
(iii) If r = 1, then the series (4:115) diverges for all nite z .
P1
We say that anP\innite series"P of the form n= 1 An onverges to
a limit L i both n0 An and n1 A n onvergePand the sum of their
limit is L. Equivalently, we say that the double series 1 n= 1 An onverges
to L i given  > 0 there exists an N su h that
 
Xm 

 Ak  <  whenever m; n  N:
 
k= n
It is important to observe thatPm and n are independent here. In fa t, the
existen e of the limit limn!1P nk= n Ak does not in general imply that the
orresponding double series 1 n= 1 An onverges.
Let R = lim supn!1 jan j1=n and r = r 1 = lim supn!1 jbn j1=n and
1
suppose that 0 < R; r < 1. Then, by Theorems 3.64 and 4.117, the series
X X
f1 (z ) = an z n = a0 + an z n
n0 n1

onverges absolutely for jz j < R and diverges if jz j > R, while

X X
f2 (z ) = bn z n = b0 + b nzn
n0 n 1

onverges absolutely for jz j > r and diverges if jz j < r. So there is a

non-empty region of onvergen e for the series of the form
8
1
X < an if n  1
(4.118) f (z ) = An z n ; An = a0 + b0 if n = 0 ;
n= 1 :
b n if n  1
i r < R. That is, the ombined series (4.118) onverges for all z in the
ommon region
= fz : r < jz j < Rg. At ea h point lying outside region

the ombined series is divergent, sin e the series dened by the sum f1 (z )
or f2 (z ) is divergent. Also, by Theorems 3.71 and 4.117, we note that f1
and f2 are both analyti in the respe tive domain of onvergen e. So the
ombined series dened above represents an analyti fun tion in the annular
region
. Conversely if f is analyti in
for some 0  r < R  1, then
f has su h a series expansion of the form (4.118) valid in
(see Theorems
3.71 and 4.123).
4.12 Laurent Series 209

Laurent- 2 |z| > |b|

Laurent-1

a
Taylor
O
|z| < |a|
b
|a| < |z| < |b|

Figure 4.24: Des ription for Laurent's series.

4.119. Remark. By Theorem 3.64, f1 onverges uniformly for jz j 

 < R and by Theorem 4.117, f2 onverges uniformly for jz j  0 > r.
Sin e both series onverge uniformly for all z satisfying 0  jz j  , the
series dened by (4.118) onverges uniformly to f for 0  jz j  . 
A Laurent series about a is a series of the form
1
X X X
An (z a)n := An (z a)n + A n (z a) n
n= 1 n0 n1
whi h represents an analyti fun tion in the annulus r < jz aj < R. The
numbers An are the orresponding oeÆ ients about a. The series of the
form (4.118) is then a Laurent series about z = 0.
As a motivation for a Laurent series we onsider the fun tion
1
(4.120) f (z ) = ; a 6= b:
(z a)(z b)
Then, f is analyti everywhere ex ept at z = a; b and therefore, we are
unable to express it in the neighborhood of a as a onvergent series of
positive powers of z a. To obtain a Laurent series for f about z = 0, we
rewrite (4.120) as (see Figure 4.24)
 
1 1 1
f (z ) = :
a b z a z b
If 0 < jaj < jz j < jbj (so that jz=bj < 1; ja=z j < 1),
2 3
1 X  a n 1 X  z n 5
f (z ) = 41
a b z n0 z b n0 b
210 Complex Integration
2 3
1 X an 1 X zn
= 4 5
a b n1 z n n0 b
n+1
2 3
1 X X zn
= 4 a n 1zn n+1
5:
a b n 1 n0 b
This may be written as
8
1
1 >
>
< if n  0
X (a b)bn+1
(4.121) f (z ) = An z n ; An = 1
n= 1 > >
: if n  1:
(a b)an+1
Note that the expression in (4.121) involves both positive and negative
powers of z and (4.121) is the Laurent series of (4.120) valid for 0 < jaj <
jz j < jbj.
If jz j > jbj > jaj (so that jb=z j < 1, ja=z j < 1), then we have
2 3 2 3
1 X an X bn 1 X an bn 5
f (z ) = 4 5 = 4 :
a b n0 z n+1 n0 z
n+1 a b n0 z n+1

For example, we also note that

1 1 1 1
; ; + + (z 1)2 ;
z (z 1)2 (z 2)3 (z 2)2
are themselves the Laurent expansion around 0, 1 or 2 as the ase may be.
4.122. Example. Consider the series
X1 zn X1
zn X 1 zn
2 = 2 + 2:
n= 2004 n n= 2004 n n=1 n
We note that the rst series on the right (whi h ontains only a nite
number of terms) onverges for all z 6= 0 whereas the se ond series onverges
for jz j < 1, diverges for jz j > 1 and onverges for all z with jz j = 1. Thus,
the given double series onverges for all 0 < jz j  1 and diverges for jz j > 1.
On the other hand if we onsider
X1 zn X 1 z n X 1 zn
2 = 2 + 2;
n= 1; n= 6 0n n=1 n n=1 n
then it follows that the rst series on the right onverges for jz j  1 whereas
the se ond series onverges for jz j  1 so that (the ombined series) the
double series onverges only for jz j = 1. 
4.12 Laurent Series 211

We next dire t our attention to obtain an analogue of the Cau hy-Taylor

representation theorem whi h shows that a fun tion analyti in an annulus,
say D = fz : R1 < jz aj < R2 g, an be expanded into a Laurent series
whi h onverges to the fun tion for every z in the annulus D.

4.123. Theorem. (Laurent's Theorem) If f is analyti in the an-

nulus: R1 < jz j < R2P(where 0  R1 < R2  1), then f has a unique
representation f (z ) = n2Zan z n for any z in the annulus, where
Z
1 f ( )
(4.124) an = d; n 2 Z;
2i C  n+1
with C = f : j j = rg and R1 < r < R2 .

4.125. Corollary. If f is analyti in the annulus: R1 < jz aj < R2

(where R1  0); then, for any z in the annulus, f has a unique representa-
tion
1
X 1
Z
f ( )
f (z ) = an (z a)n ; an = d (n 2 Z);
n= 1 2i j aj=r ( a)n+1

with R1 < r < R2 .

Before proving Theorem 4.123, we note that the above orollary is a

onsequen e of applying this result to g(z ) = f (z + a), whi h is analyti in
the annulus R1 < jz j < R2 .
Laurent's theorem ontinues to hold if R1 = 0 or R2 = 1 or both. In
ase R1 = 0, the Laurent series represents an analyti fun tion in a deleted
neighborhood:
(a; R2 ) nfag = fz : 0 < jz aj < R2 g. When R2 = 1
and R1 > 0, the series represents the fun tion in a deleted neighborhood of
innity: [
(a; R1 )℄ = fz : jz aj > R1 g. When R1 = 0 and R2 = 1, we
say that the series represents the fun tion in the pun tured plane namely,
fz : jz aj > 0g.
Proof of Theorem 4.123. For a given z in the annulus R1 < jz j < R2 ,
hoose r1 and r2 su h that R1 < r1 < jz j < r2 < R2 and
Cm = f : j j = rm g for m = 1; 2;
the positively oriented ir les. Note that z lies between C1 and C2 . By
making two ross- uts from C1 to C2 avoiding the point z , we have (see
Figure 4.25)
Z Z Z
f ( ) f ( ) f ( )
(4.126) d = d + d
C2  z  z C1  z
212 Complex Integration

r2 z
r1
R2
R1 x

Figure 4.25: Annulus region.

where is a small ir le ontaining the point z inside . Here the ontribu-

tions to the integral of the urve along the ross- uts an el in pairs. But,
by the Cau hy integral formula,
Z
f ( )
d = 2if (z ):
 z
Hen e, (4.126) be omes
Z Z
1 f ( ) 1 f ( )
(4.127) f (z ) = d d:
2i C2  z 2i C1  z
Pro eeding exa tly as was done in proving Taylor's theorem, on C2 , we
have (see Weierstrass' Theorem, namely Theorem 4.85)
Z  Z 
1 f ( ) X 1 f ( ) X
(4.128) d = n+1 d z n = an z n
2i C2  z n0 2 i C 2  n0
with Z
1 f ( )
(4.129) an = d for n = 0; 1; 2; : : : :
2i C2  n+1
Now,
1 1 1 X n X zn
(4.130) =

 z z 1 =z n0 z
= n +1 =
 n+1
;
n 1
sin e j j < jz j on C1 , and the onvergen e is uniform in  on C1 for a xed
z . Using (4.130), we easily have
Z
1 f ( ) X
(4.131) d = an z n;
2i C1  z n 1
where an is the same as dened in (4.129) for n = 1; 2; 3; : : : but over
the ontour C1 . Sin e g( ) = f ( )= n+1 is analyti on the annulus domain
4.12 Laurent Series 213

R1 < j j < R2 , by Cau hy's deformation theorem (see Theorem 4.37), we

may repla e C1 and C2 in the expression for an by C (as spe ied in the
statement of the theorem) in the al ulation of the oeÆ ients an . This
observation
P togethern with (4.128) and (4.131) shows that (4.127) be omes
f (z ) = 1 n= 1 an z ; where an is dened by (4.124).
The integral formula for the oeÆ ients, namely (4.124) allows us to
show that the Laurent series representation for a given fun tion f is unique.
That is to say that if we have another Laurent series expansion
X1
(4.132) f (z ) = n z n for R1 < jz j < R2 ;
n= 1
then an = n for all n, where an is given by (4.124).
Now for ea h n, by (4.132), (4.124) may be rewritten as
( )
1
Z
1 1
X 1
Z X 1
an =  k d =  k n 1 d:
2i C  n+1 k= 1 k 2i C k= 1 k
We again make use of the fa t that the inter hange of summation and
integral signs is permissible (see Theorem 4.85). This is be ause the on-
vergen e of f (z ) = 1
P
n= 1 n z in the annulus R1 < jz j < R2 implies that
n
it onverges uniformly along C . We also know that
Z 
0 for any integer m 6= 1
 m d =
C 2i for m = 1:
Thus, for ea h integer n, we have
1 X 1 Z
1
 Z 
an =  k n 1 =  1 d = n :
2i n= 1 k C 2i n C

4.133. Remark. Equation (4.127) expresses a tually the following:

\Every analyti fun tion f in the annulus R1 < jz j < R2 an be uniquely
de omposed into a sum f (z ) = f (z ) + f+ (z ), where f+ (z ) is analyti for
jz j < r2 (< R2 ), and f (z ) is analyti for jz j > r1 (> R1 )". The uniqueness
assertion in the proof implies that the de omposition is independent of r1
and r2 , so that both f+ (z ) and f (z ) are dened and analyti in the annulus
R1 < jz j < R2 . 
4.134. Remark. The formula, for R1 < 1 < R2 , gives the interesting
relation between Laurent and Fourier series expansions. Let f be analyti
in some neighborhood, say D = fz : 1  < jz j = 1 < 1 + g,  > 0, of the
unit ir le jz j = 1. Then, for z in this neighborhood, we get
X1 1
Z
f ( )
Z
1 2 i in
f (z ) = an z n ; an = d = f (e )e d:
n= 1 2i j j=1  n+1 2 0
214 Complex Integration

In parti ular if we let f (eit ) = F (t) and z = eit , we have

X1 Z
1 2
(4.135) F (t) = int
an e with an = F (t)e int dt:
n= 1 2 0
The series in (4.135) is the Fourier series of F in the omplex form. 
P
4.136. Remark. Again, we note that the part fP+ (z ) = n0 an z n
denes an analyti fun tion for jz j < R2 , while f (z ) = n 1 an z n denes
an analyti fun tion for jz j > R1 . The Laurent series representation for f
in two dierent domains will, in general, be dierent. If f is analyti at
z = 0 then the orresponding f (z ) = 0 and the Laurent series be omes
the Taylor series about 0. In this ase, we have an = f (n)(0)=n!. On the
other hand, we annot set an = f (n) (0)=n! in Theorem 4.117 as we did with
Taylor's series representation where we had assumed that f is analyti for
jz j < R for some R. In fa t, f (n)(0) is not even dened in Theorem 4.123
sin e 0 is not in the annulus. Similar omments apply for the Laurent series
about z = a.
The oeÆ ients an are not often obtained by using the integral formula
dened by (4.124). Be ause of the uniqueness property of the Laurent series
expansion, it is enough to nd a valid expansion for the analyti fun tion
in the same annulus by some other easy te hniques by omputation or
otherwise. Therefore, whenever possible, we an make use of a simple
known expansion to obtain the Laurent expansion of quite ompli ated
fun tions. 
4.137. Example. The fun tion f dened by f (z ) = 1=z is itself a
Laurent series at z = 0 in the annulus 0 < jz j < 1. To determine the
Laurent expansion of f at z = a (6= 0) we pro eed as follows:
 
1 1 1
z
=

z a 1 + a=(z a)
1 X an
=
z a n0

( 1)n
(z a)n
; jz aj > jaj;

valid for jz aj > jaj. Similarly, for jz aj < jaj, we have

  X
1 1 1 (z a)n
= = ( 1)n n+1
z a 1 + (z a)=a n0 a
whi h is the Taylor series expansion of f at a valid in jz aj < jaj. 
4.138. Example. Let 2 C be xed su h that j j > 1. Let us
dis uss the onvergen e of
X1 zn
fn (z ); fn (z ) = jnj :
n= 1
4.12 Laurent Series 215

Note that
X X  z n 1
fn ( z ) = = = for jz j < j j:
n0 n0 1 z= z

Similarly,
X X 1 1
fn (z ) = m = for jz j > j j 1 :
n 1 m1 ( z ) z 1

Therefore, the ombined series 1

P
n= 1 fn (z ) onverges for j j < jz j < j j
1
and diverges at various other values of z . 
4.139. Theorem. If f is analyti in a neighborhood of innity and f
is bounded there, then the Laurent oeÆ ients an = 0 for n = 1; 2; 3; : : : ,
where ea h an is given by (4:129):
Proof. By hypothesis there exists R > 0 su h that f is analyti for
jz j > R, and jf (z )j  M for some M > 0. Then, for r > R,
1
X 1
Z
f ( )
f (z ) = an z n; with an = d
n= 1 2 i j j=r n+1


and therefore, we have jan j  Mr n : But r an be hosen as large as we

please; so r n ! 0 as r ! 1 for n > 0, whi h means an = 0 for n > 0.
4.140. Example. Let  2 R and f (z ) = exp( 12 (z z 1)). Then,
f 2 H(C n f0g). Moreover,
 z  X 1  z n
exp = for all z
2 n0 n! 2
and 
   X ( 1)n z 1 n
exp = for all z 6= 0:
2z n0 n! 2
Therefore, the Laurent series expansion of f in C n f0g is given by
X1 1
Z
f ( )
(4.141) f (z ) = an z n ; an = n+1 d:
n= 1 2i C 

Choosing C = f : j j = 1g, i.e.  = ei , 0    2, we nd that

e 12 (e e ) i
Z 2 i i Z 2
1
an =
2i ei(n+1)

ie d = 21 ei( sin  n) d:
0 0
216 Complex Integration

By the hange of variable  = 2 , we note that

Z 2 Z 2
sin( sin  n) d = sin( sin(2 ) n(2 )) d
0 0
Z 2
= sin(2n + ( sin  n)) d
0
Z 2
= sin( sin  n) d;
0
R 2
so that 0 sin( sin 
n) d = 0: This observation implies that

1

X1 Z
1 2
exp (z z ) = 1 n
an z with an = os( sin  n) d:
2 n= 1 2 0
Now, for ea h z 2 C n f0g, we an write
1 1
(4.142) f (z ) = exp( z ) exp( z 1 ):
2 2
Sin e the Laurent expansion is unique we may ompare the oeÆ ients of z n
in (4.141) and (4.142) to obtain (use the Cau hy produ t of two onvergent
series)
X1 ( 1)m   2m+n
an = :
m=0 (m + n)!m! 2
Similarly, it is easy to show the following:
(i) If  2 R, then exp 12 (z + z 1) = 1
  P
n= 1 an z for z 6= 0 with
n
Z
1 2  os  X1 1   2m+n
an = e os(n) d = = a n:
2 0 m=0 (m + n)!m! 2
P1
(ii) If  2 R, then sinh[(z + z 1)℄ = n= 1 An z for z 6= 0, with
n
Z
1 2
An = os(n) sinh(2 os ) d:
2 0
Note that the Laurent oeÆ ients in (i) and (ii) remain un hanged
when n repla es n. Therefore, we an rewrite (i) and (ii) respe tively
as follows:

1

X1
1
exp (z + z ) = a0 + an (z n + z n )
2 n1
and

X
sinh (z + z 1 ) = A0 + An (z n + z n ): 
n1
4.13 Exer ises 217

4.143. Example. Consider f (z ) = Log (z n=(z n 1)) for jz j > 1,

where n is a xed positive integer. Write f as
 
1
f (z ) = Log
1 (1=z )n
= Log 1 Log (1 z n); sin e j1=z j < 1,
1
X 1 nm
= z ; jz j > 1;
m= 1 m
whi h is the Laurent expansion for f . 

4.13 Exer ises

4.144. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true

or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) (t) = t2 e2i=t ; t 2 (0; 1℄, with (0) = 0, is a Jordan ar of lass C 1 .
(b) (t) = t2 ei=4 ; t 2 (0; 1℄, is a non-simple smooth ontour.
( ) If 1 : [a; b℄ ! C and 2 : [a; b℄ ! C are two ontours, then so is the
sum 1 + 2 only if 1 (b) = 2 ( ).
(d) The inequality jez 1j < jz j holds for all z 2 D = fw : Re w < 0g.
(e) The inequality jea eb j  ja bj holds for a; b 2 D = fw : Re w  0g.
Z
(f) I = jz rj jdz j = 8r2 :
jzj=r
(g) If f is a omplex-valued ontinuous fun tion on C , then
Z
f (z ) f (1=z )
I= dz = 0:
jzj=1 z

(h) If p(z ) is a polynomial of degree n in z with omplex oeÆ ients, then

Z
I= p(z) dz = 2ip0 (0):
jzj=1

(i) There is an entire fun tion f (z ) su h that ef (z) = 25(e2z +1)= os(iz ):
(j) There is an entire fun tion f (z ) su h that ef (z) = 5(e2z 1)= sin(iz ).
(k) If f is analyti and nowhere zero in
= fz : Re z < 2003g, then
ln jf j is harmoni in
.
(l) If g 2 H(
) and su h that jg(z ) z j  jz j on jz j = 1, then one has
the estimate jg0 (a)j  1 + (1 jaj) 2 for ea h a 2
.
218 Complex Integration

(m) Let be the losed square given by fz : 5  Re z; Im z  5g. Then,

there annot exist a fun tion f whi h is analyti on a domain that
ontains su h that maxz2 jf (z )j = 5 and f 00 (1) = 1.
R
(n) If f is an entire fun tion su h that 02 jf (rei )j d  r for some xed
 > 0, and for all r > 0, then f (z )  0 in C .
(o) Let f be analyti on C n f1g su h that f (
nf1g)  R, then f is a
onstant fun tion.
(p) The Taylor series 1
P 1 n
n=1 n (z 3) onverges to Log (4 z ) for
jz 3j < 1.P
(q) If f (z ) = 1 n P1 (n)
n=0 an (z a) has the property that n=0 f (a) on-
verges, then f is ne essarily an entire fun tion.
(r) If a power series 1
P n
n=0 an z onverges for P jz j < 1 and if bn 2 C is
su h that jbn j < n jan j for all n  0, then 1
2 n
n=0 bn z onverges for
jz j < 1.
(s) If fangn0 is a sequen e of real numbers su h that
1 X1
= a (z + 2)n ;
(1 z )2 n=0 n
then the radius of onvergen e of the series 1
P n
P1
n=0 an z is 3.
(t) The power series n=0 an (z a)n (a 6= 0) an onverge at z = 0 and
diverge at z = b, whenever jb aj < jaj.
(u) An entire fun tion that takes real values on the real axis and purely
imaginary values on the imaginary axis must be an odd fun tion:
f (z ) = f ( z ) for all z 2 C .
(v) If f is entire and f (z ) = f ( z ) for all z , then there exists an entire
fun tion g su h that f (z ) = g(z 2 ) for all z 2 C .
(w) If f is analyti in a neighborhood
Æ of 0 and f (z ) = f ( z ) for
all z 2
Æ , then there exists an analyti fun tion g in
Æ su h that
f (z ) = zg(z 2) for all z 2
Æ .
 n 
The Laurent series 1
P z n3
(x) n=0 n! + zn onverges only at z = 0 and
nowhere else.
(y) If f is an analyti fun tion on the losed disk jz j  R for some
xed
 positive
 number R > 0, then f an never satisfy the inequality
f (n) (0)  n!nn for all n 2 N :

(z) If f 2 H(D) and a 2 D, then the inequality jf (n)(a)j  n!nn annot

hold for all n  1.
4.145. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is
true or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexam-
ple.
4.13 Exer ises 219

(a) sin z = 0 () z = k, k 2 Z.

(b) For z = x + iy, osh x is never zero and osh z has innitely many
zeros when y 6= 0.
( ) The zeros of sin(1=z ) are z = 1=n (n 2 Z) and ea h zero is isolated.
(d) The Uniqueness theorem does not ne essarily hold for harmoni fun -
tions.
(e) If the zeros of an analyti fun tion are not isolated then f (z )  0
throughout the domain of analyti ity.
(f) If D is a domain and f 2 H(D) vanishes throughout any neighbor-
hood of a point in D, then f (z )  0 in D.
(g) If D is a domain and f 2 H(D) su h that f (z ) = 0 at all points on
an ar inside D, then f (z )  0 throughout D.
P
(h) If f (z ) = n0 an z n onverges in
R , R > 0, su h that f 2 (z ) = f (z )
for every z in the open interval (0; R), then f (z ) is either 1 or 0 for
all z 2
R .
(i) If f 2 H(
) su h that f (x) = f ( x) for every real number x in
,
then f (z ) = f ( z ) for all z in
.
(j) There exists no fun tion f that is analyti in the unit disk
su h
that f (1=n) = f ( 1=n) = n 2k+1 for n = 2; 3; : : : ; where k 2 N is
xed.
(k) There exists a fun tion f that is analyti in a neighborhood of z = 0
su h that f (1=n) = f ( 1=n) = n 2k for all suÆ iently large n, where
k 2 N is xed.
(l) There exists an analyti fun tion in the unit disk
su h that
   
1 1 1
f =f = for n  2:
2n 2n + 1 n
(m) There exists an analyti fun tion f in
su h that f (1=n)) = (n +
1)=(n 1) for n  2:
(n) There exists an analyti fun tion f in
su h that f (in =n) = n 2
for n  2:
(o) There exists no analyti fun tion f in
su h that f (z ) 6 0 and
f (nin =(n + 1)) = 0 for n  1:
(p) There
exists an analyti fun tion f in
su h that f ( 1=2) = 3,
f n 2 = 5 for n  2:
(q) Suppose that f; g 2 H(
), and neither f nor g has a zero in
. If
(f 0 =f )(1=n) = (g0 =g)(1=n) for all n = 2; 3; : : : ; then f (z ) = g(z ) in

for some onstant .
(r) If f 2 H(
), fzngn1 is a sequen e of non-zero omplex numbers
su h that zn ! 0 as n ! 1 and f (zn) = f ( zn) for all n 2 N, then
f is even.
220 Complex Integration

(s) If fzngn1 is a sequen e of distin t omplex numbers in
su h that

zn ! 0 as n ! 1, there exists an entire fun tion f su h that f (zn ) =
zn for all n 2 N and f (5) = 0.
(t) If f and g are entire fun tions whi h agree on some interval [a; b℄  R,
then f (z ) = g(z ) in C .
R
4.146. Compute Ij = j jz j2 dz; j = 1; 2; 3; 4; where
(a) 1 (t) = a os t + ib sin t; a; b 2 R; 0  t  2
(b) 2 (t) = t2 + it; 0  t  1
(
t if 0  t  1
( ) 3 (t) =
ie it=2 if 1  t  2
(d) 4 (t) = it; 0  t  1
(e) 5 (t) = t + it3 ; 0  t  1.
R
4.147. Compute j jz j2 dz , j = 1 to 7, over the same paths used in
Example 4.6.
4.148. For = fz : jz j = 1g, evaluate the following integrals
Z Z Z Z Z Z
dz
;
jdz j ; (z)n dz; (z)n jdz j;
Re z
jdz j; Im z
jdz j
jn
jz zn z  z 
where n 2 N is xed, and jj 6= 1.
4.149. Let f 2 H(
) and have no zeros in
. Suppose that
(i) jf (ei )j  M1 for =2    =2 and,
(ii) jf (ei )j  M2 for =2    3=2.
Find an upper bound for jf (0)j.
4.150. Let f be analyti inside and on the square Q entered at the
origin. Suppose that jf (z )j  Mj for ea h z 2 Sj (1  jp 4), where Sj
denotes the enumeration of its sides. Show that jf (0)j  4 M1M2 M3 M4 .
4.151. Let f 2 H(
). Using the Cau hy integral formula for deriva-
tives, evaluate the following integrals:
Z 2 Z 2
I = f (ei ) os2 (=2) d and Is = f (ei ) sin2 (=2) d:
0 0
Z
z 2 + 3z 7
4.152. If f (a) = dz for jaj 6= 4; determine f (a) and
jzj=4 (z a)2
also f 0(1 + i) and f 0 (1 i).
4.13 Exer ises 221

4.153. Use Cau hy's theorem and/or Cau hy integral formula to eval-
uate the following integrals:
Z Z
Log (z + 1) z+3
(a) dz (e) (jaj > 1)
z 3 z 4 + az 3
Zjz 2j=2 4 Z jzj=1 n
z z
(b) dz (f) dz
jzj=4 ( z i)3 jzj=2 z 3
Z Z
z+5 z 1=2
( )
z 2 3z 4 dz (g) dz
jzj=5 jz 1 ij=5=4 z 1

4.154. If f 2 H(
) and jf (z )j  (1 jz j)  for all z 2
and for some

 > 0, then show that there exists a positive real number M (independent
of f ) su h that jf 0 (z )j  M (1 jz j)  1 for all z 2
: Does it also work
for  < 0?
4.155. If f 2 H(
) and jf 0(z )j  (1 jz j)  1 for all z 2
and
for some  > 0, then show that jf (z )j  M (1 jz j)  for some M > 0,
independent of f . Does it also work if  < 0?
4.156. Find the radius
P of onvergen e
of the series on the right hand
side of (1 z ) 1 Log z = 1 n=0 a n ( z 3)n ; where Log z denotes the prin ipal
bran h of the logarithm. Will your answer hange, if we repla e Log z by
another bran h of log z whose bran h ut is the ray rei=4 (r  0), rather
than the negative real axis.
4.157. Using the Cau hy inequality, dis uss the following statements:
(a) There does not exist a fun tion f su h that f is analyti on the losed
disk jz + 1j  5, f 00 ( 1) = i and max jf (z )j = 5.
jz+1j5
(b) Answer the same question when f 00 ( 1) = i with max jf (z )j = 25
jz+1j5
as well as when f 00 ( 1) = 1=3 with max jf (z )j = 5:
jz+1j5
4.158. Let f (z ) = 1 + z 2 + z 4 + z 6 + P


, z 2
, and fan g be a
sequen e of real numbers su h that f (z ) P = 1 n
n=0 an (z 5) . Find the
1 n
radius of onvergen e of the series f (z ) = n=0 an z .
4.159. Find the radius of onvergen e R of the Taylor series, about
z = 1, of the fun tion f (z ) = (1 + z 3 + z 6 + z 9 + z 12 ) 1 :
4.160. Find the Taylor expansions about 0 for
z 1 sin z 1
f (z ) = ; h(z ) = ; and g(z ) =
z2 z 1 1 + z2 1 z + z2
222 Complex Integration

and determine the radius of onvergen e of the orresponding series.

4.161. (L'H^ospital rule) Suppose that f and g are analyti at a,
g(k) (a) = 0 = f (k) (a) for k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1 but both are not identi ally
equal zero. If g(n) (a) 6= 0, show that
f (z ) f (n) (a)
lim
z!a g (z )
= (n)
g (a)
provided the limit on the right exists.
p
4.162. What are the zeros of z (if it has any)?
4.163. Determine all f 2 H(
) su h that f 00 (1=n) + e1=n = 0 for all
n = 2; 3; : : : . Justify your answer.
4.164. Suppose that f is an entire fun tion su h that f 0 (0) = 0 and
00
f (1 + 1=n) = 7 3(1=n) for ea h n = 1; 2; 3; : : : . Find all f that satisfy
these properties.
4.165. Does Theorem 4.123 provide a Laurent series expansion of any
bran h of log z in an annulus r < jz j < R?
4.166. Find the Laurent series expansion of ea h of the following:
1 1 1
(a) f (z ) = (d) f (z ) = +
z (z 2 + z 2) 1 + z2 2 + z
1 1 1 1
(b) f (z ) = + + (e) f (z ) = 2
z z 2 (z + 1)2 (z 1)(z 2 9)
3z 5 z
( ) f (z ) = 2 (f) f (z ) = 2 :
z + 5z 6 z + 7z 8
In ea h ase, how many su h expansions are there? In whi h region is ea h
of them valid? Find the Laurent oeÆ ients expli itly for ea h of these
expansions.
4.167. Does tan(1=z ) have a Laurent series onvergent in a region 0 <
jz j < R?
4.168. Let ot(z ) = 1
P n P1 n
n= 1 an z and s (z ) = n= 1 bn z . De-
ne the Laurent series expansion of ot(z ) and s (z ), on the annulus
1 < jz j < 2. Evaluate the oeÆ ients a n and b n for n 2 N.
Chapter 5

Conformal Mappings and Mobius

Transformations

There are ertain transformations that an be readily des ribed in terms

of geometri terms sin e we often think of a omplex-valued fun tion as
a mapping from
 C onto another subset
0  C . In this hapter, we
are mainly on erned with ertain geometri questions although our initial
approa h will be analyti but an be easily onverted into a geometri one.
Many important questions among these geometri questions are asso iated
with Mobius transformations (also alled bilinear transformations or linear
fra tional transformations). The starting point for the dis ussion follows
from a general theory of onformal mappings.
In Se tion 5.1, we introdu e the basi notion of onformal mappings
whi h is a dire t appli ation of the omplex derivative. In Se tion 5.2, we
dis uss a simple but important lass of onformal mappings provided by the
lass of all Mobius transformations. In Se tion 5.3, we study the xed point
properties of Mobius transformations. In Se tion 5.4, we show how two dif-
ferent sets of three distin t omplex numbers determine Mobius transfor-
mations. In Se tion 5.5, we dene ross-ratio and prove that Mobius trans-
formations preserves ir les in C 1 . We lose Se tion 5.6 with a dis ussion
on ertain spe ial mappings. More pre isely, we dis uss the group of (ana-
lyti ) automorphisms of two domains, namely, disks and half-planes, whi h
indi ate the relationship between omplex analysis and algebra. These au-
tomorphisms are the most frequently used mappings. Se tion 5.7 is devoted
to a dis ussion on symmetry with respe t to ir les in C 1 . In parti ular,
we show that if T is a Mobius transformation, and a and a are two points
symmetri with respe t to a ir le K in C 1 , then their images T (a) and
T (a) are symmetri with respe t to the image ir le K 0 = T (K ) in C 1 .
Later in Se tion 6.3, we also dis uss the same problem but by a dierent
method.
224 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

5.1 Prin iple of Conformal Mapping

If z1 and z2 are two nonzero omplex numbers, then we refer to the quantity
 
z1
(z1 ; z2 ) = arg z2 arg z1 = Arg
z2
as the oriented angle from z1 to z2 (i.e. the angle from the ve tor z1 to the
ve tor z2 ), provided a suitable determination is used for their arguments.
For instan e,
(a) if z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 1, then z2 =z1 = (1 i)=2 so that
 
1 i 
(z1; z2 ) = Arg = = arg 1 arg (1 + i) = Arg (1 + i) ;
2 4
(b) if z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 1, then z2 =z1 = ( 1 + i)=2 so that
 
1+i 3 
(z1 ; z2 ) = Arg = = arg ( 1) arg (1 + i) =  ;
2 4 4
( ) if z1 = 1 i and z2 = 1, then z2 =z1 = (1 i)=2 so that
 
 3
(z1 ; z2 ) = = arg ( 1) arg ( 1 i) =  2:
4 4
Consider f (z ) = Log z and let
= C n fz = x : x  0g. We know that
f 2 H(
) and f 0 (z ) = 1=z 6= 0 in
. Consider the two urves 1 and 2 in

given by
1 = fz : jz j = 1; =4  Arg z  =2g = feit : =4  t  =2g
and
2 = fz : 1  jz j  3; Arg z = =4g = ftei=4 : 1  t  3g;
see Figure 5.1. Clearly, these two urves interse t at z0 = ei=4 . The
orresponding image urves under f (z ) = Log z are
1 = f Log (eit ) : =4  t  =2g = fit : =4  t  =2g
and
2 = f Log (tei=4 ) : 1  t  3g = fln t + i=4 : 1  t  3g;
respe tively. Sin e 10 (t) 6= 0 for =4  t  =2 and 20 (t) 6= 0 on 1  t  3,
ea h has a tangent at z0 . The angle between them from 2 to 1 (i.e.
the angle between the orresponding dire ted tangent lines) is 90Æ. The
5.1 Prin iple of Conformal Mapping 225

y v
iπ/2
Ŵ1
γ1
γ2 3eiπ/4 w0 = iπ
z0
4 Ŵ2 ln 3 + i π4
π/4
O 1 3 x u

Figure 5.1: Conformality at z0 = ei=4 for Log z .

y

γ (b)
γ ′ (t0 )
γ (a)
z0 θ θ
O x

Figure 5.2: Tangent to the ar at z0 .

image urves 1 and 2 interse t at w0 = f (z0) = Log (ei=4 ) = i=4 and

the angle between them from 2 to 1 is 90Æ . Thus, the angle between
1 and 2 is preserved both in sense as well as in size under the mapping
f (z ) = Log z . Examples of this type help us to formulate the denition of
onformal mappings. We start with the

5.1. Denition. Let : (t) = x(t) + iy(t), 0  t  1, be a smooth

parameterized urve with z0 = (t0 ) for t0 2 [0; 1℄. If 0(t0 ) 6= 0, then we
refer to
(t) (t0 )
0(t0 ) = tlim 0
!t0 t t0 = x (t0 ) + iy (t0 )
0

as the tangent to the urve at z0 . Moreover, arg 0 (t0 ) represents the

dire tion of the tangent to the urve at z0.

Thus, 0(t) is indeed the omplex representation of the usual tangent

ve tor. We dene the angle between two urves whi h interse t at z0 to be
the angle between their tangents.
To be more pre ise, we need to dis uss a tangent line at z0 to a dier-
entiable urve : [0; 1℄ ! C where 0 (t0 ) 6= 0 at t0 2 (0; 1), and z0 = (t0 ),
a point on . For onvenien e, we let z1 = (t0 h) and z2 = (t0 + k).
226 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

z1 = γ (t0 − h)

z2 = γ (t0 + k)
t0 − h t0 t0 + k z0 = γ (t0 )

Figure 5.3: Tangent to the ar at z0 as h; k ! 0.

Consider the rays

R1 [z0 ; z1 ℄ = fz : z = z0 + (z1 z0 );   0g
   
z z
= z : z = z0 +  1 0 ;   0
h
and    
z2 z0
R2 [z2 ; z0 ℄ = z : z = z0 +  ; 0 :
k
Now, sin e 0(t0 ) 6= 0,
z0 z1 (t0 ) (t0 h)
lim = lim
h!0 h h!0 h
= 0 (t0 )
z z
= lim+ 2 0
k !0 k
(t0 + k) (t0 )
= lim+ ;
k !0 k
and the rays R1 (as h ! 0 ) and R2 (as k ! 0+) approa h the ray
R(z0) = fz : z = z0 +  0 (t0 );   0g
whi h is the tangent ray to at z0. Thus if 0 (t0 ) 6= 0, we see that, sin e
z0 is arbitrary, the dire tion of the tangent (see Figure 5.3) is determined
by 0 (t). Note that if 0(t0 ) = 0, the tangent at z0 is not dened. On the
other hand, if the dire tion of the tangent at t0 exists, then it is given by
the limit
0 (t)
ei = tlim
!t0 j 0 (t)j :
The assertion now follows.
5.2. Example. Dene : [ 2; 1℄ ! C by (t) = (1 + i)(1 + t)2 :
Then, 0 (t) = 2(1 + i)(1 + t) so that 0 (0) 6= 0. Therefore, the dire tion of
5.1 Prin iple of Conformal Mapping 227

)
t0
z (′
 f ()
γ w0
z(t) w = f (z)
0 t0 1 z0 Ŵ
w(t) = f (z((t))
w (t0 ) = (f ◦z)′ (t0 )
′

Figure 5.4: Illustration for onformal map.

the tangent at 0 is determined from

0 (0) 1 + i
ei = 0
j (0)j = p2 :
Thus, the angle between the dire tion of the tangent and the positive real
axis is  = =4. On the other hand
0 (t) 1 + i 1+t
lim = p t!lim1
t! 1 j 0 (t)j 2 j1 + tj ;
but
0 (t) 1 + i 0 (t) 1+i
lim1 = p and tlim = p
1 j (t)j t< 1 j (t)j
t! 0 2 ! 1 0 2
t>
so that does not have a dire tion at t = 1, sin e 0 ( 1) = 0. 
5.3. Proposition. Let f 2 H(
), where
is a domain ontaining
a smooth urve
: (t); t 2 [0; 1℄;
passing through a point z0 2
and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0. Then the tangent to the
urve
: (t) = f (z )jz= (t) = (f Æ )(t); t 2 [0; 1℄;
at w0 = f (z0 ) is
(5.4) (f Æ )0 (t0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) 0 (t0 )
(Note that urves are regarded as mappings so that the transformed urve
is simply the omposite map = f Æ ).
Proof. First we note that is a smooth urve that passes through z0
(when t = t0 ). If 0 (t0 ) 6= 0, then 0 (t0 ) determines a well dened tangent
228 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

ve tor at z0 and, be ause 0 (t0 ) 6= 0, (t) 6= (t0 ) for t near t0 , t 6= t0 . So

we may write
f ( (t)) f ( (t0 )) f ( (t)) f ( (t0 )) (t) (t0 )
=
t t0 (t) (t0 ) t t0
and, if we allow t ! t0 , we have
(f Æ )0 (t0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) 0 (t0 ):
If 0 (t0 ) = 0, we obtain (f Æ )0 (t0 ) = 0 and the above formula ontinues to
hold.
If, in Proposition 5.3, f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0, then the formula (5.4) gives
(f Æ )0 (t0 ) 6= 0
whi h determines a new tangent ve tor 0 (t0 ) at the point w0 = f (z0) =
(t0 ) on the transformed urve, as indi ated in Figure 5.4. The relation
(5.4) shows that the tangent to the image urve depends on the tangent
to the original urve passing through z0 and the xed omplex number
f 0 (z0 ).
An analyti mapping w = f (z ) in a domain
that preserves the angle
(both in size and in sense) at z0 is alled onformal at z0 . More pre isely,
f (z ) is said to be onformal at z0 2
if, whenever 1 and 2 are two
parameterized urves interse ting at z0 = 1 (t0 ) = 2 (t0 ) with non-zero
tangents, then the following holds:
(i) the two transformed urves 1 = f Æ 1 and 2 = f Æ 2 have non-zero
tangents at t0
(ii) the angle from 01 (t0 ) = (f Æ 1 )0 (t0 ) to 02 (t0 ) = (f Æ 2 )0 (t0 ) is the
same as the angle from 10 (t0 ) to 20 (t0 ).
If it is onformal at ea h point of
, then we say that f is onformal in
. A
fun tion that preserves the size of the angle but not sense (i.e. orientation)
is said to be isogonal. An example of the latter lass of fun tions is given
by f (z ) = z . Indeed, if
1 = ft : t  0g and 2 = ftei=4 : t  0g
are two urves in C , then the image urves under f (z ) = z are
1 = ft : t  0g and 2 = fte i=4 : t  0g;
see Figure 5.5. Although the two urves interse t at an angle =4 in ea h
plane, the fun tion f (z ) = z reverses the angle of orientation. So the
mapping in this ase is not onformal, but is isogonal.
5.1 Prin iple of Conformal Mapping 229
y v
4
i π/
te
γ2

f (z) = z u
π/4 −π/4
x
te−iπ/4

Figure 5.5: Demonstration for isogonal mapping.

Let f 2 H(
), where
is a domain ontaining a smooth urve passing
through a point z0 2
where f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0. We wish to show that this
ondition is suÆ ient to show that f is onformal at z0. To do this, we
onsider two smooth urves
1 : 1 (t) and 2 : 2 (t); t 2 [0; 1℄;
that pass through z0 = 1 (t0 ) = 2 (t0 ) with non-zero tangents at t0 . Then
the transformed urves
1 = f Æ 1 and 2 = f Æ 2
pass through w0 = f (z0 ) in the w-plane when t = t0 , and, by Proposition
5.3, the tangents to these urves are given by
0 (t0 ) = (f Æ 1 )0 (t0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) 0 (t0 )
1 1

and
0 (t0 ) = (f Æ 2 )0 (t0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) 0 (t0 );
2 2
respe tively. Note that the tangents to the transformed urves 1 and 2
are obtained by multiplying the respe tive tangents to 1 and 2 by the
non-zero fa tor f 0 (z0 ). Thus, the arguments of both tangents are in reased
by the same angle, namely the argument of f 0 (z0 ). Consequently,
 02 (t0 )   0   0 
f (z0 ) 20 (t0 ) 2 (t0 )
Arg 01 (t0 ) = Arg f 0 (z0 ) 10 (t0 ) = Arg 10 (t0 )

so that the angle between 1 and 2 at z0 measured from 1 to 2 is equal

to the angle between 1 and 2 at f (z0 ) measured from 1 to 2 . We have
in fa t proved the following result.

5.5. Theorem. Let f 2 H(

) and z0 2
su h that f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0. Then
f is onformal at z0.
230 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

Conformality is onsidered a lo al property of analyti fun tions. Fur-

ther, sin e
f (z ) f (z0)
f 0 (z0 ) = zlim
!z0 z z0 ;
and w = f (z ) maps a urve : z (t) through z0 to another urve : w(t) =
f (z (t)) through w0 = f (z0 ), we have
   
 f (z ) f (z0 )   w w0  0
lim  !z0  z z0  = jf (z0 )j:
= zlim  
z!z0  z z0 

This equation shows that jf 0 (z0 )j is a lo al s aling fa tor of the fun tion at
z0 , and is independent of the urve . Moreover, if jz z0 j is small, then
jf (z ) f (z0 )j  jf 0 (z0 )j jz z0 j
from whi h we see that \small" neighborhoods of z0 are mapped onto
roughly the same onguration, magnied by the fa tor jf 0(z0 )j. For exam-
ple, "small triangle" ontaining z0 is mapped geometri ally onto a similar
" urvilinear triangle" magnied by the fa tor jf 0 (z0 )j. Thus, arg f 0 (z0 )
measures the rotation while jf 0 (z0 )j measures (for points nearby) the mag-
ni ation or distortion of the image.
5.6. Example. To see how onformality may fail at a point z0 where
f 0 (z0 ) = 0, we onsider the fun tion f (z ) = z 2 . Then f 0 (0) = 0. Now, if
1 is the positive real axis from 0 to 1 and 2 is the (positive) imaginary
axis in the upper half-plane, then f ( 1 ) = 1 is the positive real axis from
0 to 1, and f ( 2 ) = 2 is the negative real axis from 0 to 1. Note that
the angle between 1 and 2 is =2, whereas the angle between their image
urves 1 and 2 is . Thus, f (z ) = z 2 is not onformal at 0 although it is
onformal at every other point of the omplex plane. To demonstrate this
fa t, let a + ib 6= 0 and onsider two smooth urves 1 and 2 given by
1 = ft + ib : t  ag; and 2 = fa + it : t  bg:
They interse t at z0 = a + ib and the angle between them is =2. Further, as
f 0 (z0 ) = 2z0 6= 0, f is onformal at z0 . Then, under the mapping f (z ) = z 2 ,
we have
f ( 1 (t)) = (t + ib)2 = t2 b2 +2itb and f ( 2 (t)) = (a + it)2 = a2 t2 +2iat:
Letting f ( (t)) = u + iv, it follows that the images 1 and 2 of 1 and 2
are the parabolas des ribed by
1 = fu + iv : v2 = 4b2(u + b2 )g and 2 = fu + iv : v2 = 4a2(a2 u)g;
respe tively. An inspe tion of Figure 5.6 indi ates that the angle between
1 and 2 at f (z0 ) is =2. Note that as a and b vary, we obtain two families
of parabolas interse ting orthogonally at ea h point where a + ib 6= 0. 
5.1 Prin iple of Conformal Mapping 231

y Ŵ2 v Ŵ1
γ2
1 + i = z0 f (z) = z2
γ1 2i = w0

x −1 1 u

−2i

Figure 5.6: Conformality of f (z ) = z 2 at 1 + i.

If f (z ) = z n, then f magnies the angle at z = 0 by a fa tor of n and

maps the disk jz j < r onto the disk jz j < rn in an n-to-one manner. Let us
now onsider a general situation.
If f is analyti at z0 su h that f 0 (z0 ) = 0, then the onformal hara ter
fails. Su h a point z0 is alled a riti al point of f . Let us now examine
the behavior of an analyti fun tion in a neighborhood of a riti al point.
More generally, let w = f (z ) be analyti at z0 su h that f (k) (z0 ) = 0 for
k = 1; 2; : : : ; n 1 and f (n) (z0 ) 6= 0. We wish to show that angles are not
preserved at z0 but are multiplied by n. By hypotheses, we have
f (z ) f (z0 ) = (z z0 )n [an + an+1 (z z0 ) +


℄ = (z z0 )n g(z )
where g is analyti at z0 with g(z0 ) = an 6= 0. Thus,
arg(w w0 ) = arg(f (z ) f (z0 )) = n arg(z z0 ) + arg g(z ):
Suppose  is the angle that the tangent ve tor to a smooth urve at
z0 makes with the positive x-axis, and  is the angle that the tangent to
the image urve under w = f (z ) at w0 = f (z0 ) makes with the positive
u-axis. If z ! z0 along , then w = f (z ) ! w0 = f (z0 ) along so that the
last equation gives
 = n + arg g(z0 ) = n + arg an :
This relation shows that the tangent to the image urve depends on the
tangent to original urve as well as the order of the derivatives of f and the
argument of the rst non-zero oeÆ ient in the series expansion of f 0 (z ) at
the point in question.
Let 1 and 2 be two smooth urves passing through z0 and let 1 and
2 be their respe tive images under w = f (z ). Suppose that the tangent
to the urves k and k make an angle k and k with the real axis of the
z -plane and of the w-plane, respe tively. Then, we have
1 = n1 + arg an and 2 = n2 + arg an ; i.e.  = n
232 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

where  = 1 2 and  = 1 2 are respe tively the angles between the

urves 1 , 2 and the respe tive image urves 1 , 2 . Now we have proved
5.7. Theorem. Suppose that f is analyti at z0 and f 0(z ) has a zero
of order n 1 at z0 . If two smooth urves interse t at an angle  in the
z -plane, then their images interse t at an angle n in the w-plane.
From Theorem 5.7, we obtain that no analyti fun tion an be onformal
at its riti al points.
5.8. Example. Consider f (z ) = sin z . Then f is entire and f 0 (z ) =
os z so that f 0 (zn ) = 0 for zn = (2n+1)=2, n 2 Z. Thus, f is onformal on

= C n f(2n + 1)=2 : n 2 Zg. Note that f 00 (z ) = sin z and f 00 (zn ) 6= 0

for ea h n 2 Z. A ording to Theorem 5.7, the angle between any two
smooth urves interse ting at zn (n 2 Z) is in reased by a fa tor of 2 by
w = f (z ). 
5.9. The transformation w = sin z. First we note that sin z is pe-
riodi with period 2, sin z = sin( z ) and sin(z + ) = sin z . In
view of these observations, it suÆ es to understand the mapping behavior
of sin z on a verti al strip of width . Further, sin z is learly onfor-
mal on D = fz : jRe z j < =2g and maps D one-to-one onto the domain
C n f( 1; 1℄ [ [1; 1)g.
With z = x + iy and w = u + iv, w = sin z gives
(5.10) u = sin x osh y and v = os x sinh y:
Let us dis uss the behavior of w = sin z on the horizontal and verti al line
segments in
= fz 2 C : jRe z j  =2g. First, we onsider the horizontal
line segment
Jb = fx + iy : y = b; jxj  =2g:
By (5.10), the image of Jb is given by
(5.11) u = sin x osh b and v = os x sinh b (jxj  =2):
If b = 0, then the image of the line segment J0 = [ =2; =2℄ des ribed by
(5.11) redu es to
u = sin x and v = 0;
sin e osh 0 = 1 and sinh 0 = 0. As we move x from =2 to =2 along the
line segment J0 , the image in the w-plane advan es from 1 to 1 along the
line v = 0 and thus, sin(J0 ) = [ 1; 1℄:
Next we x b 6= 0 and onsider Jb . In this ase, the image set des ribed
by (5.11) gives, by eliminating x,
u2 v2
(5.12) + =1
osh b sinh2 b
2
5.1 Prin iple of Conformal Mapping 233

whi h is the equation of an ellipse entered at the origin of the w-plane.

Its major and minor axes have lengths 2 osh b and 2 sinh b, respe tively.
Further, the major and the minor axes lie on the u- and the v-axes, respe -
tively. If b > 0, (5.11) indi ates that v > 0 showing that the image of Ib for
b > 0 is the upper-half of the ellipse dened by (5.12). Similarly, the image
of Jb for b < 0 is the bottom half of the ellipse. The images of the segments
orresponding to b; b 6= 0, t together to form a omplete ellipse.
Let us now dis uss the image of the verti al lines. Fix a with jaj  =2,
and let
Ia = fx + iy : x = a; y 2 Rg
to represent a verti al line. By (5.10), the image of Ia under w = sin z is
des ribed by the onditions
(5.13) u = sin a osh y; v = os a sinh y (y 2 R):
Elimination of the variable y yields
u2 v2
(5.14) 2 =1
sin a os2 a
whenever sin a 6= 0 and os a 6= 0. The last onditions are satised when a 2=
f0; =2; =2g. We dis uss separately the ase when a 2 f0; =2; =2g.
Clearly, the lo ation of the image of I0 des ribed by
u = 0 and v = sinh y (y 2 R);
is a tually a parametri equation of the imaginary axis of the w-plane (as
sinh(R) = R). For a = =2, the image of the line I=2 is the set of points
given by
u = osh y; v = 0 (y 2 R):
As we move y from 0 to 1 along the line x = =2, these equations indi ate
that u moves from 1 to 1 along the line v = 0. As osh y = osh( y), it
follows that the image of the line I =2 is the set of points u  1 on the
negative real axis.
Next, we dis uss the ase when a 2= f0; =2; =2g. In this ase, the
image of Ia is the hyperbola des ribed by (5.14) with verti es at ( sin a; 0)
and slant asymptotes v = ( ot a)u. If 0 < a < =2, then the rst equation
reveals that u > 0, and if =2 < a < 0 then u < 0. This observation shows
that for ea h xed a; 0 < a < =2, the image of Ia is the right bran h
of the hyperbola ontaining the point (sin a; 0) while the image of Ia , for
=2 < a < 0, is the left bran h of the hyperbola ontaining the point
( sin a; 0). Then the image of the pair of verti al lines x = a and x = a
with jaj < =2 onstitute the full hyperbola given by (5.14). Finally, the
mapping w = os z an be analyzed using the equation
os z = sin(z + =2):
234 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

5.2 Basi Properties of Mobius Maps

What is a Mobius transformation? They are simply a omposition of one,
some or all of the following spe ial types of transformations.
 Translation: It is a map of the form z 7! z + ,  2 C n f0g: If  = 0,
then it is an identity map.
 Magni ation: It is a map of the form z 7! rz , r 2 R n f0g: Noti e
that for r = 1, this is the identity map whereas for r = 0 it is a
onstant map. If r > 0, then w = rz multiplies the modulus of z
by r and leaves its argument un hanged. Thus if r > 1, then this is
a \magni ation" and if 0 < r < 1, it is a \shrinking/ ontra tion"
rather than saying it a \magni ation". If r < 0, then w = rz gives
the re e tion through the origin followed by su h a \magni ation"
or \shrinking" depending on r < 1 or 1 < r < 0.
 Rotation: It is a map of the form z 7! ei z;  2 R: This map produ es
a rotation through an angle about the origin with positive sense if
 > 0. The rotation oupled with magni ation is referred to as
dilation: z 7! az (a 6= 0).
 Inversion: It is a map of the form z 7! 1=z whi h produ es a geometri
inversion (or re ipro al map or the inversion map).
Mobius transformations, named in honor of the geometer A.F. Mobius
(1790-1868), are rational fun tions of the form
az + b
(5.15) T (z ) = (a; b; ; d 2 C ; ad b 6= 0)
z + d
where a; b; ; d are omplex numbers su h that ad b 6= 0: Note that (5.15)
does not determine the oeÆ ients a; b; ; d uniquely. If we let T (z ) :=
Tab d(z ) and if  2 C n f0g, then a, b,  , d orrespond to the same
Mobius transformation as
Tab d(z ) = T(a)(b)( )(d) (z )
so that if 2 = 1=(ad b ) then (a)(d) (b)( ) = 1: In other words, the
behavior of T does not hange when a; b; ; d are multiplied by a non-zero
onstant and thus, we may assume that ad b = 1 whenever there is a
need for this normalization to simplify our studies. Certainly, T is analyti
on C n f d= g. Note that if = 0, then (5.15) redu es to
a  
b
T (z ) = z+ := z +  (ad 6= 0; i.e.  6= 0):
d d
A fun tion of this form is alled a linear map. Clearly, the identity trans-
formation orresponds to a = d 6= 0 and b = = 0. If 6= 0, then we an
5.2 Basi Properties of Mobius Maps 235

de ompose (5.15) as
   
d ad 1
T (z ) = a z + +b
(z + d= )
 
a ad b 1
(5.16) = ; 6= 0:
2 z + d=
Thus, as mentioned in the beginning, a Mobius transformation is a om-
position of magni ation, rotation and translation, and T (z ) redu es to
a onstant whenever ad b = 0. So, throughout the dis ussion in this
hapter, the ases for whi h ad b = 0 should be ruled out in order to
ex lude the trivial ase for whi h T (z ) redu es to a onstant. It an be
also observed that the ondition ad b 6= 0 is required sin e otherwise
T ( d= ) = 0=0, whi h is undened.
Note also that T 0(z ) exists for all z where z + d 6= 0, and
ad b
T 0(z ) = (z 6= d= );
( z + d)2
so that the ondition ad b 6= 0 simply guarantees that T (z ) is not a
onstant. Therefore, T denes an analyti fun tion on C nf d= g. Clearly,
T (z ) is obtained by su essive appli ations of the following four mappings
wi = Ti (z ) for i = 1; 2; 3; 4, where
 
d 1 ad b a
w1 = z + ; w2 = ; w3 = w2 ; w4 = T4 (z ) = + w3
w1 2
unless = 0 where we write T (z ) = (a=d)z + (b=d): It follows that T (z ) is
a tually given by the omposition of these simpler transformations. More
pre isely, we have
T = T4 Æ T3 Æ T2 Æ T1
and thus, these four types (translation, rotation, magni ation and an in-
version) generate the group of Mobius transformations. Moreover, the fun -
tion w = T (z ) dened by (5.15) an be written as
wz az + dw b = 0
and the expression on the left is linear in both variables z and w, and so,
Mobius transformations are also alled Bilinear transformations. When
= 0, the transformation is learly linear.
5.17. Matrix interpretation and the group stru ture. There is a
strong relationship between Mobius transformations and matri es. Indeed,
ea h Mobius transformation of the form (5.15) an be asso iated with a
2  2 matrix via the map
 
z 7! A = a db ! T (z ):
236 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

The Mobius transformation T0 given by T0 (z ) = z is the identity transfor-

mation whi h orresponds to the 2  2 identity matrix. If T and S are two
Mobius transformations given by
az + b a0 z + b0
T (z ) = and S (z ) = 0 ;
z + d z + d0
then the omposition T Æ S is dened by
 0 
a z + b0
a 0 +b
z + d0  (aa0 + b 0 )z + ab0 + bd0
(T Æ S )(z ) = T (S (z )) =  0 0 = 0 :
az+b ( a + d 0 )z + b0 + dd0
0 +d
z + d0
Note that if A and B are the orresponding matri es asso iated with the
transformations T and S , then
 0 0 ab0 + bd0 
aa + b
AB = a0 + d 0 b0 + dd0

whi h implies that T Æ S orresponds to the matrix produ t AB . Moreover,

if det A = ad b 6= 0 and det B = a0 d0 b0 0 6= 0 then
det(AB ) = det A
det B = (ad b )(a0 d0 b0 0 ) 6= 0:
In parti ular, we have the following simple result.
5.18. Proposition. Composition of two Mobius transformations is
a Mobius transformation.
The fa t that matrix multipli ation orresponds to omposition an be
reformulated in the language of group theory. Now, let GL(2; C ) denote the
general linear group onsisting of 2  2 invertible matri es A with omplex
entries:
   
a b
GL(2; C ) = A = d : a; b; ; d 2 C ; det A 6= 0 :

Then, GL(2; C ) forms a subgroup of the group of all Mobius transfor-

mations under the operation of matrix multipli ation. If we assign ea h
A 2 GL(2; C ) the Mobius transformation dened by (5.15), then the map
A 7! TA is an isomorphism; i.e. for all A; B 2 GL(2; C ), TAÆB = TA Æ TB :
Clearly, the inverse of A is
 
1 d b
ad b a
and TA ÆTA 1 = TAA 1 = TI . Thus, all the (non- onstant) Mobius transfor-
mations are invertible. In parti ular, they are one-to-one. Indeed if = 0,
5.2 Basi Properties of Mobius Maps 237

then T (z ) = (a=d)z +(b=d) whi h is trivially one-to-one in C . If 6= 0 then,

by (5.16), for z1 ; z2 2 C n f d= g, we obtain

) z +1 d= = z +1 d= ) z1 = z2 :
T (z1 ) = T (z2)
1 2
Therefore, T is 1-1 on C n f d= g. Is a (non- onstant) Mobius transfor-
mation a surje tion onto C ? Is there a point in C missing from the image
under a Mobius transformation? As T is one-to-one, its inverse always
exists. The inverse of T is obtained by solving the equation
az + b
w = T (z ) = (z 6= d= )
z + d
for z . This gives
dw b
z = T 1(w) = (w 6= a= )
w + a
where da ( b)( ) = ad b 6= 0: We have
5.19. Proposition. The inverse of a Mobius transformation is also
a Mobius transformation.

Moreover, T : C n f d= g ! C n fa= g is a bianalyti (i.e. T and T 1

analyti ) mapping with
dw b ad b
(5.20) z = T 1 (w ) = and T 0(z ) = :
w + a ( z + d)2
This is an important property of Mobius transformations whi h is quite
spe ial for omplex-valued fun tions. The later ondition shows that the
Mobius transformation T is not only a bianalyti map of C n f d= g onto
C n fa= g but is also onformal on C n f d= g. Is it possible to enlarge the
domain of denition of T in order to onsider it as a map dened on the
extended omplex plane? Observe that if = 0, then T maps C onto C and,
T (z ) ! 1 if and only if z ! 1. Thus, it makes sense to dene T (1) = 1
when = 0. If 6= 0, then T (z ) ! 1 as z ! d= and T (z ) ! a= if
z = 1. In view of these observations, it is natural to introdu e the limiting
values (in the usual sense)

a
T (1) = lim T (z ) = and T ( d= ) = 1 for 6= 0
jzj!1 T (1) = 1 for = 0:
Similarly, by the rst transformation in (5.20), we dene

T 1(1) = lim T 1 (w) =
d
and T 1(a= ) = 1 for 6= 0
jwj!1 T 1(1) = 1 for = 0;
238 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

1
y w= z
= 1r e−iθ v

eiθ
1 1 x 1 2 u
2

e−iθ

Figure 5.7: Images of disks under inversion.

y v
1
w= z

−1 −r O r 1 x − 1r −1 O 1 1
r
u

Figure 5.8: Images ertain sets under inversion.

so that we onveniently regard a Mobius map T as a one-to-one mapping

of the extended omplex plane C 1 onto itself. Equivalently, we say that T
maps the Riemann sphere onto itself; i.e. T denes a onformal self-map
of C 1 . In parti ular, we on lude that T (C 1 ) = C 1 , and for all z and w
in C 1 , we have T 1(T (z )) = z and T (T 1(w)) = w:
5.21. Images of ir les and lines under Mobius maps. There are
many properties of Mobius transformations that have onsiderable impor-
tan e in physi al appli ations. Let us rst study some basi properties of
the inversion fun tion w dened by w = z 1 (z 6= 0). Clearly, this fun tion
establishes a one-to-one orresponden e between the non-zero points of the
z , and the w-planes. To start with, we let z = rei (r > 0,  = Arg z ).
Then
1 1 z
w = = e i = 2 :
z r jz j
Under this transformation, we easily have the following (see Figures 5.7
and 5.8):
(i) points in the upper half-plane (Im z > 0) are mapped onto points in
the lower half-plane (Im w < 0) and vi e-versa
5.2 Basi Properties of Mobius Maps 239

(ii) the right half-plane (Re z > 0) is mapped onto itself

(iii) the left half-plane (Re z < 0) is mapped onto itself
(iv) points on the ir le jz j = R are mapped onto points on the ir le
jwj = 1=R, the disk jz j < R is mapped onto the disk jwj > 1=R, and
the points z su h that jz j > R are mapped onto points in the disk
jwj < 1=R.
So, it is natural to ask the following simple question: what happens to
general ir les and straight lines under inversions, and more generally under
Mobius transformations?
Consider the equation in (x; y)- oordinates of the form
(x2 + y2 ) 2ax 2by = R2 (a2 + b2 ) (; a; b 2 R; R > 0)
whi h is a ir le or a (open) straight line depending on whether  6= 0 or
 = 0. In fa t  = 1 a tually orresponds to the ir le jz (a + ib)j = R,
whereas  = 0 gives a line. As
2x = z z and 2y = i(z z);
in terms of the omplex variable, we an onsider all possible ir les and
straight lines in the form
jz j2 (a ib)z (a + ib)z + a2 + b2 R2 = 0;
or equivalently in the form jz j2 + 2Re (z ) + = 0, ; 2 R;  2 C :
5.22. Lemma. (Cir le-preserving Property) Every Mobius trans-
formation maps ir les and straight lines in the z -plane into ir les or lines.
Proof. It is quite obvious that among the four elementary transforma-
tions, the three of them, namely, translation, magni ation (s aling) and
rotation do preserve ir les and straight lines as it is lear that ea h of these
three transformations sends ir les to ir les and lines to lines. Therefore,
from the equivalent expression for Mobius transformation given by (5.16),
it only remains to verify the statement for the inversion given by w = 1=z:
Every ir le or line in C an be des ribed in the form
(5.23) jz j2 + 2Re (z ) + = 0; ; 2 R;  2 C :
Obviously, this is an equation of a ir le if  6= 0. To obtain the enter and
the radius, omplete the square. If  = 0, it is a straight line in C , whi h is
a ir le through 1. Now, if z 2 C nf0g and w = 1=z (w 6= 0) then z = 1=w
so that (5.23) transforms to
 
 
+ 2Re + = 0:
jwj2 w
240 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

Multiplying both sides by ww = jwj2 , this equation assumes the form

(5.24) jwj2 + 2Re (w) +  = 0:
Clearly, the desired on lusion follows from (5.23) and (5.24).
We observe that Lemma 5.22 neither laims that every ir le in C is
mapped to a ir le in C nor does it laim that every line in C is mapped to
a line in C . Further, from Lemma 5.22, it follows that every Mobius trans-
formation, being one of four spe ial transformations, arries the families
of ir les in C 1 onto itself. Here we regarded straight line (as a limiting
ase of ir le) in the extended omplex plane as a ir le on the Riemann
sphere{using the stereographi proje tion. That is to say that line on the
extended omplex plane is a ir le of innite radius (meaning that it is a
ir le through the point at innity). So, we an think of ir les and lines
as belonging to the same lass, and reformulate Lemma 5.22 as
5.25. Theorem. Every Mobius transformation maps ir les in C 1
onto ir les in C 1 .
It is worth it to have a bit more detail on the two equations (5.23) and
(5.24).
Case (i): Assume that  = 0 and = 0. In this ase, from (5.23) and
(5.24), we see that the straight line that passes through the origin given
by Re (z ) = 0 is transformed into a straight line that passes through the
origin given by Re (w) = 0:
Case (ii): Let  = 0 and 6= 0. In this ase, (5.23) is equivalent to
2Re (z ) + = 0
whi h is an equation of a straight line that does not pass through the origin.
By (5.24), this straight line is transformed into
 
  j j
jwj2 + 2Re (w) = 0; i.e. w + = ;
 
whi h is a ir le passing through the origin. Note that  = 0 is not possible
in both the ases.
Case (iii): Let  6= 0 and 6= 0. In this ase, (5.23) is equivalent to
  r

z +  
=
j j2 
  2
where j j >  . This ir le does not pass through the origin and by (5.24),
the image of this ir le is given by
  s

w +  
=
j j2  ; j j2 >  :
  2
5.3 Fixed Points and Mobius Maps 241

Note that this ir le does not pass through the origin. More pre isely, the
above dis ussion leads to

5.26. Proposition. Under the fun tion w = 1=z , we have

 the image of a line through the origin is a line through the origin
 the image of a line not through the origin is a ir le through the origin
 the image of a ir le through the origin is a line not through the origin
 the image of a ir le not through the origin is a ir le not through the
origin.

In parti ular, under the inversion w = 1=z , the verti al line Re z = 

( 6= 0) maps onto the ir le jw 1=(2)j = 1=(2jj) while the horizontal
line Im z =  ( 6= 0) maps onto the ir le jw + i=(2)j = 1=(2jj):

5.3 Fixed Points and Mobius Maps

Let D be a subset of C 1 and f : D ! C 1 . A point z0 2 D is said to be a
xed point of f if f (z0 ) = z0 . The set of all xed points of f is denoted by
Fix (f ). For example, we have
(i) the fun tion f (z ) = z 2 has exa tly three xed points, namely, 0; 1
and 1 whereas the fun tion f (z ) = z 1 has two xed points namely
1 and 1.
(ii) the fun tion f (z ) = z 1 has no xed points in C whereas it has one
xed point in C 1 , namely the point at 1.
(iii) the re e tion z 7! z is not a Mobius transformation but f (z ) = z has
all the points on R as its xed points. What are the xed points of
f (z ) = iz?
(iv) the fun tion f (z ) = iz=jz j, z 6= 0, has no xed points in C n f0g.
(v) every non- onstant real-valued ontinuous fun tion f : ( 1; 1) !
( 1; 1) has a xed point in ( 1; 1). However, a similar result does
not hold for fun tions f :
!
. For example  :
!
, jj = 1,
dened by
z 
 (z ) =
1 z
has no xed points in
.

5.27. Proposition. Every Mobius transformation T : C 1 ! C 1

has at most two xed points in C 1 unless T (z )  z . Equivalently, if a
Mobius transformation leaves three points in C 1 xed, then it is none
other than the identity fun tion.
242 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

Proof. Suppose that

az + b
T (z ) =
z + d
is su h that T (z ) 6 z . Then
() z 2 + (d a)z b = 0:
T (z ) = z
If 6= 0, then T ( d= ) = 1 and T (1) = a= , so neither d= nor 1 is a
xed point of T . So T has at most two xed points in this ase and they
are obtainable from the quadrati equation. If = 0, then
a b
T (z ) = z + :
d d
In this ase, T has 1 and b=(d a) are the only xed points.

5.28. Corollary. If S and T are two Mobius transformations whi h

agree at three distin t points of C 1 , then S = T .
Proof. Suppose that S (zj ) = T (zj ) for z1 ; z2 ; z3 in C 1 . Then,
(S 1 Æ T )(z 1 Æ S )(z
j ) = zj = (T j) for j = 1; 2; 3
and, by Proposition 5.27, S 1ÆT = I . Therefore,
T = (S Æ S 1) Æ T = S Æ (S 1 Æ T) = S Æ I = S:

The following result is a tually a reformulation of Proposition 5.27, but

we will provide an alternate proof be ause of its independent interest.

5.29. Proposition. Every Mobius transformation whi h xes 0; 1; 1

is ne essarily the identity map.
Proof. Suppose that T is given in the form (5.15), and T xes 0; 1; 1.
It follows that
(i) T (1) = 1 gives = 0 whereas T (0) = 0 gives b = 0
(ii) T (1) = 1 gives (a + b)=( + d) = 1 so that a = d, by (i).
We on lude that T is the identity map.

A Mobius transformation whi h has a unique xed point in C is alled

paraboli . If it has exa tly two xed points, then it is alled loxodromi .

5.30. Chara terizations of Mobius maps in terms of their xed

points. Let us hara terize a given Mobius transformation a ording to its
5.3 Fixed Points and Mobius Maps 243

xed points (or point). Let S (z ) 6 z be a Mobius map. It might be

onvenient to use the following equivalent form:
8
> a b
>
< z + = z +  if = 0
d d
(5.31) S (z ) = a

ad b 1

1

>
>
: = Æ if 6= 0;
2 z + d= z + d=
where (for onvenien e) we have used the notation
a b a ad b
 = ;  = ; = ( 6= 0); Æ = ( 6= 0):
d d 2
Case (i): If 1 2 Fix (S ), then a= = 1 (i.e. = 0), and so
(5.32) S (z ) = z + ; 0 6=  2 C ;  2 C :
If  = 1 (i.e. a = d), then S (z ) = z +  and 1 is the only xed point. If
 6= 1 (i.e. a 6= d), then 1 and z0 = =(1 ) = b=(d a) are the only
xed points. Observe that
S (z ) z0 = (z z0 ) + ( 1)z0 +  = (z z0 ):
Thus, S an be written in the form S (z ) z0 = (z z0), where  is a
omplex number whi h is neither 0 nor 1, and z0 is a xed point of S .
Case (ii): If 1 2= Fix (S ) (i.e. 6= 0), then S has at most two xed
points in C and are in fa t obtained from solving the xed point equation
S (z ) = z , i.e. z 2 + (d a)z b = 0: This gives
p
(a d)  D
z0 = ; D = (a d)2 + 4b = (a + d)2 4(ad b ):
2
Therefore, we need to deal with two ases, namely, D = 0 and D 6= 0. If
D = 0, then S has only one xed point, say z0 , and it is given by
a d a+d
z0 = ; i.e. z0 + d = :
2 2
So, we have ( z0 + d)2 = (a + d)2 =4 = ad b : Using this we an write
 
1 1
S (z ) S (z0 ) = Æ
z0 + d= z + d=
(ad b )(z z0 )
= (sin e Æ = (ad b )= 2)
( z0 + d)( z + d)
( z0 + d)(z z0)
= (sin e ( z0 + d)2 = ad b ):
z + d
244 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

Therefore, if 1 62 Fix (S ) and z0 2 Fix (S ) with (a + d)2 = 4(ad b ) then,

by the last equation, the Mobius transformation S redu es to the expression
(note that S (z0) = z0 )
1 z + d + (z z0 ) 1 1
= 0 = + = + k;
S (z ) z0 ( z0 + d)(z z0 ) z z0 z0 + d z z0
where k 6= 0: The dis ussion in Case (ii) gives
5.33. Theorem. If z0 is the oin ident xed point in C of w = S (z ),
then
1 1
= + k; k 6= 0:
S (z ) z0 z z0
This result gives
z z0
S (z ) = z0 + (k 6= 0)
1 + k(z z0 )
whi h is the general form of a paraboli transformation that xes the nite
point z0. Also, we note that, S (z ) takes 1 to z0 + 1=k and z0 1=k to 1,
whi h means that z0, f (1) and f 1 (1) are ollinear points in C .
Finally, suppose that D 6= 0, i.e. (a + d)2 6= 4(ad b ). Then S has
two distin t xed points in C , say z1 and z2 . In this ase, we may sele t a
Mobius transformation T (z ) su h that z1 7! 0 and z2 7! 1. This gives
z z1
w = T (z ) = :
z z2
Then, z = T 1(w) and f = T Æ S Æ T 1 has 0 and 1 as its only xed points.
Hen e, by Case (i) with z0 = 0, f (w) = w; or equivalently,
 
z z1
T (S (T 1(w))) = w; i.e. T (S (z )) =  ;
z z2
where  is neither 0 nor 1. As S (z1 ) = z1 and S (z2 ) = z2 , the last expression
would then omplete the proof of the following
5.34. Theorem. Every Mobius transformation S (z ) whi h has ex-
a tly two distin t xed points z1 and z2 in C 1 an be written as
8  
S (z ) z1 z z1
if z1 ; z2 2 C
>
< =
S (z ) z2 z z2
>
:
S (z ) z1 = (z z1 ) if z2 = 1;
where  2 C n f0; 1g.
This result may be obtained from another result on erning the invari-
an e property of the ross-ratio that will be dis ussed later, see Theorem
5.39.
5.4 Triples to Triples under Mobius Maps 245

5.4 Triples to Triples under Mobius Maps

The Mobius transformation given by (5.15) has four oeÆ ients a; b; ; d.
One of them an be adjusted without hanging the transformation. Indeed,
as ad b 6= 0, both a and annot be zero simultaneously and so, we an
rewrite the homogeneous expression of the oeÆ ients of T (z ) as
8
z + (b=a)
>
>
< if a 6= 0
( =a)z + (d=a)
T (z ) =
> (a= )z + (b= )
>
: if 6= 0:
z + (d= )
In either ase, T is a tually determined by only three onstants. Therefore,
it is natural to expe t that we require only `three degrees of freedom' to
determine T uniquely. As T maps a ir le onto another ir le and from ele-
mentary geometry we know that just three points determine a ir le. These
observations will be made pre ise in the following two results whi h imply
that three independent omplex parameters in C 1 are suÆ ient to des ribe
Mobius maps uniquely, namely, the image of three pres ribed points.

5.35. Theorem. Given three distin t points z1 ; z2; z3 in C 1 , there

exists a unique Mobius transformation T (z ) su h that
T (z1) = 0; T (z2) = 1; and T (z3) = 1:
Proof. To establish the existen e of su h a fun tion is easy. Regardless
of the hoi e of the onstant k, T : C 1 ! C 1 dened by
 
z z1
T (z ) = k
z z3
sends z1 7! 0 and z3 7! 1. Adjust the onstant k su h that T (z2) = 1.
This gives the desired map
(z z1 )(z2 z3 ) Az + B
(5.36) T (z ) = =: ;
(z z3 )(z2 z1 ) Cz + D
whenever z1; z2 ; z3 2 C . Note that
AD BC = (z2 z1 )(z2 z3 )(z1 z3 ) 6= 0:
How do we dene T if any one of the zj 's is not nite? If one of the zj 's
is 1, then the orresponding T (z ) is dened by the natural limiting value.
For example if z1 = 1, then we need to write T (z ) as
(z z1)(z2 z3 ) [(z=z1) 1℄(z2 z3 ) z2 z3
T (z ) = z lim
!1 = lim = :
1 (z z3)(z2 z1 ) z1 !1 (z z3 )[(z2 =z1) 1℄ z z3
246 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

Similarly, we dene
8z z3
>
>
2
if z1 = 1
>
> z
< z z3
z1
(5.37) T (z ) = if z2 = 1
>
> z z3
: z z1 if z3 = 1.
>
>
z2 z1
Thus T (z ) dened by (5.36) or (5.37) is the desired Mobius transformation
whi h takes z1 to 0, z2 to 1 and z3 to 1.
To omplete the proof, it remains to show that T is unique. Suppose
that S (z ) is a Mobius transformation satisfying the ondition
S (z1 ) = 0; S (z2 ) = 1; and S (z3 ) = 1:
It follows that f = S Æ T 1 is again a Mobius transformation and that f
xes 0; 1; 1. By Proposition 5.29, f (z ) = z whi h means that S = T .
Note that T 1 Æ S xes three distin t points z1 ; z2 ; z3 and so, by Propo-
sition 5.27, it is the identity transformation.
Theorem 5.35 immediately implies an important mapping property whi h
asserts that three distin t points uniquely determine a Mobius transforma-
tion.
5.38. Theorem. If fz1; z2 ; z3 g and fw1 ; w2 ; w3 g are two sets of triplets
of distin t points in C 1 , then there exists a unique Mobius transformation
taking zj to wj (j = 1; 2; 3) and that it is given by
(w w1 )(w2 w3 ) (z z1 )(z2 z3 )
= :
(w w3 )(w2 w1 ) (z z3 )(z2 z1 )
Proof. A ording to Theorem 5.35, there exists two Mobius transfor-
mations S and R su h that
S (z1) = R(w1 ) = 0; S (z2 ) = R(w2 ) = 1; and S (z3 ) = R(w3 ) = 1:
They are given by
(z z1 )(z2 z3 ) (w w1 )(w2 w3 )
S (z ) = and R(w) = ;
(z z3 )(z2 z1 ) (w w3 )(w2 w1 )
respe tively. If any one of the zj 's and wj 's is 1, then the above are
formally treated as a limiting ase. Now the existen e of an f sending zj
to wj (j = 1; 2; 3) is lear, as the Mobius transformation f = R 1 Æ S does
the job.
As for the uniqueness, suppose that there are two Mobius transforma-
tions, say f and g, whi h enjoy the stated property; that is (see Figure 5.9),
f (zj ) = g(zj ) = wj for j = 1; 2; 3: Then it follows that R Æ g Æ S 1 xes
0; 1; 1 and so it is the identity map. Thus, g = R 1 Æ S , whi h proves that
f is unique.
5.5 The Cross-Ratio and its Invarian e Property 247

S −1
0 z1
1 z2
∞ g◦ z3
S −1
R g
◦g
◦S − 0 w1
1
1 R w2
∞ w3

Figure 5.9: Uniqueness of f = R 1

Æ S.

5.5 The Cross-Ratio and its Invarian e Property

For the set of three distin t points z1 ; z2 ; z3 of C 1 , the expression
(z z1 )(z2 z3 ) (z z1 )=(z z3 )
=
(z z3 )(z2 z1 ) (z2 z1 )=(z2 z3)
is alled the ross-ratio of the four points z; z1; z2 ; z3 and is denoted by
(z; z1; z2 ; z3 ), where if one of the four points is 1, the fa tors ontaining
it should be omitted (see the limiting form in (5.37)). Considering z as a
variable point and treating the three distin t points z1 ; z2 ; z3 as xed om-
plex numbers in C 1 , we obtain that the ross-ratio (z; z1; z2 ; z3 ) is pre isely
the Mobius transformation whi h sends z1 ; z2 ; z3 into 0; 1; 1, respe tively.
In view of the uniqueness of the map as des ribed in Theorem 5.35, the
ross-ratio is well dened. Also, we observe that
(z; z1 ; z2; z3 ) = (z1 ; z; z3; z2 ) = (z2 ; z3 ; z; z1) = (z3 ; z2; z1 ; z ):
Note that there are 4! = 24 ross-ratios orresponding to the permutations
performed on the four points z; z1; z2 ; z3 . But it an be easily seen that
only six of these are dierent. In addition, we stress that a ross-ratio
(z4 ; z1 ; z2 ; z3) asso iated with four distin t points z4; z1 ; z2 ; z3 in C 1 is a
nite quantity dierent from 0 and 1.
The invarian e of ross-ratios under Mobius transformations is the sub-
je t of our next result whi h provides a way to represent a Mobius trans-
formation that arries three distin t points to pres ribed image points w1 ,
w2 and w3 .

5.39. Theorem. The ross-ratio is invariant under Mobius transfor-

mations.
Proof. Let w = S (z ) be a Mobius transformation dened by (5.31).
Let fz1; z2 ; z3 g be a set of three distin t points in C 1 , and let fw1 ; w2 ; w3 g
248 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

be their images under this map, i.e. wj = S (zj ) for j = 1; 2; 3. Now, for
ea h j = 1; 2; 3, we have
8
>
< (z zj ) if = 0
w wj = Æ(z zj )
>
: if 6= 0;
(z + d= )(zj + d= )
where  = a=d and Æ = (ad b )= 2 . Therefore, it follows easily that
(w w1 )(w2 w3 )
(w; w1 ; w2 ; w3 ) =
(w w3 )(w2 w1 )
(z z1 )(z2 z3 )
=
(z z3 )(z2 z1 )
= (z; z1 ; z2; z3 )
as asserted.
5.40. Example. Let us nd the Mobius transformation whi h sends
0 to 1, i to 0 and 1 to 1. To do this, for z 2= f0; i; 1g, we may appeal to
z 0 (w 1)(0 + 1)
(z; 0; i; 1) = (w; 1; 0; 1); i.e. =
i 0 (w + 1)(0 1)
and so, we arrive at the formula w = (1 + iz )=(1 iz ): There is a dire t
approa h to problems of this type. Sin e i 7! 0, we an normalize a to be
1 and write the Mobius transformation in the form
z i
w= :
z + d
The onditions 0 7! 1 and 1 7! 1 yield
i 1
1= and 1 = ; i.e. d = i and = 1:
d
The desired formula follows. 
5.41. Example. To demonstrate Theorem 5.34, we onsider w =
T (z ) = 1=z . Then the xed points of T (z ) are z1 = 1 and z2 = 1. Note
that w1 = T (z1) = 1, w2 = T (z2 ) = 1. Sele t the third point z3 distin t
from z1 and z2 su h that T (z3) 6= 1. Be ause 1 7! 1, 1 7! 1 and
z3 7! w3 , by the invarian e property of the ross-ratio,
[w; 1; w3 ; 1℄ = [z; 1; z3; 1℄
so that
 
(w 1)(w3 + 1) (z 1)(z3 + 1) w 1 z 1
= ; i.e. =
(w + 1)(w3 1) (z + 1)(z3 1) w+1 z+1
5.5 The Cross-Ratio and its Invarian e Property 249

for some  2 C . To nd , substitute z = i (so that w = i) into this

equation. This gives  = 1. Note that the hoi e z = 0, and w = 1
qui kly gives  = 1. 
5.42. Remark. Suppose that z; z1; z2 ; z3 are four distin t points in
C 1 and one of them is 1, say z1 . Then,
z z 1
(z; 1; z2; z3 ) is real () 2 3 = for some real t
z z3 t
() (1 t)z3 + tz2 = z
showing that, (z; 1; z2; z3 ) is real i z; 1; z2 and z3 are on a line through
1.
Next, we re all that the equation arg(z b) =  (a onstant) denes
a half straight line issued from the point b 2 C . If a 2 C also lies on this
line, then arg(a b) =  and therefore,
z b
= t; or z = ta + (1 t)b, for some real t:
a b
This observation implies that if z1; z2 ; z3 are distin t and lie on a line L
in C , then we see that the quantity (z2 z3 )=(z2 z1 ) is a real number.
Consequently,
1 z1 =z
(z; z1 ; z2; z3 ) is real () is real
1 z3 =z
() either z = 1 or zz zz1 = 1 1s for some s 2 R
3
() either z = 1 or z = sz1 + (1 s)z3 :
The last impli ation learly shows that if we assume that z1 ; z2 ; z3 are
distin t and lie on a line L in C , then the ross-ratio (z; z1; z2 ; z3) is a real
number i either z = 1 or z is on the line L. 
5.43. Theorem. The four distin t points z; z1; z2 ; z3 in C 1 all lie on
a ir le or on a line i their ross-ratio (z; z1 ; z2 ; z3 ) is a real number.
Proof. Suppose that z; z1; z2 , and z3 are four distin t points in C 1 and
w = T (z ) = (z; z1; z2 ; z3 ):
As (w; 0; 1; 1) = w, the last equation is equivalent to writing
(w; 0; 1; 1) = (z; z1; z2 ; z3 ):
But we know that T maps generalized ir les into generalized ir les and
the points 0; 1; 1 are ollinear points so that the real axis in the w-plane
is the image of the line or ir le through the points z1; z2 ; z3 , respe tively.
Therefore, the point z is on this line or ir le i w = T (z ) is real. In other
words, (z1 ; z2 ; z3 ; z4 ) 2 R i z1 ; z2 ; z3 , and z4 lie on a generalized ir le.
250 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

5.6 Conformal Self-maps of Disks and Half-planes

Our results in this se tion mainly will be of the following type: Given
two simply onne ted domains
and
0 , onstru t an analyti onformal
mapping from
onto
0 . An analyti map f :
!
0 is said to be
homeomorphi if it has an analyti inverse map g :
0 !
, i.e. f Æ g =
I
and g Æ f = I
0 . In addition, if
=
0 then we say that f is an
automorphism of
. More pre isely, a onformal self-map of a domain

is an analyti fun tion from

into
that is one-to-one and onto. Every
onformal self-map of a domain is alled an automorphism of that domain.
We denote by Aut (
), the set of all automorphisms of
. The set Aut (
)
forms what is alled a \group", with omposition as the group operation.
The identity element is the identity map given by I (z ) = z .
5.44. Mappings of half-planes onto disks. There are a number of
ways to hara terize all onformal mappings of the upper half-plane H +
onto the (open) unit disk
and the extended real line R1 onto the unit
ir le 
.
Suppose that  2 R and  2 C are xed numbers su h that Im  > 0.
Then, it is a simple exer ise to see that f , dened by
 
z 
w = f (z ) = ei ;
z 
maps H + onto
and R1 onto 
. Indeed,
jwj < 1 () jz  j2 jz  j2 > 0
() 2Re (z (  )) = 4(Im  )(Im z ) > 0:
For example, for  = i, we see that g(z ) = ei ((z i)=(z + i)) is a mapping
of H + onto
. Consequently, as (z ) = ei=2 z maps the right half-plane
fz : Re z > 0g onto H + , the omposition g Æ  given by
 
z 1
(g Æ )(z ) = g(ei=2 z ) = ei
z+1
maps the right half-plane fz : Re z > 0g onto the unit disk
and the
imaginary axis onto the unit ir le jwj = 1. We are a tually interested in
the following:
5.45. Problem. Do all one-to-one, onto analyti maps of H + to

pre isely have the form of f for some  2 H + with some  2 R?
The answer is yes. First, let us give a dire t proof. Consider
az + b
f (z ) = ; ad b 6= 0:
z + d
5.6 Conformal Self-maps of Disks and Half-planes 251

First, we re all that f (1) = 1 i = 0. Sin e we require a map whi h

takes R1 into 
, we must have 6= 0 (and hen e a 6= 0). Consequently,
we write  
a z + b=a
f (z ) = :
z + d=
To obtain the expli it map, we translate our requirements into the equations
   
jf (1)j = 1 = jf (0)j; i.e.   = 1 =  db  :
a  
(5.46)

Note that both b and d annot be zero, sin e jb=dj = 1. Now, sin e ja= j = 1,
we an write a= = ei for some  2 R so that
 
z 
f (z ) = ei
z 
with  = d= and  = b=a: Moreover, jf (1)j = 1 gives
j1  j = j1 j ; i.e. 1 + j j2 2Re  = 1 + jj2 2Re :
Sin e jj = j j, by (5.46), the last equation yields Re  = Re  . Therefore,
either  =  or  = : Consequently,  =  as the alternate is not possible
be ause otherwise ad b = 0. Thus, the desired map f turns out to be of
the form  
z 
f (z ) = ei
z 
for some  2 R. Finally, we note that f ( ) = 0 2
. Therefore, if Im  > 0,
i.e.  2 H + , then we have proved the following result.
5.47. Theorem. All onformal mappings whi h map H+ onto the
unit disk
su h that  2 H + maps onto 0 are given by
 
z 
(5.48) f (z ) = ei
z 
for some  2 R. The inverse mapping f 1 :
! H + of f is given by
ei w
f 1 (w) = :
ei w
Using this result, we an nd the most general Mobius transformation
sending the unit disk
onto itself (see also Theorem 5.59). We re all that
every Mobius transformation is one-to-one on C 1 and the inverse fun tion
exists and is also one-to-one on C 1 .  Observe
2
that f dened by (5.48)
belongs to H(C n f g). On e again, as z 
  jz  j2 = 4(Im  )(Im z );
it follows that
\ jf (z )j < 1 () (Im  ) (Im z ) > 0" and \ jf (z )j = 1 () (Im  ) (Im z ) = 0":
252 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations
 
w−β
w = g(z) = zeiπ ζ = f (w) = eiθ w−β̄

−1 1

φ(z) = (f ◦ g)(z)

Figure 5.10: Mapping of lower half-plane onto unit disk.

Thus, it is often interesting to study the mapping properties between lines

or ir les.

5.49. Corollary. All onformal mappings whi h map the lower half-
plane H = fz 2 C : Im z < 0g onto the unit disk
su h that b 2 H
maps onto 0 are given by (see Figure 5.10)
 
z b
f (z ) = ei ;  2 R:
z b
5.50. Theorem. All onformal mappings whi h map the right half-
plane fz 2 C : Re z > 0g onto the unit disk
su h that (Re > 0) maps
onto 0 are given by
 
z
f (z ) = ei ;  2 R:
z+

Proof of this theorem is easy if one pro eeds exa tly as in Theorem
5.47. Alternatively, if (z ) = iz and f is as in Theorem 5.47, then the
omposition (f Æ )(z ) gives the desired map.

5.51. Example. Choosing  = 0 and  = i in (5.48) we have

z i
(5.52) w = f (z ) = ;
z+i
whi h is alled a Cayley mapping of H + onto
and the inverse is given by
   
1+w 1+w
f 1 (w) = i = ei=2 :
1 w 1 w
(i) By rotation, we see that the fun tion g given by
1+w
g(w) = e i=2 f 1(w) =
1 w
5.6 Conformal Self-maps of Disks and Half-planes 253

y v u≤v

v
=
i z−i
C− f (z) =

u
C+ z+i

−1 D 1 x u

u
=
−i

−
v
u≤v

Figure 5.11: Image of D under Cayley map.

denes an analyti map of the unit disk
onto the right half-plane
f : Re  > 0g. Further, the image of jwj = r (r 2 (0; 1)) under
 = g(w) may be omputed as the ir le
 

 1 + r2  2r
2 = :
 1 r  1 r2
Thus, jwj < r for r 2 (0; 1) is mapped onto the interior of this ir le.
On the other hand, if r 2 (1; 1) then the image of jwj < r is seen to
be the domain given by
 

 1 + r2  2r
> :
 1 r2  j1 r2 j
What is the image of 1 < jwj < r under  = g(w)?
(ii) Consider the two ir les dened by
C+ = fz : jz aj = Rg and C = fz : jz + aj = Rg;
p
where a > 0 is xed and R = 1 + a2 . Clearly, these two ir les
interse t at z = i and at z = i. Set
D+ = int C+ =
(a; R); D = int C =
( a; R)
and let D = D+ \ D denote their ommon region of interse tion, see
Figure 5.11. Let us nd the image of D under the Cayley map given
by (5.52). Observe the following:
 f ( i) = 1 and so, ea h ir le that passes through the point
z = i is mapped onto a straight line. In parti ular, the image
of ea h of the ir les C+ and C is a straight line
 these two straight lines ne essarily pass through the origin, sin e
both the ir les pass through z = i, where f (i) = 0
254 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

 f (i ) = (1  )=(1+  ) > 0 whenever 1 <  < 1. In parti ular,

the open verti al line segment onne ting i and i is mapped
onto the positive real axis (0; 1).
Finally, by (5.52), it follows that
   
 1+w 
jz aj T R () i
 1 w a TR
() jw(a + i) (a i)j2 T R2 j1 wj2
() Re [w(R2 (a + i)2 )℄ T 0 (sin e R2 = 1 + a2 )
() Re [w(1 ia)℄ T 0
() Re [we i ℄ T 0 (with Arg (1 + ia) = ):
Similarly, jz + aj T R () Re [w(1 + ia)℄ T 0 () Re [wei ℄ T 0: Now,
it is lear that the domain D is mapped onto the innite wedge bounded
within the two lines Arg w =  and Arg w = . For instan e, if a = 1
then Arg (1 + ia) = =4 = Arg (1 ia). 
5.53. Example. Consider w = f (z ) = (i z )=(i + z ): Then we have
(i) f maps the unit disk
onto the right half-plane fw : Re w > 0g
(ii) f maps the upper half-plane fz : Im z > 0g onto the unit disk

(iii) f maps the open rst quadrant fz : Im z > 0; Re z > 0g onto the
upper semi-disk fw : jwj < 1; Im w > 0g:
Indeed, we see that

() iz = 11 + ww = 1 jwj1j + w2j2iIm w
1 + iz 2
w=
1 iz
so that
 jz j < 1 () jw 1j < jw + 1j () Re w > 0
 Im z > 0 () Re ( iz ) > 0 () jwj < 1
 Im z > 0 and Re z > 0 () jwj < 1 and Im w > 0: 
5.54. Example. Let us try to nd a map whi h takes the ir le
fz : jz 1j = 1g onto the line fw = u + iv : v = ug, see Figure 5.12.
Our problem does not insist whi h points on the ir le should map whi h
points on the line. Sin e a ir le is to map to a line, we must have 6= 0
and so, we an normalize to be 1. This suggests to onsider the Mobius
transformation in the form
az + b
f (z ) = :
z+d
5.6 Conformal Self-maps of Disks and Half-planes 255

y v
z
−i3π/4


f (z) = e
1+i z−2 1+i

O 2x O u
w0 = e−iπ/4
z0 = 1

Figure 5.12: Mapping from fz : jz 1j = 1g into the line fw = u + iv : v = ug.

It follows that our requirements translate into the equations (for example)
by onsidering 0 7! 0, 2 7! 1, and 1 + i 7! 1 + i:
b
0 = f (0) = ;
d
1 = f (2) = 22a++db ; f (1 + i) = 1 + i:
The rst two equations show that b = 0 and 2 + d = 0. So
az
f (z ) = :
z 2
Finally, the last requirement f (1+ i) = 1+ i yields that a = 1+ i = e3i=4 :
Hen e, the desired map is given by
 
z
(5.55) f (z ) = e3i=4 :
z 2
Note that f (1) = 1 i and therefore, be ause of the prin iple of onformal
map (preservation of sense and magnitude), the map f given by (5.55) takes
the disk fz : jz 1j < 1g onto the half-plane fw : Im w < Re wg: 
5.56. Automorphisms of the unit disk. Let  2 R; z0 2
be xed
and  be given by  
i z z0
(5.57) (z ) = e :
1 z0z
Note that  is one-to-one in C n f1=z0 g. If jz j = 1, then z 1 = z so that
j(z )j = 1:
In addition, sin e every Mobius transformation maps a ir le onto a
ir le or a straight line,  must map the unit ir le jz j = 1 onto itself. Also,
(z0 ) = 0 and (
) =
, be ause
j(z )j < 1 () jz z0 j2 < j1 zz0 j2
() (1 jz0 j2 )(1 jz j2 ) > 0
() jz j < 1 (sin e jz 0 j < 1)
256 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

so that
must be mapped onto itself by (z ). Now  has the inverse given
by  
1 i w + ei z0
 (w) = e :
1 + e i z0 w
whi h has a similar form as  and so,  1 shares similar properties as that
of . Organizing these observations together, we an assert that for ea h
z0 with jz0 j < 1 and  2 R,  is a bije tive self mapping of the unit disk
.
This result raises the following
5.58. Problem. Do all one-to-one, onto analyti maps of
to itself
pre isely have the form of  for some jz0 j < 1 with some  2 R?
The answer to this problem is yes (see also Example 5.81 and Theorem
6.45). The question of mapping the upper half-plane H + onto itself an
also be treated easily (see Theorem 5.69).
5.59. Theorem. All onformal mappings whi h map the unit disk

onto itself and the point z0 , jz0 j < 1, onto 0 must be of the form (5:57) for
some  2 R. Equivalently,
 
z z0
Aut (
) = ei : z 2
; 0    2 :
1 z0z 0
Proof. We start with the Mobius transformation
az + b
T (z ) = (a; b; ; d 2 C ; ad b 6= 0):
z + d
For ea h  2 ( ; ℄, the ondition jT (ei )j = 1 implies that jaei + bj2 =
j ei + dj2 : That is
(5.60) jaj2 + jbj2 + 2Re (abei ) = j j2 + jdj2 + 2Re ( dei )
whi h must be true for ea h  in ( ; ℄. Choosing  = 0; , it follows that
jaj2 + jbj2 + 2Re (ab) = j j2 + jdj2 + 2Re ( d)
and
jaj2 + jbj2 2Re (ab) = j j2 + jdj2 2Re ( d):
Adding the last two equations, we nd that jaj2 + jbj2 = j j2 + jdj2 so that
(5.61) jaj2 j j2 = jdj2 jbj2
and therefore, by (5.60), we get that
Re (abei ) = Re ( dei ) for ea h  2 ( ; ℄:
5.6 Conformal Self-maps of Disks and Half-planes 257

Again, hoosing  = 0 or , and  = =2, we see that

(5.62) ab = d:
Now using the two equalities (5.61) and (5.62), we nd that

jwj2 1 = jaz + jb zj + dj zj2 + dj

2 2

(jaj2 j j2 )jz j2 (jdj2 jbj2 ) + 2Re (z (ab d))

=
j z + dj2
(jz j 1)(jaj j j )
2 2 2
=
j z + dj2
and therefore the requirement that \jz j < 1 ) jwj < 1" gives rise to the
inequality
0 < jaj2 j j2 ; i.e. j j < jaj
(Note that a annot be zero, but ould be zero). Therefore, from (5.61),
we also have d 6= 0 (but b ould be zero). Thus, by (5.62), we write
 
b
(5.63) = = k; say,
a d
with jkj < 1 and so
 2
1
 2
 
  =1
b
  ; i.e.
jaj2 j j2 = jdj2 jbj2
a d jaj2 jdj2
so that by (5.61), we have jaj = jdj whi h, by (5.61), again gives jbj = j j.
Thus, we an write a=d = ei for some  so that
 
a z + b=a z z0
T (z ) =
= ei
d 1 + ( =d)z 1 z0 z
where, by (5.61) and the fa t that jaj = jdj,
b ba d  
z0 = = :
a jaj2 = jdj2 = d
By (5.61), we also observe that if = 0, then b must be zero sin e a 6= 0.
In that ase, we have S (z ) = ei z: On the other hand, if 6= 0 then b 6= 0
and therefore,
b b b
z0 =
a
=
a

= k ; i.e. jz0 j = jkj < 1:

There are several alternate proofs of Theorem 5.59, whi h gives a har-
a terization of all onformal self mappings of the unit disk
. For a better
258 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

understanding on these te hniques, we mention two more su h proofs. The

se ond one follows from the prin iple of symmetry (see Example 5.81). The
third proof is a onsequen e of S hwarz' lemma (see Theorem 6.45).
5.64. Example. Let us dis uss the question of nding the image
of the open upper semi-unit disk
= fz : jz j < 1; Im z > 0g under the
Mobius map dened by
a z
(5.65) w = a (z ) = :
1 az
In our dis ussion, we restri t our attention to a spe ial situation a = i,
1 <  6= 0 < 1; and pro eed to dis uss the desired mapping properties.
Note that
a z a w (a w)(1 aw) a w + ajwj2 a2 w
w=
1 az
() z=
1 aw
=
j1 awj2 = j1 awj2
and jz j < 1 () jwj < 1. With a = i,
Im z > 0 () Im [a w + ajwj2 a2 w℄ > 0
() j"wj2 (1 + 2 )Im w +  > 0 !#
  2  2
 1 + 2  1 + 2
()  w i
2

 2
1 >0
"     #
 1 + 2 2 1 2 2
()  w i
2  2
>0
8  
>  1 + 2  1 2
< w
>
>  i > if 0 <  < 1
2  2
()   
>
>
> 
: w
1 + 2  1 2
i  < if 1 <  < 0:
2  2jj
For example, if a = i=2 then (see Figure 5.13) 5  = 1=2 so that the
region Im z > 0 under i=2 (z ) orresponds to the set of points given by
fw : jw (5=4)ij > 3=4g :
Thus, the image of the open upper semi-disk fz : jz j < 1; Im z > 0g under
i=2 (z ) is the shaded region in Figure 5.13 and the image of the lower semi-
disk fz : jz j < 1; Im z < 0g under the same map is also indi ated in Figure
5.13. Clearly, the image of the open segment ( 1; 1) under i=2 (z ) is the
open ar of the ir le jw (5=4)ij = 3=4 indi ated in the same gure. What
happens when  = 1? 
5.66. Example. Let us start onstru ting a bije tive analyti map
 taking the upper semi-unit disk D = fz : jz j < 1; Im z > 0g onto the
5.6 Conformal Self-maps of Disks and Half-planes 259
y v
2i
5
4
i

3
4
i
−1 1 x −1 1 u

Figure 5.13: Mapping from
under i=2 (z ) = (i 2z )=(2 + iz ).

unit disk
, leaving the points 1; 1; i xed, for example. Can there be a
Mobius transformation arrying D onto
? As
 
1 + z (1 + z )(1 z ) 1 jz j2 2Im z
f (z ) =
1 z
=
j1 z j2 = j1 z j2 + i j1 z j2 ;
f maps jz j < 1 onto Re w > 0, and Im z > 0 onto Im w > 0. This observa-
tion implies that (be ause f : C 1 ! C 1 is a bije tive onformal map) the
upper semi-unit disk maps onto the open rst quadrant
,

= fw : Im w > 0; Re w > 0g:
This also follows from the fa t that
1+x iy
z = x () f (x) = ; and jz j = 1 () f (z ) =
1 x j1 z j2 :
If we let g(z ) = z 2 , then g(
) = H + = fw : Im w > 0g. We know that
z i
h(z ) =
z+i
is an analyti bije tion of Im z > 0 onto the unit disk
. Thus, the om-
position
(1 + z )2 i(1 z )2
(z ) = (h Æ g Æ f )(z ) =
(1 + z )2 + i(1 z )2
transforms the (open) upper semi-unit disk
\ H + onformally onto the
unit disk
, leaving the points 1; 1; i xed, see Figure 5.14. This idea an
be used to show that the transformation
(1 + z n )2 i(1 z n)2
(5.67) (z ) = ; n 2 N;
(1 + z n )2 + i(1 z n)2
maps the domain fz : jz j < 1; 0 < Arg z < =ng onformally onto the unit
disk
. What are its xed points? Are all points z su h that z n = 1 or
z n = 1 xed points, in parti ular? 
260 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

i 1+z
f (z) = 1−z

α
−1
φ = h◦g◦f O 1 O
g(w) = w2
−i

ζ −i
h(ζ ) = ζ +i
2α
O

Figure 5.14: Conformal map of upper semi-unit disk onto the unit disk.

5.68. Automorphisms of the upper half-plane H + . There are sev-

eral dierent proofs of the following result and all these proofs follow if we
pro eed with the idea of the proof of the results on erning automorphisms
of disks.
5.69. Theorem. Every Mobius transformation of the form
az + b
T (z ) =
z + d
is a onformal self-map of the upper half-plane H + i a; b; ; d are real
numbers satisfying the ondition ad b > 0. Equivalently,
 
az + b
Aut (H + ) = : a; b; ; d 2 R; ad b > 0 :
z + d
Proof. The required map should take the real axis in the z -plane onto
the real axis in the w-plane. As every Mobius map is one-to-one, the
desired map should arry three distin t real numbers on the x-axis onto
three distin t real numbers on the u-axis. Then there always exist three
distin t real numbers x1 ; x2 ; x3 su h that 0; 1; 1 are their images. By the
denition of the ross-ratio and its invarian e property (see Theorem 5.39),
we get
(z x1 )(x2 x3 )
(5.70) (T (z ); 0; 1; 1) = (z; x1 ; x2 ; x3 ); i.e. T (z ) =
(z x3 )(x2 x1 )
(If one of the xj 's is 1, then use the limit pro ess). Sin e the required map
5.7 Prin iple of Symmetry and Mobius Maps 261

L a∗

a
C
a
z0
a∗

Figure 5.15: Symmetri with respe t to a line/ ir le.

must send H + onto itself, Im T (i) > 0. This gives

   
i x1 x2 x3 x x x x
Im T (i) = Im = 1 23 2 3 > 0
i x3 x2 x1 1 + x3 x2 x1
whi h shows that (x1 x3 )(x2 x3 )(x2 x1 ) > 0. Now, rewriting (5.70)
in the form
az + b
T (z ) =
z + d
we see that
ad b = (x2 x3 )[(x2 x1 )( x3 )℄ [(x2 x3 )( x1 )℄(x2 x1 )
= (x2 x3 )(x2 x1 )(x1 x3 ) > 0
and this ompletes the proof.

5.7 Prin iple of Symmetry and Mobius Maps

Let L be a line in C . Two points a and a in C are said to be symmetri with
respe t to L if L is the perpendi ular bise tor of [a; a ℄{the line segment
onne ting a and a . Clearly, every ir le or line passing through both a
and a interse t the line L at a right angle, see Figure 5.15. For example,
two points z and z  are symmetri with respe t to the real axis pre isely
when z  = z . Similarly, two points z and z  are symmetri with respe t
to the imaginary axis pre isely i z  = z. When we do say two points
z and z  are symmetri with respe t to the line ft(1 i) : t 2 Rg? A
Mobius transformation w = T (z ) with real oeÆ ients maps the real axis
in the z -plane onto the real axis in the w-plane and, z and z onto the
points w and w, respe tively, whi h are again symmetri with respe t to
the real axis. This observation motivates us to formulate the denition of
symmetri points with respe t to a ir le in C 1 .
Suppose that K is a ir le jz z0 j = r in C . Two points a and a are
said to be symmetri with respe t to the ir le K (or inverse points with
262 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

a ∗ = Jk (a)

a 2
R r
R
z0

Figure 5.16: The re e tion/inversion map JK .

respe t to the ir le K ) i
(5.71) ja z0 j ja z0 j = r2 and Arg (a z0 ) = Arg (a z0 ):
That is, a and a lie on the same ray emanating from the enter z0 of
K , and the produ t of their distan es from the enter of the ir le K is
equal to the square of the radius of the ir le. If we let ja z0 j = R, then
a = z0 + Rei for some  2 R so that (5.71) is equivalent to
r2 ei
a = z0 + Rei and a z0 = :
R
That is,
r2 r2 (a z0 )
(5.72) (a z 0 )(a z0 ) = r2 or a = z0 + = z0 +
a z0 ja z0 j2 :
It follows from (5.71) that if a approa hes the ir le, then a also approa hes
the ir le. In other words, a = a i a 2 K . If a approa hes the enter z0 ,
then the point a moves away to innity. This fa t is expressed by saying
that z0 and 1 are symmetri with respe t to the ir le. This allows us to
dene the symmetri point a of a with respe t to the ir le K in C by the
map JK : C 1 ! C 1 :
8
> r2
<z
>
0+ if a 6= z0 ; 1
(5.73) a = JK (a) = a z0
>
> 1 if a = z0
:
z0 if a = 1:
The map des ribed by (5.73) is often alled the re e tion/inversion in the
ir le K = fz : jz z0 j = rg or re e tion with respe t to the ir le, and
the pair of points a and a = JK (a) are said to be symmetri with respe t
to K , see Figure 5.16. For example, if we let z0 = 0 then K = fz : jz j = rg
5.7 Prin iple of Symmetry and Mobius Maps 263

and so, we have

r2
JK (0) = 1; JK (1) = 0; and JK (a) = for a 6= 0; 1
a
Then, we all the map a 7! r =a, a re e tion/inversion in the ir le jz j = r.
2
For r = 1, this gives a = 1=a and so a and 1=a are symmetri points with
respe t to the unit ir le jz j = 1. In parti ular, 0 and 1 are symmetri
points with respe t to the unit ir le jz j = 1.
Moreover, it is easy to see that if K = L [ f1g for a line L with the
equation
z + z + = 0 (0 6=  2 C ; 2 R);
then the re e tion map JK in a line K in C 1 is obtained by repla ing z
and z respe tively by a and a :
( 
(5.74) JK (a) = a if a 6= 1
 
1 if a = 1:
By (5.73) and (5.74), JK xes every point of K and JK Æ JK is the identity
transformation of C 1 so that JK 1 = JK . If we let M to be the set of all
transformations of the form
Az + B
(A; B; C; D 2 C ; AD BC 6= 0);
Cz + D
then we note that every re e tion JK dened by (5.73) and (5.74) belongs
to M . Note that
M = f(T Æ J )(z ) : T 2 M and J (z ) = zg;
where M denotes the set of all Mobius transformations. The set M shares
many properties of M in ommon.
For example, if C is a ir le in C 1 , then, for f 2 M , f (C ) is again a
ir le in C 1 and the omposition of a pair of two transformations in M
produ es a Mobius transformation.
5.75. Theorem. (Symmetry Prin iple for Mobius Maps) Let T be
a Mobius transformation and K be a ir le in C 1 with K 0 = T (K ): Then
(5.76) T Æ JK = JK 0 Æ T; i.e. T (JK (a)) = JK 0 (T (a)) for ea h a 2 C 1 :
In parti ular, T maps any pair of symmetri points with respe t to K onto
a pair of symmetri points with respe t to the image ir le K 0 under T .
Proof. Consider the auxiliary fun tion g dened by g = JK 0 Æ T Æ JK :
Then g, being a omposition of Mobius maps, is a Mobius map and so, g
is one-to-one on C 1 . Also, we know that
JK (a) = a and JK 0 (b) = b for ea h a 2 K and b 2 K 0
264 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

whi h gives that T (z ) = g(z ) for ea h z 2 K . The uniqueness prin iple

shows that g = T so that
T = JK 0 Æ T Æ JK ; i.e. T Æ JK 1 = JK 0 Æ T:
Sin e JK is its own inverse, (5.76) follows.
Now, we let a and a be two points that are symmetri with respe t to
the ir le K . Then, by (5.76), the image points b = T (a) and b = T (a )
satisfy
JK 0 (b) = JK 0 (T (a)) = T (JK (a)) = T (a ) = b
so that b and b are symmetri with respe t to the image ir le T (K ).
5.77. Remark. Theorem 5.75 may also be proved by using the fol-
lowing two fa ts:
(i) Two points are symmetri with respe t to a ir le in C 1 if every ir le
ontaining the points interse t the given ir le orthogonally.
(ii) Mobius transformations are onformal and preserve ir les, and so
preserve the orthogonality; hen e they preserve the symmetry ondi-
tion. 
5.78. Theorem. Let K be a ir le passing through three points in
C 1 . Then the re e tion JK satises the relation
(5.79) (JK (a); z1 ; z2 ; z3 ) = (a; z1 ; z2; z3 )
for a 6= z1 ; z2 ; z3 . Conversely, if
(5.80) (a ; z1 ; z2 ; z3) = (a; z1 ; z2 ; z3 )
then a and a in C 1 are symmetri with respe t to the ir le K .
Proof. Dene T (z ) = (z; z1; z2 ; z3). Then T maps z1 to 0, z2 to 1,
and z3 to 1, and so T (K ) = R [ f1g. By the invarian e property of the
ross-ratio, one has
T (JK (a)) = (JK (a); z1 ; z2 ; z3 ):
If a 2 K then, as JK xes ea h point of K and T (K ) is real, we have
T (JK (a)) = (a; z1 ; z2 ; z3 ) = (a; z1 ; z2; z3 ):
If a 62 K then, by the prin iple of symmetry, T (a) and T (JK (a)) are sym-
metri with respe t to the ir le T (K ) = R [ f1g. That is, by (5.76), we
have
T (JK (a)) = T (a) = T (a)
whi h is indeed (5.79).
5.7 Prin iple of Symmetry and Mobius Maps 265

Conversely, suppose that a and a are a pair of points in C 1 su h that

(5.80) holds.
Case (i): Let K = L [f1g for a straight line L in C . Then, we hoose
z3 = 1 and the ondition (5.80) gives
a z1 a z1
=
z2 z1 z2 z1
and so, ja z1 j = ja z1 j. But, sin e z1 is arbitrary, it follows that a and
a are equidistant from the line L. Moreover,
    
a z1 a z1
Im = Im
z2 z1 z2 z1
showing that a and a lie in dierent half-planes determined by L. This is
obviously a re e tion with respe t to L.
Case (ii): Let K = fz : jz z0 j = rg in C and let K pass through
z1 ; z2 ; z3 2 C , i.e. jzj z0 j = r for j = 1; 2; 3. A symmetri use of the
invarian e property of the ross-ratio under Mobius transformation gives
(a; z1 ; z2; z3 ) = (a z0 ; z1z0 ; z2 z0; z3 z0) (f (z ) = z z0 )
 
r2 r2 r2
= a z0 ; ; ;
z1 z0 z2 z0 z3 z0
((zj z0 )(zj z0 ) = r2 )
   
r2 r2
= ;z z ;z z ;z z f (z ) =
a z0 1 0 2 0 3 0 z
 
r2
= z0 + ;z ;z ;z :
a z0 1 2 3
Hen e, in view of (5.80) (as the ross-ratio (z; z1 ; z2; z3 ) = f (z ) is univalent
in C 1 ), we nd that
r2
a = z0 + or (a z0)(a z 0 ) = r2 :
a z0
This means that a and a are symmetri with respe t to K .
A pra ti al appli ation of the symmetry prin iple is to nd a Mobius
transformation w = T (z ) whi h maps a given ir le onto another ir le.
Next we present an example; many similar problems may be solved using
the same idea.
5.81. Example. Suppose we wish to present an alternate proof of
Theorem 5.59 (see also Theorem 6.45). To do this we onsider (z ), a
general Mobius transformation, whi h maps the unit disk
onto itself.
Then there must exist a point a 2
su h that (a) = 0. If a and a
266 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

are symmetri with respe t to the unit ir le 
, then (a) and (a ) are
symmetri with respe t to (
) = 
. As (a) = 0, we have (a ) = 1
(be ause 0 and 1 are symmetri with respe t to jwj = 1). As aa = 1, we
have a = 1=a so that (z ) has the form
 
z a
w = (z ) = 
1 az
for some  2 C . Also, as (1) is a point on the unit ir le jwj = 1, we
have j(1)j = 1 whi h gives that jj = 1, i.e.  = ei for some  2 R.
Consequently, (z ) has the desired form.
Finally, if jaj > 1 then (z ) maps jz j  1 onto jwj  1 so that (z ) maps
jz j  1 onto jwj  1. 
We end this se tion with some remarks. We know that every Mobius
transformation T is onformal and it maps a ir le C1 in C 1 onto a ir le
C2 in C 1 . Moreover, T an be found by requiring three points z1 ; z2 ; z3 in
C1 to map onto three pres ribed points w1 ; w2 ; w3 in C2 . Is it possible to
nd a Mobius Transformation su h that a1 2 C1 maps onto b1 2 C2 , and
a2 2= C1 onto b2 2= C2 ? Yes, it is. Su h a transformation is given by
(w; b1 ; b2 ; b ) = (z; a1; a2 ; a )
2 2
where a2 is symmetri to a2 with respe t to C1 while b2 is symmetri to b2
with respe t to C2 .

5.8 Exer ises

5.82. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true
or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) The fun tion f (z ) = sin z is not onformal on the innite strip
=
fz 2 C : jRe z j < =2g.
(b) The omposition of two Mobius transformations is again a Mobius
transformation.
( ) The set M of all Mobius transformations Tab d(z ) = (az + b)=( z + d)
with ad b 6= 0, forms a group with respe t to the omposition as a
binary operation.
(d) The subset M1 of all Mobius transformations Tab d(z ) with ad b >
0, forms a subgroup in the group M of all Mobius transformations.
(e) The subset M2 of all Mobius transformations given by
 
1 1 z 1 z
M2 = z; ; 1 z; ; ;
z 1 z z z 1
forms a group with respe t to the omposition as a binary operation.
5.8 Exer ises 267

(f) The set M of all Mobius transformations does not have the ommu-
tative property.
(g) Any two Mobius transformations that have the same xed points are
ommutative.
Note: If S and T are two Mobius transformations whi h ommute
(i.e. S Æ T = T Æ S ), will they have the same xed points?
(h) If a Mobius transformation T arries z1 and z2 into a same number
w1 , then either z1 = z2 or else T is a onstant map.
(i) Every Mobius transformation Tab d(z ) = (az + b)=( z + d) su h that
j j = jdj arries the unit ir le 
onto a straight line.
(j) A Mobius transformation f : C 1 ! C 1 taking 0; 1; 6 into 2; 3; 4,
respe tively, is f (z ) = [z + (2=3)℄=[z + (3=2)℄:
(k) Given three distin t points z; z1; z2 and a number  2 C su h that
 62 f0; 1; (z z2 )=(z2 z1 )g, there always exists a unique z3 with
(z; z1; z2 ; z3) = .
(l) If z1; z2 ; z3 are three distin t points in C 1 su h that z; z 0 satisfy
(z; z1; z2 ; z3) = (z 0 ; z1 ; z2 ; z3), then z = z 0.
(m) The ross-ratios (z4 ; z1; z2 ; z3 ) and (w4 ; w1 ; w2 ; w3 ) are equal i there
exists a Mobius transformation f su h that f (zj ) = wj for j =
1; 2; 3; 4.
(n) Given a pair of (generalized) ir les, there always exists a Mobius
transformation arrying one ir le onto another.
(o) If a ir le C is mapped under the inversion w = 1=z onto another
ir le C 0 , then the enter of the ir le C need not be mapped onto
the enter of the ir le C 0 unless the enter of the ir le C is zero.
(p) A Mobius transformation, whi h maps the upper half-plane fz :
Im z > 0g onto itself and xing 0; 1 and no other points, must be of
the form T (z ) = z for some  > 0 and  6= 1.
(q) A Mobius transformation whi h maps the upper half-plane fz : Im z >
0g onto itself whi h xes 1 and no other points must be of the form
T (z ) = z +  for some  6= 0 with Im  > 0.
(r) Let T be a Mobius transformation su h that 1 2 Fix (T ). Then T
arries R onto itself i T (z ) = z +  for some  2 R n f0g,  2 R.
(s) There exist trans endental entire fun tions having no xed points.
(t) A Mobius transformation whi h arries the upper half-plane H + onto
the unit disk
su h that z = 2i is mapped onto w = 0 while z = 1
is mapped onto w = 1 is pre isely (2i z )=(z + 2i).
(u) A Mobius transformation takes R into R i it an be represented with
real oeÆ ients.
(v) A transformation whi h arries an innite se tor of angle =n (n 2 N )
onto the unit disk
is (z n i)=(z n + i).
268 Conformal Mappings and Mobius Transformations

(w) The Ja obian of a Mobius transformation T is identi ally equal to 1

i T (z ) = ei z + b.
(x) If a; b 2 C and r; R > 0 are xed, then a Mobius transformation
that maps the disk
(a; r) onto C 1 n
(b; R) is given by T (z ) = b +
Rr=(z a):
(y) The transformation w = (1 iz )=(z i) maps jz j = r, where r < 1,
into a ir le in the w-plane, whose enter is on the imaginary axis.
(z) A mapping whi h transforms
= fz : 0 < Arg z < =6g onto the
unit disk
is given by f (z ) = ei' (z 6 )=(z 6 ), Im  > 0:
5.83. What is the angle between images of the urves x2 + y2 = 1 and
y = x at their point of interse tions, under the map f (z ) = z 2? Answer
the same if the ir le is repla ed by the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 4.
5.84. Determine points where ea h of the following mappings is on-
formal:
3 +1
(i) z + e z 5 (ii) zez (iii) os z (iv) z + az 2 (v) z + az 3:
5.85. Determine points where ea h of the following mappings fails to
be onformal:
(i) z 5 + 1 (ii) z 2 exp(z 2 ) (iii) osh z (iv) sinh z:
5.86. Determine a; b; ; d su h that the Mobius transformation T (z )
dened by (5.15) oin ides with its inverse given by (5.20).
5.87. Find all Mobius transformations that map the unit disk
onto
the left half-plane H = fw 2 C : Re w < 0g.
z 2z (2 + i)z 2
5.88. Set S1 (z ) = ; S (z ) = ; and S3 (z ) = :
2z 1 2 3z 1 z+i
Show that 0 and 1 are the xed points for S1 as well as for S2 , whereas
1 + i and 1 i are the xed points of S3 , and S3 is loxodomi .
5.89. Find the image of the ir le jz j = r (r 6= 1) under the Cayley
mapping w = f (z ) = (z i)=(z + i); see Example 5.51. What happens
when r = 1?
5.90. Using the invarian e property of the ross-ratio, nd a Mobius
transformation f in ea h of the following ases:
(a) f1; i; 0g onto f1; i; 1g ( ) f1; i; 1g onto f2i; 2; 2ig
(b) f0; 1; 1g onto f0; 1; 1g (d) f0; 2 2i; 4g onto f 3=4; 11i=4; 1g
Chapter 6

Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz'

Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

In Se tion 6.1, we derive the Maximum and the Minimum modulus prin i-
ples/theorems as an important appli ation of the Cau hy integral formula.
The Maximum modulus prin iple is a powerful tool in obtaining an ex-
pli it estimate for the size of the absolute value of an analyti fun tion.
In Se tion 6.2, we use the Maximum prin iple to derive Hadamard's three
lines/ ir les theorem. Se tion 6.3 is devoted to S hwarz' lemma whi h is
one of the most important onsequen es of the Maximum prin iple and the
power series expansion. Later in this se tion, we use the lassi al form of
S hwarz' lemma to hara terize the onformal self-maps of the unit disk in
the form of the S hwarz-Pi k lemma whi h is a basi tool in the introdu -
tion of the hyperboli metri and hyperboli geometry in the unit disk. In
Se tion 6.4, we dis uss Liouville's theorem and its various generalizations
whi h give rise to fas inating and surprisingly pra ti al results su h as the
elebrated dis overy of Gauss, the so alled fundamental theorem of algebra
(see Se tion 6.6).

6.1 Maximum Modulus Prin iple

When we deal with a fun tion of one variable we frequently speak about
the on ept of maxima and minima. On the other hand, we annot speak of
maxima and minima of a omplex fun tion f sin e C is not an ordered eld.
However, it is meaningful to onsider maximum and minimum values of the
modulus of the omplex fun tion f , the real part of f and the imaginary
part of f .

6.1. Denition. Let D be a subset of C . A omplex fun tion dened

on D is said to have a (lo al) maximum modulus at a 2 D if there exists
270 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

a Æ > 0 su h that
(a; Æ)  D and jf (z )j  jf (a)j for all z 2
(a; Æ); a

(lo al) minimum of jf j is similarly dened.

For example, on the losed disk jz j  r, we have jez j = eRe z  er and at

the boundary point z = r, ez = er . Thus, ez attains its maximum modulus
at z = r. Consequently, M (r; ez ) = maxjzjr jez j = er : Analogously, for
jz j  r, we easily see that
 iz 
 je j +2je j = e 2+ e  e +2e = os(ir)
 iz iz iz y y r r
j os z j =  e +2 e 


whi h shows that M (r; os z ) = maxjzjr j os z j = osh r: Although, in real

variable theory, many fun tions su h as sin x, os x are bounded on R, we
will see that neither sin z nor os z are bounded in C .

6.2. Theorem. (Maximum Modulus Prin iple) Suppose that f is

analyti in a domain D and a is a point in D su h that jf (z )j  jf (a)j holds
for all z 2 D. Then, f is a onstant.

For the proof of Theorem 6.2, we need the following basi fa t from Real
Analysis:

6.3. Theorem. Let h() be a R ontinuous real-valued fun tion on

[a; b℄ with h()  0 for all  2 [a; b℄. If ab h() d = 0; then h() = 0 for all
 2 [a; b℄.
Proof. Geometri ally, the proof of this theorem is obvious. Alternately,
we x t 2 [a; b℄. Then we have
Z t Z b
0  H (t) := h() d  h() d = 0
a a
whi h gives H (t) = 0 on [a; b℄ so that 0 = H 0 () = h() on [a; b℄:

Proof of Theorem 6.2. Sin e a 2 D and D is open, there exists

an r su h that
(a; r)  D. Then, f is analyti inside and on the ir le
= 
(a; r). So, by the Cau hy integral formula (see Theorem 4.66),
Z Z 2
1 f ( ) 1
(6.4) f (a) = d = f (a + rei ) d:
2i  a 2 0

By hypothesis, jf (a + rei )j  jf (a)j and, by (6.4), we note that

Z 2 Z 2
jf (a)j  21 jf (a + rei )j d  21 jf (a)j d = jf (a)j
0 0
6.1 Maximum Modulus Prin iple 271

so that Z
1 2  
(6.5)
2 0
jf (a)j jf (a + rei )j d = 0:
Sin e the integrand in (6.5) is ontinuous and non-negative, Theorem 6.3
applies and (6.5) implies that
jf (a + rei )j = jf (a)j for 0    2:
This equation holds on all ir les j aj = s; 0 < s  r and therefore,
jf (z )j is onstant on
(a; r). By the Uniqueness theorem, f is onstant on
the whole of D.
6.6. Remark. It is important to note that Theorem 6.2 does not
ne essarily hold for open sets. Further, one ould also prove Theorem 6.2
without using Theorem 6.3. For example, as f 2 H(
(a; r)), we have
X
f (z ) = an (z a)n for jz aj < r0 with r0 > r:
n0
In parti ular, for ea h ir le jz aj = s with 0 < s  r, we have
X
f (a + sei ) = an sn ein :
n0

Now, as jf (a + sei )j  jf (a)j = ja0 j, we see that jf (a + sei )j2  ja0 j2

whi h gives
Z 2 Z 2
jan j2 s2n = 21 1
X
f (a + sei )f (a + sei ) d  ja0 j2 d = ja0 j2 ;
n0 0 2 0

that is, an = 0 for ea h n 2 N . Thus, f (z ) = a0 on every ir le j aj = s

in
(a; r). Consequently, f (z ) = a0 = f (a) on
(a; r). By the Uniqueness
theorem, f is onstant on the whole of D. 
6.7. Example. Consider f (z ) = ez for z 2
(a; r). Then,
 i 
max jez j = max ea+re  = eRe a+r
jz ajr 02

and the maximum modulus of ez is attained at the boundary point z = a+r.

Similarly, to determine M = maxjzj1 jz 3 + 3z 1j, we may let z = ei so
that
p
jz 2 + 3z 1j = je2i + 3ei 1j = jei + 3 e i j = 9 + 4 sin2 :
p
Thus, we have M = 13 and the maximum is attained at z = i, i.e. when
 = =2. 
272 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

It is interesting to observe that the minimum value of jf j may be at-

tained at an interior point of D without f being onstant. For instan e,
onsider f (z ) = z for z 2
r . Then, jf (z )j = jz j  0 = jf (0)j and so the
minimum valuepof jf (z )j is attained at the origin. The maximum value of
jf (x + iy)j = x2 + y2 is attained at the boundary points jz j = r. Note
that f has a zero at the origin.
The Maximum modulus prin iple is often used in the following form
known as the Maximum modulus theorem:
6.8. Theorem. (Maximum Modulus Theorem) Suppose that f is
analyti in a bounded domain D and ontinuous on D . Then, jf (z )j attains
its maximum at some point on the boundary D of D.
Proof. Re all that a ontinuous fun tion on a ompa t set attains a
maximum. So, by hypothesis, f is bounded on D and the maximum value
of jf (z )j is attained at some point of D. By Theorem 6.2, it annot be in
D, so it must be on the boundary D.
6.9. Example. Consider the fun tion f (z ) = z 2 dened on the losed
disk D = fz : jz 1 ij  1g:pLet us show that the maximum value of
jf (z )j is attained at z = (1 + 1= 2)(1 + i). To do this, set
z = 1 + i + ei = (1 + os ) + i(1 + sin );  2 [0; 2):
Then, jf (z )j = 3 + 2( os  + sin ): It follows that the maximumpvalue of
jf (z )j is attained at  = =4 and the maximum value is 3 + 2 2. The
maximum is attained at z = 1 + i + ei=4 . 
6.10. Corollary. Suppose that f is analyti in a bounded domain
D and ontinuous on D. Then, ea h of Re f (z ), Re f (z ), Im f (z ) and
Im f (z ) attains its maximum at some point on the boundary D of D.
Proof. Let u(x; y) = Re f (z ) and g(z ) = ef (z) . By the Maximum
modulus theorem, jg(z )j = eu(x;y) annot assume the maximum value in D.
Sin e eu is maximized when u is maximized, we obtain that u(x; y) annot
assume its maximum value in D. The remaining ases follow similarly.
6.11. Remark. The on ept of a lo al maximum at a point a 2 S 
D is meaningful only if a is a limit point. If a is isolated, we do not have
jf (z )j  jf (a)j in neighborhood of a. Thus, we observe that an interesting
appli ation o urs when D is a losed region. Therefore, another way of
stating Theorem 6.8 is that \if f is analyti inside and on a losed urve
C , then jf (z )j attains its maximum value only on the boundary C ." 
Another dire t appli ation of Theorem 6.8 is the following orollary
whi h is helpful in pra ti e for identifying the maximum modulus of fun -
tions by their boundary values.
6.1 Maximum Modulus Prin iple 273
y
C3
C(0, 2π ) B(2π, 2π )

C4 C2

O C1 A(2π, 0) x

Figure 6.1: [0; 2 ℄ [ [2; 2 + 2i℄ [ [2 + 2i; 2i℄ [ [i2; 0℄:

6.12. Corollary. Let f be analyti on
R and ontinuous on its

losure
R . If jf (z )j  M for some M > 0 on 
R , then jf (z )j  M on

R .
6.13. Example. Let D = fz = x + iy : 0 < x; y < 2g. We wish to
nd maxz2D j os z j. To do this, we rst note that
q
j os z j = sinh2 y + os2 x:
By the Maximum modulus theorem, the maximum is attained on the bound-
ary (see Figure 6.1)
D = [0; 2℄ [ [2; 2 + 2i℄ [ [2 + 2i; 2i℄ [ [i2; 0℄:
For z = x + i0 with 0  x  2, j os z j has the maximum value 1 at
zq= 0; 2. For z = 2 + iy with 0  y  2, j os z j has the maximum
1 + sinh2 (2) at z = 2 + 2i, sin e sinh y is an in reasing fun tion of y.
q
For z = x + 2i with 0  x  2, j os z j has the maximum 1 + sinh2 (2)
at the points z = 0 + 2i;  + 2i. Finally,qfor z = 0 + iy with y 2 [0; 2℄,
the orresponding maximum is seen to be 1 + sinh2 (2). Hen e,
q
max j os z j = 1 + sinh2 (2) = osh 2: 
z2D

6.14. Theorem. (Minimum Modulus Theorem) If f is a non-

onstant analyti fun tion in a bounded domain D and f (z ) 6= 0 on D
then, jf (z )j annot attain its minimum in D.
Proof. Suppose that f 2 H(D) and f (z ) 6= 0 in D. Then, 1=f (z ) is
analyti throughout D. The assertion now follows on applying Theorem
6.8 to 1=f (z ) .
274 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

Theorem 6.14 is often stated in the following form: \Suppose that f is

analyti in a domain D, f (z ) 6= 0 on D and a is a point in D su h that
jf (z )j  jf (a)j holds for all z 2 D. Then, f is a onstant."
6.15. Example. Suppose that f is an analyti fun tion in a neigh-
borhood of the losed unit disk
su h that there exists an M > 0 with
jf (z )j > M for jz j = 1 and f (0) = a + ib with ja + ibj < M . Under these
assumptions, we wish to show that f has a zero in
.
Suppose on the ontrary that f has no zeros in
. Then, by assumption,
1=f would be a non-vanishing analyti fun tion in the neighborhood of

and therefore, would attain its maximum value on the ir le jz j = 1. The
Maximum modulus theorem gives that j1=f (z )j < 1=M on jz j  1: In
parti ular,
1=ja + ibj = j1=f (0)j < 1=M; i.e. M < ja + ibj;
whi h is a ontradi tion. Thus, f must have a zero in
. 
Theorem 3.31 and the Uniqueness theorem (see Theorems 3.75 and
4.103) show that a non- onstant analyti fun tion in a domain annot map
an open set into a point or an ar . From these two observations, we note
that the Open mapping theorem (see Theorem 12.1) about mapping prop-
erties of analyti fun tions is a onsiderable strengthening of these fa ts
arising out of the Maximum modulus theorem.
6.16. Corollary. (Maximum/Minimum Modulus Theorem for
Harmoni Fun tions) Suppose that u(x; y ) is a real-valued non- onstant
harmoni fun tion on a bounded domain D. Then, u(x; y ) annot attain its
maximum or minimum value in D. That is, if there exists a point (x0 ; y0 ) 2
D su h that u(x0 ; y0) = supz2D u(x; y) or u(x0 ; y0 ) = inf z2D u(x; y); then
u(x; y) is onstant on D.
Proof. We shall prove only the maximum ase as the proof for the
minimum ase follows by simply applying the maximum ase for u. First,
we assume that D is simply onne ted. Then (see Theorem 3.39) there
exists an f 2 H(D) with u = Re f . The desired on lusion follows if we
apply the Maximum modulus theorem to g(z ) = ef (z) (see Corollary 6.10).
Now we assume that D is a multiply onne ted domain. Suppose on
the ontrary that u(x; y) attains its maximum value at some point z0 =
(x0 ; y0 ) 2 D. Sin e D is open, there exists a losed disk
(z0 ; Æ)  D.
Then, in
(z0 ; Æ), u(x; y) attains its lo al maximum at the interior point
(x0 ; y0 ) whi h is a ontradi tion to the previous ase. Consequently, u(x; y)
annot attain its maximum value on D.
6.17. Example. Consider u(x; y) = 2(x2 y2 ) + 3 for jz j  2.
Clearly, u is harmoni on the disk jz j  2. To nd max u and min u on
6.2 Hadamard's Three Cir les/Lines Theorems 275

jz j  2, it suÆ es to nd these on the boundary jz j = 2. Setting x = 2 os 

and y = 2 sin , we have
u = 8 os 2 + 3 (0    2)
and so, maxjzj=2 = 13 and minjzj=2 = 5. Note that the maximum o urs
when  = 0 and  while the minimum o urs when  = =2 and 3=2. 
6.18. Example. Suppose that f and g are analyti on the losed
unit disk jz j  1 su h that
(i) jf (z )j  M for all jz j  1
(ii) f (z ) = z ng(z ) for all jz j  1=3 and for some n 2 N .
We wish to use the Maximum modulus prin iple to nd the maximum value
of jf (z )j on jz j  1=3. To do this, we pro eed as follows. On jz j = 1, we
have
M  jf (z )j = jz n g(z )j = jg(z )j
and so, jg(z )j  M for jz j  1. Now, for jz j = 1=3, we have
jf (z )j = jz n g(z )j = jz nj jg(z )j = 3 njg(z )j  3 n M:
It follows that jf (z )j  3 nM for all jz j  1=3. 
6.2 Hadamard's Three Cir les/Lines Theorems
We noti e that the hypothesis that D is bounded in the Maximum modulus
theorem (see Theorem 6.8) annot be dropped. Therefore, the Maximum
modulus theorem is not always true on unbounded domains. To illustrate
this, we present three dierent examples.
(i) Dene f (z ) = e iz on D = fz : Im z > 0g. Then jf ( )j = 1 on the
boundary D = f : Im  = 0g; the real axis. But for z = x + iy 2 D,
jf (x + iy)j = ey ! 1 as y ! +1;
that is, f itself is not bounded. Note also f is a periodi fun tion of
period 2. In parti ular, for z = 2 + iy 2 D,
Re f (2 + iy) = ey ! 1 as y ! +1;
Similarly, if g(z ) = iz on D = fz : Im z > 0g then Re g(z ) = 0 on
D, yet g is not onstant on D. Note that for z = x + iy 2 D,
Re g(z ) = y ! 1 as y ! +1:
2
(ii) Dene f (z ) = e iz on D = fz : Re z > 0; Im z > 0g or D = fz :
Re z < 0; Im z < 0g. Then, jf ( )j = 1 on the boundary D: But for
x + iy 2 D, jf (x + iy)j = e2xy so that f itself is not bounded on D.
276 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem
z
(iii) Finally, we onsider f (z ) = ee for z 2 D = fz : jIm z j < =2g: Then,
for a + ib 2 D = f : jIm  j = =2g,
 
 eai=2   iea 
jf (a + ib)j = e
  = e
  = 1:

Again thex on lusion of Theorem 6.8 fails sin e for z = x 2 R  D,

f (x) = ee ! 1 as x 2 R; x ! +1:
The failure of the Maximum prin iple on ertain unbounded domains
raises the following
6.19. Problem. If f (z ) is bounded in an unbounded domain
, an
we then on lude that supz2
jf (z )j = supz2
jf (z )j?
Here we speak of sup jf (z )j rather than max jf (z )j be ause, although
both
and 
are losed, they are not ompa t. The following result
provides an aÆrmative answer in the ase of parallel strips.
6.20. Theorem. (Phragmen-Lindelof Theorem) Let
= fz : 0 <
Re z < 1g. Suppose that f is analyti and bounded on
, and ontinuous
on its losure
. Then, supz2
jf (z )j = supz2
jf (z )j: In parti ular, if
jf (z )j  M for z 2 
then jf (z )j  M for all z 2
.
Proof. Set M1 = supz2
jf (z )j and M2 = supz2
jf (z )j < 1. Then,
M1  M2 . We laim that M1  M2 . We shall show that jf (z )j  M1 for
all z 2
. To do this we x a 2 R \
. Then, 0 < a < 1. Let  > 0 be
given. Dene an auxiliary fun tion g dened by
f (z )
g (z ) =
1 + z
and onsider the re tangular domain R = fz 2
: jIm z j < Ag, where
A > 0 will be hosen later. Then, as j1 + z j  Re (1 + z ) = 1 + Re z  1
for z 2
, we have
 g is ontinuous on
, analyti on
and jg(z )j  jf (z )j for z 2
. In
parti ular, jg(z )j  jf (z )j  M1 on the verti al sides of R.
 for z on the horizontal sides of the losed re tangle R, we have
z = r  iA with 0  r  1 and so
p p
j1 + z j  j1 + (r  iA)j = (1 + r)2 + 2 A2  1 + 2 A2 :
Therefore, as jf (z )j  M2 on
,

jg(z )j  p jf (z )j  p M2
1 + 2 A2 1 + 2 A2
whi h holds for all z on the horizontal sides of the re tangle R.
6.2 Hadamard's Three Cir les/Lines Theorems 277
p
Now hoose A large enough that M2 = 1 + 2 A2 < M1 whi h is possible as
M2 is nite. Thus, jg(z )j  M1 on R . We apply the Maximum prin iple
to g on R to get jg(z )j  M1 on R. Therefore, jf (z )j  M1j1 + z j for
z 2 R. Allowing  ! 0, the last inequality leads to jf (a)j  M1 . Sin e a
was an arbitrary point of
, jf (z )j  M1 holds for all z 2
.
6.21. Theorem. (Hadamard's Three Lines Theorem) Let
=
fz : 0 < Re z < 1g. Suppose that f is analyti and bounded on
, and
ontinuous on its losure
. Suppose that there exist two onstants M0
and M1 su h that
jf (z )j  M0 for z = 0 + iy 2 
, and jf (z )j  M1 for z = 1 + iy 2 
:
Then, jf (z )j  M01 Re z M1Re z for all z 2
.
Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume that M0 > 0 and
M1 > 0. Dene an auxiliary fun tion F :
! C by F (z ) = ez f (z ), where
 is a real number to be xed later. This fun tion satises the hypotheses
of Theorem 6.20, and
( )
sup jF (z )j = max sup jF (z )j; sup jF (z )j
z2
z=0+iy2
z=1+iy2

( )
= max sup jf (z )j; e sup jf (z )j
z=0+iy2
z=1+iy2


 max M0; e M1 :


Choose  su h that M0 = e M1, i.e.  = ln(M0 =M1). By Theorem 6.20,

jF (z )j  e M1 for z 2

whi h means that eRe z jf (z )j  e M1 on

. Substituting  = ln(M0 =M1 ),
this gives jf (z )j  M01 Re z M1Re z for all z 2
.
6.22. Corollary. Let
= fz : a < Re z < bg. Suppose that f is
analyti and bounded on
, and ontinuous on its losure
. Suppose that
there exist two onstants M0 and M1 su h that
jf (z )j  M0 (a) for z = a + iy 2 

and jf (z )j  M1 (b) for z = b + iy 2 

: Then, for all z 2
,

jf (z )j  [M0 (a)℄1  [M1 (b)℄ ;  = Reb z a a :

Proof. Dene w = (z ) = a + (b a)z . Then,  takes the verti al strip
fz : 0 < Re z < 1g into fz : a < Re z < bg. Now, apply Theorem 6.21 to
F = f Æ .
278 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

A striking onsequen e of the Maximum modulus prin iple is the fol-

lowing result whi h an be easily proved using the last orollary and the
fa t that ew maps the strip fw : ln a < Re w < ln bg onto the open annulus
fz : a < jz j < bg and the boundary maps into the orresponding bound-
ary. However, be ause of its independent interest, we in lude a dire t proof
without referring to the orollary.
6.23. Theorem. (Hadamard's Three Cir les Theorem) Let
=
fz : a  jz j  bg, f 2 H(
) and M (r) = maxjzj=r jf (z )j: If a < r < b, then
ln(r=a)
M (r)  [M (a)℄1  [M (b)℄ ;  = :
ln(b=a)
Here  depends on a; b and r, but is independent of f (z ), and is between 0
and 1.
Proof. We examine the behavior of g(z ) = z  f (z ), where  is a real
number to be xed later. Unless  is an integer, g(z ) is learly a multiple-
valued fun tion in the annulus
(as z  is multiple-valued). So we annot
laim that g 2 H(
) and, as a onsequen e, we annot apply the Maximum
modulus prin iple dire tly. But if D =
n[ b; a℄, then g(z ) be omes an-
alyti on D as the prin ipal power fun tion given by z  = e Log z be omes
analyti on D. Consequently, max jg(z )j o urs on this new boundary. Note
that, as  2 R, there is no maximum for jz j at any interior point on the
interval ( b; a) on the real axis. It follows that
jz j jf (z )j  maxfa M (a); b M (b)g
and so,
r M (r)  maxfa M (a); b M (b)g:
Ignoring the trivial ase f (z )  0, we see that M (a), M (r) and M (b) are
all positive, and we may hoose  uniquely (whi h is at our disposal) su h
that  
ln(M (b)=M (a))
a M (a) = b M (b); i.e.  = :
ln(b=a)
We then have
 a 
M (r)  M (a)
r
= M (a) expf  ln(r=a)g
 
ln(r=a)
= M (a) exp ln(M (b)=M (a))
ln(b=a)
  ln(r=a)
M (b) ln(b=a)
= M (a)
M (a)
= [M (a)℄  [M (b)℄ :
1
6.3 S hwarz' Lemma and its Consequen es 279
ln M(r)
ln M(a)

a ln M(r)
r ln M(b)

O ln a ln r ln b ln r
b

Figure 6.2: Geometry of Hadamard's three ir les theorem.

This may be rewritten as

[M (r)℄ln(b=a)  [M (a)℄ln(b=r) [M (b)℄ln(r=a) ;
or equivalently as
   
ln b ln r ln r ln a
ln M (r)  ln M (a) + ln M (b):
ln b ln a ln b ln a
The last inequality shows that we may simply express Hadamard's three
ir les theorem as ln M (r) is a onvex fun tion of ln r (Figure 6.2). .

6.3 S hwarz' Lemma and its Consequen es

In this se tion we start with a simple but one of the lassi al theorems in
omplex analysis, namely, S hwarz' lemma, whi h states that if f is analyti
and satises jf (z )j < 1 in
and f (0) = 0, then jf (z )j  jz j for ea h z 2

with the sign of equality i f has the form
(6.24) f (z ) = ei z
for some  2 R. Furthermore, jf 0 (0)j  1 with the equality i f has
the form (6.24). This is referred to as an innitesimal version (or simply a
lassi al version) of S hwarz' lemma and is interesting on its own sake. This
result has an important role in the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem
whi h is an important theorem on erning the onformal equivalen e of two
simply onne ted domains (see Se tion 12.4).
Let us now begin by proving the sharp version of the lassi al S hwarz
lemma whi h plays a signi ant role in geometri fun tion theory. In fa t,
there are now many extensions of this result. The following form is an
important appli ation of the Maximum prin iple.
6.25. Theorem. (S hwarz' Lemma) Let f :
!
be analyti
having a zero of order n at the origin. Then
280 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

(i) jf (z )j  jz jn for all z 2
,

(ii) jf (n)(0)j  n!
6 z0
and the equality holds either in (i) for some point 0 = 2
or in (ii)
o urs i f (z ) = z n with jj = 1.
Proof. Let f :
!
be analyti on
and has n-th order zero at the
origin. Then, we have f (0) = 0 = f 0 (0) =


= f (n 1)(0) and f (n) (0) 6= 0.
So, we an write
1
X
f (z ) = ak z k = z ng(z ) for z 2
;
k =n

where ak = f (k) (0)=k! and g(z ) = 1

P k n . The fun tion g (z ) =
k=n ak z
n
f (z )=z has a removable singularity at the origin so that if

z n f (z ) for z 2
n f0g
g(z ) =
an for z = 0;
then g is analyti in
nf0g and ontinuous on
. Referring to the Riemann
removability theorem (see Theorem 4.88), we on lude that g is analyti in

.
(i) We laim that jg(z )j  1 for all z 2
. Now, for 0 < r < 1,
(a) g is analyti on the bounded domain
r = fz : jz j < rg
(b) g is ontinuous on its losure
r = fz : jz j  rg.
Therefore, the Maximum modulus prin iple is appli able. As jf (z )j  1 for
every z 2
, it follows that for j j = r

jg( )j = jfj(jn)j  r1n :

By the Maximum modulus prin iple, jg(z )j  r n for all z with jz j  r.
Sin e r is arbitrary, by letting r ! 1, we nd that jg(z )j  1; that is
(6.26) jg(z )j  1 for all z 2

and this is same as (i). Equality in (i) holds for some point z0 2
n f0g
implies that jg(z0)j = 1. It follows that g a hieves its maximum modulus
at an interior point z0 . Consequently, by the Maximum modulus theorem,
g must redu e to a onstant, say . Then f (z ) = z n, where jj = 1.
(ii) Note that jg(z )j  1 throughout the disk
. Sin e jan j = jg(0)j;
(6.26) implies that jg(0)j  1 and so (ii) follows.
Again, if jf (n) (0)j = n! then jg(0)j = 1 showing that g a hieves its
maximum modulus 1 at the interior point `0'. Consequently, g is a onstant
6.3 S hwarz' Lemma and its Consequen es 281

fun tion of absolute value 1 and as before, this means that f (z ) = z n,

where jj = 1.

6.27. Remark. Note that the ase n = 1 of Theorem 6.25 is the

original form of S hwarz' lemma stated at the outset of Se tion 6.3. 
For instan e, if f 2 H(
) with jf (z )j  1 and f (0) = 0 then what
kind of fun tion is f when f (1=3) = 1=3? It must be none other than the
identity fun tion be ause the equality in Theorem 6.25(i) holds with n = 1
and z = 1=3 2
.
If f is known to satisfy the onditions of Theorem 6.25 in
R instead
of the unit disk
, the original form of the theorem an be applied to
the fun tion f (Rz ) (see also Exer ise 6.82). More generally, Theorem 6.25
immediately yields the following result.

6.28. Corollary. If f is analyti and satises jf (z )j  M in
(a; R)

and f (a) = 0, then
(i) jf (z )j  M jz aj=R for every z 2
(a; R),
(ii) jf 0(a)j  M=R
with the sign of equality i f has the form f (z ) = M(z a)=R for some
onstant  with jj = 1.
Proof. Use S hwarz' lemma with g(z ) = f (Rz + a)=M; jz j < 1:

Does S hwarz' lemma hold for the ase of real-valued fun tions of a real
variable? Consider
2x
u(x) = 2 :
x +1
Then u is innitely dierentiable on R. In parti ular, u0 (x) is ontinuous
on [ 1; 1℄, u(0) = 0 and ju(x)j  1. But ju(x)j > jxj for 0 < jxj < 1.

6.29. Example. Let ! = e2i=n be an n-th root of unity, where

n 2 N is xed. Suppose that f :
!
is analyti su h that f (0) = 0.
We wish to apply S hwarz' lemma to show that
(6.30) jf (z ) + f (!z ) + f (!2 z ) +


+ f (!n 1z )j  njz jn
and equality for some point 0 = 6 z0 2
o urs i f (z ) = z n with jj = 1.
To do this, we dene F :
!
by
1 nX1 k
F (z ) = f (! z ):
n k=0
282 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

Clearly, F is analyti on
, F (0) = 0 and, for 1  m  n 1,

1 nX1 k m (m) k
F (m) (z ) = (! ) f (! z )
n k=0
so that (as !n = 1)
 
1 nX1 m k (m) f (m) (0) 1 (!m )n
F (m)(0) = (! ) f (0) = = 0:
n k=0 n 1 !m
By S hwarz' lemma (see Theorem 6.25), it follows that jF (z )j  jz jn for all
z 2
whi h is the same as (6.30). The equality in this inequality for some
point z0 6= 0 o urs i F (z ) = z n with jj = 1, or equivalently
nX1
(6.31) [f (!k z ) z n ℄ = 0:
k=0
We
P1
laim that the above equation implies that f (z ) = z n. If we let f (z ) =
a z m, then (6.31) be omes
m=1 m
!
1
X nX1
am !km z m = nz n:
m=1 k=0
In view of the identity
nX1 
!km = n0 otherwise
if m is a multiple of n ;
k=0
the last equation implies that an =  and a2n = a3n =


= 0. On the
other hand, as jf (z )j < 1 on
and jan j = 1, we have
Z
1 2 X1
lim
r!1 2 0
j f (rei )j2 d  = jam j2  1
m=1
whi h shows that all the Taylor's oeÆ ients of f (ex ept an ) must vanish
and so, f (z ) = ei z n . 
Our rst appli ation of S hwarz' lemma is the following theorem whi h
gives an interesting relationship that exists between the maximum modulus
of an analyti fun tion and the maximum of its real part. This result will
be used to generalize Theorem 6.60 (see Exer ise 6.89).
6.32. Theorem. (Borel Caratheodary) Let f be analyti in jz j  R.
For ea h 0 < r < R, let
M (r) = max fjf (z )jg and A(r) = max fRe f (z )g:
jz j = r jz j = r
6.3 S hwarz' Lemma and its Consequen es 283

Then
R+r
(6.33) M (r) 
R r
jf (0)j + R2r r A(R):
Proof. The result learly holds if f is onstant. Indeed, if f (z ) =
 (a omplex onstant), then M (r) = jj; A(r) = Re ; jf (0)j = jj:
Substituting these values in the inequality (6.33), then it be omes jj 
Re  whi h is trivially true. For a non- onstant f , we rst assume f (0) = 0.
Then, A(R) > A(0) = Re f (0) = 0: Dene
f (z )
F (z ) = :
2A(R) f (z )
Then, F is analyti in jz j  R and F (0) = 0. Also, Re [2A(R) f (z )℄ 6= 0;
otherwise f would be a real-valued fun tion of omplex variable ontradi t-
ing the analyti ity of f . Further, we also note that
2A(R) + Re f (z )  Re f (z )  2A(R) Re f (z ):
This means that
jF (z )j2 = [2A(R) Rejff ((zz)℄)j2 + [Im f (z )℄2  1;
2

and so we have jF (z )j < 1 in jz j < R. Thus, by S hwarz' lemma (take

a = 0 in Corollary 6.28), we have jF (z )j  jz j=R for jz j = r < R: From the
denition of F (z ), we have
2A(R)F (z ) 2A(R)jF (z )j
f (z ) =
1 + F (z )
and jf (z )j 
1 jF (z )j
 R2r r A(R)
6 0, then applying the
whi h gives (6.33) for the ase f (0) = 0. If f (0) =
result to f (z ) f (0), we nd that
jf (z )j jf (0)j  jf (z ) f (0)j
 R2r r max fRe (f (z ) f (0))g
jz j = R
 R2r r [A(R) + jf (0)j℄;
that is,
 
2r R+r
jf (z )j  R r
A(R) + jf (0)j
R r
:

Now we state and prove the invariant form of S hwarz' lemma.

6.34. Lemma. (S hwarz-Pi k Lemma) Suppose that f is analyti
on the unit disk
and satises the following two onditions
284 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

φa f φb
a
O b O

φb ◦ f ◦ φa

Figure 6.3: Illustration for S hwarz-Pi k Lemma.

(i) jf (z )j  1 for all z 2

(ii) f (a) = b for some a; b 2
.
Then
jf 0 (a)j  1 1 jfj(aaj2)j :
2
(6.35)
Moreover, for a pair of elements a; a0 in
, the following inequality holds:
(6.36) (f (a); f (a0 ))  (a; a0 )
where (z; a) = j(z a)=(1 az )j for z; a 2
. Equality is obtained in
(6:35) at a point a 2
, or equality is obtained in (6:36) for a pair of points
a; a0 with a 6= a0 in
, i f 2 Aut (
); otherwise, there is stri t inequality
in jz j < 1
Proof. First, we observe that if jf (z )j = 1 for some point z 2
, then f
is a onstant and (6.35) as well as (6.36) are trivial. Thus, we may assume
that jf (z )j < 1 for all z 2
. For a xed  2
, we re all ertain fa ts that
are already familiar to us (see Figure 6.3):
  dened by  (z ) = ( z )=(1 z ) is analyti on C n f1=g if
 6= 0, and 0 (z ) = z . In parti ular, for ea h  2
,  is analyti
in a neighborhood of
with  () = 0.
 one he ks that
1 j (z )j2 =
j1 z j2 j z j2 = (1 jj2 )(1 jz j2 )
j1 z j2 j1 z j2
so that
(i) j (z )j = 1 if jz j = 1.
(ii) j (z )j < 1 if jz j < 1. Indeed, the fa t that  (
) = 

immediately implies that j (z )j < 1 on
, by the Maximum
modulus theorem.
(iii)  is one-to-one and onto, sin e
 
  z
  (z ) 1 z
 ( (z )) = =   =z
1  (z ) 1  1 zz
6.3 S hwarz' Lemma and its Consequen es 285

so that  is invertible and  itself is the inverse for  . Note

that, sin e  1 =  2 H(
),  2 Aut (
).
Now, we dene g = b Æ f Æ a and apply S hwarz' lemma for g. First,
we observe that g satises the hypothesis of S hwarz' lemma. Thus, by
S hwarz' lemma, we on lude that jg0 (0)j  1 and jg(z )j  jz j on
: Now,
we ompute
(6.37) g0 (0) = 0b (b)f 0 (a)0a (0):
Sin e  
1 jj2
0 (z ) =
 ;
(1 z )2
it follows that 0 (0) = (1 jj2 ) and 0 () = 1=(1 jj2 ): Using these
in (6.37), we nd that

g0 (0) =
1 jaj2  f 0 (a)
1 jbj2
and therefore, sin e jg0 (0)j  1 and b = f (a), the on lusion (6.35) follows.
For the proof of (6.36), we use the se ond ondition jg(z )j  jz j whi h is
equivalent to the inequality
j(b Æ f Æ a )(z )j  jz j; z 2
:
Sin e  ( (z )) = z for ea h z 2
, setting z for a (z ), it follows that
j(b Æ f )(z )j  ja (z )j; z 2
:
In parti ular, if we take z = a0 then the last inequality is equivalent to the
inequality jb (b0 )j  ja (a0 )j whi h, by the denition of  , is the same as
the inequality (6.36).
By S hwarz' lemma, equality in (6.35) or in (6.36) holds if and only if
g(z ) = z =: I (z ), jj = 1; that is, f (z ) = b 1 Æ I Æ a 1 2 Aut (
).

6.38. Remark. Clearly, (6.35) may be obtained dire tly from (6.36).
Indeed, rewriting the inequality (6.36) in the form
   
 f (a) f (a0 )   1 f (a)f (a0 ) 

 a

a0   1 aa0 
and letting a0 ! a, we obtain (6.35). Thus, every analyti fun tion w =
f (z ) from
into
satises the ondition

jf 0 (z )j  1 1 jfj(zzj2)j ; z 2
;
2
286 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

or equivalently,
jdwj  jdz j (w = f (z ); z 2
)
1 jwj2 1 jz j2
and the equality holds i f 2 Aut (
).
Also, we observe that the inequality (6.36) for analyti fun tions f :

!
reveals the ontra tion property of f with respe t to the metri 
(in fa t, it is a non-expansive map with respe t to the metri ). Further,
f is an isometry, i.e. (f (a); f (a0 )) = (a; a0 ), i f 2 Aut (
). 
6.39. Example. Suppose that f :
!
is analyti su h that
f (a) = 0 and f (a 1) = b for some a 2 (0; 1) and b 2
. Then, by (6.36),
jbj  1 a(1a 1) = 1 + a1 a2 :
In parti ular, this observation implies the following assertions:
(i) There exists no fun tion f that is analyti in
su h that jf (z )j  1,
f (1=3) = 0 and f ( 2=3) = 5=6:
(ii) There exists no analyti fun tion f :
!
su h that f (1=4) = 0
and f ( 3=4) = 17=20: 
6.40. Example. Suppose we are given that f :
!
is analyti
and f (a) = 0 for some point a 2
. Suppose that we are asked to nd an
estimate for jf (b)j for some b 2
. To do this, by (6.36), we see rst that
(sin e f (a) = 0),
jf (z )j  ja (z )j ; a (z ) = 1a azz for z 2
.
In parti ular, jf (b)j  ja (b)j and note that the maximum is a hieved when
f (z ) = a (z ): For instan e, if f (1=2) = 0 then the estimate for f (1=4) is
given by  
 (1=2) (1=4) 
jf (1=4)j   1 (1=2) (1=4)  = 27


and the maximum is attained for 1=2 (z ): 

6.41. Example. Suppose that f :
!
is an analyti fun tion
su h that f (0) = a for some a 2
. We wish to verify whether there exists
su h an f with the property that f 0 (0) = for a omplex onstant . If so,
under what ondition on , su h a fun tion exists? To do this, a ording
to (6.35), we rst observe that jf 0 (0)j  1 jaj2 whi h means that must
satisfy the inequality j j  1 jaj2 : For instan e, onsider the a (z ) dened
above. Then, a (0) = a, 0a (0) = (1 jaj2) and so, the fun tion f dened
by f (z ) = ka (z ) with jkj  1 does the job. 
6.3 S hwarz' Lemma and its Consequen es 287

6.42. Example. Suppose that f :
!
is an analyti fun tion,

jf (z )j  1 on jz j = 1, f (a) = 0 and f ( a) = b for some a 2 (0; 1) and
b 2 (0; 1℄. Then, by (6.36), it follows that jbj  2a=(1+ a2): This observation
is useful to on lude the following:
(i) There exists no analyti fun tion f :
!
su h that
jf (z )j  1 on jz j = 1; f (1=2) = 0 and f ( 1=2) = 19=20:
Note that the existen e of su h a fun tion is guaranteed, for example,
if we repla e the ondition f ( 1=2) = 19=20 by f ( 1=2) = 4=5.
(ii) There exists an analyti fun tion f :
!
su h that f (1=3) = 0
and f ( 1=3) = 3=5: Su h an f is given by 1=3 (z ). 
6.43. Example. Let f 2 H(
) with f (a) = 0 and jf (z )j  jeiz j for
all jz j = 1. How large an jf ( a)j be? To do this, we rewrite the given
ondition on f as jF (z )j  1 for jz j = 1, where F (z ) = e iz f (z ). Dene
g by g = F Æ a ; where a (z ) is dened as above. Then, g(a) = 0 and
jg(z )j  1 for jz j  1 (by the Maximum modulus prin iple) so that, by
S hwarz' lemma,
jg(z )j  jz j; i.e. je ia (z) f ( (z ))j  jz j;
a

or equivalently,
    
je iw f (w)j   1a aw
w 
  iw a w 
 ; i.e. jf ( w ) j  e

 for all jwj  1
1 aw 
and the equality holds if f (w) = ei eiw a (w) for some . 
6.44. Example. A nite Blas hke Q produ t is dened to be a rational
fun tion of the form B (z ) = ei nk=1 1akakzz ; where a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an are in

and  2 [0; 2℄. If f is analyti in the unit disk
, ontinuous on
and
jf (z )j = 1 for jz j = 1, then it an be easily shown that f is a nite Blas hke
produ t. If, in addition, f is entire then f (z ) = ei z n for some  2 R and
n 2 N.
In fa t, to ex lude the trivial ase, we assume that f is non- onstant.
Sin e f is analyti in the unit disk jz j < 1 and f is ontinuous in jz j  1
and jf (z )j = 1, it an have only nitely many zeros; otherwise, the limit
point of the zeros must lie on jz j = 1 (sin e the zeros are isolated), whi h is
a ontradi tion. Denote these zeros by a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an (multiple zeros being
repeated). Dene
!
n
Y a z
F (z ) = f (z ) / ak (z ) ; ak (z ) = k :
k=1
1 ak z
288 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

Then, F is analyti for jz j < 1, ontinuous on jz j  1, jF (z )j = 1 for

jz j = 1 and F (z ) 6= 0 in
. The same on lusion holds for 1=F (z ) also.
Applying the Maximum modulus prin iple, both to F (z ) and 1=F (z ), we
get jF (z )j  1 and j1=F (z )j  1 for jz j  1. Thus, jF (z )j = 1 on jz j  1
and so,
n
Y
f (z ) = ei ak (z ):
k=1
If f is entire, then ak = 0 for ea h k, and the se ond part follows. 
We have seen a number of variants of S hwarz' lemma whi h are use-
ful. In identally, this result an be used to hara terize all onformal self
mappings (i.e. one-to-one, onto and analyti ) of the unit disk
and whi h
map the unit ir le 
onto 
(see also Theorem 5.59).
6.45. Theorem. Every univalent analyti fun tion f from
onto
itself that has an analyti inverse must be of the form
z z0
f (z ) = ei ;
1 z0z
where z0 is a omplex number, jz0 j < 1, and 0    2 .
Proof. Let w = f (z ) be su h an analyti univalent fun tion, and let
f (a) = b. Then, a ording to (6.36), we have
 
 z a
(6.46) (w; b)  (z; a); (z; a) =   :
1 az 
Applying the same argument to the inverse f 1 , for whi h f 1(b) = a, we
obtain
(6.47) (f 1 (w); f 1 (b))  (w; b); i.e. (z; a)  (w; b)
for all z 2
. Equations (6.46) and (6.47) imply that for ea h z 2

   
 
 f (z ) f (a)  z a 
 =  ;
 1 f (a)f (z )  1 az 
that is
[(z a)=(1 az )℄ + f (a)e i
f (z ) = ei for some real 
1 + f (a)e i [(z a)=1 az )℄
whi h has the desired form.
An equivalent formulation of Theorem 6.45 is the following:
 
z + 
Aut
= : ;  2 C ; jj2 j j2 = 1
z + 
 
z z0
= ei : z0 2
; 0    2 :
1 z0 z
6.3 S hwarz' Lemma and its Consequen es 289

From Theorem 6.45, it is lear that

 
z z0
Aut (
R ) = R2 ei : z 2
R ; 0    2 :
z 0 z R2 0
For a xed , f (z ) = ei z is a onformal self-map of
that xes the origin.
We now show that these are the only onformal self-maps that x the origin.
6.48. Corollary. Every automorphism f :
!
with f (0) = 0 is
given by f (z ) = ei z .
Proof. The orollary follows if we hoose a = 0 and b = 0 in Theorem
6.45. Alternatively, S hwarz' lemma applied to f and f 1 , be ause ea h of
f and f 1 maps
onto itself su h that f (0) = 0 and f 1 (0) = 0, yields
jf (z )j  jz j and jz j = jf 1(f (z ))j  jf (z )j:
Hen e, jf (z )j = jz j; that is, f (z ) = ei z .
6.49. Theorem. Let p be analyti in
with p(0) = 1 and Re p(z ) > 0
in
. Then, jp0 (0)j  2 and
1 jz j
1 + jz j
 jp(z )j  11 + jjzz jj ; z 2
:
Equality holds in ea h of these inequalities for p(z ) = (1 + z )=(1 z ).
Proof. Dene (w) = (w 1)=(w + 1): Then,  maps fw : Re w > 0g
onformally onto
and so f =  Æ p maps
onformally onto itself with
f (0) = 0: From S hwarz' lemma it follows then that
(i) j(p(z ))j = jf (z )j  jz j for z 2

(ii) j0 (p(0))p0 (0)j = jf 0 (0)j  1.
The assertion (i) implies that
 
jp(z )j 1 ; 1 jp(z )j    p(z ) 1   jz j; i.e. 1 jz j  jp(z )j  1 + jz j :
jp(z )j + 1 1 + jp(z )j  p(z ) + 1  1 + jz j 1 jz j
As j0 (p(0))j = j0 (1)j = 1=2, (ii) gives that jp0 (0)j  2.
6.50. Remark. If, in Theorem 6.49, p(0) =  + i ,  > 0, we may
apply the above result to the fun tion (p(z ) i )=. 
In R, for a dierentiable fun tion f of one variable to have maximum
or minimum at x0 it is ne essary that f 0(x0 ) = 0. However, the analog of
this does not hold when we deal with fun tions of a omplex variable. This
290 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

surprising fa t in the behavior of an analyti fun tion at a point where it

assumes its maximum modulus will be re e ted in the next theorem.

6.51. Theorem. Suppose that f is analyti in a neighborhood of

and z0 2 
satises jf (z0 )j = max jf (z )j. Then, f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 unless f is
z2

onstant.

Proof. Suppose that f is a non- onstant analyti fun tion. Without

loss of generality, we suppose 1 = z0 = jf (z0)j, multiplying f by a onstant,
if ne essary. Then, by the Maximum modulus prin iple, we have f (
) 
.
Assume rst that f (0) = 0. Then, for all t 2 (0; 1), applying the triangle
inequality and S hwarz' lemma, we nd that j1 f (t)j  1 jf (t)j  1 t
and so  
 f (1) f (t) 
   1 for 0  t < 1:
 1 t 
Thus, we obtain jf 0 (1)j  1 by making t ! 1 . Suppose f (0) = a 6= 0 and
onsider the fun tion g dened by g(z ) = (a Æ f )(z ), where
a z
a (z ) =
1 az
; jaj < 1:
Then, g :
!
and g(0) = 0. Applying the pre eding argument to g, we
get jg0 (1)j  1. A dire t al ulation shows that
(1 jaj2 )f 0 (z )
g0 (z ) =
[1 af (z )℄2
so that
g0 (1)[1 af (1)℄2 g0 (1)(1 a)2
f 0(1) = = :
1 jaj2 1 jaj2
Sin e jg0 (1)j  1, this gives that

jf 0 (1)j  (11 jjaajj)2 = 11 + jjaajj > 0:

2

This ompletes the proof.

From the proof of Theorem 6.51, be ause of its independent interest, we

noti e the following:

6.52. Corollary. If f is analyti on
, f (0) = 0, jf (z )j < 1 in

and if f is analyti at z = 1 with f (1) = 1, then jf 0 (1)j  1.
6.4 Liouville's Theorem 291

6.4 Liouville's Theorem

We wish to address, in detail, the following questions:
 Whi h entire fun tions are bounded?
 Whi h entire fun tions omit two distin t omplex values? Re all that
a fun tion f :
! C is said to omit a value a if a 2 C n f (
). For
example, the entire fun tions ez and 1+ ez omit 0 and 1, respe tively.
 Whi h meromorphi fun tions omit three distin t omplex values?
For example, the meromorphi fun tion 1=(1 e2iz ) in C omits two
dierent values, namely 0 and 1.
These questions have elegant and omplete answers in the form of Liouville's
theorem and Pi ard's little theorem. In Pi ard's great theorem, we shall
a tually answer a more general question. Let us dis uss the rst question
and the remaining will be done in Se tion 12.7.
Re all that a fun tion is entire i it is analyti on the whole omplex
plane C . The simplest examples of entire fun tions are polynomials. Entire
fun tions whi h are not polynomials (e.g. ez , sin z , os z , osh z , sinh z
exp(sin z ) et .) are alled entire trans endental fun tions.
Suppose now that f is entire and a 2 C is arbitrary. Then, f admits a
Taylor expansion around a:
X1 f (n) (a)
f (z ) = an (z a)n ; an = :
n=0 n!
If an = 0 for all n  1, then f (z ) = f (a) = a0 ; that is, f is a onstant
fun tion. Note that a non-zero onstant fun tion is the only (rational)
entire fun tion having no zeros. If ak 6= 0 for some integer k  1 but
an = 0 for all n > k, then f is a polynomial of degree k  1. Finally
if ak 6= 0 for an innite number of values of k, then f be omes an entire
trans endental fun tion. Re all that entire fun tions are just the Taylor's
series about any point a with innite radius of onvergen e. For instan e,
the power series su h as
X1 zn X1 X1 zn X1 zn
 > ; e n2 z n ; ;
 ( 0) n n ;
n=0 (n!) n=0 n=0 2 n! n=0 2 n!
whi h are onvergent for all z 2 C . In on lusion, a non- onstant entire
fun tion is either a polynomial of degree n so that it has a pole of order n at
innity; or else an entire trans endental fun tion in whi h ase it will have
an essential singularity at innity (see Chapter 7). With this observation,
elementary examples of the last type are the exponential fun tion ez , the
trigonometri fun tions sin z , os z , and the hyperboli fun tions sinh z ,
osh z (whi h are, of ourse, well-known simple ombinations of exponential
fun tions). From our earlier results, it an be easily observed that the
292 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

sum, dieren e and produ t of a nite number of entire fun tions are also
entire; and the quotient of two entire fun tions is also entire provided the
denominator is nowhere zero.
Now, our aim is to examine the behavior of entire fun tions for suÆ-
iently large jz j. Let us start with the following simple problem.
6.53. Problem. Are there non- onstant fun tions of a real variable
x whi h are both bounded and dierentiable on R?
We shall rst see that familiar fun tions on R su h as ex, sin x, os x
and log(1 + x2 ) exhibit surprising behavior when we allow x to be omplex
rather than just real. To do this, we shall look at three dierent types of
simple examples before stating the theorem. Let us look at the fun tion
f : R ! R given by f (x) = ex. Then
 f is non- onstant and dierentiable on R
 f is unbounded on R and f (n) exists on R for ea h n 2 N
 f is one-to-one on R.
In any subje t, just with one example, it may not be possible to on lude
that there exists no fun tion with the desired property as in Problem 6.53.
Note that f (z ) = ez is not one-to-one on C . Now, we look at the se ond
example. Consider g : R ! R dened by g(x) = sin x or os x for x 2 R.
Clearly,
 g is non- onstant and dierentiable on R
 g is bounded by 1 and g(n) exists on R for ea h n 2 N
 g is not one-to-one on R (be ause it is a periodi fun tion).
As the third example, let us onsider f : R ! R given by
fa (x) = (x2 + a2 ) 1 ;
where a is a xed non-zero real number. Then, 0 < fa (x)  1=a2 for ea h
x 2 R. However, we see that neither of these fun tions, namely, fa (x), os x
and sin x, is bounded if \ omplex values are permitted for the variable x."
Indeed, for
1
fa (z ) = 2 2 ;
z +a
the absolute value of fa (z ) approa hes 1 whenever z approa hes ia, a 2
R n f0g. Note that fa(z ) is not dierentiable on the whole of C . On the other
hand, sin x and os x are non- onstant bounded fun tions of real variable
and ea h of them is dierentiable on R. Observe that os z and sin z are
the well-known non- onstant entire fun tions dened by
eiz + e iz eiz e iz
os z = ; and sin z = :
2 2i
6.4 Liouville's Theorem 293

It follows that for z = iy, y 2 R,

os(iy) =
e y + ey
and j sin(iy)j =
je y ey j
2 2
whi h implies that both j os z j and j sin z j in rease indenitely when z
approa hes innity along the imaginary axis. Thus, the entire fun tions
os z and sin z are unbounded on C ; i.e. no K an exist su h that j os z j 
K on C . Similarly, no K an exist su h that j sin z j  K on C . In parti ular,
we say that the range of ea h of the fun tions exp z , os z and sin z is an
unbounded set in C . As a onsequen e, it follows that both sin z and os z
are bounded for jz j < 2004 whereas both sin z and os z are unbounded for
jz j > 2004. More generally, for suÆ iently large R, both sin z and os z
maps jz j > R into any pres ribed neighborhood of innity.

6.54. Example. Let ,  , and Æ be some xed real numbers.

Then, we have the following:
 if
= fz 2 C : Im z > g, then the entire fun tion f (z ) = e iz
is un-
bounded on the half-plane
(note that f (iy) = ey
whi h approa hes
+1 as y ! +1);
 if
= fz 2 C : Re z >  g, then the entire fun tion g(z ) = ez is
unbounded on the half-plane
;
2
 the entire fun tion h(z ) = e z is unbounded on any open set whi h
ontains either part of the imaginary axes fiy : y > g or fiy : y <
2
Æg. Note that h(iy) = ey . 
Finally, for n 2 N , we onsider fn(z ) = z=(1 + njz j) or sin(jz jn). Then,
for ea h n, fn (z ) is ontinuous on C and jfn (z )j < 1 on C . This observation
shows that there exist non- onstant bounded ontinuous fun tions on C .
Thus, it is natural to expe t a simple hara terization for fun tions of om-
plex variable that are both bounded and analyti in C . This is pre isely
given by Liouville's theorem in the following form whi h implies that the
range of every non- onstant entire fun tion is an unbounded set in C .

6.55. Theorem. (Liouville's Theorem) A bounded and entire fun -

tion is onstant.

We have already observed through examples that this result is quite

dierent from any that ould possibly hold for real-valued fun tions of a
real variable. We remark that Liouville's theorem10 an be viewed as a
statement about the range of a non- onstant entire fun tion. Therefore,
10 Liouville(1809-1882), a Fren h mathemati ian, is known for his work on analysis
and dierential geometry.
294 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

an equivalent formulation of Liouville's theorem is that \the range of a

bounded and entire fun tion is a singleton set".
As an immediate onsequen e of Liouville's theorem, we have the fol-
lowing simple appli ations:
 Non- onstant entire fun tions must be unbounded. For example, as
we have already seen, the entire fun tions sin z and os z are un-
bounded unlike their real ounterparts.
 Every analyti fun tion in the extended omplex plane is ne essarily
onstant. In fa t if f is analyti at z = 1, then limjzj!1 f (z ) is
nite. Let this limit be L. This means that, given  > 0 there exists
an R > 0 su h that
jf (z )j jLj  jf (z ) Lj <  whenever jz j > R;
and so, in parti ular, f is bounded for jz j > R and thus, by the
ontinuity of f on the ompa t set fz : jz j  Rg, f is bounded
on the whole of C . Hen e, by Liouville's theorem, f is onstant.
Equivalently, we say that the only fun tion whi h is analyti on the
Riemann sphere is the onstant fun tion.
 If f is entire and if there exists an M > 0 with jf (z )j > M for all
z 2 C , then f is onstant. This is be ause the given onditions imply
that f 0 (z ) exists and f (z ) 6= 0 in C so that 1=f (z ) is analyti on C
and j1=f (z )j < 1=M for all z 2 C . Now applying Liouville's theorem
to 1=f (z ), we on lude that f is onstant.
6.56. Problem. Do we really need the boundedness ondition in the
hypotheses of Liouville's theorem?
For instan e, an we repla e the `boundedness' ondition in Liouville's
theorem by a ondition su h as the following?
 Re f (z ) or Im f (z ) is bounded on C
 Re f (z ) or Im f (z ) lies in a half-plane.
The answer is `yes' under ea h of the above onditions. For example, if f is
entire and Re f (z )  M for some xed M 2 R, then f is bounded. Indeed,
f (z ) is entire =) (z ) = ef (z) is entire
=) j(z )j = jef (z) j = eRe f (z)  eM for all z 2 C
=) (z ) is onstant, by Liouville's theorem,
=) 0 (z ) = ef (z) f 0 (z ) = 0 for all z 2 C
=) f 0 (z ) = 0 in C , sin e ef (z) 6= 0 in C
=) f (z ) is onstant:
6.4 Liouville's Theorem 295

Alternatively, it suÆ es to observe that if f is entire and Re f (z )  M then

g(z ) = 1=[1 + (M f (z ))℄ is entire and bounded by 1 so that g (and, hen e,
f ) is onstant.
The other ases may be handled in a similar fashion. However, it is
important to remark that all these examples follow as a simple onsequen e
of Pi ard's theorem whi h we shall dis uss in Se tion 12.7. Note also that
the above dis ussion (together with the fa t that a harmoni fun tion in C
possesses a harmoni onjugate in C ) learly shows the following:
6.57. Theorem. A fun tion whi h is harmoni and bounded in C
must be onstant.

This statement an be viewed as the harmoni analog of Liouville's

theorem.
6.58. First proof of Liouville's theorem. Sin e f is bounded
on C , there is a nite M su h that jf (z )j  M for z 2 C : Let a be an
arbitrary omplex number and let = fz : z = Rei , 0   < 2g, where
jaj < R < 1. Then, a ording to the Cau hy integral formula, we have
Z   Z
1 1 1 a f (z )
f (a) f (0) = f (z ) dz = dz
2i z a z 2i z (z a)
so that for ea h xed a, we have
  
j aj
jf (a) f (0)j  2 jmax  2R  M jaj
 f (z ) 

zj=R z (z a) 
 R jaj
whi h approa hes zero as R ! 1. Thus, f (a) = f (0) for ea h a 2 C and
hen e, f is onstant.

6.59. Se ond proof of Liouville's theorem. By hypothesis, there

exists a nite M > 0 su h that jf (z )j  M for jz j < R and for any R > 0.
Equivalently, jf (Rz )j  M for jz j < 1: In parti ular, jf (0)j  M . Set
f (Rz ) f (0)
g (z ) = ; jz j < 1:
2M
Then g satises the hypotheses of S hwarz' lemma for ea h R > 0, sin e
g(0) = 0 and

jg(z )j  jf (Rz )2jM+ jf (0)j  M2+MM = 1:

Hen e, we have jg(z )j  jz j for jz j < 1. In other words,
jf (Rz ) f (0)j  2M jz j for jz j < 1;
296 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

or equivalently,
jf (z ) f (0)j  2RM jz j for jz j < R:
Again remember that M is a xed onstant, whereas R is at our disposal,
and an be hosen as large as we please. Thus, restri ting z in the unit disk
jz j < 1 and letting R tend to innity in the inequality, we nd that f (z ) =
f (0) for jz j < 1, whi h, by the Uniqueness theorem, gives f (z ) = f (0) for
all z 2 C ) and so f is onstant.
Third proof of Liouville's theorem is a tually an immediate onsequen e
of Cau hy estimate. So we leave this as a simple exer ise.
Our fourth proof is ontained in the following theorem whi h shows that
if f is an entire fun tion su h that jf (z )j in reases slower than some power
of jz j as jz j ! 1, then the fun tion must be a polynomial.
6.60. Theorem. (A Generalized Version of Liouville's Theorem).
An entire fun tion f , whi h satises the inequality jf (z )j  M jz j for some
  0, M > 0 and all suÆ iently large jz j, redu es to a polynomial of
degree n where n is the largest integer su h that n  .
Proof. Note that the ase  = 0 is Liouville's theorem. Let f be entire.
Then, f admits a Taylor expansion around 0:
X1 1
Z
f (z )
f (z ) = an z n ; ak = dz for any R > 0:
n=0 2i jzj=R z k+1
Hen e, taking R  M and using the standard estimate for integrals and
the given growth ondition on f , we have
 
1 MR
jak j  2 Rk+1

2R = MR k :
Sin e R an be made arbitrarily large, it follows that for k >  we must
have ak = 0. We on lude that f an only be a polynomial of degree not
greater than .
For example if f (z ) is entire su h that f (z )=z n is bounded in C , then
f (z ) = z n for some onstant . For a generalization of Theorem 6.60, we
refer to Exer ise 6.89.
6.61. Remark. We remark that it is possible that a real dieren-
tiable fun tion f an map C onto the unit disk
= fz : jz j < 1g, as the
example
!
z x y
z 7! p ; i.e. f (x; y) = p ;p ;
1 + jz j2 2
1+x +y 2 1 + x2 + y2
6.5 Doubly Periodi Entire Fun tions 297

shows. Note that this has an inverse given by

!
w u v
w 7! p ; i.e. f 1(u; v) = p ;p :
1 jwj2 1 (u + v ) 1 (u2 + v2 )
2 2

However, an immediate appli ation of Liouville's theorem shows that this is

not the ase with analyti fun tions as \every analyti fun tion f : C !

is onstant." In other words, there an be no bianalyti (i.e. a bije tion
whi h is analyti together with its inverse) mapping of the unit disk
onto
the whole omplex plane C or of the upper half-plane onto C . 
Moreover, as a onsequen e of Theorem 6.60, we on lude that if f is
entire and jf (z )j  A + B jz j for all suÆ iently large jz j and for some
xed onstants A; B and 0   < 1, then f is onstant. This observation
reminds us that we need not assume that jf (z )j is bounded in Liouville's
theorem, only that its growth is suÆ iently slow.

6.62. Example. Suppose that f = u + iv is an entire fun tion whi h

is blessed with the property that uy vx = 2 for all z 2 C . What an
you say about the fun tion f ? Can it be a onstant fun tion? Clearly not!
Can this be a polynomial of higher degree? The given ondition shows that
this is not the ase (how?). Let us now try to nd the pre ise form of this
fun tion. By the C-R equation uy = vx , the given ondition is the same
as vx = 1 whi h, by the fa t that f 0 (z ) = ux + ivx, is equivalent to
Im f 0 (z ) = 1 for z 2 C :
This observation implies that f 0 (z ) is a onstant, say a, so that f has the
form f (z ) = az + b 0with Im a = 1. Alternatively, as Im f 0 (z ) = 1, h(z )
dened by h(z ) = eif (z) is entire and jh(z )j = e 1 shows that h (and hen e
f 0 (z )) is onstant, by Liouville's theorem. 

6.5 Doubly Periodi Entire Fun tions

Re all that a fun tion f has a period ! if f (z + !) = f (z ) for all z 2 C .
To obtain another appli ation of Liouville's theorem, we rst re all two
familiar periodi fun tions of a real variable x:

sin(x + 2) = sin x ; for all x 2 R :
os(x + 2) = os x
Does the property hold when we allow x to be omplex rather than just
real, for ea h of these fun tions? By the Uniqueness theorem, yes it is.
Thus, sin z and os z are periodi fun tions with period 2. Is ex periodi if
x 2 R? No. Indeed, this fun tion is a stri tly in reasing one-to-one fun tion
298 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

on R. However, in view of the periodi ity property of sin z and os z , we

have
os(z + 2) + i sin(z + 2) = os z + i sin z for all z 2 C ;
that is ez+2i = ez for all z 2 C showing that the omplex exponential
fun tion ez is periodi with period 2i, whi h is a purely imaginary num-
ber. So, 2 is a period for the entire fun tions eiz , os z and sin z . It is
therefore natural to ask whether there exists a non-trivial doubly periodi
entire fun tion f (i.e. f with two independent periods !1 and !2 su h that
f (z ) = f (z + !1 ) = f (z + !2 ) for all z 2 C ). Equivalently, we raise the
following
6.63. Problem. Does there exist an entire fun tion f having both a
real and an imaginary period? More pre isely, are there two non-zero real
numbers ,  su h that

f (z + ) = f (z ) for all z 2 C ?
f (z + i ) = f (z )
Let us rst show that every entire fun tion f su h that
f (z ) = f (z + 1) = f (z + i) on C
is ne essarily a onstant. To do this, we onsider the solid square
S = fx + iy : 0  x; y  1g:
Sin e f is ontinuous on S , there exists an M su h that jf (z )j  M on S .
Now, let z 2 C be arbitrary. Clearly, we an nd two integers m and n
su h that z + m + in 2 S and therefore, jf (z + m + in)j  M for z 2 C .
Further, the hypotheses imply that
f (z ) = f (z  1) =


= f (z + m) = f (z| +{zm} +i) =


= f (z| +{zm} +in)
showing that f is bounded in C as the behavior of f (z ) over C is ompletely
hara terized by its behavior on the ompa t set S . Therefore, by Liou-
ville's theorem, f is a onstant. More generally, a simple modi ation of
this dis ussion gives the following result whi h answers Problem 6.63.
6.64. Theorem. If f : C !C is analyti and
f (z ) = f (z + z1 ) = f (z + z2 ) for all z 2 C ;
where z1 and z2 are the two non-zero omplex numbers su h that z1 =z2 62 R,
then f is onstant.
6.6 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 299

Proof. Sin e z1 =z2 is not real, ea h z 2 C an be written in the form

z = 1 z1 + 2 z2
where 1 ; 2 2 R. But 1 and 2 may be written as 1 = t1 + n1 and
2 = t2 + n2 , that is
z = (t1 + n1 )z1 + (t2 + n2 )z2 = (t1 z1 + t2 z2 ) + (n1 z1 + n2 z2 )
for some integers n1 ; n2 and some 0  t1 ; t2 < 1. Obviously if z1 and z2 are
the periods of f , so is m1 z1 + m2 z2 for any integers m1 and m2 and hen e,
we must have f (z ) = f (t1 z1 + t2 z2 ): Thus, the behavior of f is now entirely
hara terized by its behavior on the parallelogram
ft1z1 + t2 z2 : 0  t1 ; t2 < 1g:
From the analyti ity of f , it follows that jf j is ontinuous on the losed
parallelogram D = ft1 z1 + t2 z2 : 0  t1 ; t2  1g and so, f is bounded
for all z 2 D. Consequently, f is bounded on C . We then on lude, by
Liouville's theorem, that f is onstant.

6.6 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Does every analyti fun tion have a zero in C ? Clearly, the answer is
no as the familiar exponential fun tion ez shows. Thus, a trans endental
entire fun tion may have no zeros in C . Does every polynomial in x 2 R
with real oeÆ ients have a zero in R? Again the answer is no as the
equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no zeros in R. Does every polynomial in x 2 R
with rational oeÆ ients have a rational zero? Observe that the equation
x2 3 = 0 has no rational zeros. How about a non- onstant polynomial
with omplex oeÆ ients? The answer to this question is given by the
fundamental theorem of algebra.
Liouville's theorem an be used to provide a natural and short proof for
the fundamental theorem of algebra whi h asserts that every non- onstant
polynomial with omplex oeÆ ients has at least one omplex zero and
hen e has exa tly n zeros. In fa t, from the observations made below Li-
ouville's theorem, it is straightforward to see that if p is a polynomial of
degree n  1, then p(z ) = 0 has a zero in C ; be ause if it did not have,
then the fun tion 1=p(z ) would be bounded (how?) and analyti in C and
would therefore be onstant, whi h is a ontradi tion to the hypothesis. It
remains to prove that if p does not have any zeros, then it is bounded in C .
To do this, without loss of generality we an suppose that the polynomial
(with omplex oeÆ ients) has the form
p(z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+ an 1 z n 1 + z n (a0 6= 0, n  1):
300 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

Then intuitively, for large z , we an expe t that p(z ) should behave like z n ,
sin e the largest power dominates the other ones. Indeed, for jz j  1 (so
that jz jn  jz jn 1 


 jz j), we have
  
jp(z )j = z n zan0 + z na1 1 +


+ anz 1 + 1 
n  o
 jz jn 1  zan0 +


+ anz 1  ; by the triangle inequality;
  
 jz jn 1 jjzaj0nj +


+ jajnz j 1 j
 
 jz jn 1 jz1j (ja0 j +


+ jan 1 j) :
Hen e, for suÆ iently large jz j (e.g. jz j = R  R0 = maxf1; 2(ja0j +


+
jan 1 j)g), we have
jp(z )j  jz2j :
n
(6.65)
Then, for jz j  R,  
 1 
 
 p(z )   jz2jn  R2n :
On the ompa t set
R = fz 2 C : jz j  Rg, the fun tion 1=p(z ), being
ontinuous on
R , is bounded in the disk by some M = maxjzj=R j1=p(z )j.
Therefore, j1=p(z )j is bounded above for all z 2 C by maxfM; 2R ng. Thus,
1=p(z ) is a bounded entire fun tion and hen e, must be onstant whi h is
absurd. Therefore, p(z ) = 0 has a zero.
Here is a pre ise formulation of the fundamental theorem of algebra.
P
6.66. Theorem. Let p(z ) = nk=0 ak z k be a non- onstant polyno-
mial of degree n  1 with omplex oeÆ ients. Then, p has n zeros in
C . That is, there exist n omplex
Q numbers z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn , not ne essarily
distin t, su h that p(z ) = an nk=1 (z zk ).
Proof. If a 2 C , then by the `division algorithm' there is a polynomial
q of degree n 1 su h that p(z ) = (z a)q(z ) + R; where R is a onstant.
Clearly,
R=0 () p(a) = 0 () z a is a fa tor of p(z ):
Sin e there exists a z1 su h that p(z1) = 0, z z1 is a fa tor of p(z ) with
no remainder term. By the `division algorithm' there is a polynomial pn 1
of degree n 1 su h that p(z ) = (z z1 )pn 1 (z ); be ause
p(z ) p(z1 ) = a1 (z z1 ) +


+ an 1 (z n 1 z1n 1) + (z n z1n )
= (z z1 )pn 1 (z ):
6.7 Zeros of ertain Polynomials 301

This shows that p has a linear fa tor z z1. Thus, if n > 1, then by applying
the same prin iple we on lude that there is another omplex number, say
z2 , su h that pn 1(z2 ) = 0 and so pn 1 has a linear fa tor z z2. Pro eeding
in this manner, we an express p uniquely as a produ t of linear fa tors:
n
Y
p(z ) = an (z zk )
k=1
where z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn are (not ne essarily distin t) the zeros of p(z ).
Observe that there is no analogue of the fundamental theorem of algebra
in the ase of real numbers. This an be easily seen by onsidering the
quadrati polynomial p(x) = 1 + x2 whi h has no real zeros. The following
result is referred to as an abbreviated statement of the fundamental theorem
of algebra.
6.67. Corollary. Every polynomial p(z ) of positive degree omits no
values, i.e. p(C ) = C . Ea h w 2 C is the image of exa tly n points in C .
Proof. If p(z ) is a polynomial of degree n, then q(z ) = p(z ) a is also
a polynomial of degree n for ea h xed a 2 C . By Theorem 6.66, p(z ) has
n-zeros. In other words, for ea h a 2 C there are n points z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn
su h that p(zj ) a = 0 for j = 1; 2; : : : ; n. Thus, p(C ) = C .

6.7 Zeros of ertain Polynomials

We start with a simple result before we move on to a dis ussion on the
lo ation of the zeros of ertain polynomials.
6.68. Theorem. If a polynomial p(z ) with real oeÆ ients has a zero
at  su h that Im () 6= 0, then the omplex onjugate  is also a zero of
p(z ). Indeed, if  is a zero of order k then  is also a zero with order k.
Proof. Set p(z ) = a0 + a1 z + a2z 2 +


+ anz n , where a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an
are all real and an 6= 0. Sin e  is a zero of p(z ), we have p() = 0: Taking
onjugation on both sides, we have p() = 0. Hen e,  is also a zero of the
polynomial p(z ). To prove the se ond assertion we note that if p(z ) has a
zero at  of order k, then
p() = p0 () =


= p(k 1) () = 0 and p(k) () 6= 0
whi h would then imply that
p() = p0 () =


= p(k 1) () = 0 and p(k) () 6= 0:
Thus, omplex zeros o ur as onjugate pairs with the same multipli ity.
302 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

The onvex hull of a set D  C is the interse tion of all the onvex sets
ontaining D. The losed onvex hull of D is the interse tion of all the losed
onvex sets ontaining D. In fa t, it an be seen that the onvex hull of
C is the set of all linear ombinations z = Pnj=1 j zj
points z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn 2P
with 0  j  1 and nj=1 j = 1: The on ept of onvex hull helps us to
dis uss the lo ation of the zeros of ertain polynomials.
6.69. Theorem. (Gauss's Theorem) Suppose that p(z ) is a polyno-
mial of degree n  1. Then, every zero of p0 (z ) lies in the onvex hull of
the set of zeros of p(z ).
Proof. Let p(z ) be a polynomial of the form
n
Y
p(z ) = (z zk );
k=1
where z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn are (not ne essarily distin t) the zeros of p(z ). Thus,
by logarithmi dierentiation, it follows from the above representation that
for z 6= zk
n n
p0 (z ) X 1 X (z zk )
(6.70) = =
p(z ) k=1 z zk k=1 jz zk j2
so that  0  X n  
p (z ) 1
= 2 (z zk ):
p(z ) k=1 jz zk j
If 2 C is su h that p( ) 6= 0 and p0 ( ) = 0, then the above equation
be omes Pn
zk j zk j 2
= Pk=1n j z j 2 :
k=1 k
Pn
Hen e is of the form = k=1 k zk , where

j = Pn
j zj j 2 ; j = 1; 2; : : : ; n:
k=1 j zk j
2

This shows that if z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn are the zeros of p(z ), then for every zero
of p0 (z ) there are non-negative numbers 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n su h that
n
X n
X
= k zk ; with k = 1:
k=1 k=1
6 0. If p( ) = 0 = p0 ( ),
The above onstru tion uses the fa t that p( ) =
then we simply take 1 = 1 and = 1
.
As an example to Theorem 6.69, we on lude that if all the zeros of a
polynomial p(z ) have negative real parts, then all the zeros of p0 (z ) have
negative real parts.
6.7 Zeros of ertain Polynomials 303

6.71. Alternate proof of Gauss's Theorem. Re all that every half-

plane H an be dened by the inequality (see 5.42)
 
z a
Im >0
b
Q omplex onstants a and b (b 6= 0). Consider the polynomial
for some
p(z ) = nk=1 (z zk ). Assume that zk 2 H for ea h k = 1; 2; : : : ; n. Then,
 
zk a
Im > 0:
b
If 2 C n H , then p( ) 6= 0. Therefore, Im (( a)=b)  0 and
     
zk a zk a
Im = Im Im <0
b b b
whi h implies that Im (b=( zk )) > 0 for ea h k = 1; 2; : : : ; n. Finally, by
(6.70), we see that
 0  X n  
p ( ) b
Im b = Im > 0 for 2= H
p( ) k=1
zk
and onsequently,
bp0( )
p( )
6= 0 or p0 ( ) 6= 0 whenever 2= H:
We omplete the proof of Gauss's theorem.
As an immediate appli ation of Gauss's theorem, we have
6.72. Theorem. (Lu as's Theorem) If all the zeros of a polynomial
lie in a half-plane, then the zeros of its derivative also lie in the same half-
plane.
If we apply Lu as theorem with referen e to half-planes determined by
ea h side of a onvex polygon, we obtain the following
6.73. Corollary. If all the zeros of a polynomial lie in the smallest
onvex polygon, then the zeros of its derivative also lie in the same polygon.
The rst equality in (6.70) immediately yields the following result. Later
we shall see that this is a onsequen e of a general result.
6.74. Theorem. If N is the number of zeros ( ounted a ording to
multipli ity) of the polynomial p(z ) in
(a; R), then
Z
p0 (z )
dz = 2iN:
jz aj=R p(z )
304 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

6.8 Exer ises

6.75. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true

or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) There exists an analyti fun tion f on
, f (0) = 1 + i, jf (z )j > 2 for
jz j = 1, and having a zero in
.
(b) For ea h n 2 N , one has maxjzjr jz n + bj = rn + jbj and the maximum
is attained at rei(Arg b+2k)=n , k 2 Z.
( ) Let f (z ) = z m=(z n + 2p), where m; n 2 N are xed, and p is real su h
that p > 1=2. Then, maxjzj1 jf (z )j = 1=(2p 1):
p
(d) If
= fz = x + iy : 0  x; y  1g, then maxz2
jz 2 2z j = 5.
(e) Suppose that f 2pH(
R ) and satises the onditions jf (z )j  2 on

R and f (0) = 3 + i. Then, f is a onstant on
R .
(f) Suppose that f is an entire fun tion and has zeros at z = 2i. If
M = maxjzj=3 jf (z )j, then jf (z )j  (M=5)jz 2 + 4j for jz j < 3.
(g) Let f be an entire fun tion and has n zeros at !k = e2ki=n (k =
0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1), the n-th roots of unity. If M = maxjzj=3 jf (z )j,
then jf (z )j  M (3n 1) 1 jz n 1j for jz j < 3.
(h) If f 2 H(
) su h that f has a zero of order n at z = 0, and M =
max jf (z )j, then jf (z )j  M jz jn for jz j  1.
jzj=1
(i) If w = 'a (z ) is a Mobius map of
onformally onto itself, f 2 H(
)
and g(w) = f (z ), then (1 jwj2 ) jg0 (w)j = (1 jz j2 ) jf 0 (z )j :
Note: What happens when g(w) = w?
(j) There exists an analyti fun tion f of
onto itself su h that f (0) =
1=2, f (1=2) = 1=3, and f (1=3) = 1=4.
(k) There exists an analyti fun tion f :
!
su h that f (1=2) = 0
and jf 0 (1=2)j  4=3:
(l) There exists an analyti fun tion f :
!
su h that f (0) = 1=2
and f 0 (0) = 3=4.
(m) There exists no analyti fun tion f :
!
su h that f (1=2) = 3=4
and f 0 (1=2) = 3=4:
(n) If f is entire and jf 0 (z )j  jz j for all z , then f is of the form a + bz 2
with jbj  1=2.
(o) If jai j  1, i = 1; 2; : : : ; n 1, then ea h zero of the polynomial
p(z ) = z n + an 1 z n 1 +


+ a2 z 2 + a1 z + 1 lies in the annulus
D = fz : 1=2 < jz j < 2g.
(p) Ea h polynomial of the form p(z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+ an 1 z n 1 + z n
satises the inequality supfjp(z )j : jz j  1g  1:
6.8 Exer ises 305

(q) If f is entire and Re f (z ) is bounded as jz j ! 1, then f is onstant.

(r) Suppose f is entire whi h takes real z into real and purely imaginary
into purely imaginary. Then, f is an odd fun tion.
(s) If f is entire su h that f omits a non-empty disk, then f is onstant.
(t) An entire fun tion f whose imaginary part is the square of the real
part is onstant in C .
(u) If k 6= 1 is a xed onstant and f is entire su h that f (z ) = f (kz ) for
all z 2 C , then f is onstant on C .
(v) An entire fun tion f su h that f (z ) 6= 0 in C and limz!1 f (z ) 6= 0 is
ne essarily a onstant.
(w) An entire fun tion f su h that jf 0 (z )j  2jf (z )j must be of the form
beaz for some onstants a and b with jaj  2.
(x) If f = u + iv is entire and u2  v2 + 2004 on C , then f is a onstant.
(y) If u(z ) = u(x; y) is harmoni in C satisfying the ondition u(z ) 
aj ln jz j j + b for some positive onstants a, b and for all z 2 C , then
show that u is a onstant.
(z) If u(z ) = u(x; y) is harmoni in C su h that u(z )  jz jn for some
n 2 N and for all z 2 C , then u(z ) is a polynomial in x and y.

6.76. Dene f (z ) = 1 z for jz j  1. Show that jf (z )j attains its

maximum value when z = 1. If f (z ) is repla ed by g(z ) = (1 z )2 or
1 z 2, does the same on lusion hold?

6.77. If f 2 H(
) is su h that jf (z )j < 1 for z 2
and f xes two

distin t points of
, then show that f is the identity fun tion.

6.78. Does there exist an analyti fun tion f :
!
with f (0) =

1=2 and f 0(0) = 3=4? Either nd su h an f or state why there does not
exist su h a fun tion f . Answer the same question when f (0) = 1=2 and
f 0 (0) = 4=5.

6.79. Suppose that f is analyti and Re f (z ) < 0 in
. Find an

estimate for jf 0 (0)j.

6.80. If f 2 H(
), f (0) = 1 and jRe f (z )j < 1 for z 2
, then show

that jf 0 (0)j  4=.

6.81. If f 2 H(
), f (0) = 0 and if there exists a onstant  > 0 su h

that Re f (z ) <  for all z 2
, then show that jf (z )j  2jz j=(1 jz j) for
z 2
and jf 0 (0)j  2.
306 Maximum Prin iple, S hwarz' Lemma, and Liouville's Theorem

6.82. Suppose that f is analyti on
R with jf (z )j  M < 1 for all

z 2
R , and f (z0) = w0 for some z0 with jz0 j < R. Show that
 
f (z ) w0 
 R jRjz2 zz0 jz j for jz j < R:

M 
M 2 w0 f (z )  0
Interpret the ase z0 = 0 = w0 geometri ally and show that in this ase
the equality is a hieved for some 0 2
R n f0g i f is of the form f (z ) =
Mei z=R, where  is real.
6.83. Suppose f is analyti and bounded by M for z 2
and has
QN  z zj 
zeros at the points z1; : : : ; zN 2
. Prove that jf (z )j  M j=1  1 zj z 
for all z 2
. Is this an improvement over the hypothesized inequality
jf (z )j  M ? What an you say about f if equality holds for some z 62
fz1; z2 ; : : : ; zN g?
6.84. If f :
!
is analyti su h that f (0) = f (1=3) = f ( 1=3),
then show that jf (1=4)j  7=572. Show also that the bound 7=572 annot
be made smaller.
6.85. Prove or disprove the following: there is no bianalyti mapping
of the right half-plane U = fz : Re z > 0g onto the whole omplex plane.
6.86. Let f be entire su h that jf (z )j  eRe z for z 2 C . What an
you say about f ?
6.87. Find the set of all entire fun tions f su h that jf (z )j  jz j5=2 +
jz j9=2
for z 2
. Justify your answer with a proof.
6.88. If p(z ) = a0 + a1z +


+ an 1z n 1 + z n (n  1), then show that
there exists a real R > 0 su h that 2 1 jz jn  jp(z )j  2jz jn for jz j  R:
6.89. If f is an entire fun tion whi h for some real numbers  and
 satises Re f (z )   jz j for all z with suÆ iently large jz j, then f is a
polynomial of degree not greater than  (see also Exer ise 10.35).
6.90. In ea h ase given below, determine whether or not there exists
a non- onstant entire fun tion f (z ) satisfying the following onditions. If
there is, give an example. If not explain why not.
(i) f (0) = ei and jf (z )j = 1=2 for all z 2 

(ii) f (ei ) = 3 and jf (z )j = 1 for all z with jz j = 3
(iii) f (0) = 1, f (i) = 0, and jf (z )j  10 for all z 2 C
(iv) f (0) = 4 3i and jf (z )j  5 for all z 2

(v) f (z ) = 0 for all z = n, n 2 Z.
Chapter 7

Classi ation of Singularities

Consider the fun tions

1 1 1
; x sin ; exp( 1=x3 ); :
x2 x x(x2 + 2)
Then we see that the point x = 0 is a singular point for ea h of these fun -
tions in the sense that the fun tion is dened in a deleted neighborhood of
0. The problem of lassifying singularities is not satisfa tory for fun tions
dened only on R. On the other hand the situation is quite dierent for
fun tions dened on domains in C . In Se tion 7.1, we start our dis ussion
on isolated and non-isolated singularities and lassify an isolated singularity
as a removable singularity, or a pole, or an essential singularity. In Se tion
7.2, we dis uss removable singularities and present Riemann's removable
singularity theorem for hara terizing whether an isolated singularity is re-
movable. Se tion 7.3 is devoted to a dis ussion on poles. In Se tion 7.4,
we show that isolated singularities an be lassied in a simple way using
Laurent's series. In Se tion 7.5, we introdu e the notion of an isolated sin-
gularity at 1. Analyti fun tions with only poles as singularities play a
prominent role in fun tion theory with a spe ial name, meromorphi fun -
tions. In Se tion 7.6, we dis uss some aspe ts of meromorphi fun tions
through a number of examples and hara terizations. As a onsequen e,
we present an analog of Liouville's theorem for meromorphi fun tions. In
Se tion 7.7, we dis uss the errati behavior of fun tions near an essential
singularity via Casorati-Weierstrass theorem whi h provides a basis for un-
derstanding the importan e of Pi ard's little theorem.

7.1 Isolated and Non-isolated Singularities

A point z = a is alled a regular point for a omplex-valued fun tion f
if f is analyti at a. Point a is alled a singular point or a singularity,
of f , if f is not analyti at a but every neighborhood of a ontains at
308 Classi ation of Singularities

t
ch cu
a5 N (a) bran
a3 a O x
a2 an DA
a4 a1

Figure 7.1: Des ription for a non-isolated singularity at a.

least one point at whi h f is analyti . A singular point a is said to be an

isolated singular point or an isolated singularity of f if f is analyti in some
deleted neighborhood of a. Otherwise, we say a is a non-isolated singular
point of f (see Figures 7.1 and 7.2). Equivalently, we say that a point a
is a non-isolated singularity of f i a is a singularity and every deleted
neighborhood of a ontains at least one singularity of f . For example, z 1
has an isolated singular point at z = 0 while the fun tion 1= sin(z ) has
isolated singularities at every integer point n, n 2 Z. On the other hand,
every point on the negative real axis (in luding the point z = 0) is a non-
isolated singularity of Log z , thepprin ipal bran h of the logarithm fun tion.
How about the singularities of z, the prin ipal square root fun tion?
Note that the on ept of singularities of a fun tion f very mu h depends
upon the domain of the fun tion f . For instan e, f (z ) = z 2 on C n f0g
has an isolated singularity at z = 0 whereas the restri tion g(z ) = z 2 on
C n
does not have a singularity at z = 0. However, this ambiguity will be
removed during the dis ussion on analyti ontinuation.
Entire fun tions have no singular points but an have zeros, for example
f (z ) = z n ez , n 2 N . Rational fun tions p(z )=q(z ); where p(z ) and q(z )
are polynomials, have isolated singularities at points where q(z ) = 0. For
example, the rational fun tion
z+1
on C n f0; 3g
z 2 3z
has isolated singularities at 0; 3.
7.1. Example. What are the singular points of ea h of the fun tions
z; Im z; Re z; z Im z; z Re z; jz j2 ?
Observe that ea h of the fun tions listed here is nowhere analyti . This
does not mean that every point of C is a singularity. In fa t, as there exists
no neighborhood (about any point of C ) whi h ontains a point at whi h
7.1 Isolated and Non-isolated Singularities 309

a1
N (a1 )

a2
a3 N (a2 )
N (a3 )

Figure 7.2: Des ription for isolated Singularities at a1 ; a2 and a3 .

the fun tion is analyti , none of the fun tions listed above has singularities
in C . 

7.2. Example. Let us dis uss the singularities of g(z ) = 1=f (z ),

where f (z ) = sin(1=z ): So the dis ussion of singularities of g follows imme-
diately from the zeros of sin(1=z ). Thus, the singularities of g are at points
zn = 1=n for n 2 Z and at their limit point z = 0. This shows g has
isolated singularities at zn = 1=n for n 2 Z and a non-isolated singularity
at the limit point z = 0.
Similar dis ussion shows that (z ) = 1= os(1=z ) has isolated singulari-
ties at the points zn = 2((2n+1)) 1 ; n 2 Z: Note that, every neighborhood
N of z = 0 ontains singular points dierent from z = 0. So, z = 0 is a
non-isolated singularity of (z ). In both the ases, for ea h zn , there are
neighborhoods (say ir les of suÆ iently small radius Æ) whi h ontain no
other singularity. This means that these singularities are isolated. 
Let us now look at the following fun tions dened for z 2 C n f0g:
sin z 1
f1 (z ) = ; f2 (z ) = n (n 2 N ); and f3 (z ) = e1=z :
z z
Clearly, ea h of these fun tions is analyti in C n f0g. Is it possible to dene
ea h of these fun tions at the origin so that the resulting fun tion in ea h
ase be omes ontinuous at the origin? We observe the following:

!0 f1 (z ) = 1, there exists an entire fun tion F1 (z ) su h that

(1) As zlim
F1 (0) = 1 and F1 (z ) = f1 (z ) for z 2 C n f0g.
(2) Sin e jf2 (z )j is large when jz j is small, f2(z ) is unbounded near 0. So,
there is no way we an dene f2 (z ) at 0 so that the resulting fun tion
be omes ontinuous at the origin. Also, limz!0 f2(z ) = 1,
lim z n f2 (z ) = 1 and zlim
z !0
m
!0 z f2 (z ) = 0 for all m > n:
310 Classi ation of Singularities

(3) Finally,
(a) if z = x > 0, then for x near 0, jf3 (z )j = e1=x is large
(b) if z = x > 0, then for x near 0, jf3 (z )j = e 1=x is small
( ) if z = iy 6= 0, then jf3 (z )j = je i=y j = 1 for ea h y 6= 0.
Thus, zlim!0 f3 (z ) fails to exist (in luding the possibility of the limit
being innity). In parti ular, there exists no entire fun tion F3 (z )
su h that F3 (z ) = f3 (z ) for z 2 C n f0g. Moreover, there exists no
n 2 N su h that the limit zlim n
!0 z f3 (z ) exists. Indeed, with x > 0 and
a xed n 2 N , we have
t
lim z n e1=z = lim e = 1
z=x!0 1=x=t!1 t n
and t t
lim z n e1=z = lim e = ( 1) n lim e = 0
z= x!0 t!1 ( t)n t!1 tn
t>0 t>0
so that neither f3 (z ) nor z n f3 (z ) is bounded near 0 for any n 2 N .
The examples illustrated above motivates one to lassify isolated singu-
larities of f into three ategories. Suppose that f has an isolated singularity
at a point a. Then exa tly one of the following holds:
(a) f (z ) is bounded near a
(b) f (z ) is unbounded near a but (z a)n f (z ) is bounded near a for some
n2N
( ) there exists no n 2 N su h that (z a)n f (z ) is bounded near a, i.e.
neither (a) nor (b) holds.
Thus, the above three situations are lassied respe tively as follows:
(1) Removable singularity, whi h upon loser examination reveals that
this is not a tually onsidered to be a singular point at all. More
pre isely, an isolated singularity z = a of f is said to be a removable
singularity for f if limz!a f (z ) exists in C .
(2) Pole arises from the re ipro al of an analyti fun tion with zero. More
pre isely, an isolated singularity z = a of f is said to be a pole for f
if limz!a f (z ) = 1. (Note that f (z ) is dened if z is near enough to
a and z 6= a.)
(3) Essential singularity, whi h is neither a removable singularity nor a
pole. More pre isely, an isolated singularity z = a of f is said to be an
essential singularity for f if limz!a f (z ) does not exists in C 1 . The
behavior of a fun tion in a neighborhood of an essential singularity is
des ribed by the Casorati-Weierstrass theorem (Theorem 7.40).
We dis uss ea h of these ases in detail, and prove a few relevant theorems
in ea h ase.
7.2 Removable Singularities 311

7.2 Removable Singularities

An isolated singularity z0 of f is alled removable or that f has a removable
singularity at z0 if f an be dened at z0 so that it be omes analyti at z0 .
7.3. Example. Consider the following fun tions:
 z 2
e 1
f1 (z ) = sin z (z 6= 1); f4 (z ) = (z 6= 0)
z
z 2(1 os z )
f2(z ) = z (z 6= 0); f5 (z ) = (z 6= 0)
e 1 z2
sin z Log (1 z )
f3 (z ) = (z 6= 0); f6 (z ) = (z 6= 0):
z z
All of these fun tions ex ept f1 have removable singularities at 0; and f1
has a removable singularity at z = 1: These singularities an be removed
by letting f1 (1) = sin 1 and fj (0) = 1 (2  j  6), respe tively. 
If f is analyti on an open set D and z0 2 D, then the fun tion F
dened by
f (z ) f (z0 )
F (z ) = ; z 2 D nfz0g
z z0
is analyti on D nfz0g and limz!z0 F (z ) = f 0 (z0 ): Thus F has a removable
singularity at z0 , whi h an be removed by letting F (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ).
7.4. Example. Let f be dened by
z 2 + a2
f (z ) = ; z 6= ia:
z + ia
Clearly, f 2 H(C n f iag). For z 6= ia, we have f (z ) = z ia and therefore,
lim f (z ) = 2ai: Thus, f has removable singularity at z = ia. Now we
z! ia
set 8 2 2
< z + a for z 6= ia
g(z ) = z + ia
:
2ai for z = ia:
Then, g be omes analyti everywhere in luding at z = ia. 
Suppose that f has a removable singularity at a point z0 , say. Then
there is a fun tion g analyti at z0 su h that f (z ) = g(z ) for all z in a deleted
neighborhood of z0 . In parti ular, f is bounded near z0 . The onverse
of this statement provides a useful riterion for determining whether an
isolated singularity is removable.
7.5. Theorem. (Riemann's Removable Singularity Theorem) If f
has an isolated singularity at z0 , then z = z0 is a removable singularity i
one of the following onditions holds:
312 Classi ation of Singularities

(i) f is bounded in a deleted neighborhood of z0 ,

!z0 f (z ) exists,
(ii) zlim

!z (z z0 )f (z ) = 0.
(iii) zlim
0
Proof. Suppose that f has an isolated singularity at z0 . Then f is
analyti in some deleted neighborhood of z0 , say on 0 < jz z0 j < Æ. For
proving `(iii) implies z0 is a removable singularity', we introdu e
(
(z z0 )f (z ) for 0 < jz z0 j < Æ
h(z ) =
0 for z = z0 :
By the hypothesis (iii), h is ontinuous at z0 . Sin e h, like f , is analyti
in the deleted neighborhood 0 < jz z0 j < Æ, it follows that h is analyti
at z = z0 (see Corollary 4.88). This means h is analyti throughout the
neighborhood jz z0 j < Æ. For z 6= z0 , let g be dened by
h(z ) h(z0 ) h(z )
g(z ) = = :
z z0 z z0
As limz!z0 g(z ) exists and equals h0 (z0 ) and g = f for z 6= z0 , we dene
f (z0 ) = h0 (z0 ). Thus, when (iii) holds, f an be extended to be analyti in
jz z0 j < Æ. This observation, by denition, shows that the singularity at
z = z0 is removable.
The remaining parts are dedu ible from (iii), as limz!z0 (z z0 )f (z ) = 0
holds under (i) or (ii). Indeed, (ii) implies (iii) is trivial.
Finally, it remains to show that (i) implies that f has a removable
singularity. Now, we suppose that (i) holds. Then, jf (z )j  M for 0 <
jz z0 j  r and for a small r > 0. The Laurent oeÆ ient ak gives
 Z 

 1 f (z ) dz  M
jak j = 
 2i jz z0 j=r

(z z0 )k+1  rk
whi h approa hes zero as r ! 0, when k < 0. We dedu e that ak = 0 when
k 2 N . Consequently, limz!z0 f (z ) exists and therefore, z0 is a removable
singularity of f .

From the proof of Theorem 7.5, it follows that if f has an isolated

singularity at z = z0 and satises the ondition

jf (z )j  jz Mz j5=6
0
in a neighborhood of z = z0 , then z = z0 must be a removable singularity
of f . Is it the ase if we repla e 5=6 by an  with  < 1? Also, Theorem 7.5
7.2 Removable Singularities 313

infers that there exists no fun tion analyti at z0 with f (z )  (z z0 ) 

whenever  2 (0; 1).
Next we illustrate by an example that a result similar to Theorem 7.5
is not available for fun tions of a real variable. Consider f : R n f0g ! R
dened by f (x) = x 1=3 . We see that jxf (x)j = jxj2=3 ! 0 as x ! 0 but
f (x) annot be extended to be (real) dierentiable near 0. Here is another
example. Consider g(x) = jxj for x 6= 0. Then limx!0 g(x) = 0 but g(x)
annot be extended so that it is (real) dierentiable at x = 0.

7.6. Example. Consider the fun tion

f (z ) = os(1=jz j) or sin(1=jz j); z 2 C n f0g:
Then f is ontinuous (in fa t real dierentiable innitely often) and bounded
on C nf0g, yet f annot be extended to be ontinuous on any neighborhood
of the origin. Thus, the situation for (real-valued) C 1 -fun tions is dierent
from that of the ase of analyti fun tions. 
7.7. Remark. Let us look at the statement (ii) of Theorem 7.5.
Then the following situations o ur:
(a) f may not be dened at z0
(b) f may be dened at z0 but f (z0 ) may not be equal to limz!z0 f (z )
( ) f may be dened at z0 and f (z0 ) is equal to limz!z0 f (z ).
In the last ase, f is not singular at z0 . Thus if f has a removable singularity
at z0 then either (a) or (b) holds, as dis ussed in the introdu tion. 

7.8. Remark. If f and g are analyti and if both have a zero of

order n at z0 , then we may write
f (z ) = (z z0 )n f0 (z ); and g(z ) = (z z0 )n g0 (z )
where f0 and g0 are both analyti and non-zero at z0 , and hen e
f (z ) f0 (z0 )
lim
z!z0 g (z )
=
g0 (z0 )
exists. This means that f (z )=g(z ) has a removable singularity at z0 . For
instan e ea h of the fun tions fj (j = 1; 2), where
ez 1 z sin z
f1 (z ) = and f2 (z ) = ;
z z sin z
has a removable singularity at z = 0. 
314 Classi ation of Singularities

7.9. Example. Consider the fun tion

f (z ) = (1 z 2 ) s (z ):
Then f is analyti on C n Z, and so f an be expressed as a Laurent series
about 0. Considering the lo ation of the singularities of f (z ), we see that
the Laurent series about 0 is valid for 0 < jz j < 1. Clearly, f extends to
be analyti both at z = 1 and z = 1. This observation shows that the
largest open set on whi h the Laurent expansion for f (z ) about 0 onverges
is 0 < jz j < 2.
Moreover, for fun tions su h as g(z ) = s (z ), there exist innitely
many Laurent series about the origin. For the fun tion g, the Laurent
series about 0 is valid in ea h of the annuli
Dk = fz 2 C : k < jz j < k + 1g (k = 0; 1; 2; : : :): 
7.3 Poles
We have seen that if f is bounded in a deleted neighborhood of an isolated
singularity at z0 , then z0 is a removable singularity of f . Thus if z0 is not
a removable singularity of f then, by Theorem 7.5, f is not bounded near
z0 . We might then ask whether (z z0 )n f (z ) is bounded near z0 for some
n 2 N . In this ase, we say that the point z0 is a pole of f and the smallest
positive integer n su h that (z z0 )n f (z ) is bounded near z0 is alled the
order of the pole at z0 . A pole of order one is alled a simple pole. For
example, the fun tion f (z ) = z 8 =(z 1)2 has a double pole at z = 1.
7.10. Example. The fun tion f (z ) = 1=(1 + eiz ) has simple poles
at z = 1 + 2k (k 2 Z) and z = 1 is the limit point of these poles, sin e the
ondition 1 + eiz = 0 implies that eiz = ei e2ki ; k 2 Z. 
7.11. Example. Consider the fun tion
z os(z=2a)
f (z ) = ;
(z a)(z 2 + b2 )7 sin5 z
where a and b are distin t non-zero real numbers. Then we see that f has
poles of orders: 7 at ib, 4 at z = 0, 5 at k (k 2 N ) and a removable
singularity at z = a. 
Observe that the ondition limz!z0 (z z0 )n f (z ) 6= 0 is equivalent to
the ondition that n is the smallest positive integer su h that (z z0 )n f (z )
has a removable singularity at z0 . This expresses the following
7.12. Theorem. If f is analyti in a deleted neighborhood of z0 ,
then f has a pole at z0 i there exists an n su h that (z z0 )n f (z ) is
7.3 Poles 315

bounded near z0 . More pre isely, f has a pole of order n i limz!z0 (z

z0 )n f (z ) 6= 0, and (z z0 )n f (z ) has a removable singularity at z0 , i.e.
limz!z0 (z z0 )n+1 f (z ) = 0:

7.13. Remark. Let f be analyti in a domain D and z0 2 D. Re all

that the fun tion f has a zero of order n at z0 i f (k) (z0 ) = 0 for k =
0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1 and f (n) (z0 ) 6= 0. From Taylor's expansion, it follows that
f has a zero of order n i
f (z ) = (z z0 )n g(z )
where g is analyti at z0 and g(z0 ) = f (n) (z0 )=n! 6= 0. Thus, we see that
f (z ) has a zero of order n at z0 i 1=f (z ) has a pole of order n at z0 .
For instan e let f (z ) = sin(z 2 ). Thenpwe see p that f (z ) has a double zero
at z0 = 0 and simple zeros at zk =   k, k = 1; 2; : : : , be ause
f (zk ) = 0 and f 0 (zk ) = 2zk os(p
zk2 ) 6= 0 for k 6= 0, and f (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) = 0,
f 00 (z0 ) 6= 0 (Here the notation  k is dened as in item 1.3). Thus, 1=f (z )
has a double pole at z0 and simple poles at zp k , k = 1; 2; : : : . Note that
Laurent's expansion for 1=f (z ) in 0 < jz j <  ontains even powers of z
only. 
In general, the following theorem tells us how we may determine poles
by their behavior in a deleted neighborhood.
7.14. Theorem. Let N be a deleted neighborhood of z0 su h that f
is analyti in N . If f has an isolated singularity at z0 , then z0 is a pole of
order n i there are positive onstants C1 and C2 su h that
C2  j(z z0 )n f (z )j  C1
for some deleted neighborhood N0 of z0 su h that N0  N .
Proof. Suppose that the inequalities hold. Then the right hand side of
the above inequality shows that (z z0 )n f (z ) is bounded for points near
z0 so that
(z z0 )n+1 f (z ) ! 0 as z ! z0
whereas the left inequality gives j(z z0 )n f (z )j  C2 as z ! z0 : So, by
Theorem 7.12, z0 is a pole of order n for f .
Assume that f has a pole of order n at z0. Then, (z z0 )n f (z ) is
bounded for points near z0 . By the removability theorem, there exists a
fun tion g whi h is analyti at z0 su h that (z z0 )n f (z ) = g(z ) in some
deleted neighborhood N0 of z0. If g were su h that g(z ) = (z z0 )ge(z ) with
ge analyti at z0 , then
g (z )
e = (z z0 )n 1 f (z )
316 Classi ation of Singularities

in N0 and is bounded near z0. This ontradi ts the fa t that z0 is a pole of

order n. This fa t shows that (z z0 )n 1 f (z ) is unbounded near z0. That
there are onstants C1 and C2 satisfying the required inequalities is then a
onsequen e of boundedness or unboundedness as the ase may be.
Note that Theorem 7.14 hara terizes poles of f through the behavior
of the values of f near z0 in the following form:
7.15. Theorem. If f (z ) has an isolated singularity at z0 , then f (z )
has a pole at z0 if and only if limz!z0 f (z ) = 1:
Proof. Suppose that f has a pole of order n at z0 . Then
f (z ) = (z z0 ) n g(z );
where g is analyti and is non-zero at z0 . So, by the ontinuity of g at z0
(see for example the proof of Theorem 2.10( )), there is a neighborhood N
of z0 on whi h f is dened (ex ept at z0 ) and

jg(z )j  jg(2z0)j for z 2 N:

Hen e, jf (z )j  jg(z0 )j jz z0j n =2 for z 2 N nfz0 g; i.e. limz!z0 jf (z )j = 1:
Conversely, suppose that f has an isolated singularity at z0 su h that
limz!z0 f (z ) = 1: Then, for a given  = 1, there exists a Æ > 0 su h that
jf (z )j >  = 1 for 0 < jz z0 j < Æ:
Consequently, the fun tion 1=f (z ) is analyti and bounded on the pun -
tured disk 0 < jz z0 j < Æ with limz!z0 1=f (z ) = 0: By Riemann's remov-
ability theorem, it follows that 1=f (z ) has a removable singularity at z0 .
Dene (
1=f (z ) for 0 < jz z0 j < Æ
g (z ) =
0 for z = z0 :
Then, g 2 H(
(z0 ; Æ)). Clearly, g is not identi ally zero on
(z0 ; Æ) but
g(z ) has a zero at z0 . It follows that there exists an n 2 N su h that
g(z ) = (z z0 )n (z );
where 2 H(
(z0 ; Æ)) and (z0 ) =6 0. As (z0 ) =6 0 and g(z ) =6 0 on
0 < jz z0 j < Æ, we have
 
1 (z ) 1
f (z ) = = (z ) =
g(z ) (z z0 )n (z )

!z0 (z z0 ) f (z ) = (z0 ) 6= 0 showing

where (z ) is analyti at z0. Hen e, zlim n
that f has pole of order n at z0.
7.4 Further Illustrations through Laurent's Series 317

The following theorem is an equivalent formulation of Theorem 7.14 in

the language of zeros a useful hara terization of zeros.
7.16. Theorem. If f is analyti in a deleted neighborhood N of z0 ,
then z0 is a zero of order n i there are nite positive onstants C1 and C2
su h that C2  j(z z0 ) n f (z )j  C1 for some deleted neighborhood N0
of z0 su h that N0  N .

7.17. Example. Let us now dis uss the singularities of

z 1 i
f (z ) = 2 :
z (4 + 3i)z + (1 + 5i)
First we obtain that the poles of f , if any, are determined by
z 2 (4 + 3i)z + (1 + 5i) = 0;
that is (with t2j = 3+4i for j = 1; 2), we have 2z = 4+3i+tj = 4+3i(2+i):
Therefore, we write
z 
f (z ) =
(z )(z  )
with  = 1 + i and  = 3 + 2i: Thus, f has a simple pole at z =  and a
removable singularity at z = . 
In view of Theorems 7.15 and 7.5, we arrive at a hara terization of
isolated essential singularities.
7.18. Theorem. If f has an isolated singularities at z0 , then f (z )
has an essential singularity at z0 i limz!z0 f (z ) fails to exist either as a
nite value or as an innite limit.

7.4 Further Illustrations through Laurent's Series

An obvious tool in hara terizing singularities is the Laurent series expan-
sion of a given fun tion about its isolated singularities. If f has an isolated
singularity at z0 , then we have the unique representation
X 1 X1
(7.19) f (z ) = ak (z z0 )k + ak (z z0 )k ; 0 < jz z0 j < r;
k= 1 k=0
where Z
1 f ( )d
(7.20) ak =
2i C ( z0 )k+1
and C an be any ir le with enter at z0 and radius less than r. If z0 is
the only singularity of f (z ) in C , then (7.19) is valid with r = 1. Note
also that the integral over C is taken in the positive dire tion and has the
318 Classi ation of Singularities

same value on any positively oriented urve whi h en loses z0 but no other
singularity of f (see the Cau hy deformation theorem). Then, a ording to
(7.20),
Z
1
(7.21) a 1= f (z ) dz:
2i C
The oeÆ ient a 1 of (z z0) 1 in the Laurent expansion (7.19) of f about
z0 , whi h is of spe ial signi an e, is alled the residue of f at z0 . We use
the notation
a 1 = Res [f (z ); z0℄
to denote the residue of f at z0 . Equation (7.21) provides a onvenient
way of evaluating ertain integrals (see Chapters 8 and 9) of a fun tion f
around an isolated singularity, sin e its value is simply the produ t of 2i
and the oeÆ ient of (z z0 ) 1 in its Laurent expansion (7.19).
Note that, throughout the above dis ussion, we have supposed that f
is dened for all z near z0 , but not ne essarily at z0 itself. Thus, the
lassi ation of the isolated singularity of f at z0 depends only on the lo al
behavior of f in a deleted neighborhood of z0 .
The rst part in (7.19), i.e. the series with negative powers of (z z0 ),
is alled prin ipal part whereas the se ond part in (7.19), i.e. the series with
non-negative powers of (z z0 ), is alled the regular/holomorphi /analyti
part. It is the rst part whi h plays an important role in deriving the har-
a ter of the singularities of f at the isolated singularity z0 . The following
three ases are mutually ex lusive.
Case 1. No prin ipal part. In this ase (7.19) takes the form
X1
f (z ) = ak (z z0 )k ; 0 < jz z0j < r:
k=0
Thus if we dene f (z0 ) = a0 = limz!z0 f (z ); then f be omes analyti at
z0 and so, on the entire disk jz z0j < r. This observation shows that z0
is a removable singularity. Similarly if f has a removable singularity at z0 ,
then ak = 0 for k  1; for, sin e we may write f (z ) = g(z ) for z 6= z0 ;
the Laurent series expansion for f must oin ide with the Taylor series
expansion for g near z0 . In other words, \f has a removable singularity
i, in (7:19), a k = 0 for k  1." For example, onsider the following
fun tions:
z3 z5
f1 (z ) = z +
3! 5!



(jz j > 0)
z2 z3
f2 (z ) = 1 +
2! 3!



(jz j > 0)
z2 z3
f3 (z ) = z
2
+
3



(0 < jz j < 1):
7.4 Further Illustrations through Laurent's Series 319

Then ea h of these fun tions have a removable singularity at z = 0, be ause

fj (j = 1; 2; 3) an be dened at z = 0 in su h a way that fj (j = 1; 2; 3)
be omes analyti at z = 0.
7.22. Example. Let f 2 H(
n f0g) su h that jf (z )j  ln(1=jz j)
for z 2
n f0g. Then, z = 0 is a removable singularity of f . Indeed, the
Laurent oeÆ ients an (n 2 Z) of f are given by
Z
1 f (z )
an = dz
2i jzj=r z n+1
so that jan j  r n ln(1=r). When n < 0, letting r ! 0 gives that an = 0,
and when n = 0, letting r ! 1 implies that a0 = 0. This observation
shows that the Laurent series expansion of f about the origin does not
have the prin ipal part, and so z = 0 is a removable singularity of f . 
Case 2. Finite prin ipal part. In this ase, a ording to Theorem
7.14, (7.19) be omes f (P z ) = (z z0 ) n g(z ) where g is analyti and non-zero
at z0 . Hen e if g(z ) = 1 k
k=0 bk (z z0 ) ; then we may write
1
X
f (z ) = ak (z z0 )k ; bn+k = ak ;
k= n
(a n = b0 = g(z0 ) 6= 0). The uniqueness of f (z ) is obvious from the
uniqueness of g(z ). The onverse assertion is lear. In other words, \f
has a pole of order n i, in (7:19), a n 6= 0, but a k = 0 for k  n + 1."
Moreover, the dis ussion here is equivalent to
7.23. Theorem. An isolated singularity at z0 of f (z ) is a pole of
z0 ) n g(z ), where g is analyti at z0 and g(z0) 6= 0.
order n i f (z ) = (z

Consider the following fun tions:

ez
f1 (z ) =
(z 1)4
e e e
= + + +


; jz 1j > 0;
(z 1)4 (z 1)3 2!(z 1)2
(1 z n)ez 1
f2 (z ) = = m +


; jz j > 0 (m > n):
zm z
Then, it is lear that f1 has a pole of order 4 at z = 1 and f2 has a pole of
order m at z = 0.
Case 3. Innite prin ipal part. The fun tion f has an essential
singularity at z = z0 exa tly when neither Case 1 nor Case 2 prevails.
In other words, \f has an essential singularity i, in (7:19), a k 6= 0 for
innitely many k  1."
320 Classi ation of Singularities

In this ase, limz!z0 f (z ) fails to exist (in luding the possibility of the
limit being innity) as we have seen with the fun tion f (z ) = e1=z . Here
e1=z has an essential singularity at z = 0. Similarly, it is easy to see that
the fun tion f (z ) = ez=(z b) = eeb=(z b) (b 6= 0) has an essential singularity
at z = b.
Consider the Laurent series
X 1 X1 zk
(7.24) zk + :
k= 1 k=0
2k+1

Observe that the rst series onverges for jz j > 1, while the se ond for
jz j < 2. Then the ombined series onverges to f (z ) for 1 < jz j < 2, where
1=z 1=2 1
f (z ) = + = :
1 1=z 1 z=2 (z 2)(z 1)
Observe that the Laurent series (7.24) has an innite number of negative
powers of z . But, sin e the region of onvergen e of the given Laurent
series does not in lude a deleted neighborhood of the origin, it would not
be orre t to on lude that the origin is an essential singularity of f . In
fa t, the limit fun tion f has simple poles at z = 1 and z = 2. This remark
is to aution the reader when dealing with a series of the form (7.24).
7.25. Example. Let f (z ) = (z a)2004 sin (1=(z b)) : Then, we
may rewrite f (z ) as
X1 1 1
f (z ) = (z b + b a)2004 ( 1)k 1
k=1
(2k 1)! (z b)2k 1
whi h implies that z = b is learly an essential
2 singularity of f . Similarly, it
is easy to see that ea h of the fun tions ze1=z , e 1=z , sin(1=z ), and os(1=z )
has an essential singularity at z = 0. 
7.5 Isolated Singularities at Innity
In the earlier se tions, we have dis ussed singularities of a fun tion whi h
lie in C . In this se tion we shall be on erned with fun tions that have
singularities at the point at innity as it is sometimes useful to think
about 1 just like any other point in C .
The role of the point at innity is understood through the inversion
w = z 1 as it allows us to pass ba k and forth between the neighborhoods
of 1 and the neighborhoods of 0. This fun tion is dened for every z 6= 0
and maps ea h point z in C ex ept z 6= 0, into a point in the w-plane. For
instan e, the ir le jz j = R is mapped onto jwj = 1=R. If we assign the
point at innity in the extended w-plane to z = 0 and w = 0 to the point at
7.5 Isolated Singularities at Innity 321

innity in the extended z -plane, then the inversion is one-to-one from the
extended z -plane to the extended w-plane, i.e. C 1 onto C 1 , a fa t whi h
was dis ussed in Chapter 5.
Let f (z ) be analyti for jz j > R, for some R with 0  R < 1. By
putting z = 1=w in f (z ), we obtain
(7.26) F (w) = f (1=w):
Then, F (w) is analyti in the deleted neighborhood fw : 0 < jwj < 1=Rg of
zero. The nature of the singularity of f (z ) at z = 1 (the point at innity)
is dened to be the same as that of F (w) at w = 0. That is, f (z ) has an
isolated singularity at 1 i F (w) = f (1=w) has an isolated singularity at
w = 0. In parti ular, \an analyti fun tion f (z ) on jz j > R is said to have
a removable singularity, a pole of order n, or an essential singularity at 1
i the fun tion f (1=z ) has a removable singularity, a pole of order n, or an
essential singularity at 0, respe tively".
For instan e, the fun tion f dened by f (z ) = z n (n 2 N ) has a pole of
order n at z = 1, sin e the orresponding F dened by
F (w) = f (1=w) = w n
has a pole of order n at w = 0. More generally, every polynomial of
degree n has a pole of order n at 1. Similarly, the fun tion f dened by
f (z ) = z 2 + z m has a pole of order two at z = 0 and a pole of order m
at innity. On the other hand, the fun tion f dened by f (z ) = ez has
an essential singularity at z = 1, sin e F dened by F (w) = f (1=w) =
e1=w has an essential singularity at w = 0. In the same way, it is easy
to verify that ea h of the fun tions eiz ; e z ; sinh z; osh z; sin z; os z has
an essential singularity at z = 1. Also, we see that every non onstant
and nonvanishing entire fun tion on C ne essarily has an isolated essential
singularity at 1.
Suppose that f (z ) has an isolated singularity at z = 1 and R is the
distan e from the origin to the farthest singular point of f (z ). (If point at
innity is the only singularity, then R may be hosen as an arbitrary large
positive number). Sin e we may write
f (z ) = f (1=w) = F (w) (w = 1=z; jz j > R);
F (w) has an isolated singularity at w = 0 and so the nearest singularity
of F (w) from w = 0 is at a distan e 1=R. Therefore, F (w) has a Laurent
expansion about w = 0:
X1
(7.27) f (1=w) = F (w) = an wn ; 0 < jwj < 1=R:
n= 1
Thus,
X1 X0 X1
f (z ) = a nzn = a n z n + a n z n ; jz j > R:
n= 1 n= 1 n=1
322 Classi ation of Singularities

Then the following ases arise.

Case 1. Suppose that, in (7.27), a n = 0 for all n  1. Then, we dene
F (0) = a0 so that the orresponding F (w) is analyti at w = 0. Hen e,
F (w) has a removable singularity at w = 0 i, in (7.27), a n = 0 for all
n  1. That is, f (z ) has a removable singularity at z = 1 i its Laurent
expansion about z = 1 has the form
1
X
f (z ) = an z n; jz j > R;
n=0
that is, i the Laurent expansion of f (z ) on jz j > R has no positive power
of z with nonzero oeÆ ients.
Case 2. Re all that F (w) has a pole of order k at w = 0 i (7.27) takes
the form
a a 1
X
F (w) = kk +


+ 1 + an wn (a k 6= 0; 0 < jwj < 1=R):
w w n=0
Hen e, f (z ) has a pole of order k at z = 1 i its Laurent expansion has
the form
1
X
f (z ) = a k z k +


+ a 1 z + an z n (a k 6= 0; jz j > R);
n=0
that is i the Laurent series of f (z ) for jz j > R has only a nite number of
positive powers of z with nonzero oeÆ ients. Here we dene the prin ipal
part of f (z ) at z = 1 to be the polynomial
a k z k + a k+1 z k 1+


+ a 1 z:
Case 3. If an innite number of a n for n  1 in (7.27) do not vanish,
then F (w) has an essential singularity at w = 0. In terms of f (z ), we say
that f (z ) has an essential singularity at z = 1 and we have
X1
f (z ) = an z n ; jz j > R;
n= 1

where an innite number of a n 's are non-zero for n  1.

Case 3 gives rise to the following interesting observation. \An entire
fun tion f (z ) is trans endental i f (1=z ) has an essential singularity at 0."
To see this we suppose that f (z ) is an entire trans endental. Then, we have
1
X
f (z ) = an z n for all z 2 C :
n=0
7.5 Isolated Singularities at Innity 323

If 0 is not an essential singular point of f (1=z ), then there exists a k (pos-

sibly for a suÆ iently large k) su h that
1
X
z k f (1=z ) = an z k n ; jz j > 0;
n=0
has a removable singularity at 0. This means that an = 0 for all n  k + 1,
that is f (z ) is a polynomial of degree at most k, ontrary to our assumption
that f (z ) is entire trans endental.
To prove the onverse part, suppose f (z ) is not trans endental. Then,
by the denition of trans endental fun tion, f (z ) is a polynomial and so we
write
g(z ) = f (1=z ) = a0 + a1 z 1 +


+ an z n:
But then g has either a pole (if n > 0) or a removable singularity (if n = 0)
at z = 0. The proof of the observation is omplete.
The above dis ussion an be equivalently stated as follows: \an entire
trans endental fun tion has ne essarily an essential singular point at in-
nity", for, otherwise it would have no singularities at all and would, by
Liouville's theorem, redu e to a onstant.
Let f be dened in some open set
of C 1 , and let f have isolated
singularities at a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :. Also, let a 2 C 1 be a limit point of the set
of these singularities. Then, for any neighborhood N of a, there is a singu-
larity (dierent from a) inside N , i.e. f annot be analyti in any deleted
neighborhood (
(a; Æ) nfag if a 2 C and jz j > Æ if a 2 1) of a. So f has
no Laurent expansion about a. In other words, a is neither a regular point
nor an isolated singularity. Thus, a is a non-isolated (essential) singularity
of f .
For instan e, ot(1=z ) has poles at z = 1=k; k = 1; 2; : : : . Hen e
the limit point z = 0 of these poles is a non-isolated (essential) singularity
of this fun tion.
7.28. Example. Consider f (z ) = 1= sin z for z 6= k, k 2 Z: Let us
dis uss the singularity of f at 1. For this we dene
g(z ) = f (1=z ) = 1= sin(1=z )
and dis uss the orresponding singularity of g at 0. Note that g is not
analyti at the origin, sin e every neighborhood of the origin ontains a
singularity. It follows that g(z ) has poles at the points z = 1=(k) (k 2 Z).
Note that z = 0 is not an isolated essential singularity for g(z ) as z = 0 is
a limit point for its poles at 1=(k) (k 2 Z). This observation shows that
f (z ) is not analyti in fz : jz j > Rg for any R > 0 and 1 is a non-isolated
(essential) singularity for f (z ).
Similarly, it is easy to see that 1 is a non-isolated (essential) singularity
for f (z ) = (ez 1) 1 . 
324 Classi ation of Singularities

7.29. Example. Consider the fun tion g(z ) = z 1(1 + z ) 1 : Then

g(1=w) = w2 =(1 + w) whi h is analyti at w = 0 and hen e, g(z ) is analyti
at innity. Similarly, we may easily verify that ea h of the fun tions
1 z
; ; exp(1=z 2)
1+z 1+z
is analyti at the point at innity.
On the other hand, fun tions sin z and os z are not analyti at the point
at innity, be ause both sin(1=z ) and os(1=z ) have an isolated essential
singularity at z = 0. 

7.30. Example. The fun tion g dened by g(z ) = z 4 sin(1=(z + 1))

has a pole of order three at the point at innity. On the other hand, the
fun tion 1=(z 2 sin(1=z )) has a removable singularity at innity. 

P f is entire. Then f has a power series expansion of the

Suppose that
form f (z ) = n0 an z n whi h onverges absolutely for all z 2 C . Thus,
X
F (z ) = f (1=z ) = an z n for jz j > 0
n0

and so z = 1 is an isolated singularity of f (z ), sin e 0 is an isolated

singularity of F (z ). There are now three possibilities:
(i) f (z ) has a removable singularity at z = 1
(ii) f (z ) has a pole of order k at z = 1
(iii) f (z ) has an essential singularity at z = 1.
In ase (i), the expansion ontains no powers of z and so f (z ) = a0 .
Alternatively, by Liouville's theorem, f (z ) redu es to a onstant. Thus,
\an entire fun tion f : C ! C has a removable singularity at z = 1 i
f (z ) is onstant".
In ase (ii), as dis ussed above, f (z ) has a pole of order k ( 1) at 1 i
the expansion of f (z ) ontains only a nite number of positive powers and
an = 0 for n > k. Consequently, \an entire fun tion f : C ! C has a pole
at z = 1 (of order k ) i f (z ) is a non onstant polynomial (of degree k )".
Case (iii) o urs i an 6= 0 for innitely many n's. Consequently, f (z )
is a trans endental entire fun tion-a fa t whi h has been onrmed earlier
too.

7.6 Meromorphi Fun tions

A fun tion analyti in a domain D  C ex ept possibly for poles is alled
meromorphi in D.
7.6 Meromorphi Fun tions 325

Suppose that f is meromorphi in D su h that D ontains fz : jz j > rg

for some r > 0. Then, the fun tion f is said to be meromorphi at z = 1 if
g(z ) = f (1=z ) is meromorphi in a neighborhood of z = 0, i.e. in the usual
sense on
1=r . The denition as stated is equivalent to requiring that f
has a pole at 1 but has no poles in fz : jz j > Rg for some R > r.
Here are some basi examples of meromorphi fun tions in C .
(i) f (z ) = ez =z 2 is meromorphi in C , sin e f is analyti in C n f0g and
the singularity at 0 is a double pole.
(ii) every analyti fun tion in D  C is obviously meromorphi . Conse-
quently, sums and produ ts of meromorphi fun tions are meromor-
phi . It is important to remark that the fun tions f (z ) = ez =z 2 and
g(z ) = z ez =z 2 are meromorphi in C , but f + g has a removable
singularity at z = 0. Here we regard f + g as an extended analyti
fun tion in C (by dening its value at the origin as its limiting value,
namely (f + g)(0) = 0) and hen e, we treat f + g as a meromorphi
fun tion.
(iii) f (z ) = 1= sinh z is meromorphi in C sin e the singularities of f
are poles at z = ki; k 2 Z. Further, fun tions 1= sin z , 1= os z ,
os z= sin z , sin z= os z , 1= osh z and 1=(ez 1) are all meromorphi
in C . Note also that 1 is the limit point of poles for these fun tions.
(iv) any rational fun tion R(z ), where the numerator and the denomina-
tor of R(z ) have no ommon fa tor, is meromorphi in C sin e it is
analyti in C ex ept at the zeros of the denominator where R(z ) has
poles. (Note that ea h of the fun tions involved in (iii) is not rational
sin e the set of poles for ea h of these fun tions is ountably innite).
We an express R(z ) as a quotient of polynomials of the form
Qk (z a )ni
i
R(z ) = A Qli=1 ;
j =1 ( z b j )mj

where ai 's and bj 's are all distin t, and A is some onstant.
(v) the quotient of a meromorphi fun tion is meromorphi , provided that
the denominator term is not identi ally zero.
(vi) the fun tions (z 2 + 4) 1e1=z and (z 2 4) 1 sin(1=z ) are meromorphi
in C n f0g. They are not, however, meromorphi in C , be ause ea h of
them has an essential singularity at the origin.
(vii) every meromorphi fun tion in an open set
admits a representation
as the quotient of two analyti fun tions in
, whi h will be onrmed
in Chapter 11.
(viii) the only singularities of f (z ) = ot z are the simple poles at n
(n 2 Z) and hen e, f (z ) is meromorphi in C . It is, however, not
meromorphi in C 1 be ause 1 is a limit point of poles of f (z ).
326 Classi ation of Singularities

7.31. Remark. A meromorphi fun tion in C an have only a nite

number of poles in any bounded subset D of C . For instan e, neither
f (z ) = 1= sin(=z ) nor g(z ) = 1= os(1=z ) is meromorphi in C . Note
that the set of poles of f (z ) is a bounded set S = f1=n : n 2 Zg and
the limit point of S is 0, whi h is a non-isolated (essential) singularity of
f (z ). A similar argument shows that g(z ) is not meromorphi in C . On the
other hand, both f (z ) and g(z ) are meromorphi in C n f0g. However, the
fun tions su h as 1=(ez + 1) and 1=(1 + os z ) are all meromorphi in C . 
When we speak of a meromorphi fun tion f without mentioning the
domain of denition for f , it is understood that f is meromorphi in C .
We observe that analyti fun tions are, in some sense, a generalization of
polynomials while the meromorphi fun tions are then a generalization of
rational fun tions.
The next two theorems whi h hara terize rational fun tions are simple
and elegant. From Liouville's theorem it follows that an entire fun tion on
C 1 is onstant. An analog of this result for meromorphi fun tions in C 1
follows.
7.32. Theorem. A fun tion f (z ) is rational i it is meromorphi in
the extended omplex plane C 1 .
Proof. As noti ed above a rational fun tion is meromorphi in C 1 .
Suppose onversely f is meromorphi in C 1 . Note that f (z ) an have only
nitely many poles in C 1 sin e otherwise the limit point of the poles would
be a non-isolated (essential) singularity whi h is not a pole at all. Let the
poles of f (z ) be z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zm 2 C , of orders k1 ; k2 ; : : : ; km , respe tively.
Then, g dened by
m
Y
g(z ) = f (z )
(z zj )kj
j =1
is an entire fun tion. Thus g is a polynomial, sin e otherwise g would
ne essarily have an essential singularity at 1. The result follows.
For instan e, f (z ) = (z 5 + 3z 2 + 1)(z 2 2z 1) 1 has a triple pole at
1 be ause the fun tion f (1=z ) has a triple pole at the origin.
7.33. Theorem. Let f (z ) be meromorphi in C and there exist a
natural number n, M > 0, and R > 0 su h that
(7.34) jf (z )j  M jz jn for jz j > R:
Then, f is a rational fun tion.
Proof. Pro eeding exa tly as in Theorem Q 7.32, we obtain an entire
fun tion g, where g(z ) = f (z )
p(z ) with p(z ) = m kj
j =1 (z zj ) : Therefore,
7.7 Essential Singularities and Pi ard's Theorem 327

for suÆ iently large jz j, we easily have (see (6.65))

(7.35) jp(z )j  2jz jN
where N = k1 + k2 +


+ km . Thus, by (7.34) and (7.35),
jg(z )j = jf (z )j jp(z )j  2M jz jN +n
for suÆ iently large jz j. It follows from Theorem 6.60 that g is a polynomial,
and hen e, f (z ) is a rational fun tion.
Note that if, in Theorem 7.33, f is assumed to be analyti in C , then
f would be a polynomial. Thus, Theorem 7.33 is learly a natural general-
ization of Liouville's theorem (see Theorem 6.60).

7.7 Essential Singularities and Pi ard's Theorem

We have already proved that sin(C ), os(C ) and exp(C ) are all unbounded
subsets in C . Therefore, it is natural to ask: Can we say something more
about entire unbounded fun tions? In fa t, su h questions lead to er-
tain beautiful on lusion about the image domains of non- onstant entire
unbounded fun tions. For ertain familiar entire fun tions mu h more is
true:
 ea h non- onstant polynomial p(z ) assumes every omplex number as
a value; that is p(C ) = C .
 ea h of the trigonometri fun tions sin z , os z , and of the hyperboli
fun tions sinh z , osh z assumes every omplex number as a value;
that is, sin(C ) = os(C ) = sinh(C ) = osh(C ) = C :
 the exponential fun tion ez never assumes zero, as exp(C ) = C n f0g.
The rst assertion has been proved in Theorem 6.66 while the other two
assertions an be proved by looking at the solutions of the equation f (z ) =
for a given 2 C , where f (z ) is one of the fun tions given by
sin z; os z; sinh z; osh z; and ez :
For example, as sin z = (eiz e iz )=(2i), the solution of sin z = is obtained
from p
eiz = i  1 2 :
p
Note that there exists no 2 C su h that i  1 2 = 0. Consequently,
for ea h , the equation sin z = has innitely many solutions given by
p
z = i log(i  1 2 ):
These observations probably led to \the Pi ard little theorem" whi h we
shall dis uss soon. Let us start with the following preliminary result whi h
328 Classi ation of Singularities

may be alled a weaker form of the Casorati-Weierstrass theorem (see The-

orem 7.40).

7.36. Theorem. The range of a non- onstant entire fun tion is a

dense subset of C .

Proof. Let f be a non- onstant entire fun tion. Suppose on the on-
trary that f (C ) is not dense. Then, there would exist a point w0 2 C and a
neighborhood
(w0 ; ) su h that
(w0 ; ) \ f (C ) = ;: Then, for all z 2 C ,
we have jf (z ) w0 j >  so that jg(z )j < 1 for z 2 C , where

g(z ) = :
f (z ) w0
But then, g being a bounded entire fun tion, would be onstant, and hen e
f would be onstant, whi h is a ontradi tion.

Note that a subset D of D0 is said to be dense in D0 , if for ea h z0 2 D0

and any Æ > 0,
(z0 ; Æ) \ D 6= ;:
A ording to Theorem 7.36, it is almost trivial to show the following:
Suppose that f is an entire fun tion satisfying any one of the following
onditions for all z 2 C and for some xed M > 0:
(a) jf (z )j  M ;
(b) Re f (z )  M or Im f (z )  M or jRe f (z )j > M or jIm f (z )j > M .
Then, f is ne essarily a onstant. We have already shown these as a on-
sequen e of Liouville's theorem. In parti ular, this result demonstrates a
simple fa t that \the range of a non- onstant entire fun tion is never on-
tained in a half-plane or in bounded domain or in the omplement of any
bounded simply onne ted domain in C ". This pie e of information learly
improves Liouville's theorem but obviously falls far short of Pi ard's little
and big theorems. To be a little more pre ise, mu h more than Theorem
7.36 holds: if f is a non- onstant entire fun tion then C n f (C ) ontains at
most one point. This result is known as Pi ard's little theorem.11 We may
restate it in the following form. For a proof of this result, we refer to p. 540.

7.37. Theorem. (Pi ard's Little Theorem) Every non- onstant en-
tire fun tion omits at most one omplex number as its value.12 In other
words, if an entire fun tion omits two values, then it is onstant.
11 Emile Pi ard (1856-1941) was a Fren h mathemati ian who published the proofs of
the two famous theorems at the age of 22. He has made a number of ontributions in
many other areas.
12 A number 2 C is said to be an ex eptional value of a omplex-valued fun tion f
if does not belong to the range of f .
7.7 Essential Singularities and Pi ard's Theorem 329

Now we need some preparations for the proof of Pi ard's little theorem.
Pi ard's original proof of his little theorem is of entirely dierent hara -
ter. The proof whi h we are going to present is due to Landau-Konig.
Let us start with a remark that Pi ard's little theorem is an astonish-
ing generalization of the theorem of Liouville as well as the theorem of
Casorati-Weierstrass. In 1879, with the aid of ellipti modular fun tions,
Pi ard proved a more general and deep result the so alled Pi ard's great
theorem: \if f has an essential singularity at a, then the range under f of
any deleted neighborhood of a is the whole omplex plane with at most one
ex eption". Equivalently, we may state it in the following form.
7.38. Theorem. (Pi ard's Great Theorem) Suppose that f is an-
alyti in
(z0 ; r) nfz0 g and z = z0 is an essential singularity of f . Then
C nf (
(z0 ; r) nfz0g) is a singleton set.
Examples 7.46 and 7.48 below are spe ial ases of Pi ard's theorem.
We shall present the proof of Pi ard's little theorem in Se tion 12.7 as it
requires Blo h's theorem. However, let us rst restri t ourselves to the fol-
lowing mu h weaker and simpler result also alled the Casorati-Weierstrass
theorem.
7.39. Theorem. (Weaker Form of Pi ard's Great Theorem) Sup-
pose that f 2 H(
(z0 ; R) nfz0 g) and z0 is an essential singularity of f .
Then for ea h Æ > 0 with Æ  R, f (
(z0 ; Æ ) nfz0 g) is dense in C .
Proof. Suppose on the ontrarary that the range f (f0 < jz z0j < Æg)
is not dense. Then there is a point w0 2 C and a disk
(w0 ; ) = fw 2 C :
jw w0 j < g su h that
(w0 ; ) \ f (f0 < jz z0 j < Æg) = ;:
For all z with 0 < jz z0j < Æ, we have jf (z ) w0 j >  > 0 and therefore,
the fun tion g dened by

g(z ) =
f (z ) w0
is bounded and analyti in the deleted neighborhood
(z0 ; Æ) nfz0g, sin e
f (z ) w0 is analyti and non-zero there. From the removability theorem,
it follows that g has a removable singularity at z0 . Thus, by dening g(z0 )
properly, g be omes analyti in
(z0 ; Æ). Clearly, g(z ) 6 0 in
(z0 ; Æ). If
g(z0 ) 6= 0,

f (z ) = + w0
g(z )
is analyti at z0 . If g(z ) has a zero at z0 , then z0 is a pole of 1=g(z ) and
hen e, the same holds for f (z ). In either ase this ontradi ts the hypothesis
that z0 is an essential singularity of f (z ).
7.40. Theorem. (Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem) If f has an es-
sential singularity at z0 and if w0 is a given nite omplex number, then
330 Classi ation of Singularities

there exists a sequen e fzn g with zn ! z0 su h that f (zn ) ! w0 . In other

words, f takes values arbitrarily lose to every omplex number in every
neighborhood of an essential singularity.
Proof. By hypothesis, f (z ) is analyti throughout a deleted neighbor-
hood of z0 . Suppose that there exists a omplex number w0 and a sequen e
fzng with zn ! z0 su h that f (zn ) 6! w0 . Then there exist an  > 0 and a
Æ > 0 su h that jf (z ) w0 j   for 0 < jz z0 j < Æ. Dene
1
g(z ) = :
f (z ) w0
Now, pro eeding exa tly as in Theorem 7.39, we would get that f (z ) has
either a removable singularity or a pole at z = z0 . In either ase this
ontradi ts the hypothesis that z0 is an essential singularity of f (z ).
7.41. Remark. Note that Theorem 7.40 and Theorem 7.39 are
equivalent. 
If 1 is regarded as an isolated essential singularity of g(z ), then 0 is an
isolated essential singularity of f (z ), where f (z ) = g(1=z ). In view of this
observation, Theorem 7.39 may be rephrased as follows:
7.42. Theorem. If g(z ) is an entire trans endental fun tion, then
near 1, the values assumed by g (z ) are dense in C . In other words, g (z )
takes values arbitrarily lose to every omplex number in every neighbor-
hood of 1.

Next we re ord a very useful appli ation of Theorem 7.40.

7.43. Theorem. An entire fun tion f (z ) is univalent in C i f (z ) =
a0 + a1 z (z 2 C ), where a0 ; a1 are onstants with a1 6= 0; that is,
Aut (C ) = ff 2 H(C ) : f (z ) = a0 + a1 z g:
Proof. If f (z ) is entire, then, by Theorem 4.93 (see alsoPCorollary
3.73), f (z ) has a power series expansion of the form f (z ) = n0 an z n
whi h onverges absolutely for all z 2 C . There are now three possibilities:
(i) f (z ) = a0 , i.e. onstant
P
(ii) f (z ) = kn=0 an z n ; ak 6= 0 (k  1)
P
(iii) f (z ) = n0 an z n ; an 6= 0 for innitely many n.
Suppose further that f (z ) is univalent in C . Then ase (i) annot o ur.
In ase (ii), f (z ) is a polynomial of degree k  1. But, by the fun-
damental theorem of algebra, f (z ) has k zeros whi h lie inside some ir le
7.7 Essential Singularities and Pi ard's Theorem 331

jz j = R, R large enough. Therefore, f is univalent only when k 6> 1. Hen e,

6 0.
k = 1 and so, f (z ) = a0 + a1 z , where a1 =
In ase (iii), f (z ) is trans endental and hen e f (z ) has an essential
singularity at 1. Then, by the Casorati-Weierstrass theorem (see also
Theorem 7.42), for any given omplex number w, there exists a sequen e
fzng su h that zn ! 1 and f (zn) ! w. In parti ular, for w = 0, we have
!1 f (f (zn )) = f (0) 6= 1:
lim z = nlim 1 1
n!1 n
This ontradi tion shows that f (z ) is a polynomial whi h by ase (ii) yields
that f is linear. The onverse part is obvious. This proves that an entire
fun tion whi h assumes every omplex value exa tly on e is pre isely the
linear fun tion.
Pi ard's results mark the beginning of a development whi h eventually
ulminated in the value distribution theory of R. Nevanlinna. In 1896,
E. Borel derived Pi ard's little theorem with elementary fun tion-theoreti
tools. The theory then took a surprising turn in 1924, when A. Blo h
dis overed the theorem named after him. We shall prove Pi ard's theorem
using Blo h's theorem (see Se tions 12.6 and 12.7).
Now, we observe that an entire fun tion h omits two distin t values,
namely a and b with a 6= b, i the fun tion f dened by
h(z ) a
f (z ) =
b a
is entire and omits 0 and 1. Therefore, h is onstant if and only if f is
onstant. In view of this observation, Theorem 7.37 is equivalent to the
following
7.44. Theorem. If f is an entire fun tion su h that 0 2= f (C ) and
1 2= f (C ), then f is onstant.
It is natural to see what happens when we repla e \f (z ) is entire" by
\f (z ) is meromorphi in C ." To see this, we onsider
1
(z ) =
1 + ez
whi h never assumes 0 or 1 as its value. Clearly,  is meromorphi in C , 
omits 0 and 1, but  is not a onstant fun tion. This example shows that
meromorphi fun tions in C an omit two omplex numbers. A value that
a meromorphi fun tion does not assume is known as Pi ard's ex eptional
value. For instan e, the fun tion (z ) has two ex eptional values, namely
0; 1. Similarly, it is easy to see that tan z is meromorphi in C and has an
essential singularity at z = 1 whi h is the limit point of poles of tan z .
332 Classi ation of Singularities

Moreover, tan z assumes every omplex value with Pi ard's ex eptional

values i. Meromorphi fun tions of this type are signi ant in view of the
following result.
7.45. Theorem. (Pi ard's Little Theorem for Meromorphi Fun -
tions) Every meromorphi fun tion  in C that omits three distin t values
a; b; 2 C is ne essarily onstant.
Proof. The desired on lusion follows from Theorem 7.44 as the fun -
tion f dened by f (z ) = ((z ) a) 1 is entire and omits two distin t values
1=(b a) and 1=( a).
7.46. Example. We show that e1=z assumes every value innitely
many times with an ex eption of zero (Pi ard's ex eptional value). To do
this we re all that exp(1=z ) has an essential singularity at the origin and
omits the value zero. By Pi ard's theorem, it therefore assumes all the other
values in ea h pun tured neighborhood
(0; r) nf0g. Let us now verify this
by a dire t omputation. Consider e1=z = = elog ( 6= 0), or equivalently,
(7.47) e1=z = eln j j+i arg
where may be taken as a omplex number. If is real and non-negative,
then (7.47) implies
1 1
= ln j j + i arg = ln j j + 2ki; i.e. zk = ; k 2 Z:
z ln j j + 2ki
Thus, we have a sequen e fzng su h that zn ! 0 and e1=zn = for ea h
n 2 N : The general ase for 6= 0 an be handled similarly. Observe that
Pi ard's ex eptional value `zero' is a limit point. 
7.48. Example. Let us dis uss one more fun tion whi h has an
essential singularity at z = 0. Consider sin(1=z ). Suppose for real and
6= 0, sin(1=z ) = : Then the solution to this equation is given by
1 1 p i
z
= ar sin = log(i + 1 2 ); i.e. z =
i
p :
log(i + 1 2 )
For k 2 Z, let
p i p
zk = :
ln ji + 1 2 j + Arg (i + 1 2 ) + 2ki
Then, we obtain a sequen e fzng su h that zn ! 0 and sin(1=zn) = ,
n 2 N:
In parti ular, if = 1 then sin(1=z ) = 1 is satised by innitely many
values, namely, zk = 2=(4k + 1), k 2 Z.
However, z = 0 is also an essential singularity of os(1=z ) and there are
no ex eptional values (ex ept 1). 
7.8 Exer ises 333

7.8 Exer ises

7.49. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true
or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) An entire fun tion f (z ) having z = 1 as a removable singularity is
onstant.
Note: See the dis ussion at the end of Se tion 7.5.
(b) An entire fun tion f (z ) has a pole of order n at innity i f (z ) is a
polynomial of degree n.
( ) If f (z ) has a pole at z0 , then expff (z )g has an essential singularity
at this point.
(d) If f (z ) is a non onstant entire fun tion, then expff (z )g has an essen-
tial singularity at z = 1.
(e) If a is an isolated singularity of f whi h is not removable, then a is
an essential singularity of expff (z )g.
(f) If f is analyti in C 1 ex ept for a nite number of poles, then the
number poles and zeros of f ( ounted a ording to multipli ity) are
equal.
(g) If f is non- onstant and analyti at z0, then f (n) (z0 ) 6= 0 for some
n  1.
(h) Poles are isolated. That is, f has a pole of order m at a i f (z ) =
(z a) m g(z ), where g is analyti at a and g(a) 6= 0.
(i) Suppose f has an essential singularity at z = a and g has a pole at
z = a. Then the produ t fg has an essential singularity at z = a.
z4 + 1
(j) The fun tion f (z ) = ; ;  2 C n f0g ( 6=  )
(z jz j2)(z jz j2 )
has two simple poles at z = ;  and a double pole at z = 0.
(k) The fun tion f dened by the Laurent series
X1
z 2k X 1 zk
f (z ) = + k+1
k= 1 ( k )! k=0 2
has an essential singularity at the origin.
(l) If f is meromorphi , then f and f 0 have the same poles and the order
of the poles of f 0 in reases by one.
(m) The fun tion f (z ) = 1= sin(1=z ) has a singularity at the origin and
the Laurent series expansion about the origin does not exist.
(n) If z = a is an isolated essential singularity for f (z ), then z = a is
neither a regular point nor a pole for g(z ) = 1=f (z ). Further, z = a
is not ne essarily an isolated essential singularity for g(z ).
334 Classi ation of Singularities

(o) Suppose f has an essential singularity at z0 . Then there exists a

sequen e fzng with zn ! z0 su h that limn!1 jf (zn)j = 1.
(p) If f is a trans endental entire fun tion, then there exists a sequen e
zn ! 1 for whi h f (zn) ! 0.
(q) If f (z ) is analyti at 1, then f 0 (1) = 0.
e1=(z 1)
(r) The fun tion f (z ) = z has a simple pole at z = 2ki (k 2 Z)
e 1
and an essential singularity at z = 1.
(s) Every f 2 H(C n f0g) su h that jf (z )j  ajz j1=2 + bjz j 1=2 for some
a; b > 0 is ne essarily onstant.
(t) Every f 2 H(C n f0g) su h that jf (z )j  jz j2 +jz j 1=2 for all z 2 C n f0g
is ne essarily a polynomial of degree at most two.
(u) There does not exist a fun tion f 2 H(C n f0g) that satises jf (z )j 
jz j  for all z 2 C n f0g, and for a xed  2 (0; 1).
(v) The meromorphi fun tion ot z never assumes i and i and so, i
are the Pi ard ex eptional values for ot z .
(w) The meromorphi fun tion eiz = os z never assumes 0 and 2.
(x) If f and g are two entire fun tions su h that ef + eg = 1, then f and
g are onstant fun tions.
p p
e z pe z
(y) If f (z ) = , then z = 0 is not a bran h point of f (z ).
sin z
p
sin z
(z) If f (z ) = p , then z = 0 is a removable singularity of f .
z

7.50. Suppose that f 2 H(C n f0g) and satises jf (z )j  ajz j2 + bjz j 2

for all z 2 C n f0g, and for some a; b > 0. If f is an odd fun tion of z , what
form must the Laurent series of f have? How about when f is an even
fun tion of z ?

7.51. Classify [type (and order where appli able)℄ the isolated singular
points (in luding at the point at 1) of the following fun tions:
 
sin4 z 1 1
(a) f (z ) = 8 (e) f (z ) = sin + 2
z z z (2 z )
(1 + z ) os z 1
(b) f (z ) = (f) f (z ) = s z
z z
1 8z 3 z2
( ) f (z ) = (g) f (z ) = ; p; q 2 R n f0g
1 4z 2 (z ip)4 (z + q)3
3 5
sin(z ) e1=z z 10 (z 2 + 1)e1=(z 4)
(d) f (z ) = (h) f (z ) =
(z 1)z 3 (z )2 sin10 z
7.8 Exer ises 335

7.52. Prove or disprove that f (z ) = 1= sin z is not meromorphi on

the Riemann sphere. Does f (C ) = C n f0g? Does se (C ) = C n f0g?
7.53. Prove or disprove the following: The point z = 0 is the only
singularity of the fun tion f (z ) = sin(1 1=z ) and z = 0 is a simple pole.
7.54. Give an example of a fun tion whi h is meromorphi in C with-
out being meromorphi on the Riemann sphere.
7.55. Suppose that f is any one of (z 3 z )e1=z , z sin(1=z ), e1=z e 1=z
and e1=z + e 1=z . Assuming the validity of Pi ard's theorem, de ide whether
f (0 < jz j < 1) = C or not.
7.56. Let fj (j = 1; 2; : : : ; 6) be dened as in Example 7.3. Classify
the singularity of ea h of these fun tions at 1.
7.57. Find the general form of a fun tion in C 1 having the following
singularities:
(i) only simple pole at z0,
(ii) one pole of order n at z0 ,
(iii) one pole of order n at innity and a pole of order m at z0 .
7.58. Suppose z = a is a singularity of f (z ). Can z = a be a singularity
for 1=f (z )? If so what will be the nature of the singularity. Dis uss in details
with an example for ea h ase.
7.59. Suppose f and g are analyti in a neighborhood of z0 , f (z0 ) = 0
with multipli ity m, g(z0 ) = 0 with multipli ity n. What is the multipli ity
of z0 as a zero of the omposite fun tion f Æ g?
7.60. Constru t a fun tion  whi h is analyti ex ept at the four
distin t points zj ; j = 1; 2; 3; 4, where it has the following properties:
(i) simple pole at z1 ,
(ii) simple zeros at z2 ; z3 ; z4,
(iii) simple pole at innity,
(iv) lim z 1 (z ) = 2.
jzj!1
7.61. Find the onstant su h that
1
f (z ) = n n 1 +
z + z +


+ z2 + z n z 1
an be extended to be analyti at z = 1, where n 2 N is xed.
336 Classi ation of Singularities

7.62. Prove that the fun tion f dened by f (z ) = (ez 1)=(z (z 2))
has a removable singularity at z = 0 whereas it has a simple pole at z = 2.
Prove also that it has an essential singularity at z = 1.
7.63. Prove that the fun tion f dened by f (z ) = exp(z= sin z ) has
a removable singularity at z = 0 whereas it has essential singularities at
z = k, k 2 Z nf0g.
7.64. Suppose that f (z ) is analyti on C ex ept
P for a double pole at
z = ei for some  2 [0; 2). Suppose that f (z ) = 1 n=0 an z n for jz j < 1:
Is fang bounded? Does fang onverge? Justify your answer. How about if
we repla e the word `double pole' by `simple pole'?
7.65. LetP f 2 H(
3 nf0g). Suppose that f has a simple pole at z = 2i
and f (z ) = n0 an z n for jz j < 2. Is fan g bounded? Does fang onverge?
Justify your answer.
7.66. Let f be a meromorphi fun tion in a domain
. Then prove
that neither the set of zeros nor the set of poles of f an have a limit point
in
unless f is identi ally zero in
.
P1
1 an z in the annulus 0 < jz j < 1.
7.67. Assume that ot(z ) = n
n=
Find a n for n  1.
Chapter 8

Cal ulus of Residues

If f is analyti at a point z = a, then there is a neighborhood N of a inside

whi h f is analyti . Let C be a positively oriented losed ontour
R ontained
in N . Then the elebrated Cau hy theorem tells us that C f (z )dz = 0: If,
however, f fails to be analyti at nitely many isolated singularities inside
C , then the above argument fails; whi h means ea h of these singularities
ontribute a spe ied value to the value of the integral. This motivates us
to generalize the Cau hy theorem to fun tions whi h have isolated singular-
ities. This generalization results in the Residue theorem. This result is one
of the most important and often used, tools that applied s ientists need,
from the theory of omplex fun tions.
In Se tion 8.1, we are on erned with the notion of what we all \the
residue at an isolated singularity" and dis uss the on ept of residue in
detail and illustrate it with a number of examples for nding the residue
of a given fun tion at an isolated singularity. In Se tion 8.2, we dis uss
the notion of residue at the point at 1. The main result in Se tion 8.3
is Cau hy's residue theorem whi h states that the integral of an analyti
fun tion f around a simple losed ontour C equals 2i times the sum
of the residues of f at the isolated singular points inside C . Using this
important theorem, we shall then develop and illustrate some of the ba-
si methods employed in omplex integration for evaluating omplex line
integrals. The residue theorem extends Cau hy's theorem by allowing for
a nite number of isolated singularities inside the ontour of integration.
Formulae enabling us to do this in lude an alternate proof of the so- alled
generalized Cau hy integral formula. When there are no singularities, the
residue theorem simply redu es to Cau hy's theorem. The materials pre-
sented in Se tion 8.1-8.3, provide a good training ground for the evaluation
of omplex integration in the next hapter. In Se tion 8.4, we derive the
argument prin iple whi h is another of the most important appli ations of
the Cau hy residue theorem. Also, we dis uss several of its onsequen es,
338 Cal ulus of Residues

for example, lo ating the zeros of an analyti fun tion. The argument prin-
iple provide a tool in the form of Rou he's theorem to see how the number
of zeros of analyti fun tions remains onstant under small perturbations.
We dis uss a version of Rou he's theorem in Se tion 8.5.

8.1 Residue at a Finite Point

We re all that if f has an isolated singularity at z0 , then the residue of f (z )
at z0 is Z
1
(8.1) Res [f (z ); z0℄ := a 1 = f (z ) dz;
2i C
where C is any ir le entered at z0 and lying inside a disk about z0 . For
instan e, onsider f (z ) = ot z . Sin e sin z = 0 () z = k (k 2 Z), and
z k 1
lim (z k) ot z = lim
z!k z!k sin z z!k

lim os z = zlim
lim os z = 1;
!k os z z!k
f has simple poles at z = k, k 2 Z. Suppose we hoose z0 = 0. Then
1 X 1
f (z ) = + an z n (0 < jz j < )
z n=0
and, in view of (8.1), this gives,
Z
ot z dz = 2i:
C
Here C ould be any ir le around zero in 0 < jz j < . If z0 = k, then
1 X1
f (z ) = + a (z k)n ; jkj < jz kj < (jkj + 1):
z k n=0 n


8.2. Example. We know that the oeÆ ient of z k in (1 + z )n is nk .
So, we may write
 
n = oeÆ ient of z 1 in (1 + z )n =z k+1
k
= Res [f (z ); 0℄; f (z ) = (1 + z )n =z k+1;
Z
1 (1 + z )n
= dz;
2i C z k+1
where C is any simple losed ontour en losing the origin (note that f is
analyti for all z 2 C n f0g). Similarly, we also see that
 
n = oeÆ ient of z k in (1 + 1=z )n
k
= onstant term in z k (1 + 1=z )n
8.1 Residue at a Finite Point 339

and therefore, we have

n  2  
X n (1 + z )n k
k = oeÆ ient of z 1 in [z (1 + 1=z )n℄
k=0 z k+1
Z
1 (1 + z )2n
= F (z ) dz; F (z ) = n+1 ;
2i C z
= Res [F (z ); 0℄
= oeÆ ient of z n in (1 + z )2n
 
= 2n : 
n
We wish to point out that the most onvenient way to nd the residue is
dire tly from the Laurent expansion (if it were already available). We want
a tually to develop te hniques for al ulating the residue of a fun tion f
without having to nd its Laurent expansion. However if z0 is an essential
singularity of f , then, in most of ases, the Laurent expansion of f about
z0 will be needed in order to nd the residue at z0 . For instan e, at the
essential singular point z = 0 of sin(1=z ) we have
 
1 1 1 1
sin
z
=
z 3! z 3
+


; jz j > 0:
Thus, we see that
Z
Res [sin(1=z ); 0℄ = 1; i.e. sin(1=z ) dz = 2i:
C
Similarly, we obtain
Z
Res [z 3 sin(1=z 2); 0℄ = 0; i.e. z 3 sin(1=z 2) dz = 0;
C
where C is any ir le around the origin in the pun tured plane, C n f0g.
The same idea may be used to derive examples of this type (using Taylor's
series expansion of the exponential fun tion):
ia3
(a) Res [z 4eiaz ; 0℄ = , a 2 C.
3!
(b) If a 2 C and n 2 N 0 = N [ f0g, then
Z
an eaz 2ian
Res [eaz =z n+1; 0℄ = and n+1 dz = :
n! jzj=r z n!
If a is real and r = 1, then we let z = ei and easily obtain
Z 2
2an
ea os  ei(a sin  n) d =
0 n!
340 Cal ulus of Residues

whi h, by equating real and imaginary parts, gives

Z 2
ea os  sin(n a sin ) d = 0
0
and Z 2
2an
ea os  os(n a sin ) d = :
0 n!
Z 
e1=z dz = Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 01 ifif nn 6=
1 n 1
( )
2i C = 1 ; where C is any ir le
around zero in the pun tured plane C n f0g.
(d) Res [(z 2) 4 sin(z 2); 2℄ = 1=6! and Res [sin(1=(z 2)); 2℄ = 1.
8.3. Example. Dene
sin(z 2 )
f (z ) = ; a 6= 0:
z 2 (z a)
Then the singularities of f are at z = 0 and z = a. Sin e limz!0 f (z ) =
1=a; z = 0 is a removable singularity of f . Thus, Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 0: As f
admits a Laurent series expansion about zero in 0 < jz j < jaj, we on lude
that, for any r with r < jaj,
Z
sin(z 2 )
dz = 0: 
jzj=r z 2(z a)

8.4. Remark. If f is analyti at z0 , then Res [f (z ); z0℄ = 0: However,

this simple fa t holds for other situations as well. For instan e if
fn (z ) = bn (z z0) n ; n = 1; 2; : : : ; and b1 6= 0;
then Res [fn (z ); z0 ℄ = 0 for n  2: Also, we observe that Res [f1 (z ); z0℄ = b1
but Res [f12 (z ); z0℄ 6= b21 : 
In view of Laurent's expansion and Cau hy's prin iple of deformation
of ontour, the following result is almost trivial.
8.5. Theorem. If f has a removable singularity at z0 , then we have
Res [f (z ); z0℄ = 0: In parti ular, if C is a simple losed ontour ontain-
ing only removable singularities at zk (k = 1; 2; : : : ; n) inside C , then
R
C f (z ) dz = 0:
For instan e, using Theorem 8.5, we have
Res [( os z 1)2 =z 2; 0℄ = 0 and Res [z 2= sin2 z ; 0℄ = 0:
8.1 Residue at a Finite Point 341

Note that the fun tions involved here are even. More generally, we have
8.6. Theorem. If f has an isolated singularity at z0 and if f is even
in z z0, i.e. f (z z0 ) = f ( (z z0 )), then Res [f (z ); z0℄ = 0:
Proof. Suppose that f is even in z z0 . Then the Laurent series
expansion around z0 annot have odd powers of z z0. Hen e, the assertion
follows.
Consider the fun tion f dened by
1
f (z ) = 2 2 2 (a 2 R n f0g):
z (z a )
Then the point z = 0 is a double pole and z = a is a simple pole. Observe
that f (z ) = f ( z ) and hen e, by Theorem 8.6, we have Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 0:
This shows that the residue an be zero, even though f has a non-removable
singularity at z = 0 (see Remark 8.4).
2
Similarly, f (z ) = e1=z has an essential singularity at z = 0. Again, as
f is even, we have Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 0: By Theorem 8.6, we easily obtain the
following:
(i) Res [(sin z ) 2 ; k℄ = 0; k = 0; 1; 2; : : : (sin2 (z k) = sin2 z )
(ii) Res [1= sin(z 2 ); 0℄ = 0
(iii) Res [z 3 sin(1=z ); 0℄ = 0
(iv) Res [(sin z z )=z 3; 0℄ = 0
2
(v) Res [e 1=z os(1=z ); 0℄ = 0
(vi) Res [1=[2 + z 2 2 osh z ℄; 0℄ = 0.
For evaluating residues in on rete examples, the following theorem is
very useful.
8.7. Theorem. If f has a pole of order n at z0 , then
1 dn 1 n
(8.8) Res [f (z ); z0℄ = zlim
!z0 (n 1)! dz n 1 ((z z0 ) f (z )):
The oeÆ ient of (z z0 ) k in the Laurent expansion is
1 dn k
a k= lim ((z z0 )n f (z )); k = 1; 2; : : : ; n:
(n k)! z!z0 dz n k
(Case k = n means that we have only to look at (z z0 )n f (z ).)
Proof. Suppose that f has a pole of order n at z0 . Then, we have
a n a 1 1
X
f (z ) =
(z z0 )n
+


+ +
z z0 k=0 k
a (z z0 )k (0 < jz z0 j < Æ)
342 Cal ulus of Residues

for some Æ > 0, where a n 6= 0. Further, limz!z0 (z z0 )n f (z ) exists and

is non-zero. Note that for z 6= z0 ,
1
X
(z z0)n f (z ) = a n +a n+1(z z0)+


+a 1 (z z0 )n 1 + ak (z z0)k+n
k=0
and the formula (8.8) follows at on e if we dierentiate the last equation
(n 1)-times and then allow z ! z0 . Alternatively, dene g by
(
(z z0 )n f (z ) for 0 < jz z0 j < Æ
g(z ) = lim ( z z 0 ) n f (z ) for z = z
0
z !z0
so that f (z ) = (z z0 ) n g(z ); 0 < jz z0 j < Æ; where g is analyti in
jz z0 j < Æ with g(z0 ) = a n 6= 0. This observation, a ording to the
Cau hy integral formula applied to C = fz : jz z0 j = rg for 0 < r < Æ,
implies
Z
1
Res [f (z ); z0℄ = f (z ) dz
2i C
Z
1 g(z )
= dz
2i C (z z0 )n
1
= g(n 1)(z0 )
(n 1)!
and the result follows at on e. By a similar argument, we have the se ond
part.
Theorem 8.7 is useful in the ase of rational fun tions. For instan e,
onsider the fun tion
z (z 2)
f (z ) = ;
(z + 4)2 (z 1)2
whi h has a double pole at z = 1. Using (8.8), we obtain
 
d z (z 2)  2
Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 2 = :
dz (z + 4) z=1 125


At the double pole z = 4, we have

   
d z (z 2)  d 1  2
Res [f (z ); 4℄ = =  = :
dz (z 1)2 z= 4 dz 2
(z 1) z= 4 125
Similarly, we see that

1 d2 3 
Res [(z 3 + 7)(z 2) 3 ; 2℄ =
2 (z + 7) = 6:
2! dz z=2
8.1 Residue at a Finite Point 343

8.9. Example. Consider the fun tion f (z ) = e2z = osh z: Sin e
os z = 0 i z = (2k + 1)=2; k 2 Z, and os(iz ) = osh z; we have

() z = (2k +2 1)i :
osh z = 0

Thus, f has a simple pole at z = (2k + 1)i=2 (k 2 Z). From this we see
that if C = fz : jz i=2j = 1=2g, then
Z    
e2z i ei 2iei
f (z ) dz = 2i Res ; = 2i = = 2ei:
C osh z 2  sinh(i=2) i
Inside the ontour : jz i=2j = 1, f has a singularity only at z = i=2.
Therefore,
R if C is any ir le around i=2 lying ompletely inside then we
have C f (z ) dz = 2ei : 

8.10. Example. Dene
(1 + z 2 )n+k
f (z ) = :
z 2n+1
Then f has a pole of order 2n + 1 at z = 0 and
Res [f (z ); 0℄ = oeÆ ient of z 1 in f (z )
= oeÆ ient of z 2n in (1 + z 2 )n+k
= oeÆ ient of z n in (1 + z )n+k
 
n+k
= :
n
On the other hand, by Theorem 8.6, we have Res [zf (z ); 0℄ = 0. 

8.11. Example. Consider

1
f (z ) = :
(z 3 1)(z + 1)2
Then f has a double pole at 1 and simple poles at 1; !; !2, where ! is a
ube root of unity. We easily see that
 
d 1 3z 2 3
Res [f (z ); 1℄ = z!
lim1 3 = z!
lim1 3 = :
dz z 1 (z 1)2 4
If a is any one of the ube roots of unity, then we have
(z a) 2 1 1
Res [f (z ); a℄ = zlim
!a (z + 1) = =
z3 1 3a2(1 + a)2 3(2 + a + a2 )
344 Cal ulus of Residues

so that Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 1=12, Res [f (z ); !℄ = Res [f (z ); !2℄ = 1=3. 

From Theorem 8.7, we have a simple result for omputing residues: \if f
has a simple pole at z = z0 , then we have Res [f (z ); z0 ℄ = lim (z z0 )f (z ):"
z!z0
From this observation, we also obtain another result whi h is also extremely
useful in pra ti e.
8.12. Theorem. If f has a simple pole at z = z0 and if h is analyti
at z0 with h(z0 ) 6= 0, then Res [f (z )h(z ); z0 ℄ = h(z0 )Res [f (z ); z0 ℄:
Proof. Observe that
lim (z
z!z0
z0 )f (z )h(z ) = h(z0 ) zlim
!z (z z0 )f (z )
0
and the result follows immediately.
Re all that, f has simple pole at z0 i g(z ) = 1=f (z ) has simple zero at
z0 : Thus, in this ase (sin e g(z0 ) = 0 and g0 (z0 ) 6= 0),
z z0 1
Res [f (z ); z0℄ = zlim
!z (z z0 )f (z ) = zlim
!z = 0 :
0 0 g (z ) g (z0 )
Hen e we have
8.13. Theorem. Suppose  is analyti at z0 with (z0 ) 6= 0 and g has
a simple zero at z0 . Then Res [(z )=g (z ); z0 ℄ = (z0 )=g 0 (z0 ): In parti ular,
Res [1=g(z ); z0℄ = 1=g0(z0 ):
Consider the fun tion
(z )
f (z ) = n n (a 6= 0, n  1),
a +z
where  is analyti at z0 su h that (z0 ) 6= 0 for ea h z0 2 C satisfying
z0n + an = 0. Then, using Theorem 8.13 (sin e f has simple poles), we have
(z0 ) z0 (z0 ) z (z )
Res [f (z ); z0℄ = n 1 = n = 0 n0 :
nz0 nz 0 na
In parti ular if (z ) = 1, then
zk
Res [(z n + an ) 1 ; zk ℄ =
nan
where zk (k = 1; 2; : : : ; n) is the simple pole of 1=(z n + an). If (z ) = z n 1,
then  n 1 
z 1
Res n n ; zk = ; a 6= 0:
z +a n
8.1 Residue at a Finite Point 345

As the order of poles in reases, the formula for the residue be omes
more ompli ated. However, at a double pole, we have the following result
whi h an be proved easily.
8.14. Theorem. Suppose  is analyti at z0 with (z0 ) 6= 0, g has a
pole of order two at z0 and h has a zero of order two at z0 . Then we have
(i) Res [(z )g(z ); z0 ℄ = 0 (z0 )Res [(z z0 )g(z ); z0 ℄ + (z0 )Res [g(z ); z0℄
  
(z ) 60 (z )h00 (z ) 2(z )h000 (z ) 
(ii) Res ; z0 = :
h(z ) 3[h00 (z )℄2 
z=z0
Proof. By hypothesis, there exist r1 , r2 su h that
(z ) = a0 + a1 (z z0 ) +


for jz z0 j < r1 ;
b 2 b 1
g (z ) = + + b + b (z z0 ) +



(z z0 )2 z z0 0 1
for 0 < jz z0 j < r2 , respe tively. The oeÆ ient of (z z0) 1 in (z )g(z )
is a0 b 1 + a1 b 2 and therefore
Res [(z )g(z ); z0 ℄ = a0 b 1 + a1 b 2
= (z0 )Res [g(z ); z0 ℄ + 0 (z0 )Res [(z z0 )g(z ); z0℄
and the se ond part follows similarly.
8.15. Example. Consider f (z ) = (z )=g(z ), with (z ) = 1 + z and
g(z ) = os z 1: Then the singularities of f are given by g(z ) = 0. Sin e
os z = 1 () z = 2k (k 2 Z), the singularities o ur at z0 = 2k, k 2 Z.
Further, we note that
g0 (z ) = sin z and g00 (z ) = os z
and, sin e sin z = 0 () z = n (n 2 Z), we see that
g0 (2k) = 0 and g00 (2k) 6= 0 for k 2 Z:
Consequently, g has a double zero at z0 = 2k for k 2 Z. In other words,
for ea h su h k, f has a double pole at z0 = 2k. Sin e  and g onsidered
above are analyti at z0 with g(z0 ) = 0 = g0 (z0 ) and g00 (z0 ) 6= 0; we ompute
that

60 (z )g00 (z ) 2(z )g000 (z )  2
Res [f (z ); z0 ℄ = 00 2 = = 2:
3[g (z )℄ 
z=z0 os z0
 
Similarly, Res ez (z z0 ) 2 ; z0 = ez0 : 
8.16. Example. As an immediate appli ation of Theorem 8.13, we
obtain (a) to (g) in the following:
346 Cal ulus of Residues

(a) Sin e sin z has simple zeros at z = k, k 2 Z,

h os z i h  os z i os k
Res ; k = Res ;k = = 1:
sin z sin z os k
Similarly, we have Res [ osh z ot z ; k℄ = osh k:
(b) Res [ s z ; k℄ = Res [ s z ; k℄ = ( 1)k ; k 2 Z:
ek
( ) Res [ez = sin z ; k℄ = ; k 2 Z:

os k 
sinh z sinh((2k + 1)i=2)
(d) For k 2 Z, Res ; (2k + 1)i=2 = = 1;
osh z sinh((2k + 1)i=2)
where osh z has simple zeros at z = (2k + 1)i=2.
 
0 ez ez0
(e) For z0 6= z0 , Res ; z = :
(z z0 )(z z00 ) 0
z0 z00
e1=z
(f) Res [f (z ); 1℄ = e and Res [f (z ); 0℄ = e 1, where f (z ) = .
1 z
(g) For the fun tion f (z ) =  ot z=z 2, we have (using Theorem 8.7)
Res [f (z ); k℄ = 1=k2 for k 2 Z nf0g and Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 2 =3; be ause
f has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and a simple pole at k, k 2 Z nf0g. 

8.17. Example. Consider f (z ) = (1 + z + z 2 + z 3 ) 1 : As

1 z 4 = (1 z )(1 + z + z 2 + z 3 );
f has a simple pole at k = eki=2 ; k = 1; 2; 3. So (see Theorem 8.13),
 
1 z  z (1 z )  (1 k )
Res [f (z ); k ℄ = = = k ; k = 1; 2; 3:
4z 3 z= k 4 
z= k 4
A simpli ation gives
 
eki=2 (1 eki=2 ) e3ki=4 k
Res [f (z ); eki=2 ℄ = =i sin : 
4 2 4

8.18. Example. Consider the fun tion f (z ) = (z sin z ) 1: Then f

has a double pole at z = 0 and a simple pole at z = k, k 2 Z nf0g. Note
that f is even. By Theorem 8.6, we immediately have Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 0:
Sin e the nearest singularity of f to zero is at , we obtain
Z
dz
=0
C z sin z
for any ir le C entered at zero and radius less than .
8.1 Residue at a Finite Point 347

Similarly, we see that the fun tion f (z ) = (z 2 sin z ) 1 has a triple pole
at z = 0 and simple pole at z = k, k 2 Z nf0g. Sin e
  2  1
1 z z4 1 11
f (z ) = 3 1 +


= + +


for jz j > 0;
z 3! 5! z 3 3! z
we obtain
  Z
1 1 dz i
Res 2
z sin z
; 0 = ; i.e. 2 = : 
6 jzj=r< z sin z 3

8.19. Theorem. If  and g are analyti at z0, where  has a zero of

order m at z0 and g has a zero of order n at z0 . Then
(a) =g has a removable singularity at z0 if m  n
(b) =g has a pole of order n m at z0 if m < n.
Proof. By hypotheses, there exists a disk jz z0 j < R su h that
X1 (k) (z ) X1 g(k) (z )
0 0
(z ) = (z z0)k ; and g(z ) = (z z0 )k :
k=m
k ! k=n k !
Sin e zeros are isolated, we have g(z ) 6= 0 in 0 < jz z0j < Æ for some
Æ < R. This observation shows that
(z )
(i) m > n =) zlim
!z0 g(z ) = 0
(z ) (m) (z0 )
(ii) m = n =) zlim
!z0 g(z ) = g(n) (z0 )
(z )
(iii) m < n =) zlim
!z0 g(z ) = 1
from whi h the required on lusions follow.
8.20. Example. Take (z ) = sin z and g(z ) = (1 ez )2 . Then
(0) = 0, 0 (0) = 1, g(0) = g0 (0) = 0 and g00 (0) = 2. This implies that
the fun tion f dened by f (z ) = (z )=g(z ) has a simple pole at the origin.
z sin z
Therefore, Res [f (z ); 0℄ = zlim
!0 (1 ez )2 = 1: 

8.21. Example. We wish to onstru t a fun tion f (z ) whi h has the

following properties:
(i) The only singularities of f (z ) in C 1 are poles of order 1 and 2 at
z = 1 and z = 1, respe tively.
(ii) f (0) = 0 = f ( 1=2) and Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 1 = Res [f (z ); 1℄.
348 Cal ulus of Residues

To do this, by hypotheses, we observe that the prin ipal part of f (z ) has

the form
1 1 b
P (z ) = + +
z 1 z + 1 (z + 1)2
so that F (z ) = f (z ) P (z ) extends to be analyti in C . As f has no other
singularities in C 1 , f is analyti at 1 and so, F (z ) is analyti at 1. Thus,
by Liouville's theorem, F (z ) is onstant. Hen e, f (z ) = P (z ) + a for some
onstant a. Finally, as f (0) = 0 = f ( 1=2), it follows that
a + b = 0 and 4b + a = 4=3:
Solving these equations imply that b = a = 4=9. 
The nal example of this se tion relates to nding the residue of a
bran h of a multi-valued fun tion.
8.22. Example. Consider the fun tion
f (z ) = (1 + z 2 ) 2 Log (1 + z ):
Note that Log (1 + z ) is analyti in C n( 1; 1℄ and f has a pole of order
2 at z = i and i. Hen e,
d
Res [f (z ); i℄ = lim [(z + i)2 f (z )℄
z! i dz
 
d Log (z + 1)
= zlim
! i dz (z i)2
  
1 1 2
= lim

z! i 1 + z (z i)2
+ Log (1 + z )

(z i)3
 
1
=
1 + Log (1 i)
( 22i)3
1 i ( 2i)2
1+i

1
 h
p  i  2
=
2

4 + ln 2 i 4
8i
  " p #
1  1 ln 2
= + +i + :
8 16 8 4
Res [f (z ); i℄ may similarly be omputed. 
8.2 Residue at the Point at Innity
First onsider z = 1=w and re all the geometri aspe t of this transforma-
tion. If we set z = Me i , then we have w = M 1 ei : This shows that as z
des ribes the ir le jz j = M in the z -plane in the lo kwise dire tion, w de-
s ribes the ir le jwj = 1=M in the w-plane in the anti- lo kwise dire tion.
8.2 Residue at the Point at Innity 349

Thus, the point z0 = e i ( > M ) outside the ir le jz j = M orresponds

to a point w0 =  1 ei inside the ir le jwj = 1=M .
Let f be analyti in a deleted neighborhood of the point at innity.
Then f admits a Laurent series expansion of the form
X1 1
Z
f (z )
f (z ) = ak z k (R < jz j < 1); ak = k+1 dz;
k= 1 2 i C + z
with R > 0 suÆ iently large. Here C + denotes the positively oriented ir le
jz j = M , where M > R and M is suÆ iently large so that a nite number of
singularities in C will be inside C0 , where int C0  int CR = fz : jz j < Rg.
Dene
C = fz : jz j = M > R; M is suÆ iently largeg
where C is traversed in the lo kwise dire tion (so that the point at innity
is to the left of C as in the ase of a nite point). Put z = Me i . Then
it follows that (sin e the termwise integration is permissible)
Z X1 Z
f (z ) dz = ak z k dz
C k= 1 C
X1 Z 2
= iak M k+1 e i(k+1) d
k= 1 0
Z 2
= ia 1 d = 2ia 1:
0
In view of this reasoning, it is natural to dene
Z
1
Res [f (z ); 1℄ = f (z ) dz = a 1 :
2i C
In other words, Res [f (z ); 1℄ is the negative of the oeÆ ient of 1=z in the
Laurent series expansion of f (z ) with enter at the point at innity. One
should be alerted that a 1 here is neither the residue of f at innity nor
the residue of f at z = 0. Further, we observe that for z = Me i with
M = 1=R0,
Z
1
Res [f (z ); 1℄ = f (z ) dz
2i C
Z
1 2
= f (Me i )iMe i d
2i 0
 
d(R0 ei )
Z
1 2 1
= f 0 i
2i 0 R e (R0 ei )2
Z  
1 1 dw
= f
2i C w w2
 
f (1=w)
= Res ; 0 ;
w2
350 Cal ulus of Residues

where C = fw : jwj = 1=R0g is des ribed in the anti- lo kwise (positive)

dire tion. Alternatively, if we repla e z by 1=z , we see that
1
 
1 X1 a X1 a
k k 2
f = k+2 = k (0 < jz j < 1=R)
z2 z k= 1 z k= 1 z

so that
     
1 1 1 1 1
Res f ;0 = a 1 = oeÆ ient of z in f
z2 z z2 z
and hen e, in both methods, we qui kly have
   
1 1
(8.23) Res [f (z ); 1℄ = Res 2 f ;0 :
z z
Here is an alternate proof of Liouville's Theorem (Theorem 6.55). Let
f (z ) beP
a bounded entire fun tion. Then f (z ) has a power series expansion
f (z ) = 1 n=0 an z for all z 2 C , so that g dened by
n

X1
g(z ) = f (1=z ) = an z n
n=0
is analyti for all jz j > 0. Sin e f (z ) is bounded in C , g(z ) is bounded in
a deleted neighborhood of 0, and so g(z ) has a removable singularity at 0.
Therefore, an = 0 for all n > 0. Thus, f (z ) = a0 is a onstant.

8.24. Example. Consider the fun tion f (z ) = 1 + z 1, z 6= 0. Then

F (w) = f (1=w) = 1 + w (w 6= 0); and wlim
!0 F (w) = 1:
Thus, F (w) has a removable singularity at w = 0 and therefore, the point
at innity is a removable singularity of f (z ). Further, Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 1:
From this we also observe that if f has a removable singularity at the point
at innity, then the residue of f at 1 may prove to be non-zero in ontrast
to the ase when f has a removable singularity at a nite point. 

8.3 Residue Theorem

The ee tiveness of the residue theorem depends, of ourse, on how ee -
tively we an evaluate residues at various singularities. However, aution
must be exer ised to avoid rea hing a hasty on lusion based on appear-
an es. Having identied the type of singularities, we have to hoose a
proper ontour. Most often the following theorem will be applied in the
next hapter to evaluate dierent types of line integrals.
8.3 Residue Theorem 351

8.25. Theorem. (Cau hy's Residue Theorem) If f is analyti in a

domain D ex ept for isolated singularities at a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an , then, for any
losed ontour in D on whi h none of the points ak lie, we have
Z n
X
f (z ) dz = 2i n( ; ak )Res [f (z ); ak ℄:
k=1
Proof. Sin e does not pass through any of aj 's, we an hoose num-
bers Æ1 ; Æ2 ; : : : ; Æn so small that
(i) for every j = 1; 2; : : : ; n no two ir les j : jz aj j = Æj interse t,
(ii) every ir le j (j = 1; 2; : : : ; n) lies inside .
Sin e aj is an isolated singularity of f , f admits a Laurent series expansion
of the form
X1
(8.26) f (z ) = a(nj) (z aj )n ; 0 < jz aj j  Æj ;
n= 1
for ea h j = 1; 2; : : : ; n. We denote the prin ipal part of f (z ) at ea h of
these isolated singularities by
X1
pj (z ) = a(nj) (z aj )n :
1 n=
Then for ea h j , fun tion pj is analyti on and outside the ir le j (see
Theorems 4.117 and 4.139).
Sin e aj lies inside and pj onverges uniformly on j , we have
Z Z
dz
pj (z ) dz = a(j1) (aj lies inside )
z aj
= 2ia(j1) n(aj ; )
= 2in(aj ; ) Res [f (z ); aj ℄; j = 1; 2; : : : ; n:
If we subtra t the prin ipal parts p1 (z ); p2 (z ); : : : ; pn (z ) from f , it follows
that the fun tion g dened by the dieren e
n
X
(8.27) g(z ) = f (z ) pj (z )
j =1
is analyti on D nfa1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an g. It follows that all the aj 's are removable
singularities
R of g and, by Cau hy's theorem (see also Theorem 8.5), we have
g ( z ) dz = 0. Consequently, by (8.27),
Z n Z
X n
X
f (z ) dz = pk (z ) dz = 2i n(ak ; ) Res [f (z ); ak ℄:
k=1 k=1
352 Cal ulus of Residues

In most of the appli ations will be a simple losed ontour with positive
orientation and hen e, in these ases (see Se tion 4.5),

n( ; ak ) = 01 ifif aak is in the unbounded omponent of C n f g
k inside :
is
Thus, the residue formula be omes elegant for simple losed ontours. Thus
if  D is a simple losed ontour with positive orientation, then under
the hypotheses of Theorem 8.25 we have the following simple form.
8.28. Theorem. (Residue Formula)
Z X
f (z ) dz = 2i Res [f (z ); ak ℄:

Here the sum is taken over all ak 's inside .
The proof of this spe ial ase is trivial be ause for the simple losed
ontour in D, by Cau hy's prin iple of deformation of ontour, we have
Z n Z
X n
X
f (z ) dz = 2i f (z ) dz = 2i Res [f (z ); ak ℄:
k=1 k k=1
The general ase an also be proved in the same spirit.
The Cau hy integral formula (see Theorem 4.63) an be onsidered as a
spe ial ase of the residue theorem. Indeed, if f is analyti in D and a 2 D,
then g dened by
f (z )
g (z ) =
z a
is analyti in D nfag and has the residue f (a) at the simple pole a, by The-
orem 8.13. In fa t, the Cau hy integral formula for higher order derivatives
an also be dedu ed as a spe ial ase of Theorem 8.25.
8.29. Remark. In Theorem 8.25, f (z ) an have only a nite number
of singularities, be ause otherwise singularities of f (z ) would have a limit
point  (possibly at the point at innity), and so  would not be an isolated
singularity of f (z ), ontrary to our assumption. 
8.30. Example. Let us evaluate
Z
Re z
I =
z 
dz; jj 6= 1:
jzj=1
For jz j = 1, we have Re z = z + z 1
=2 so that
Z
1
I = f (z ) dz;
2 jzj=1
8.3 Residue Theorem 353

where
8
> z2 + 1
z2 + 1
>
< 2 if  = 0
f (z ) = = z2 + 1  1 z 1 
z (z ) > >
: if  6= 0:
 z  z
To ompute the integral, we may either use the Cau hy integral formula or
the residue theorem. Note that Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 0 if  = 0.Thus, I0 = 0.
When jj > 1, the Cau hy integral formula gives that
Z  
1 (z 2 + 1)=(z ) 2i 1 i
I = dz = = :
2 jzj=1 z 2  
When 0 < jj < 1, we see that
1 2 + 1
Res [f (z ); 0℄ = and Res [f (z ); ℄ = ;
 
and so, if 0 < jj < 1 then the Cau hy residue theorem gives
2i
I =
2
fRes [f (z ); 0℄ + Res [f (z ); ℄g = i:
Similarly, for jj 6= 1, we an easily see that
8
Z < 0 if  = 0
Im z
dz = = if jj > 1 
jzj=1 z  :
 if 0 < jj < 1:
8.31. Example. For jaj 6= R and C = fz : jz j = Rg, we wish to
show that Z
I=
jdz j = 2R :
C jz aj2 jR2 jaj2 j
For a proof, we let z = Rei . Then dz = iz d, jdz j = Rd = R dz=iz and
jz aj2 = (z a)(z a) = z 1(z a)(R2 az )
so that I takes the form
Z
R 1
I= f (z ) dz; f (z ) = :
i C (z a)(R2 az )
For a = 0, the result is trivial. For a 6= 0, f has two simple poles at z = a
and z = R2 =a. If one of them lies inside the ir le jz j = R, then the other
lies outside. Finally, the result follows from the residue theorem. 
Combining the residue at the point at innity and Theorem 8.25, we
have the\Residue Formula for the Extended Complex Plane" as follows:
8.32. Theorem. (Extended Residue Formula) Let f be analyti in
C ex ept for isolated singularities at a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an . Then we have
354 Cal ulus of Residues

(i) the sum of all residues (in luding the residue at innity) of f is zero.
Equivalently (by Theorem 8.28 and equation (8.23)), we write
   n
1 1 X
Res f ; 0 = Res [f (z ); ak ℄:
z2 z k=1

(ii) if is a simple losed ontour in C su h that all ak 's are interior to

, then Z    
1 1
f (z ) dz = 2iRes 2 f ;0 :
z z
The extended residue formula an be used to give another simple proof
of Liouville's theorem (see Theorem 6.55).
8.33. Proof of Liouville's Theorem (see Theorem 6.55). Suppose
that f is entire and bounded in C . Choose two distin t points, say 0 and a
in C , and onsider the fun tion
f (z )
F (z ) = :
z (z a)
Then F (z ) has singularities at z = 0; a and possibly at the point at innity.
Sin e limjzj!1 zF (z ) = 0 (as f is bounded in C ), Res [F (z ); 1℄ = 0. Note
also that
f (0) f (a)
Res [F (z ); 0℄ = ; and Res [F (z ); a℄ = :
a a
In view of Theorem 8.32, we have
f (0) f (a)
Res [F (z ); 0℄ + Res [F (z ); a℄ + Res [F (z ); 1℄ =+ =0
a a
whi h proves f (a) = f (0) for ea h a 2 C . Hen e, f must be onstant.
On most o asions, al ulation of the residues at many isolated sin-
gularities of the integrand is quite diÆ ult. In this situation, we an use
Theorem 8.32 to evaluate ertain ontour integrals. Now, we demonstrate
this advantageous situation by a number of examples. Consider
z 21
f (z ) = :
(z 2 1)4 (z 4 2)3
Then we see that all the singularities of f lie inside the ir le jz j = 3. Note
that f has a simple pole at innity with Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 4. Consequently,
Z
f (z ) dz = 2i Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 8i:
jzj=3
8.4 Number of Zeros and Poles 355

8.34. Example. Let us evaluate the integral

Z
1 z 2n+3m 1
I= f (z ) dz; f (z ) = 2 ;
2i jzj=R (z + a)n (z 3 + b)m
p
where a; b 2 C n f0g; R > maxf jaj; jbj1=3 g and m and n are xed positive
integers. First we note that f has poles of order n at the zeros of z 2 + a,
say z1 and z2, and poles of order m at the zeros of z 3 + b, say z3; z4 and z5 .
By the onditions on a; b and R, these poles lie inside the ir le jz j = R.
Therefore, by the residue theorem,
5
X
I= Res [f (z ); zj ℄:
j =1
As the al ulation of residues at these poles is quite diÆ ult, to om-
plete the solution, we make use of Theorem 8.32. A ording to this,
I + Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 0. Sin e
     
1 1 1=z
Res [f (z ); 1℄ = Res 2 f ; 0 = Res ; 0 = 1;
z z (1 + az 2 )n (1 + bz 3)m
this gives I = 1. 
The o asional short ut method used in the above two examples should
not be missed.

8.4 Number of Zeros and Poles

Before we onsider some useful onsequen es of Theorem 8.32, let us dene
the hange in arg f (z ) as z goes around C . This is denoted by
C arg f (z ).
Let f be analyti inside and on a simple losed ontour C ex ept possibly
for poles inside C and f (z ) 6= 0 on C . As z des ribes C on e in the positive
dire tion in the z -plane, the image point w = f (z ) des ribes a losed urve
= f (C ) in the w-plane in a parti ular dire tion whi h determines the
orientation of the image urve . Sin e f (z ) 6= 0 on C , never passes
through the origin in the w-plane. Let w0 be an arbitrary xed point
on and let 0 be a value of the argument of w0 . Then, let arg w run
ontinuously from 0 , as the point begins at w0 and traverses on e in
the dire tion of orientation assigned to it by w = f (z ). If w returns to the
starting point w0 , then arg w assumes a parti ular value of arg w0 whi h
we denote by 1 . We dene

C arg f (z ) = 1 0 :
Note that the dieren e 1 0 is independent of the hoi e of the starting
point w0 . Further, we also note that the dieren e 1 0 is an integral
356 Cal ulus of Residues

multiple of 2 and the integer (1 0 )=2, denoted by n( ; 0), is the

winding number of around the origin in w-plane as z des ribes C on e
in the positive dire tion (see 4.5). If n( ; 0) = 1, then winds around
the origin on e in the lo kwise dire tion. If does not en lose the origin,
then it is obvious that n( ; 0) = 0.
For instan e, onsider the spe ial ase when
f (z ) = z n (n 2 N )
where C = fz : z = ei ; 0    2g. The fun tion f has a zero of order
n at z = 0. Then, = fw : w = ein ; 0    2g whi h is the ir le
traversed n-times and so, we may de ompose as
 
2(j 1) 2j
= [nj=1 j ; j = w: w = ein ;  :
n n
Note that ea h j is des ribed in the positive dire tion and has the origin
in its interior. Hen e, we nd that
f 0 (z )
Z Z
1 1 dw 1
n( ; 0) =
C arg f (z ) = n = = dz:
2 2i w 2i C f (z )
8.35. Theorem. If f has a zero of order m at z = a,
 0 
f (z )
Res ; a = m:
f (z )
Proof. If f has a zero of order m at z = a then f (z ) = (z a)m g(z ),
where g is analyti at z = a and g(a) 6= 0. It follows that in a deleted
neighborhood of a
f 0 (z ) (z a)m 1 [mg(z ) + (z a)g0 (z )℄
=
f (z ) (z a)m g(z )
m 0
g (z )
= + ; 0 < jz aj < Æ; for some Æ:
z a g(z )
As g0 =g is analyti at z = a, the on lusion follows.
A proof analogous to that of the above theorem shows that if f has a
pole of order n at z = b, then near z = b we have
f 0 (z ) n
= + an analyti fun tion at z = b.
f (z ) z b
Hen e at ea h pole z = b of f , f 0 =f has a simple pole at z = b with residue
equal to n.
One of the important appli ations of Cau hy's residue theorem on erns
the number of zeros and poles of meromorphi fun tions.
8.4 Number of Zeros and Poles 357

8.36. Theorem. (Argument Prin iple) Let f be meromorphi in a

domain D  C and have only nitely many zeros and poles in D. If C is a
simple losed ontour in D su h that no zeros or poles of f lie on C , then
Z
1 f 0 (z )
(8.37) dz = N P
2i C f (z )
where N and P denote, respe tively, the number of zeros and poles of f
inside C , ea h ounted a ording to their order.
Proof. Dene F (z ) = f 0 (z )=f (z ): Then, the only possible singularities
of F inside C are the zeros and poles of f . Therefore13
Z
1 X
(8.38) F (z ) dz = Res [F (z ); C ℄:
2i C
If aj is a zero of order nj of f and if bk is a pole of order pk of f , then (see
Theorem 8.35) it follows that
 0   0 
f (z ) f (z )
Res ; aj = nj and Res ; bk = pk :
f (z ) f (z )
Thus (8.38) be omes
Z
1 f 0 (z ) X X
dz = nj pk = N P:
2i C f (z ) j k

8.39. Remark. If, in addition,  is analyti on D, then under the

hypotheses of Theorem 8.36 we easily get that
Z
1 f 0 (z ) X X
(z ) dz = nj (aj ) pk (bk )
2i C f (z ) j k
where aj and bk are the zeros of order nj and the poles of order pk for f ,
respe tively. 
Why is Theorem 8.36 known as an argument prin iple? Let us now
restate Theorem 8.36 in terms of the properties of the logarithmi fun tion
log f (z ). For this, under the hypotheses of Theorem 8.36, onsider the
transformation w = log f (z ): Note that f is analyti on C and f (z ) 6= 0
on C . Hen e, f (z ) 6= 0 in a neighborhood of C . For any analyti bran h
log f (z ) of logarithm of f (z ), we have
d f 0 (z )
(log f (z )) =
dz f (z )
P
13 We use Res [f (z ); D℄ to denote the sum of the residues of f at the singulari-
ties aj , where aj belongs to the interior of D. Sometimes, we denote this simply by
P
Res [f (z ); C ℄ where C is a given losed ontour.
358 Cal ulus of Residues

and therefore,
Z Z
1 f 0 (z ) 1 1
(8.40) dz = d(log f (z )) =
log f (z ):
2i C f (z ) 2i C 2i C
We refer to this integral as the logarithmi integral of f (z ) along C . Here

C log f (z ) denotes the in rease in log f (z ) when C is traversed on e in the
positive dire tion, and we say that the logarithmi integral measures the
hange of log f (z ) along the ontour C . Now, we express
log f (z ) = ln jf (z )j + i arg f (z )
where ln jf (z )j is single-valued and hen e,
C ln jf (z )j = 0; as ln jf (z )j
returns to its original value when C is traversed. This observation implies
that

C log f (z ) = i
C arg f (z ):
Therefore, (8.40) yields
Z
1 f 0 (z ) 1
dz =
C arg f (z )
2i C f (z ) 2
where
C arg f (z ) is referred to as the in rease in the argument of f (z )
along C . Thus, the argument prin iple an be restated as follows.
8.41. Corollary. Under the hypotheses of Theorem 8.36, we have
1

arg f (z ) = N P:
2 C
8.42. Corollary. If f is analyti inside and on a simple losed
ontour C and f (z ) 6= 0 on C , then (1=2 )
C arg f (z ) = N:
Z
1 f 0 (z )
8.43. Example. Consider the integral I = dz; where
2i C f (z )
C = fz : jz 1 ij = 2g and
z 2 z 2 z2 9
(i) f (z ) = ; (ii) f (z ) = ; (iii) f ( z ) = :
z (z 1) z (z 1)2 z2 + 1
Then, we note that 0; 1; 2 and i are inside C and 3; 3 and i are outside
C . Thus for (i), I = 1 2 = 1; for (ii), I = 1 3 = 2 and for the last
ase, I = 0 1 = 1. 
8.44. Example. Note that os z = 0 () z = (k + 12 ); k 2 Z; the
only zero of os z inside the unit ir le about =2 is at z = =2. Therefore,
by the argument prin iple, we have
Z Z
f 0 (z )
tan z dz = dz = 2i; f (z ) = os z:
jz =2j=1 jz =2j=1 f (z )
8.4 Number of Zeros and Poles 359
y v
f (z) = z2 − 1 −1 + 2i
1+i

0 1 2 x u
−1 3

1−i
−1 − 2i

Figure 8.1: Mapping w = z 2 1.

From this integral, we also note that Res [tan z ; =2℄ = 1. 

8.45. Examples. Let f (z ) = tanh z and C = fz : jz j = 3g. Sin e
osh z = 0 () z = i(k + 12 ) (k 2 Z); we see that osh z has 2 zeros at
z = i=2 in the interior of C . Further, we note that
Z
d
( osh z ) = sinh z; and tanh z dz = 4i;
dz jzj=3
by the argument prin iple. Similarly we easily obtain the following:
Z
(i) tanh z dz = 4i
Z
jz 1j=2
ez
(ii) dz = 6i
Z
jzj=3 ez 1
(iii) tan z dz = 12i
jzj=
f 0 (z )
Z Z
dz
(iv) = dz = 2i; with f (z ) = tan(z=2): 
jzj=1 sin z jzj=1 f (z )
8.46. Example. Consider f (z ) = z 2 1, C = fz : jz 1j = 1g:
Using the image points, it is easy to sket h the values whi h w = f (z )
assumes on C :
z : 2 1+i 0
# # #
w : 3 1 + 2i 1:
Sin e f (z ) = f (z ) and sin e the ontour C in the z -plane is symmetri
about x-axis, the image urve in the w-plane must be symmetri about
u-axis. From Figure 8.1, we easily dedu e that
1

arg f (z ) = 1
2 C
360 Cal ulus of Residues
y
iR C
Reiθ

θ
O R x

Figure 8.2: The urve C = fz : jz j = R; 0  arg z  =2g.

as C is traversed on e in the positive dire tion starting from a point and

ending at the same point. Further, we also note that f has two simple zeros
at z = 1 and z = 1. Only the zero at z = 1 lies inside C . Thus, N = 1.
Similarly, it is easy to see that if f (z ) = z n and C is a losed ontour
(or ir le) en losing the origin, then 21
C arg f (z ) = n; whi h agrees
with the fa t that in the interior of C , the fun tion has a pole of order n
at z = 0. 
8.47. Example. Consider f (z ) = z 4 + z 3 + 1: If z = x with x > 0,
then
(8.48) f (z ) = x4 + x3 + 1
and if z = x with x > 0, then
 3
x (x 1) + 1 if x  1;
(8.49) f (z ) = x4 x3 + 1 = 4
x + (1 + x + x2 )(1 x) if 0 < x  1:
Thus, (8.48) and (8.49) imply that f (z ) has no real roots. Further if z = iy
with y-real, then
f (z ) = y4 + 1 iy3
whi h shows that f has no purely imaginary roots. On the other hand if
C = fz : z = Rei ; 0    =2g, i.e. C is taken round the part of the
rst quadrant bounded by jz j = R for suÆ iently large R (see Figure 8.2),
then
 
4 i 4 3 i3  4 4i 1 1
f (z ) = R e + R e + 1 = R e 1 + i + 4 4i :
Re Re
If R is suÆ iently large, then the square bra keted term is pra ti ally 1 and
so  

C arg f (z ) ! 4 = 2 as R ! 1:
2
On the axis of y,  
y3
arg f (iy) = ar tan :
1 + y4
8.5 Rou he's Theorem 361

Here y ranges from 1 to 0 along the positive imaginary axis, the initial
and nal values of arg f (z ) are zero. Thus, the total hange when R is
suÆ iently large is given by
C arg f (z ) = 2 0 whi h means that there
is a root lying in the open rst quadrant. 
8.5 Rou he's Theorem
The argument prin iple allows a omparison, under ertain onditions, of
the number of zeros of two analyti fun tions.
8.50. Theorem. (Rou he's Theorem) Let f and g be meromorphi
in a domain D  C and have only nitely many zeros and poles in D.
Suppose that C is a simple losed ontour in D su h that no zeros or poles
of f or g lie on C , and, in addition, assume that
(8.51) jg(z )j < jf (z )j on C:
Then
C f (z ) =
C (f (z ) + g (z )); i.e. the dieren e between the number
of zeros and number of poles is the same for f and f + g :
Nf Pf = Nf +g Pf +g :
Proof. By the hypotheses, both f (z ) and f (z ) + g(z ) are nonzero on
C . By the argument prin iple (see Corollary 8.41), we have
Z Z
1 f 0 (z ) 1 (f + g)0 (z )
Nf Pf = dz and Nf +g Pf +g = dz
2i C f (z ) 2i C (f + g)(z )
so that a straightforward al ulation gives that
Nf Pf (Nf +g Pf +g )
Z  
1 f 0 (z )(f (z ) + g(z )) f (z )(f 0 (z ) + g0 (z ))
= dz
2i C f (z )(f (z ) + g(z ))
Z
1 F 0 (z ) g(z )
= dz; F (z ) = 1 + :
2i C F (z ) f (z )
In view of (8.51), jg(z )=f (z )j < 1 on C so that, the meromorphi fun tion
F (z ) maps C into jw 1j < 1. Thus, as z des ribes C , the point w = F (z )
traverses a losed ontour lying ompletely inside the domain jw 1j < 1
(see Figure 8.3) so that neither passes through the origin nor ontains
the origin. It follows that
Z Z
F 0 (z ) dw
dz = =0
C F ( z ) w
and so, Nf Pf (Nf +g Pf +g ) = 0. The result follows.
362 Cal ulus of Residues 1

y g(z)
v
|z − 1| = 1 w =1+ f (z) |w − 1| = 1
C D

O 1 2 x O 1 Ŵ2 u

Figure 8.3: Illustration for the proof of Rou he's theorem.

Sometimes Rou he's theorem is given an equivalent formulation: Instead

of assuming jg(z )j < jf (z )j on C , it is assumed that
jg(z ) f (z )j < jf (z )j on C:
Then the on lusion with respe t to this assumption is that
C g(z ) =

C f (z ), i.e. Nf Pf = Ng Pg :
8.52. Remark. If f and g have no poles in D, then the on lusion
of Theorem 8.50 shows that f and f + g have the same number of zeros
inside the ontour C . 
Consider, f (z ) = z 6 5z 4 + 7. Then we have
(i) jf (z ) 7j < jz j6 + 5jz j4 < 7 for jz j = 1, and so f (z ) has no zeros in
jz j < 1
(ii) jf (z ) ( 5z 4)j < jz j6 + 7 = 26 + 7 < 5jz j4 for jz j = 2, and so f (z )
has four zeros in jz j < 2
(iii) jf (z ) z 6j < 5jz j4 + 7 < jz 6j for jz j = 3, and so f (z ) has all the six
zeros in the disk jz j < 3.
8.53. Remark. We next show that the fundamental theorem of
algebra follows from Rou he's theorem. Consider f (z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+
an 1 z n 1 + z n and let C = fz : jz j = Rg, R > 1. Then, for z 2 C , we have
 
 jRa0nj + Rjan1 j1 +


+ janR 1 j
 f (z ) 

 zn 1

+ jan 1 j℄ R1 (sin e R > 1):

< [ja0 j + ja1 j +
Thus, for suÆ iently large R, i.e. for R > maxf1; ja0j + ja1j +


+ jan 1jg,
we see that
 
 f (z ) 

 zn 1 < 1; or jf (z ) z n j < jz jn on jz j = R:
8.5 Rou he's Theorem 363

By Rou he's theorem, f has n zeros inside this ir le. 

8.54. Example. Take f (z ) = 2 + z 2 and g(z ) = eiz . For z = x 2 R,
we have
f (x) = 2 + x2 > jeix j = 1 = jg(x)j; i.e. jf (z )j > jg(z )j:
On the other hand if z = Rei , 0    , then
jf (Rei )j = j2 + R2 ei2 j  R2 2 and jg(Rei )j = jeiRei j = e R sin  :
Therefore, on the upper semi- ir le, we have jf (z )pj > jg(z )j if R satises
the ondition R2 2 > e R sin  : If we hoose R > 3 then
R2 2 > 1  e R sin  for 0    :
By Rou he's theorem, the number of zeros of f + g in

R = fz : jz j  R and Re z  0g
p
for R > 3 is equal to the number of roots of the equation f (z ) = 2+ z 2 = 0
in
R . Thus, in the entire upper half-plane equation 2 + z 2 eiz = 0 has
only one root. 
8.55. Example. Let f (z ) = 1+ z 4 and g(z ) = iz 3. Then, on jz j = R,
jf (z )j  R4 1 and jg(z )j = R3 so that the inequality jf (z )j > jg(z )j holds
on jz j = R if R4 1 > R3: By Rou he's theorem, f and f + g have
same number of zeros in jz j < R for whenever R4 1 > R3 : For example,
z 4 + iz 3 + 1 = 0 has all the four roots in jz j < 3=2. 
8.56. Example. Consider f (z ) = 3 + z + (jjR 3)z n; where
jjR 3 > 0 with 0 < R  1 and n = 2; 3; : : : . Then, on jz j = R, we have
j3 + z j  jjR 3  (jjR 3)Rn = j(jjR 3)z nj
and therefore, f has exa tly one zero inside the ir le jz j = R. For instan e
f (z ) = 3 + z + (jj 3)z n has one zero in jz j < 1 if jj > 3. 
8.57. Example. Given  > 1, we wish to prove that e z + z  = 0
has a unique solution in fz : Re z > 0g. To do this, we take f (z ) = z 
and g(z ) = e z . Then, for z = iy, we have
p
jf (iy)j = jiy j = y2 + 2 > 1 = je iy j = jg(iy)j
so that jg(z )j < jf (z )j for z in the verti al line segment onne ting iR and
iR. On the other hand if jz j = R, Re z  0, then we have
(8.58) jf (z )j  jz j  = R  > 1  je z j = e Re z = jg(z )j
364 Cal ulus of Residues

(sin e Re z  0), provided R > 1 + . By Rou he's theorem, the equation

f (z ) + g(z ) = e z + z  = 0 has only one root inside
= fz : jz j =
R; Re z > 0g for R >  + 1. The root is real be ause the left hand side of
the equation e z + z  = 0 for z = x = 0 gives 1  whi h is negative
and approa hes +1 as x ! +1. This shows the root must be real. 

8.59. Example. It is easy to prove that for ea h R > 0 there is an

integer N = N (R) su h that
z2 zn
fn (z ) = 1 + z + +


+
2! n!
has no zeros in jz j < R for n  N . Indeed, sin e fn (z ) ! ez on C as
n ! 1, for a given  > 0, there exists an N su h that
jfn (z ) ez j <  for all jz j = R; n  N:
That is, if we hoose  < minjzj=R jfn (z )j, then the last inequality gives
jez fn (z )j < jfn (z )j for jz j = R:
Our assertion therefore follows from Rou he's theorem (and the fa t that
ez 6= 0 in C ). One an also use Hurwitz' theorem (see Theorem 12.4) to
get an alternate treatment of this example.
On the other hand, we easily see that if m; n 2 N , then the polynomial
z z2 zn
p(z ) = 1 + + +


+ + az m
1! 2! n!
has m zeros in the unit disk whenever e < jaj. Indeed, as

n k  X
X
z  1 1
 = e < jaj = jaz m j for jz j=1 ;



k=0 k ! 
k=0 k !
Rou he's theorem gives the desired result. 
8.6 Exer ises
8.60. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true
or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) If f and g are analyti in a deleted neighborhood of z0 , and if a and
b 2 C , then Res [af (z ) + bg(z ); z0℄ = a Res [f (z ); z0℄ + b Res [g(z ); z0℄:
(b) If f (z ) has an isolated singularity at a 2 C with nonzero residue at
z = a, then the residues of f 0(z ) and (z a)f 0 (z ) at z = a are zero.
8.6 Exer ises 365

( ) If f has an isolated singularity at a, and is a non-zero omplex

number, then f ( z ) has an isolated singularity at a= , and
Res [f (z ); a= ℄ = (1= )Res [f (z ); a℄:
(d) Let f 2 H(
(a; Æ) n fag) for some Æ > 0 and f have a simple pole at
a with residue a 1 . Then, for a ir ular ar () of the form a + ei
( 2 [1 ; 2 ℄; 0  1 < 2  2;  < Æ), one has
Z
lim f (z ) dz = ia 1 (2
!0 
1 ):
P P
(e) If f (z ) = n2Zan z n and g(z ) = P n
n2Zbn z have an isolated singu-
larity at 0, then Res [f (z )g(z ); 0℄ = n2Zan b n 1 .
2
Note: Is this result helpful to ompute Res [e1=z sin(1=z ); 0℄ = 0?
(f) If f 2 H(C n f0g and Res [f (z ); 0℄ = a 1 , then there exists z 2 

su h that jf (z ) 1=z j  ja 1 1j.
(g) If f is analyti at 1 and has a zero of order n ( 2) at 1, then
Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 0.
(h) If f is analyti at 1 and has a simple zero at 1, then Res [f (z ); 1℄ =
limz!1 zf (z ):
(i) If D  C is a domain, M > 0 and fR: D !
(M ; M ) is analyti ,
then for every losed ontour in D, (f 0 (z )=f (z )) dz = 0:
Z
1
(j) z dz = 2i.
jzj=1 e 1 2z
(k) If f is a rational fun tion su h that the degree of its denominator
ex eeds that of numerator by at least two, then the sum of residues
at all the poles is zero.
(l) If p is a polynomial of degree at most n and jaj < R, then
Z
p(z )
z n+1 (z a) dz = 0:
jzj=R
R
(m) If p(z ) is a polynomial of degree n ( 2), then jzj=R pdz (z) = 0 for large
R, and the same is also true if p(z ) is a linear fun tion, i.e. if n = 1.
(n) There does not exist an analyti fun tion f dened on C n f0g su h
that f 0 (z ) = 1=z (see also Example 4.89).
(o) The fun tion f (z ) = [1 + z + z 2 +


+ z n 1 ℄ 1 ; has simple poles at
zk = e2ki=n (k = 1; 2; : : : ; n 1) and
 
e3ki=n k
Res [f (z ); zk ℄ = 2i sin :
n n
366 Cal ulus of Residues

(p) If k is a xed integer and C = fz : jz j = (2jkj + 1)=2g, then

Z k
1 X
osh z ot z dz = osh j:
2i C j= k
1
X 1
(q) For f (z ) = ez+1=z , Res [f (z ); 0℄ = = Res [f (z ); 1℄:
n=0 n !( n + 1)!
(r) For a > 1 and b-real,
Z
ebz 2i sin(b=a)
dz = :
jzj=1 a z2 + 1
2 a
(s) The equation ez = 2 + 3z has at most one solution in the unit disk
jz j < 1.
(t) If jz j = 1 and a > 1, then the equation zea z = 1 has exa tly one
solution in jz j < 1.
(u) All the roots of the polynomial p(z ) = 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 have
absolute value less than 2.
(v) If jf (z )j > m on jz j = 1, f is analyti for jz j  1 and jf (0)j < m, then
f has at least one zero in jz j < 1.
(w) Let f be analyti in a neighborhood of
= fz : jz j  1g. If jf (z )j < 1
for all jz j = 1, then f has exa tly one xed point in
.
P
(x) If fn (z ) = 1 + nk=1 kz k 1 and 0 < R < 1, then there exists an N
su h that fn has no zeros in jz j < R whenever n > N .
(y) All the roots of p the equation z 3 5z 2 + 10 = 0 lie in the annulus
fz : 1 < jz j < 2g.
(z) If f is a meromorphi fun tion on the Riemann sphere, then Nf = Pf ,
where Nf and Pf are respe tively the number of zeros and the number
of poles of f , ounted with multipli ity.
8.61. Find the residues at ea h of the isolated singularities of the
following fun tions in C or C 1 :
 2 
z z +z+1 3 1
(i) 2 (ii) (iii) :
z + 3z + 3 z+1 (z 3 + 1)(z + 1)2
8.62. Suppose f and g are analyti in a domain D and f 0 (z ) 6= 0 in
D. Let be a losed ontour in D. Then for a 62 , show that
Z
g(a) 1 g(z )
n( ; a) = dz:
f 0 (a) 2i f (z ) f (a)
Apply this result for g(z ) = 1, ez , os z .
8.6 Exer ises 367
Z
8.63. Evaluate f (z ) dz , where f (z ) is given by the following
jzj=1
fun tions:
sin6 z z z 1 os z (ez e z )2
; ; 2 ; z ; :
(z =6)3 z 4 2 2
6z + 1 (z + 4z + 1) (e 1) sin z z3
8.64. Evaluate the following integrals using the residue theorem:
Z Z
dz dz
(i) 2 (ez e z ) and 2 (ez e z )
jzj=1 z jzj=4 z
Z
z
(ii) dz
j z 1j=3 (z 2 1)3 (1 + z 2 )
R
(iii) jzj= ot z dz
Z
e1=(z 1)
(iv) dz
j zj=3 z 2
Z
dz
(v) ; where C is any ir le en losing i and i inside.
C 1 + z2
8.65. Let
Q C be a simple losed ontour en losing the points 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n.
If fm (z ) = m
k=1 (z k ) for m = 1; 2; : : : ; n, then ompute the integrals
Z Z
dz fm (z )
Im = and Jm = dz for m = 1; 2; : : : ; n:
C zf m ( z ) C z

8.66. Suppose that f 2 H(
) and su h that f (
)  R. Show that

f is a onstant.
8.67. Dene
1
X 1 X1 zn
f (z ) = n n + 2 :
n=1 7 n!z n=0 5n + n!
R
Does the series onverge for all z 6= 0? If so, nd the value of jzj=1 f (z ) dz:

8.68. Let f (z ) = (z )=g(z ), where  and g are both analyti around
z0 . If (z0 ) 6= 0, g(z0) = g0 (z0 ) = g00 (z0 ) = 0, and g000 (z0 ) 6= 0, show that
 00 
 (z ) 1 0 (z )g(iv) (z ) 
Res [f (z ); z0℄ = 3 000 :
g (z ) 2 (g000 (z ))2 z=z0
8.69. Dene f (z ) = ln jz j + i arg z; z 2 D ; where D = C n fRei :
R > 0g,  2 R is xed su h that arg z is the hoi e of arg z in ( 2; ).
Assuming  6= =2; 3=2, nd Res [(z 2 + a2 ) 1 f (z ); ia℄:
368 Cal ulus of Residues

8.70. Find the analog of (8.8) when f has a pole at 1. More pre isely,
if f has a pole of order n at 1, then show that
( 1)n n+2 (n+1)
Res [f (z ); 1℄ = zlim
!1 z f (z ):
(n + 1)!
In the ase when f is analyti at 1, then this formula ontinues to hold if
n = 0.
8.71. Let p(z ) and q(z ) be polynomials with no ommon zeros, and
with degrees m and n, respe tively. Set f (z ) = p(z )=q(z ). Show that
(i) f has a removable singularity at 1 if n  m
(ii) Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 0 if n  m + 2.
8.72. Suppose that f is meromorphi on C 1 . Then prove or disprove
the following: f has a pole only at 1 i Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 0.
8.73. Suppose that f is analyti on jz j  1, jf (z )j < 1 whenever
jz j = 1, and that jj < 1. Find the number of solutions of f (z ) =
((z )=(z 1))2 in jz j  1.
8.74. Let jaj > eR =Rn for a positive integer n. Prove that the equation
az n ez = 0 has n solutions ( ounting multipli ity) z satisfying jz j < R.
In the ase when R = 1, show that these solutions are simple roots with
positive real part in jz j < 1.
8.75. If f (z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+ an 1 z n 1 + z n, and C is a simple
losed ontour en losing all the zeros of f , then show that
zf 0(z ) z 2 f 0 (z )
Z Z
dz = 2an 1 i and dz = 2i(a2n 1 2an 1):
C f (z ) C f (z )

8.76. Suppose that f (z ) is analyti in the disk jz j < 2 and

Z
1 f 0 (z )
In = zn dz:
2i jzj=1 f (z )
Find the value of In when n = 0; 1; 2:
8.77. Let f be analyti for jz j < 2. Show that
(
1
Z
f (z ) f (0) if jaj < 1
dz =
2i jzj=1 z a f (0) f (1=a) if jaj > 1:
Chapter 9

Evaluation of ertain Integrals

This hapter des ribes some systemati methods to evaluate ertain types of
denite and improper integrals o urring in Real Analysis. The method of
residue al ulus, using the Residue Theorem, is a powerful tool for evaluat-
ing su h integrals. Here we illustrate the methods together with a suitable
fun tion f and a suitable losed ontour C ; the hoi e, nevertheless, de-
pends on the problem. In Se tion 9.1, we rst dis uss the evaluation of
integrals of ertain periodi fun tions over the interval [; 2 + ℄. In the
remaining se tions we apply the residue theorem to evaluate various types
of real integrals whose integrands have no known expli it anti-derivatives.
Let us start with a simple example:
Z
ez
I= f (z ) dz; f (z ) = :
jzj=r z
An immediate onsequen e of the Cau hy residue theorem (or the Cau hy
integral formula) gives I = 2i as f has a simple pole at 0 with Res [f (z ); 0℄ =
1: If we substitute z = rei , then dz = irei d = izd so that
Z 2
2i = I = i exp(rei ) d:
0
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
Z 2 Z 2
er os  sin(r sin ) d = 0 and er os  os(r sin ) d = 2:
0 0
R 2+
9.1 Integrals of Type  R( os ; sin  ) d
This se tion provides a method of evaluating integrals of the form
Z 2+
(9.1) I= R( os ; sin ) d;

370 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

where R( os ; sin ) is a rational fun tion of os  and sin  (with real o-

eÆ ients) whi h is nite in the range of the integral.
Quite often the integrals of the above type an be evaluated by means
of some substitutions su h as t = tan , t = tan(=2), et ., but sometimes
the evaluation may prove to be diÆ ult or even impossible with the real
analyti methods at our disposal.
In equation (9.1),  varies between  and 2 + . Sin e  varies over
a range of 2, we may onsider  as an argument of a point z on the unit
ir le C = fz : jz j = 1g. Therefore, we may write z = ei so that
z2 + 1 z2 1 dz
os  = ; sin  = and d = ; (0    2):
2z 2iz iz
Thus, the integral in (9.1) be omes
Z Z  2 
z +1 z 2 1 dz
I= f (z ) dz = R ;
C C 2z 2iz iz
where f is a rational fun tion of z that is nite onPthe path of integration C .
By the residue theorem, we then have I = 2i nk=1 Res [f (z ); k ℄; where
k denotes those poles of f whi h lie inside C and the integral along C is
taken in the positive dire tion.
9.2. Remark. As pointed out above, by means of the substitution
t = tan =2 or simply by t = tan , we an prove
Z =2
d 
(i) 2 = (jj < 1)
=2 1 2 sin  +  1 2
Z =2 p
1 + 2 sin2  (4 3 3)
(ii)
1 + 2 os2 
d =
6
: 
0
9.3. Example. Let us evaluate
Z 2
d
I= ;
0 a + b sin 
where a and b are real with jbj < jaj: First, we note that if b = 0 then
I = 2=a. If b 6= 0, then
Z 2
1 d
I= (a; b real; 1 < ja=bj):
b 0 (a=b) + sin 
So, it suÆ es to ompute the integral for b = 1. Now, putting z = ei (and
assuming b = 1 and a 2 R with jaj > 1), we nd that
Z
1 1
I =2 f (z ) dz; f (z ) = =: :
jzj=1 z 2 + 2iaz 1 (z )(z )
 R
9.1 Integrals of Type 2+ R( os ; sin ) d 371

We see that the only singularities of f are the simple poles at

p 1 p
 = i(a + a2 1) and  = i(a : a2 1) =

Observe that, sin e 1 < jaj and the produ t of the two roots is 1, one root
lies inside the unit ir le jz j = 1 while the other lies outside. In fa t  lies
in jz j < 1 whenever a < 1, and  = 1= lies in jz j < 1 whenever a > 1.
Now,
1
Res [f (z );  ℄ =
 
= p1 ; and Res [f (z ); ℄ =
1
 
:
2i a2 1
Therefore, by the residue theorem, we have
8
Z 2
d h X i
>
>
< p 22 if a > 1
= 2 2i Res [f (z ); C ℄ = a 1 
0 a + sin  >
>
: p 22 if a < 1:
a 1
9.4. Example. In the following examples, we skip some steps. For
a > 1;
Z 2 Z
d 4 z
2 = f (z ) dz; f (z ) = 2 :
0 (a + os ) i jzj=1 (z + 2az + 1)2
Observe that f has two poles (ea h of order two) at
p p
 = a + a2 1 and  = a a2 1:
As z 2 + 2az + 1 = (z )(z  ), we have  = 1 so that one pole lies
inside the unit ir le jz j = 1 while the other must lie outside. Clearly, 
lies inside jz j = 1, and therefore, it suÆ es to ompute
d 2

! dz (z ) f(z )
Res [f (z ); ℄ = zlim
d z
= zlim
! dz (z  )2
( +  )
=
(  )3
a
= :
4(a 1)3=2
2

Finally, by the Cau hy residue theorem,

Z 2   
d 4 a 2a
= 2i = :
0 (a + os ) 2 i 4(a 1)3=2
2 (a2 1)3=2
372 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

y
y = f (x)

O a 2a x

Figure 9.1: Illustration for an integral by area under a urve.

What happens to the integral if a < 1?

Similarly, for a > 1, we an write
Z 2 Z
d 4
2 = f (z ) dz;
0 (a + sin ) i jzj=1
where z z
f (z ) = =
(z 2 + 2iaz 1)2 (z )2 (z  )2
and  and  are as in Example 9.3. It follows that f has a double pole at
z =  inside the unit ir le, and
( +  ) a
Res [f (z ); ℄ = =
(  )3 4(a2 1)3=2
so that Z 2
d 2a
(a + sin  ) 2 = (a2 1)3=2 ; for a > 1:
0
What is the value of the integral when a < 1? 
9.5. Remark. One may adopt the method of the above example to
evaluate su h integrals whose range of integration is not of length 2. In
this ontext we often use the following:
Z 2a Z a
\If f (x) = f (2a x); then f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx:"
0 0
One an be readily onvin ed of this fa t by interpreting the integrals as
areas under a urve (see Figure 9.1). Sin e the urve is symmetri about
x = a, the two dierent shaded regions are equal in area. Alternately, it
suÆ es to rewrite
Z 2a Z a Z 2a
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
0 0 a
and use the hange of variable x = 2a t for the se ond integral on the
right. An integral over [0; ℄ an also be handled whenever f () is even in
 and is 2-periodi , sin e in this situation
 R
9.1 Integrals of Type 2+ R( os ; sin ) d 373
Z  Z  Z 2
1 1
f () d =
2
f () d =
2
f () d: 
0  0

9.6. Remark. If a and b are onstants, x a real parameter,  x  d,

and R(; x) a ontinuous fun tion with a ontinuous partial derivative with
respe t to x for a    b,  x  d, then, a ording to Leibnitz's rule, we
have Z b ! Z
d b R
R(; x) d = d:
dx a a x
Leibnitz's rule an be extended suitably to ases where the limits a and b
are innite or dependent on x. Using this rule, we an easily dedu e from
Example 9.3 that for 1 < jaj,
(
Z 2
d 2a=(a2 1)3=2 for a > 1
(a + sin )2
= 
0 2a=(a2 1)3=2 for a < 1:
Z 2
d
9.7. Example. Set I =
1 + 2 2 os  ; 1 6=  > 0: As in the
0
previous examples, to evaluate this integral, we may rewrite it as
Z
i 1
I= f (z ) dz; f (z ) = :
 jzj=1 (z )(z 1=)
The only singularities of f are the simple poles at z =  and z = 1=. If
0 <  < 1, then z =  is inside jz j < 1 while the other is outside the unit
ir le. Therefore, for 0 <  < 1,
i 2 2
I=

f 2i Res [f (z ); ℄g =

lim
z ! 
(z )f (z ) =
1 2
:

Similarly, we dedu e that I = 2=(2 1) for  > 1: 

9.8. Example. Let us show that
Z 2 Z 2
2(2n)!
(i) I = os2n  d = sin2n  d =
0 0 22n (n!)2
Z 2
2(2n)!(a2 + b2 )n
(ii) (a os  + b sin )2n d = (a; b are real):
0 22n (n!)2
As usual, let z = ei . Then the rst integral, whi h we have already
en ountered in Chapter 4, be omes
Z  2n
1 (z 2 + 1)2n 1 1
I = 2n f (z ) dz; f (z ) = 2n+1 = z+ :
i2 jzj=1 z z z
374 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

The only singularity of f is the pole at z = 0 of order 2n + 1. Sin e

2n     2n  
1X 2n 2n k 1 k X 2n 2(n k) 1
f (z ) = z = z ; jz j > 0;
z k=0 k z k=0 k


we see that the oeÆ ient of z = 2nn : Consequently,
1 is a 1
   
1 2 2n 2 (2n)!
I = 2n f2i Re [f (z ); 0℄g = 2n = 2n
i2 2 n 2 (n!)2
and the integration formula for the rst part follows. Similarly, by onsid-
ering fun tions of the form z k f (z ) (k 2 Z), we an a tually evaluate
Z 2 Z 2
os2n () os k d and os2n () sin k d:
0 0
However, for the proof of (ii), we may rewrite (as there is nothing to prove
if (a; b) = (0; 0))
 
p 2a 2 os  + p 2b 2 sin 
p
a os  + b sin  = a2 + b2
a +b a +b
and observe that, given a pair (a; b) 6= (0; 0), there exists a unique  2
[0; 2) su h that
p p
os  = a= a2 + b2 and sin  = b= a2 + b2 :
p
Thus, a os  + b sin  = a2 + b2 os( ) and
Z 2 Z 2
1
(a os  + b sin )2n d = os2n ( ) d
(a2 + b2 )n 0 0
Z 2
= os2n  d
0
so that (ii) follows from (i). 
9.9. Remark. If os n or sin n o urs in the integrand, we may
use the formulas
zn + z n zn z n
os n = and sin n =
2 2i
where z = e and n 2 Z.
i 
Finally, for a > 1, we write
Z 2 Z
sin2  i (z 2 1)2
I= d = f (z ) dz; f (z ) = 2 ;
0 a + os  2 jzj=1 z (z )(z  )
9.2 Integrals of Type 11 f (x) dx
R
375

where p p
 = a + a2 1 and  = a a2 1
are the roots of the quadrati equation z 2 + 2az + 1 = 0. We note that
z =  lies in jz j < 1 while z =  lies outside the unit ir le jz j = 1. Further,
f has a pole of order two at z = 0. Also, it is easy to see that
p
Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 2a and Res [f (z ); ℄ = 2 a2 1:
Therefore, by the residue theorem,
in  p o p
I = 2i 2a + 2 a2 1 = 2(a a2 1):
2
What happens if a < 1?

9.2 Integrals of Type 11 f (x) dx

R

In the previous se tion, we transformed ertain real trigonometri integrals

into ontour integrals and then omputed them with the help of residue
theorem. This se tion proposes to evaluate ertain types of improper and
denite integrals, but by interpreting the given integral as 2i times the
sum of residues at the singularities of a properly hosen analyti fun tion.
We start with a simple example of evaluating
Z 1
(9.10) I= f (x) dx;
1
where f (x) is a ontinuous fun tion on R. As we know, this is an improper
integral of f on ( 1; 1) and has the meaning
Z 0 Z S Z 0 Z 1
I = Rlim f (x) dx + lim f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
!1 R S !1 0 1 0
provided these two limits exist. We an now write I as
Z S
I = lim f (x) dx
R;S !1 R
with the understanding that R and S have to be allowed Rto run to 1
independently of ea h other;
R1
i.e. the existen e of limR!1 RR does not
imply the existen e of 1 as the fun tion f (x) = x demonstrates this
fa t. However, we next give a pre ise example illustrating this note.
Suppose f is ontinuous on interval (a; b) ex ept at a point x0 in (a; b),
where f has a singularity (in whi h sense?), i.e. f (x) is unbounded near
x0 . Then, Z b
(9.11) f (x) dx
a
376 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

might not be dened and so we have to nd a natural way to make a

meaningful denition. For 1 > 0 and 2 > 0, onsider
Z x0 1 Z b
f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a x0 +2
(note that both the integrals exist for ea h 1 and 2 ) and let 1 ! 0 and
2 ! 0. If both limits exist, we say that the integral (9.11) is onvergent.
It may happen that even though this limit does not exist, the limit when
1 = 2 =  with  ! 0 may exist. For instan e onsider f (x) = x 3 ,
x 2 [ 1; 1℄ nf0g: Then, with x0 = 0, we have
Z 0 1   Z 1  
dx 1 1 dx 1 1
=
x3 2
1
21 3 = 2 2 1 :
and
1 0+2 x 2
Clearly, the limit of ea h of these integrals
R
does not exist
R
as 1 ! 0 and
2 ! 0. This shows that the integrals 01 x 3 dx and 01 x 3 dx are not
onvergent. On the other hand, if we take 1 = 2 = , we nd that
Z 
1 dx Z
dx
3 + =0
1 x  x3
for all  su h that 0 <  < 1. Thus if we dene
Z b (Z Z b )
x0 1
(9.12) f (x) dx = lim
1 !0
f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a 2 !0 a x0 +2
and Z b (Z Z b )
x0 
(9.13) f (x) dx = lim
!0 f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a x0 +
we see that we may get dierent values for (9.11), depending on whether
we use denition (9.12) or (9.13). R
Thus if jf (x)j ! 1 as x ! x0 and
the limit in (9.13) exists, then ab f (x) dx is alled a onvergent improper
integral. The limit in (9.13), whi h is also of interest to us, is alled the
Cau hy's prin ipal value of the integral (9.11). Note also that if the limit
exists in (9.12), then it also exists in the sense dened in (9.13) and hen e,
both the limits are equal. When R1
f (x) is nite for all real values,
RR
then by
the Cau hy prin ipal value of 1 f (x) dx we mean limR!1 R f (x) dx
R
(if it exists). For instan e,
R1
sin e RR x dx = 0 for every R > 0, the Cau hy
prin ipal value of 1 x dx is zero.
In general if f is ontinuous on R ex ept for a nite number of points
x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xn (x0 < x1 <


< xn ) and if
( Z Z x1  Z xn  Z R ! )
x0 
lim
!0
+ +


+ + f (x) dx
R!1 R x0 + xn 1 + xn +
9.2 Integrals of Type 11 f (x) dx
R
377

exists and isRnite, then we all this limit the Cau hy prin ipal value of
the integral 11 f (x) dx denoted by itself with the additional remark, if
ne essary, that the prin ipal value is meant. Some books denote for brevity
by Z 1
PV f (x) dx:
1
By (9.13), we see that for a > 0
Z 2a Z 0  Z 2a 
dx dx dx
a x
= lim
!0 a x
+
0+ x !0[ln  ln a + ln 2a ln ℄ = ln 2:
= lim

On the other hand, using (9.12), we get

Z 2a   
dx 
(9.14) = lim! 0 ln 2 + ln 1 :
a x 12 !0 2
Clearly, the limit in (9.14) on the right does not exist. This shows that
Z 2a
dx
PV = ln 2
a x
R
whereas the integral 2aa dx x does not exist as an improper integral. Simi-
larly, we an easily see that
Z 1 Z R
xn 1 xn 1
I = PV dx = lim dx
1 xn + 1 R!1 R xn + 1

so that I = 0 if n is even.
Now we start with f (x) = 1=(1 + x2 ) and onsider 11 f (x) dx; where
R

the path of integration is the line Im z = y = 0. If we want to use the

Cau hy residue formula, we need to onsider an integral along a losed
ontour. This observation suggests that we may have to start with an
experiment Z
1
J = f (z ) dz; f (z ) = ;
C 1 + z2
where C is the semi- ir ular ontour shown in Figure 9.2. Here we hoose
R > 1 so that z = i lies inside C . Therefore, by the residue theorem, we
easily get J = 2iRes [f (z ); i℄ = : Write J = J1 + J2 , where
Z R Re Z i Z 
dx dz iRei d
J1 = and J 2 = = :
R 1 + x 2
Re i0 1 + z2 0 1 + (Rei )2
Sin e Z 
R
jJ2 j  R2 1
d ! 0 as R ! 1;
0
378 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

y
ŴR

−R R x

Figure 9.2: Contour C = [ R; R℄ [ R .

we dedu e that 11 1+dxx2 = : In parti ular, we have the well-known result

R

Z 1
dx 
2 = :
0 1+x 2
Next, we use the same idea and show that
Z 1
os ax e am
(9.15) 2 2 dx = (a; m > 0):
0 m +x 2m
Note that if we onsider the most obvious omplex fun tion os az=(m2 +
z 2 ), then we will not be able to a hieve the desired result, be ause for
z = iR (R large enough)
  
 os az   eaR + e aR
 
 m2 + z 2 

 =
2jm2 R2j
! 1 as R ! 1:
z=iR
Nevertheless, as the term eiaz = eiaxe ay is bounded in the upper half-
plane, it is natural to onsider
eiaz (z + im) 1 eiaz
f (z ) = =
m2 + z 2 z im
and we use the same semi- ir ular ontour as above. Then, we have
Z
e am
f (z ) dz = 2i Res [f (z ); im℄ = :
C m
Now, we write
Z Z R Z  i
iRei eiaRe
(9.16) f (z ) dz = f (x) dx + d = J1 + J2 ; say:
C R 0 m2 + R2 ei2
Sin e sin x is odd and os x is even, we have
Z R Z R   Z R
os ax sin ax os ax
J1 = f (x) dx = 2 2 + i 2 2 dx = 2 2 2 dx
R R m +x m +x 0 m +x
9.2 Integrals of Type 11 f (x) dx
R
379

and (as e aR sin   e0 = 1 for  2 [0; ℄, a > 0 and R > 0)

Z  Z 
Re aR sin  R
jJ2 j  2
R m 2 d  2
R m2
d ! 0 as R ! 1:
0 0
The above observations prove (9.15), in view of (9.16). Further, using
Leibnitz's rule, (9.15) readily gives
Z 1
x sin ax e am
2 2 dx = ; a > 0:
0 m +x 2m
In general, problems ofRthis type may be solved using the same idea.
Consider the integral I = 11 f (x) dx, where f (x) is a rational fun tion
without real poles. Therefore, to evaluate su h an integral, we let
Z Z R Z
J= f (z ) dz = f (x) dx + f (z ) dz;
C R R
where C = [ R; R℄ [ R is the same ontour as in Figure 9.2. Then
Z R Z X
f (x) dx + f (z ) dz = 2i Res [f (z ); C ℄:
R R
As R ! 1, the rst integral on the left tends to I . We shall then have to
show that the se ond integral tends to 0. If so, this would then imply that
Z 1 X
f (x) dx = 2i Res [f (z ); C ℄:
1
R
Thus, we have to nd a suitable ondition under whi h R f (z ) dz ! 0
as R ! 1: Before we establish su h a ondition (see Theorem 9.23) let us
rst dis uss a few more examples.
9.17. Example. We wish to prove that
Z 1 m 1
x 
n dx = ; for m; n 2 N with n > m > 0.
0 1 + x n sin( m=n)
To do this, we let
zm 1
f (z ) = :
1 + zn
Then f has simple poles at ak = ei(1+2k)=n (k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1) with
zm 1  z m 

am
Res [f (z ); ak ℄ =  = = k:
nz n 1
z=ak n z=ak
 n
Here we use a dierent ontour to evaluate the integral.
380 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

y
Reiα
γR ŴR
α
O R x

Figure 9.3: Contour [0; R℄ [ R [ [Rei ; 0℄.

Note that these poles are simple and the only pole inside C (see Figure
9.3 with  = 2=n) is at a0 , where
C = [0; R℄ [ fz = Rei : 0    2=ng [ fz = rei2=n : 0  r  Rg
= [0; R℄ [ R [ R :
Now (see Theorem 8.13), by the residue theorem
Z Z Z Z !
2iam
0 :
(9.18) f (z ) dz = + + f (z ) dz =
C [0;R℄ R R n

Sin e jf (z )j 
jz jm 1  2jz jm 1 as jz j ! 1, we have
jz jn 1 jz jn
Z 
  2 2R
(9.19)  f (z ) dz   n+1 m ! 0 as R ! 1:

R R n
Next,
Z Z R Z R m 1
r dr
f (z ) dz = f (rei2=n ) d(rei2=n ) = ei2m=n :
R 0 0 1 + rn
Using this equation and (9.19), (9.18) be omes as R ! 1,
Z 1 m 1  
2 m x am
0
(1 a0 ) n dx = 2i
0 1+x n
and therefore,
Z 1 m 1  
x dx 2i 
1+xn = m m =
n sin(m=n)
: 
0 n(a0 a0 )
9.20. Remark. If C is the re tangular ontour with verti es at R
and R + 2i (see Figure 9.4) and if
eaz
f (z ) = (0 < a < 1);
1 + ez
9.2 Integrals of Type 11 f (x) dx
R
381
y
−R + 2π i R + 2π i

Ŵ2 Ŵ1

−R O R x

Figure 9.4: Re tangular ontour with verti es at R;  R + 2i.

then we see that

Z R Z 2 Z R
f (x) dx + f (R + iy) d(R + iy) + f (x + 2i) d(x + 2i)
R 0 R
Z 0
+ f ( R + iy) d( R + iy) = 2if eaig;
2
as the only pole of f inside C is at z = i. Sin e f (z + 2i) = e2ai f (z );
the above equation simplies to
Z R Z 2
(1 e2ai ) f (x) dx + i [f (R + iy) f ( R + iy)℄ dy = 2ieai :
R 0
Observe that
Z 2  Z 2 
   eaR eaiy  2eaR e(a 1)R
 f (R + iy) dy =  dy  = :

0

0 1 + eR eiy  eR 1 1 e R
Similarly, we nd that
Z 2 
  2e aR
 f( R + iy) dy  :

0 1 e R
As R ! 1, we easily have (sin e 0 < a < 1)
Z 1
(1 e2ai ) f (x) dx = 2ieai
1
from whi h we get
Z 1 Z 1
eax 2i 
(9.21) x dx = f (x) dx = ai ai = :
1 1+e 1 e e sin a
Using the new variable ex = t, (9.21) redu es to
Z 1 a 1
t 
(9.22) dt = :
0 1+t sin(a)
382 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

Further, if we use the transformation t = xn with a = m=n in (9.22), it

be omes Z 1 m 1
x 
n dx = for n > m > 0:
0 1+x n sin(m=n)
However, we an obtain (9.22) dire tly by integrating a suitable fun tion
around a suitable ontour. 
We may use the same idea as in previous examples to solve more su h
problems (in general) by means of the residue theorem. They are mostly
dealt with by appli ation of the following
9.23. Theorem. Suppose that f is analyti on C ex ept for a nite
number of poles su h that none of its poles lies on the real axis. If there
exist two positive numbers M and R0 su h that

(9.24) jf (Rei )j  RM for R > R0 ;

for some  > 1, then

8 X
Z 1 < 2i Res [f (z ); H + ℄
(9.25) f (x) dx = X
1 : 2i Res [f (z ); H ℄;
where H + ; H are respe tively the upper and lower half-planes.
Proof. Let R be arbitrarily large enough so that all the poles of f (z ) are
in jz j < R. Let C = [ R; R℄[ R ; where R = fz : jz j = R; 0  arg z  g;
the semi- ir ular ar of radius R (see Figure 9.2). Then
Z Z R Z
(9.26) f (z ) dz = f (x) dx + f (z ) dz:
C R R
But, by (9.24), the se ond integral on the right of (9.26) is su h that
Z  Z  
 RM R = RM
   i i 

 f (z ) dz  = 
 f (Re )iRe d  1;
R 0
whi h approa hes zero as R ! 1, sin e  > 1. The on lusion now follows
from (9.26) by letting R ! 1.
9.27. Corollary. The on lusion of the above theorem holds if f is
a rational fun tion, f (z ) = P (z )=Q(z ); where
(i) f has no poles on the real axis, and
(ii) P (z ) and Q(z ) are polynomials of degree m and m + n, respe tively,
with n  2.
9.2 Integrals of Type 11 f (x) dx
R
383

Proof. The ondition (ii) implies that there exist two positive numbers
M1 and M10 su h that (see Exer ise 6.88)
M 0 jz jm  jP (z )j  M1 jz jm for jz j  R
1
and M2 su h that jQ(z )j  M2 jz jm+n for jz j  R (R  1): Then
 
 MMj1zjjzmj +n = MMjz1jn  M
 P (z )  m

 Q(z ) 
 1

1  M ; say;
M jz j2 jz j2
2 2 2
for jz j  R, and Theorem 9.23 applies.
9.28. Example. Let us show that
Z 1
sin2 x (1 e 2)
2 dx = :
1 x +1 2
To do this, we onsider (sin e sin2 x = (1 os 2x)=2)
1 ei2z
: f (z ) =
1 + z2
This fun tion has exa tly two simple poles at i and
1 ei2z i
Res [f (z ); i℄ = lim = (1 e 2 ):
z!i z + i 2
Let C = [ R; R℄ [ R ; with R = fz : jz j = R; 0  arg z  g: Then
Z R Z  
i
f (x) dx + f (z ) dz = 2i (1 e 2 ) = (1 e 2 ):
R R 2
Sin e jf (z )j  (1 + e 2Im z )=(jz j2 1)  2=(R2 1) for z 2 R , we have
Z  Z
 R2 2 1 jdz j = R22R1 ! 0 as R ! 1:
 

 f (z ) dz 
R R
It follows that
Z 1 1 2 sin2 x i sin 2x
Z
f (x) dx = dx = (1 e 2 )
1 1 1 + x2
and equating the real parts yields the desired result. 
9.29. Remark. Theorem 9.23 may not apply in 2some ases:
p for
example to the well-known Gauss Error Integral 11 e x dx = : This
R
2
is be ause e z does not have the required limiting behavior, as z ! 1. In
fa t,
384 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

y
√ Ŵ√2R
i 2R
(1 + i)R
iR
ŴR

√
O R 2R x

Figure 9.5: Illustration for Gauss Error Integral.

2
(i) je z j = 1 on arg z =  4 and arg z =  34 .
2
(ii) je z j ! 0 faster than re ipro al of any polynomial on the lines
arg z =  2 ; 0; .
We in lude here a lassi al proof of the error integral. To do this, we let
R 2
I = 0R e x dx. Then
Z R ! Z R ! Z RZ R
I2 = e x2 dx e y2 dy =
2 2
e (x +y ) dx dy:
0 0 0 0
Here we are integrating along a square S in the rst quadrant whose sides
have length R. Let R and p2R denote the quarter- ir les p in the rst
quadrant entered at the origin having radii R and R 2, respe tively (see
Figure 9.5). Evaluating along the ir les in polar oordinates, we have
Z =2 Z R Z RZ R Z =2 Z Rp2
r 2 x 2 +y 2 ) 2
e r dr d < e ( dx dy < e r r dr d;
0 0 0 0 0 0
and so, for ea h R > 0, we have
Z R !2
 2 x2 dx  2
(1 e R ) < I 2 = e < (1 e 2R ):
4 0 4
p
Letting R ! 1, we see that I = =2. 
9.30. Remark. One an evaluate the error integral using the residue
theorem dire tly. To do this, we dene
2 r
e z 
f (z ) = 2 az ; a = (1 + i) :
1+e 2
2 2a ( a ) = 1 and so a is a period of e 2az . As
Sin e
a 2 a =ii, we note that e
e = e = 1, we also note that
2
e z 2 2
(9.31) f (z ) f (z + a) = (1 e a 2az ) = e z :
1 + e 2az
9.3 Integrals of Type 11 g (x) os mx dx
R
385

√ y √
−R + i π/2 S + i π/2

γ2 γ1

−R O S x
p p
Figure 9.6: Re tangular ontour C = [ R; S ℄ [ 1 [ [S + i =2; R + i =2℄ [ 2 .

Note that f (z ) has innitely many simple poles in C , namely at a=2 + ka,
k 2 Z. Therefore, it is not advisable to hoose a ontour that in ludes many
poles. Instead, we hoose the re tangular ontour as depi ted in Figure 9.6.
Sin e f has only the point a=2 inside the ontour
p p
C = [ R; S ℄ [ 1 [ [S + i =2; R + i =2℄ [ 2 ;
we have
2  2
e z  e a =4 i
(9.32) Res [f (z ); a=2℄ =
2ae 2az 

=
2ae a2 = 2p :
z=a=2
Therefore, by the residue theorem, we have
Z S
f (x) dx +
Z
f (z ) dz +
Z R p p
f (x + ( =2 + i =2) dx
R 1 S
Z
+ f (z ) dz = 2i Res [f (z ); a=2℄:
2
Be ause of (9.31) and (9.32) the above equation be omes
Z S
2
e x dx +
Z
f (z ) dz +
Z
f (z ) dz = 
p
R 1 2
R 2 p
and letting R; S ! 1, we on lude that 11 e x dx = : 

9.3 Integrals of Type 11 g (x) os mx dx

R

This se tion dis usses some other important improper integrals. Suppose
that f (z ) = eiaz g(z ) for a 2 R and for some analyti fun tion g. Then the
onditions on f in Theorem 9.23 an be weakened; that is in this ase it is
enough to assume that

jf (Rei )j  M
R
for R > R0 :
386 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

Observe that in most of the examples it is suÆ ient that f (z ) ! 0 as z ! 1

in arg z , 0  arg z  . Therefore, Theorem 9.23 and Corollary 9.27 take
the following form:
9.33. Theorem. Suppose that g is analyti in C ex ept possibly for a
nite number of poles and none of them are real. If there exist two positive
numbers M and R0 su h that

(9.34) jg(Rei )j  RM for R  R0 ;

for some  > 0, then
8 X
Z 1 < 2i Res [g(z )eiaz ; H + ℄ if a > 0
(9.35) g(x)eiax dx = X
1 : 2i Res [g(z )eiaz ; H ℄ if a < 0;
where H + ; H are the upper and lower half-planes, respe tively. Further, if
g(z ) = P (z )=Q(z ); where P , Q are polynomials su h that
(i) g has no poles on the real axis,
(ii) deg Q  1+ deg P () jg(z )j  M=jz j for jz j  R0 ,
(iii) g is real on the real axis,
then Z 1 P (x)
os ax dx = Real part of the R.H.S of (9.35)
1 Q(x)
and
Z 1 P (x)
sin ax dx = Imaginary part of the R.H.S of (9.35):
1 Q(x)
In establishing our theorem, we shall make use of Jordan's Inequality
(see Figure 9.7).
9.36. Lemma. For  2 [0; =2℄, we have sin   (2=):
Proof. Clearly, the inequality is true at the end points. Now,
 
d sin  ()
= 2 with () =  os  sin :
d  
We laim that () =  1 sin  is stri tly de reasing on (0; =2). To do
this, it suÆ es to observe that 0 () =  sin  < 0 for  2 (0; =2) so
that is de reasing on (0; =2) and thus, () < (0) = 0 whi h shows
that 0 () < 0 and hen e, () =  1 sin  is stri tly de reasing on (0; =2).
Finally, as
sin  2
lim () = lim = ;
!=2 !=2  
9.3 Integrals of Type 11 g (x) os mx dx
R
387
y
2
i (θ, sin θ ) (π/2, 1) y = (tan φ)θ = π
θ

θ, 2θ


π
φ
O π/2 θ

Figure 9.7: Geometri proof of Jordan's inequality.

we dedu e that () > 2= on (0; =2), as desired.

9.37. Remark. For a geometri proof of Lemma 9.36, we refer to

Figure 9.7. Set f () = sin . Then f 00 () = sin  < 0 on (0; =2) so that
y = sin  is on ave down on (0; =2). Therefore, the graph of y = sin  lies
above the straight lines onne ting the end points (0; 0) and (=2; 1). Note
that the equation of the line passing through the point (0; 0) and (=2; 1)
is
y = (2=):
Therefore, the inequality sin   (2=) holds on [0; =2℄. 
9.38. Remark. For R > 0, it follows that
Z 

I= e R sin  d < :
0 R
Indeed, if f () = e R sin  then f () = f ( ) so that
Z =2
I = 2 e R sin  d (see Remark 9.5)
0
Z =2
 2 e (2R=) d (sin e sin   2  on [0; =2℄)
0
 
e R 1  
= 2 = (1 e R ) <
2R= R R
and the desired inequality follows. 
Proof of Theorem 9.33. First onsider a > 0. Choose R large
enough so that all the singularities of g in H + lie inside the upper semi
ir le C = [ R; R℄ [ R (see Figure 9.2). By the residue theorem
Z R Z X
(9.39) eiax g(x) dx + eiaz g(z ) dz = 2i Res [g(z )eiaz ; H + ℄:
R R
388 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

y
ŴR
−γǫ

−R −ǫ ǫ R x

Figure 9.8: Contour [ R; ℄ [ (  ) [ [; R℄ [ R .

Now we estimate the absolute value of the se ond integral. Let z = Rei 2
R . Then jeiaz j = e aR sin  . In view of Remark 9.38, taking R  R0 so
that jg(z )j  M=R , we obtain
Z  Z 
  M M    M
 eiaz g(z ) dz   e aR sin  d <  1 = :

R
 R 1 0 R aR aR
Sin e a and  > 0, the R.H.S of the above inequality approa hes zero as
R ! 1 and the required result follows from (9.39).
As for the ase a < 0, we simply onsider the ontour in the lower half-
plane H and pro eed similarly. The proof of the remaining part is similar
to the proof of Corollary 9.27.
Using the idea des ribed in Theorem 9.33, it is easy to show that
Z 1
x sin ax e am
2 2 dx = (a; m > 0):
0 m +x 2

9.4 Singularities on the Real Axis

We shall now dis uss the ase where f has simple poles on the real axis.
Suppose that the only singularity of f on the real axis is a simple pole at
the origin. Let C be the indented ontour shown in Figure 9.8. Thus, C
onsists of the line segment [ R; ℄,  < R, the semi- ir le (  ) from 
to , the line segment [; R℄, and the semi- ir le R from R to R. Here,
the small semi- ir le  is des ribed to avoid the singularity of f at the
origin. Assume further that C en loses all the singularities of f in the upper
half-plane H + . By the residue theorem
Z Z  Z Z R Z
f (z ) dz = f (x) dx f (z ) dz + f (x) dx + f (z ) dz
C R   R
X
(9.40) = 2i Res [f (z ); H + ℄:
To evaluate integrals of this type we employ

9.41. Theorem. Let  = fz : jz z0j =  and 1  arg(z z0)  2 g.

9.4 Singularities on the Real Axis 389

If f is ontinuous on 0 < jz z0j   and if zlim

!z (z z0)f (z ) = `, then
0
Z
lim
!0 
f (z ) dz = i`(2 1 );

where  is positively oriented.

Proof. Write (z z0 )f (z ) = ` + (z ) and hoose  suÆ iently small so

that, for any arbitrary  > 0, j(z )j <  if jz z0 j = . Now,
Z Z Z Z 2 Z 2
dz (z )
f (z ) dz = ` + dz = ` i d + i(z0 + ei ) d:
  z z0  z z0 1 1
R 
As  12 i(z0 + ei ) d  (2 1 ); the last equation implies the desired
result. 
In parti ular, if 2 1 = 2 then  be omes a positively oriented full
ir le and so, Z
lim f (z ) dz = 2i zlim
!0 !z (z z0 )f (z ):
 0

9.42. Remark. If there exists a real number  > 1 su h that jf (z )j 

K jz j  as jz j ! 1 in the upper half-plane
R then, as seen in the proof
of Theorem 9.41, we obtain limR!1 R f (z ) dz = 0: Therefore, (9.40)
be omes
(Z Z R ) Z

lim f (x) dx + f (x) dx + lim f (z ) dz
R!1
!0 R  R!1 R
Z X
lim f (z ) dz = 2i
!0 
Res [f (z ); C ℄:

From Theorem 9.41 (with z0 = 0), this redu es to

Z 1 X
f (x) dx + 0 i( 0) Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 2i Res [f (z ); H + ℄
1
from whi h we get the value of the integral when the only singularity of f
on the real axis is a simple pole at the origin. 
9.43. Example. Let us evaluate the integral
Z 1
1 1 sin x
Z
sin x
I= dx = dx:
0 x 2 1 x
390 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

We have trouble if we pro eed the way we did in the previous two types
of problems as we are now fa ed with a problem at the origin. Again, for
z = iR (R large enough), we have

sin z  eR e R
z z=iR
 =
2R
! 1 as R ! 1:
So, for evaluating the given integral, we have to onsider a suitable fun tion
and a suitable ontour whi h avoids the origin. First we rewrite
(Z Z R ix )
1  eix e
(9.44) I = Rlim dx + dx
2i !1
!0 R x  x
and note that jeiz j = e y  1 on the upper half-plane. Thus to evaluate
the given integral we onsider
Z
eiz
f (z ) dz; f (z ) = ;
C z
where C is the ontour shown in Figure 9.8. Note that C is made up of
the (large) upper semi ir ular ontour R = fz = Rei : 0    g, the
(small) semi- ir ular ontour  , where  = fz = ei : 0    g, and
the real axis inter epted between them, namely the segments [ R; ℄ and
[; R℄. Note that f has a simple pole at the origin and there are no other
singularities.
R Sin e z = 0 lies outside C , we have, by the Cau hy theorem,
C f ( z ) dz = 0; that is,
Z  Z Z R Z
(9.45) f (x) dx f (z ) dz + f (x) dx + f (z ) dz = 0:
R   R

!0 zf (z ) = 1; by Theorem 9.41, we note that

Sin e zlim
Z
(9.46) lim
!0 
f (z ) dz = i( 0):

Alternatively, we an provide a dire t proof. As f (z ) has a simple pole

with Res [f (z ); 0℄ = 1, we have f (z ) = 1=z + g(z ) for z near 0, where g(z )
is analyti at z = 0. In parti ular,
Z Z Z
1
f (z ) dz = dz + g(z ) dz
  z 
Z  Z
iei
= i d + g(z ) dz
0 e 
Z
= i + g(z ) dz:

9.4 Singularities on the Real Axis 391

The integral on the right tends to zero as  ! 0, be ause g(z ) is bounded

near 0 and that
Z 
 

 g(z ) dz   sup jg(z )j ! 0 as  ! 0:
 z2 
R R
Thus, lim!0  f (z ) dz = i. We next laim that limR!1 R f (z ) dz = 0.
Note that e sin   e0 = 1 for  2 [0; ℄. But then we annot laim that the
last integral approa hes zero as R ! 1. Instead, by Jordan's inequality
(see Remark 9.38), we observe that
Z  Z 
  
(9.47)  f (z ) dz   e R sin  d < ! 0 as R ! 1:

R 0 R
So, if we allow R ! 1 and  ! 0 in (9.45), by (9.46) and (9.47),
(Z Z R )

lim
R!1
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = i:
!0 R 
By (9.44), we then have I = =2: 
9.48. Example. By onsidering f (z ) = zeiz (z 2 1) 1 (a > 0), and
C = [ R; 1 1℄ [ ( 1 ) [ [ 1 + 1 ; 1 2 ℄ [ ( 2 ) [ [1 + 2 ; R℄ [ R ; it
is easy to prove that
Z 1
x sin ax
dx =  os a:
1 x2 1
Indeed, as usual, the Cau hy theorem gives
Z Z Z 1 2 Z Z R Z !
1 1
+ + + f (z ) dz = 0:
R 1 1+1 2 1+2 R

As Res [f (z ); 1℄ = eia =2 and Res [f (z ); 1℄ = e ia =2, it an be seen that

Z Z
eia e ia
lim
1 !0 
f ( z ) dz = i and lim
2 !0 
f (z ) dz = i:
1 2 2 2
Further,
Z  Z 
  R2 R2   

 f (z ) dz   R2 1
e aR sin  d  2
R 1 aR
! 0 as R ! 1:
R 0
The desired result follows by the limiting pro ess.
Similarly, we an easily show that
Z 1
sin ax (1 e am)
(9.49) 2 2 dx = (a > 0; m > 0):
0 x(x + m ) 2m2
392 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

Then, by dierentiating both sides of (9.49) with respe t to m (keeping a

as onstant) and using Leibnitz's rule, we easily get
Z 1
sin ax  am ℄ (a; m > 0):
(9.50)
x( x 2 + m2 )2 dx = 4m4 [2 (2 + am)e
0
Similarly, it is easy to see from (9.49) that (by dierentiating (9.49) with
respe t to a and keeping m as onstant)
Z 1
os ax e am
(9.51) 2 2 dx = (a; m > 0):
0 x +m 2m
One an also give an independent proof for (9.50). In fa t, (9.51) has
already been proved in Se tion 9.2. 
9.52. Remark. (i) For 0 < R < 1, integration by parts yields
Z R Z R=2
sin x sin 2x
dx = dx
0 x 0 x
Z R=2
sin x
= 2 d(sin x)
0 x

2 sin2 x R=2
Z R=2  
sin x
= 2 sin xd
x 0 0 x
2 Z R=2 Z R=2
4 sin (R=2) sin x sin2 x
= 2 d(sin x) + 2 dx
R 0 x 0 x2
Z R=2 Z R=2
4 sin2 (R=2) sin 2x sin2 x
= dx + 2 dx:
R 0 x 0 x2
Thus, Z R Z
sin x 2 sin2 (R=2) R=2 sin2 x
dx = + dx:
0 x R 0 x2
Sin e limR!1 R 1 sin2 (R=2) = 0; it follows that
Z 1 Z 1
sin x sin2 x
dx = dx
0 x 0 x2
and hen e, we have
1 sin2 x
Z

(9.53)
x2 dx = 2 :
0
(ii) One
R an give an independent proof for (9.53) by onsidering the
integral C f (z ) dz , where
1 e2iz 1 os 2x 2 sin2 x
f (z ) = ; Re f ( x ) = = ;
z2 x2 x2
9.4 Singularities on the Real Axis 393

and C is the ontour shown in Figure 9.8. Sin e lim

!0 zf (z ) = 2i; we have
Z
lim f (z ) dz = i( 2i)( 0) = 2;
z!0 

where  is positively oriented. Further, j1 e2iz j  1 + e 2y  2 for y  0

and so, Z  Z
  2
 f (z ) dz   ; i.e. Rlim

!1 R
f (z ) dz = 0:

R R
As in the above example, we easily dedu e that
"Z #
 Z R Z 1 1 e2ix
lim f (x)dx + f (x) dx = 2; i.e. dx = 2:
R!1
!0 R  1 x2
On equating real parts and taking a ount of the fa t that sin2 x=x2 is an
even fun tion we obtain (9.53).
(iii) Sin e
 ix 
e e ix 3 1
sin3 x = = Im [(1 e3ix ) 3(1 eix )℄;
2i 4
we have limz!0 zf (z ) = 3, where
(1 e3iz ) 3(1 eiz )
f (z ) = :
z3
Therefore, pro eeding as in the above example, it is easy to show that
Z 1
sin3 x 3
x 3 dx = 8 : 
0

9.54. Example. By the error integral, we have

(9.55)
p = 2 Z 1 e x2 dx
0
Using (9.55), we an evaluate the integrals
Z 1 Z 1
sin x2 dx and os x2 dx:
0 0
2
To do this, we onsider the entire fun tion f (z ) = e z . The ontour C
shown in Figure 9.3 (with  = =4) shows that
Z R Z Z 0
(9.56) f (x) dx + f (z ) dz + f (xei=4 ) d(xei=4 ) = 0:
0 R R
394 Evaluation of ertain Integrals
R R 2
Note that R0 f (xei=4 ) d(xei=4 ) = ei=4 0R e ix dx and
Z  Z 
   =4 


 f (z ) dz  =  f (Re )iRe d
i i
R  0 
Z =4
2
 R e R os 2 d
0
Z
R =2 R2 os 
= e d
2 0
Z
R =2 R2 sin 
= e d ( = =2 )
2 0
2
R (1 e R )
<
2 2R2
! 0 as R ! 1:
Taking the limit in (9.56), as R ! 1, we obtain
Z 1 Z 1
i= 2
f (x) dx e 4 e ix dx = 0:
0 0
So, by (9.55), p 
Z 1 2

(9.57) e ix dx = e i=4
:
0 2
Separating the real and the imaginary parts in (9.57), we on lude that
Z 1 Z 1 p
os x2 dx = sin x2 dx = p : 
0 0 2 2
9.58. Remark. The above 2 method helps us to prove a more general
result by hoosing f (z ) = e z and letting C be the ontour shown in
Figure 9.3. Then, pro eeding as in Example 9.54, it is lear that
Z 1 Z 1
2
f (x) dx = ei e x ( os 2+i sin 2) dx:
0 0
Using (9.55), pe
Z 1 i
e x2 os 2 e ix2 sin 2 dx = :
0 2
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we see that
Z 1
2 os 2
p
e x 2
os(x sin 2) dx = os 
0 2
and Z 1 2 
p
e x os 2 sin(x2 sin 2) dx = sin :
0 2
9.4 Singularities on the Real Axis 395

Note that  = =4 yields the Fresnel integrals. 

9.59. Example. Finally, by integrating eaz = osh bz ( b < a < b)
around the re tangular ontour with verti es at R and R + i=b, we
show that Z 1
eax  1
I= dx = :
1 osh bx b os( a= 2b)
As I = 1b 11 e osh y dy, it suÆ es to prove the result for b = 1 and a 2
R (a=b)y
( 1; 1). So, we let
eaz
f (z ) = :
osh z
Then, inside the re tangular ontour with verti es at R and R + i, f
has only one pole, namely, at z = i=2. Further,

hi eaz 
Res f (z ); i = = ieai=2
2 sinh z z=i=2
and therefore, by the residue theorem, we see that
Z R Z 
[f (x) f (x + i)℄ dx + f (R + iy)i dy
R 0
Z 0
(9.60) + f ( R + iy)i dy = 2eai=2 :

Consider the se ond integral in (9.60):
Z   Z  Z 
  eaR

 f ( R + iy )i dy 
  jf (R + iy)j dy = j osh(R + iy)j dy:
0 0 0
Sin e
 (R+iy) 
+ e (R+iy)  eR e R R
j osh(R + iy)j =  e  e4

2  2
and 1 < a < 1, the se ond integral in (9.60) approa hes zero as R ! 1.
Similarly, we an show that the third integral in (9.60) approa hes zero
as R ! 1. Thus, integrals along 1 and 2 , i.e. the se ond and third
integrals in (9.60), approa h zero with in reasing R, so that (9.60) be omes
Z 1 Z 1
[f (x) f (x + i)℄ dx = (1 + eia ) f (x) dx = 2eia=2 ;
1 1
that is,
Z 1  ia=2 
eax e 
dx = 2 ia = : 
1 osh x 1+e os(a=2)
396 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

9.5 Integrals Involving Bran h Points

Integrals featuring x and log x an in some ases be evaluated using on-
tour integration. We illustrate this in detail by onsidering a spe ial ase
of the real integral
Z 1  1
x
dx for 0 <  < 1:
0 1 +x
The pro ess used to evaluate su h integrals is often referred to as the inte-
gral around bran h point. Clearly, the integral is improper for two reasons
as it has a innite dis ontinuity at the origin and has an innite limit of
integration. Moreover,
x 1 x 1
1+x
s x 1 for x near 0, and
1+x
s x 2 for x near 1
so that the integral does onverge for 0 <  < 1. Observe that when x is
repla ed by z , the integrand be omes
z 1
f (z ) =
1+z
whi h is a multiple-valued fun tion. The origin is a bran h point of f (z ).
We onsider the bran h of f (z ) on the slit plane C n[0; 1) so that the
positive real axis has been hosen as the bran h ut for f (z ) with
z  1 = e( 1)(ln jzj+i arg z) ; 0 < arg z < 2:
This guarantees that f (z ) is single-valued and we an integrate along an
appropriate ontour. The fun tion f has a simple pole at z = 1 with
residue
Res [f (z ); 1℄ = z! lim1 z 
lim1(1 + z )f (z ) = z! 1 = e( 1)i = ei :

Further the residue theorem is appli able only to single-valued fun tions
and the origin annot be inside the simple losed ontour C along whi h
we integrate. Now, we let R > 1 >  > 0 and set (see Figure 9.9)
C = [ + iÆ; R + iÆ℄ [ R [ [R iÆ;  iÆ℄ [ ( )
so that the inside of C is a simply onne ted domain not ontaining the
origin but ontaining the point z = 1. Thus, C onsists of
(i) the horizontal line segment + from  + iÆ to R + iÆ
(ii) the ir ular ar R of radius R entered at the origin tra ed ounter-
lo kwise from R + iÆ to R iÆ
(iii) the horizontal line segment from R iÆ to  iÆ
9.5 Integrals Involving Bran h Points 397
y

iR
ŴR

ǫ + iδ
−γǫ γ− γ+
−R R x
ǫ − iδ

−iR

Figure 9.9: Contour for a multi-valued fun tion.

(iv) the ir ular ar (  ) of radius  entered at the origin tra ed lo k-

wise from  iÆ to  + iÆ.
The residue theorem yields
Z
z 1
(9.61) I= dz = 2iei :
C 1+z
The value of the integral is independent of Æ, R and , but it depends only
on the fa t that z = 1 lies inside C . Therefore, it is natural to write (9.61)
equivalently as
Z Z Z Z !  1
z
(9.62) I= + + + dz = 2iei:
+ R  1+z
Our method of approa h will then be to let Æ ! 0, R ! 1, and  ! 0 to
obtain the desired value of the given real integral. Note that, despite what
is shown in Figure 9.9, it is possible to regard the slit [0; 1) as having an
upper side of the positive real axis for whi h arg z = 0 and a lower side of
the positive real axis for whi h arg z = 2.
For the integrals over R and  , the standard ML-inequality gives
Z  Z   1
 z  1  z
 jdz j  R
  1
 dz   2R s R 1 ! 0
R 1+z jzj=R  1 + z  R 1
 

as R ! 1 (sin e 0 <  < 1), and

Z 
 z  1   1
 dz   2 s  ! 0 as  ! 0:
 1 + z 1 


For the remaining two integrals, we pro eed as follows. We have

Z Z
R (x + iÆ ) 1
z 1
dz = dx:
+ 1 + z  1 + (x + iÆ )
398 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

Given  > 0, we an hoose Æ > 0 small enough so that

Z Z R 

 z 1 x 1 
 dz dx < 
 + 1+z  1+x 

whi h gives
Z R x 1 Z
z 1
lim dz = dx:
Æ!0 + 1 + z  1+x
As we integrate along (as Æ ! 0),
z 1 = e( 1)(ln jx+iÆj+i arg(x+iÆ)) ! e( 1)(ln x+i2) = x 1 e2i
so that
Z Z   1 Z R  1
z 1 x x
lim dz = e2i dx = e2i dx:
Æ!0 1 + z R 1 + x  1 +x
Therefore,
Z Z ! Z R  1
z 1 2 i x
(9.63) lim + dz = (1 e ) dx:
Æ!0 + 1+z  1 +x

Allowing R ! 1,  ! 0 and using (9.62), we obtain

Z 1 x 1
(1 e2i ) dx = 2iei
0 1+x

whi h yields the required identity

Z 1 x 1 2iei 
(9.64) dx = 2i = :
0 1+x e 1 sin 
This identity an also be extended to omplex values of the parameter .
To do this, we onsider
Z 1 xw 1 
F (w) = dx and G(w) = :
0 1+x sin w
Then, F and G are analyti on the strip D = fw : 0 < Re w < 1g and oin-
ides on the interval (0; 1). In view of this observation and the uniqueness
theorem, (9.64) holds for all the omplex values of the parameter  with
0 < Re  < 1
9.6 Estimation of Sums 399
y
1
(−1 + i)(N + 2
) (1 + i)(N + 21 )

O N N +1 x

(−1 − i)(N + 12 ) (1 − i)(N + 21 )

Figure 9.10: Square CN .

9.6 Estimation of Sums

Convergen e tests for series enable us to verify whether a given series on-
verges to a nite limit, but they do not give the value of the sum. On the
other hand, al ulus of residues permits us to express ertain integrals as
a nite sum of the residues of the integrand. Therefore if an innite sum,
su h as 1 1
X X
f (n); and ( 1)n f (n);
n= 1 n= 1
an be reorganized as a sum of the residues of f , then the al ulus of
residues may help us to evaluate it, provided f is a meromorphi fun tion
of a fairly simple kind.
Thus, for the rst series, we must onstru t a fun tion whose residues
are given by ff (n) : n 2 Zg: For this, let f be a fun tion whi h is analyti
ex ept for a nite number of poles a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; am (ea h is not an integer).
Suppose g is any fun tion having simple poles at z = n (n 2 Z) su h that
Res [g(z ); n℄ = 1 (for example, su h fun tions are given by  ot z and
2i(e2iz 1) 1 ): Then for ea h n 2 Z (n 6= ak ; k = 1; 2; : : : ; m), we have
Res [f (z )g(z ); n℄ = f (n):
Thus if CN is a losed ontour en losing points z = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; N
and ak (k = 1; 2; : : : ; m), we have (see Figure 9.10), by the Cau hy residue
theorem,
Z X
f (z )g(z ) dz = 2i Res [f (z )g(z ); CN ℄ = 2ifX + Y g
CN
where
N
X N
X
X= Res [f (z )g(z ); n℄ = f (n)
n= N n= N
n6=ak n6=ak
and
X m
X
Y= Res [f (z )g(z ); at the poles of f in CN ℄ = Res [f (z )g(z ); ak ℄:
k=1
400 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

Let us now des ribe this idea by taking g(z ) =  ot z ,  s z and in

either ase show that
Z
lim f (z )g(z ) dz = 0:
N !1 CN
9.65. Theorem. Suppose f is meromorphi in C , with a nite num-
ber of poles a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; am . Suppose, moreover, that there exist two posi-
tive numbers M and R su h that for jz j > R
(9.66) jz r f (z )j  M for a xed r > 1:
Then
N
X m
X
lim f (n) = Res [ ot zf (z ); ak ℄
N ! 1 nn=6=aN k=1
k
and
N
X m
X
lim ( 1)n f (n) = Res [ s zf (z ); ak ℄:
N ! 1 nn=6=aN k=1
k
Proof.PEquation (9.66) P means that jf (n)j  Mn r for jnj > R and so
n
the series f (n) and ( 1) f (n) are onvergent sin e the n-th term is
dominated by Mn r for large n and r > 1. By hypothesis, for n 6= ak ,
k = 1; 2; : : : ; m;
Res [ ot zf (z ); n℄ = f (n) and Res [ s zf (z ); n℄ = ( 1)n f (n):
Let CN be the square with verti es at (N + 1=2)(1  i) en losing all
the poles of f (see Figure 9.10), where N is a positive integer (take for
instan e N > jak j for all k = 1; 2; : : : ; m). Therefore, by the Cau hy
residue theorem,
Z N m
1 X X
 ot zf (z ) dz = f (n) + Res [ ot zf (z ); ak ℄
2i CN n= N k=1
n=
6 ak
and
Z N m
1 X X
 s zf (z ) dz = ( 1)n f (n) + Res [ s zf (z ); ak ℄:
2i CN n= N k=1
n6= ak
The result will follow if we an show that
Z Z
lim  ot zf (z ) dz = 0 = lim  s zf (z ) dz:
N !1 CN N !1 CN
For this we require that there exist two onstants K1 and K2 su h that
j ot z j < K1 and j s z j < K2 for all N and for all z on CN . In fa t, we
will now prove the following inequalities:
9.6 Estimation of Sums 401

(i) j ot z j < 2 for all z on CN

(ii) j s z j < 1 for all z on CN .
First we set  = N + 1=2. If z is on the horizontal sides of CN , then we
an write z = x  i, where jxj  . For z = x  i on these horizontal
lines, we have
 iz iz   ix  ix  
j ot z j =  eeiz + ee iz  =  eeix ee + ee ix ee  :


By the triangle inequality,

jeixe + e ixe j  e + e = e + e  ;
jeixe e ixe j  je e j = e e 
so that
 
j ot z j  ee + ee  = oth()  oth(3=2) < 2

(sin e the later expression is maximized at  = =2, i.e. at N = 0).

Similarly, if z lies on the verti al sides then z =  + iy with jyj  ,
and so for su h z , we have
j ot z j = j ot ( + iy)j
=
j os() osh y i sin() sinh yj
j sin() osh y + i os() sinh yj
= j tanh yj = p
j sinh yj < 1:
2
1 + sinh y
Thus, j ot z j < 2 on CN and this proves (i). To prove (ii), we rst note
that j sin(x + iy)j2 = sin2 x +sinh2 y: When z = x  i lies on the horizontal
sides of CN ,
1 1
j s 2 z j = 2 2  <1
sin x + sinh () 1 + sinh2 =2
and when z =  + iy lies on the verti al sides of CN , we have

j s 2 z j = sinh2 y + sin12 (N + 1=2)  1 + sinh

1
2 y  1:

This proves (ii). By the usual ML-estimate now it follows that

Z 
 

  ot zf (z ) dz   sup j ot zf (z )j  length of CN
CN z2CN
 2 NMr  f4(2N + 1)g
402 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

(sin e the length of CN is R4(2N + 1)), whi h tends to zero as N ! 1.

Similarly, we have limN !1 CN  s zf (z ) dz = 0:
9.67. Example. We easily get the following:
 
ot z 
(a) Res ; 0 = (see also Example 8.16(g)).
z2 3
h s z i 
(b) Res ;0 = .
z2 6
( ) For the fun tion f (z ) = ot z=(z + a)2 (a-real and not an integer),
we dire tly obtain that
 
d
Res [f (z ); a℄ = lim ( ot z ) =  s 2 a
z! a dz
and for k 2 Z we obtain that
os k z k 1
Res [f (z ); k℄ = lim (z k)f (z ) = lim = :
z!k (k + a)2 z!k sin z (k + a)2
(d) When f (z ) = s z=(z 2 + a2 ); a > 0; a dire t al ulation yields
1
Res [f (z ); ia℄ = = Res [f (z ); ia℄
2a sinh a
and for k 2 Z,
 
1 1 ( 1)k
Res [f (z ); k℄ = 2 2 = :
(k + a )  os k (k2 + a2 )
Thus, for a > 0, we have
   
ot z oth a ot z
Res 2 2 ; ia = = Res 2 2 ; ia :
z +a 2a z +a
(e) Similarly if a is a non-zero real and not an integer, then, for the
fun tion f (z ) = 1=[(z + a)2 sin z ℄, we easily get
Res [f (z ); a℄ =  s a ot a
and for k 2 Z, Res [f (z ); k℄ = ( 1)k =[(k + a)2 ℄: 
9.68. Example. The fun tion f (z ) = z 2m (m 2 N) satises the
ondition (9.66). Sin e f is even and has a pole of order 2m at 0, Theorem
9.65 gives
X1 1 
 ot z

2 2m + Res ; 0 =0
n=1 n z 2m
9.6 Estimation of Sums 403

and 1
X ( 1)n h  s z i
2 m + Res ; 0 = 0:
n=1 n
2 z 2m
For m = 1, we nd that (see Example 9.67)
  h  s z i
 ot z 2 2
Res ; 0 = ; Res ; 0 = ;
z2 3 z2 6
and hen e, we on lude that
X1 1 2 X 1 ( 1)n 2
(9.69) 2 = and 2 = :
n=1 n 6 n=1 n 12
More generally, sin e (z ) = z ot z has a removable singularity at 0 and
lim (0) 6= 0, we note that
z!0
 
 ot z
Res ; 0 = Res [(z )z 2m 1; 0℄
z 2m
Z
1 (z )
= dz; r > 0 is small,
2i jzj=r z 2m+1
(2m) (0)
= :
(2m)!
Pro eeding as above and taking m = 2 we easily derive
X1 1 4
4 = 90 :
n=1 n
If we let f (z ) = 1=(z 2 + a2 ); then Theorem 9.65, for a 2= iZ, yields that

 ot z
 
 ot z

X1 
 ot z

Res 2 2 ; ia + Res 2 2 ; ia + Res 2 2 ; n = 0:
z +a z +a n= 1 z +a
Thus, by Example 9.67(d), we on lude that
 oth a X 1 1
(9.70) + 2 + a2 = 0
a n= 1 n
whi h gives
X1 1  1 X1 1 a oth a 1
2 2 + a2 = oth a 2 ; i.e. 2 + a2 = :
n=1 n a a n=1 n 2a2
Note that if a is real and positive then, by using uniform onvergen e and
making a ! 0, we get the rst equation in (9.69). Dierentiation of the
404 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

last equality with respe t to a immediately yields (sin e the onvergen e

is uniform on any ompa t set disjoint from the set fia : a 2 Zg, term by
term dierentiation is permitted),
X1 1 1

2 a2

= + a oth a 2 :
2 2 2
n=1 (n + a ) 4a4 sinh2 a
Further, from (9.70) we easily obtain that, for b 2= Z;
X1 1   ot b
n2 b2 = ib oth( (ib)) = b
:
n= 1
Thus by grouping the terms with n = m, m = 1; 2; : : : , we have
1 1 X 1  1 1

1 X1 1  ot b
+ = + 2 2 b2 = ;
b2 2b m=1 m b m + b b2 m=1 m b
that is 1
1 X 2b
(9.71)  ot b = + :
b m=1 b2 m2
Again, dierentiation of the above result with respe t to b, yields
1
X 1
2 =  s b (b 2 = Z):
(9.72) 2 2
m= 1 (m b )
Similarly, by applying Theorem 9.65, we see that for a 6= 0; i; 2i; : : :

 s z
 
 s z

X1 
 s z

Res 2 2 ; ia + Res 2 2 ; ia + Res 2 2 ; n = 0:
z +a z +a n= 1 z +a
Thus, by Example 9.67(d), this implies
 s a X 1 ( 1)n X1 ( 1)n 
+ 2 2 = 0; i.e. 2 2 = s a:
a n= 1 n + a n= 1 n + a a
We an also prove (9.72) by onsidering the fun tion f (z ) = (z b) 2 (b not
an integer). Indeed, from Theorem 9.65, it follows that (see also Example
9.67( )) 
 ot z

X1 
 ot z

Res ; b + Res ; n = 0;
(z b)2 n= 1 (z b)2
that is 1
X 1
2 =  s b; b 2 = Z:
2 2
n= 1 (n b)
9.7 Exer ises 405

Taking b = 1=2 in the last identity, we nd that

X 1
1 X1 1 2
2 + 2 =
n= 1 (2n + 1) n=0 (2n + 1) 4
so that 1
X 1 2
(9.73) 2 = :
n=0 (2n + 1) 8
From (9.73) we an easily dedu e the rst equation in (9.69), be ause
X1 1 X 1 1 X1 1 2 1 X 1 1
2 = 2 + 2 = +
8 4 n=1 n2
: 
n=1 n n=0 (2n + 1) n=1 (2n)

9.7 Exer ises

9.74. Prove the following integrals
Z 2
d 2
1. = p 2 2 (a; b 2 R; jbj < jaj).
0 a + b os  a b
Z 2
d (2a + b)
2. = ; a; b > 0.
2
0 (a + b os )
2 [a(a + b)℄3=2
Z 2
os2 3 (1 + 2 )
3. 2 d = , 1 <  6= 0 < 1.
0 1+ 2 os 2 1 
Z 2
os 2 (4 2 + 1)
4. 2 d = , 0 < jj < 1.
0 1+ 2 os  2 (2 1)
Z 2
d 2
5. = p 2 2 2 ; a2 > b2 + 2 .
0 a + b os  + sin  a b
Z 2
d 2a
6. 2 = p3 2 2 2 ; a2 > b2 + 2 .
0 (a + b os  + sin ) a b
9.75. If a and b are real with jaj > jbj and n is a positive integer, prove
that Z 2 p2 2n
os n 2b(a a b)
I=
a + b os 
d = p 2
:
0 a b2

9.76. Show the following:

Z
3z + 1
1. I = dz = 0
jzj=3 z ( z + 2)(z i)2
Z
os(e z )
2. dz = 2i sin(1):
jzj=1 z 2
406 Evaluation of ertain Integrals

9.77. Prove the following real integrals:

Z 1
x2 x + 2 5
1.
x 4 + 10 x 2 + 9 dx = 12
1 p
Z 1
dx = (2 2)
2. = p (a; b; > 0 and b2 a > 0)
1 a2 + 2b2 x2 + 2 x4 a b2 a
Z 1 n
os x e 1 X (2n k)!2k
3. 2 n+1 dx = , n 2 N.
0 (1 + x ) n!22n+1 k=0 k!(n k)!
Z 1
dx 
4.
( x 2 + m2 )(x2 + n2 ) = 2mn(m + n) ; m; n > 0:
0
Z 1
dx (m + 2n)
5.
( x 2 + m2 )(x2 + n2 )2 = 4mn3 (m + n)2 ; m; n > 0; m 6= n:
0
Z 1
os ax  am ; a; m > 0:
6.
( x 2 + m2 )2 dx = 4m3 (1 + am)e
0
Z 1
x sin ax ae am
7. 2 2 2 dx = ; a; m > 0:
0 (x + m ) 4m
Z 1
dx (2(n 1))! 
8.
(1 + x 2 )n = 22(n 1) ((n 1)!)2
2 ; n 2 N :
0
Z 1
os ax dx (me an ne am )
9. 2 2 2 2 = ; m > n > 0; a > 0
0 (x + m )(x + n ) 2(m2 n2 )mn
and hen e dedu e that
Z 1
x sin ax (e an e am)
2 2 2 2 dx = :
0 (x + m )(x + n ) 2(m2 n2 )
9.78. Prove the following real integrals:
Z 1  p
22 1 
1. e (1+i) t dt = for 1    1.
0 1 + i 2
Z 1
x 
2.
(1 + x) 2 dx = sin  for 1 <  6= 0 < 1.
0
Z 1
ln x  ln a
3.
x 2 + a2 dx = 2a for a > 0.
0
Chapter 10

Analyti Continuation

Analyti ontinuation is an important idea be ause it provides a method for

making the domain of denition of an analyti fun tion as large as possible.
Usually analyti fun tions are dened by means of some mathemati al ex-
pressions su h as polynomials, innite series, integrals et . The domain of
denition of su h an analyti fun tion is often restri ted by the manner of
dening the fun tion. For instan e, the power series representation of su h
analyti fun tions does not provide any dire t information as to whether
we ould have a fun tion analyti in a domain larger than disk of onver-
gen e whi h oin ides with the given fun tion. In Se tion 10.1, we dis uss
a general method (su h as the power series method). In Se tion 10.2, we
present a te hnique for arrying out the ontinuation pro ess and prove the
Monodromy theorem. In Se tion 10.3, we develop the Poisson integral for-
mula for harmoni fun tions on the open unit disk (and hen e, for arbitrary
disks). We use the Poisson integral to solve the Diri hlet problem for the
unit disk and, as a onsequen e, we hara terize harmoni fun tions by the
mean value property just as Morera's theorem hara terizes analyti fun -
tions. Later in Se tion 10.4, we use this hara terization to establish the
Symmetry prin iple (due to S hwarz) for harmoni fun tions whi h enables
one to nd an analyti ontinuation expli itly under a spe ial situation.

10.1 Dire t Analyti Continuation

What do we mean by an \analyti ontinuation"? It is simply a pro ess of
extending the domain of analyti ity to larger domains. For example, if
is
a domain and fj 2 H(
) for j = 1; 2; su h that f1 (z ) = f2 (z ) for all points
z in an open subset D 
, then, by the uniqueness theorem (see Theorem
4.106), one has f1  f2 on
. So, a natural question is the following: Is it
always possible to have an extension? Clearly, not. For example,
1
f (z ) = for z 2 D = C n f0g
z
408 Analyti Continuation

does not have an extension to C . Similarly, if D = C n fx : x  0g is the

ut plane and
f1 (z ) = Log z; z 2 D
f2 (z ) = z 1=2 = e(1=2) Log z = jz j1=2 ei(1=2)Arg z (  < Arg z < );
f3 (z ) = z 1=2 = e(1=2)( Log z+2i) = e(1=2) Log z (  < Arg z < );
then no extension from D to C is possible in ea h ase. However, if the
extension is possible then there are ways to arry out the pro ess of on-
tinuation so that the given analyti fun tion be omes analyti on a larger
domain. To make this point more pre ise, let us start by examining the
analyti ontinuation of the fun tion
X
(10.1) f (z ) = zn:
n0
The series on the right dened by (10.1), as is well known, is onvergent for
jz j < 1 and diverges for jz j  1. On the other hand, we know that the series
given by the formula (10.1) represents an analyti fun tion for jz j < 1 and
the sum of the series (10.1) for jz j < 1 is 1=(1 z ). However, the fun tion
F dened by the formula
1
F (z ) =
1 z
is analyti for z 2 C 1 nf1g = D (sin e F (1=z ) = (1 z 1) 1 = z=(z 1)
is analyti at 0, F (z ) is analyti at z = 1). Now
f (z ) = F (z ) for z 2
\ D
and we all F an analyti ontinuation of f from
into the domain D, i.e.
fun tion f , given at rst for jz j < 1, has been extended to the extended
omplex plane but for the point z = 1 at whi h the fun tion has a simple
pole. Thus, it appears that F whi h is analyti globally is represented by
a power series only lo ally.
Next we onsider another fun tion g dened by
Z 1
(10.2) g(z ) = exp[(z 1)t℄ dt:
0
If Re z < 1, then the integral onverges and
e(z 1)t 1
Z 1 
1 1
exp[(z 1)t℄ dt =  = z 1 = 1 z:
0 z 1 0
Thus the integral dened by (10.2) is onvergent in the half-plane H =
fz : Re z < 1g and represents the same fun tion 1=(1 z ) for z 2 H .
Consequently, we have F (z ) = g(z ) for z 2 H \ D and hen e we all F the
10.1 Dire t Analyti Continuation 409

ontinuation of g into the half-plane Re z  1 with the ex eption of point

at z = 1. Similarly if D1 = C n fz = x : xP 1g, nthen Log (1 z ) is the
analyti ontinuation of the power series n1 zn from
into D1 .

10.3. Denition. Suppose that f and F are two fun tions su h that
(i) f is analyti on some domain D  C ,
(ii) F is analyti in a domain D1 su h that D1 \ D =
6 ; and D1  D,
su h that f (z ) = F (z ) for z 2 D \ D1 .
Then we all F an analyti ontinuation or a holomorphi extension of f
from D into D1 . In other words, f is said to be analyti ally ontinuable
into D1 .

For a given analyti fun tion f on D, if there exists an analyti on-

tinuation F of f into D1 , by the uniqueness theorem (see Theorem 3.75),
then it is uniquely determined. Thus, we raise

10.4. Problem. When does a power series represent a fun tion

whi h is analyti beyond the disk of onvergen e of the original series?

One way to provide an aÆrmative answer is by \power series method".

Let us start our dis ussion on this method and see how one an use the
power series to go beyond the boundary of the disk of onvergen e. A
fundamental fa t about a fun tion f 2 H(
) is that for ea h a 2
, there
exists a sequen e fan gn0 and a number ra 2 (0; 1℄ su h that
1
X
f (z ) = an (z a)n for all z 2
(a; ra ):
n=0
To extend f , we hoose a point b other than a in the disk of onvergen e

(a; ra ). Then jb aj < ra and
X1 X1
an (z a)n = an [z b + b a℄n
n=0 n=0
!
1
X n  
X n
= an (b a)n k (z b)k
n=0 k=0
k
1 1   !
X X n
= an (b a)n k (z b)k
k=0 n=k k
1
X
= Ak (z b)k :
k=0
410 Analyti Continuation

The inter hange of the summation is justied, sin e

X1 Xn  
n X1
jan j k
j b ajn k jz bjk = jan j(jz bj + jb aj)n < 1
n=0 k=0 n=0
whenever jz bj + jb aj < ra : Therefore, the series about b onverges
at least for jz bj < ra jb aj. However, it may happen that the disk
of onvergen e
(b; rb ) for this new series extends outside
(a; ra ), i.e. it
may be possible that rb > ra jb aj. In this ase, the fun tion an be
analyti ally ontinued to the union of these two disks. This pro ess may be
ontinued. For example, if f (z ) = 1 1 z then (for z 2
with a = 0; ra = 1)
we have
1 X
= z n ; z 2
:
1 z n0
Take b = i. In order to get the expression for z 2
(i; rb ), we write
1 1
=
1 z 1 i (z i)
X1 1 p
= n +1 (z i)n ; jz ij < j1 ij = 2;
n=0 (1 i)
X1 (1 + i)n+1 p
= An (z i)n ; An =
2 n+1 ; jz ij < rb = 2:
n=0
P1
of 1
P
Thus, np=0 An (z i)n is an analyti ontinuation
P1
n
n=0 z in
to the
disk
(i; 2). Similarly, 1 n
one an see that n=0 n+1 (z + 1) is an analyti
ontinuation of 1
P
z n from
to the disk
( 2 1; 2).
n=0
10.5.P Remark. The onvergen e or divergen e of a power series
f (z ) = n0 an z n at a point does not determine whether it an or annot
be extended beyond that point. For example, onsider
X X zn
f1(z ) = z n and f2 (z ) = 2:
n0 n1 n
Re all that the rst series diverges for jz j = 1 and its sum f1 (z ) = 1=(1 z )
dened by this series is analyti in C n f1g. On the other hand, the se ond
series onverges at all points on jz j = 1. However, in both ases, the series
annot be ontinued analyti ally to a domain D with 1 2 D. Note that
Z z
log(1 t)
f2 (z ) = dt and f200 (z ) ! 1 as z ! 1 along reals. 
0 t
10.6. Example. As another example of analyti ontinuation, we
onsider the power series
X
(10.7) f0(z ) = ( 1)n z 2n:
n0
10.1 Dire t Analyti Continuation 411
y
 √ 
1 5
1 2
; 2
i

1
−1 O 1 3 1 x
2 4
3 5


1 ;
4 4
−i

Figure 10.1: Dire t analyti ontinuation.

Then (10.7) is absolutely onvergent for z 2
and diverges outside the

unit disk. Further, if we let
 
1 i 1 1
(10.8) F0 (z ) = = + ;
1 + z2 2 i + z i z
then it is easy to see that F0 is analyti in the extended plane ex ept at
z = i and f0 (z ) = F0 (z ) for all z 2
: We also note that F0 (x) = 1=(1+x2)
is well dened for all real values of x, whi h is expandable as a real power
series about any point on the real axis. Yet the power series (e.g. about 0)
given by
(1 + x2 ) 1 = 1 x2 + x4



has the unit interval as the interval of onvergen e and so, this illustrates
an interesting fa t about Taylor's series on the real axis.
Suppose we want to ontinue f0 on
to a disk about z0 . Then, we
write
" ! !#
i 1 1 1 1
F0 (z ) = + :
2 i + z0 1 + zi+zz00 i z0 1 z z0
i z0
Thus if
 
iX ( 1)n 1
(10.9) F1 (z ) = + (z z0 )n ;
2 n0 (i + z0 )n+1 (i z0)n+1

where R = minfji + z0j; ji z0jg is the radius of onvergen e for (10.9),pthen

F1 (z ) is analyti for jz z0 j < R. For instan e if z0 = 1=2, then R = 5=2
and hen e, in this hoi e, we see that (10.9) onverges for some values of
z for whi h (10.7) diverges (see Figure 10.1). Therefore, (10.7) and (10.9)
both represent parts of (10.8) whi h en ompasses all possible extensions.
412 Analyti Continuation

However, there is no extension whi h is analyti at z = i whi h agrees

with F0 in a deleted neighborhood of i, be ause
 
 1 
 1 + z 2  ! 1 as z ! i: 
 

An analyti fun tion f on a domain D will be alled a fun tion element,

written as (f; D).
If (f1 ; D1 ) and (f2 ; D2 ) are two fun tion elements su h that D1 \ D2 6= ;
and f1 (z ) = f2 (z ) for all z 2 D1 \ D2 : Then (f; D1 [ D2 ) is also a fun tion
element, where 
f (z ) for z 2 D1
f (z ) = 1
f2 (z ) for z 2 D2 :
With the observation just made, (f1 ; D1 ) and (f2 ; D2 ) are alled a dire t
analyti ontinuation of ea h other, thereby dening an analyti fun tion
in D1 [ D2 . For instan e, if f1 (z ) = a=(a z ) for z 2 C n fag; and
X  z n
f2 (z ) = for z 2 D2 = fz : jz j < jajg;
n0
a

then (f1 ; C n fag) is a dire t analyti ontinuation of (f2 ; D2 ).

10.10. Example. Dene
Z
1 os 
f0(z ) = d
2i j j=1  z
for z 2
: Then, by the Cau hy integral formula, we have f0 (z ) = os z for
ea h z 2
: But, sin e os z is analyti in C , ( os z; C ) is a dire t analyti
ontinuation of (f0 ;
). 
In general, the following theorem holds:
10.11. Theorem. Let C be a simple losed ontour with interior D
and g be an entire fun tion. If, for n 2 N ,
Z
n! g( )
f0(z ) = d; z 2 D;
2i C ( z )n+1
then (g (n) ; C ) is a dire t analyti ontinuation of (f0 ; D).
Proof. By the Cau hy integral formula, f0 (z ) = g(n)(z ) for all z 2 D:
Sin e g is entire, so is g(n) ; the result follows.
10.12. Denition. Let f be analyti on a domain D. If f annot be
ontinued analyti ally a ross the boundary D, then D is alled natural
10.1 Dire t Analyti Continuation 413

boundary of f . A point z0 2 D is said to be a regular point of f (z ) if f

an be ontinued analyti ally to a region D1 with z0 2 D1 : Otherwise, f (z )
is said to have a singular point at z0 .
For instan e, onsider the power series
X k
(10.13) f (z ) = z2 :
k 0
A dire t onsequen e of the Root test is that the radius of onvergen e
of (10.13) is 1 and
n
so, f dened by (10.13) is analyti for jz j < 1. If jz j  1,
then limn!1 jz 2 j 6=n 0 and therefore, the series diverges for jz j  1.
Let  = e2im=2 ,nm = 0; 1; : : : ; 2n 1 (n 2 N ), be the 2n -th root of
unity. If z = re2im=2 2
, then
nX1 1
k X 2k
f (z ) = z2 + z
k=0 k =n
and so for r ! 1 , we have
 
1 k
X n 1  1
X 2k  X k
f (r)j  r2  z   r2 n;
 
k=n k=0 k=n
and hen e, for every 2n -th root of unity  , we have limr!1 jf (r)j = 1.
Therefore if D is a domain ontaining npoints of
and of its omplement,
then D ontains the points  = e2im=2 and so any fun tion F in D whi h
oin ides with f in D \
annot be ontinued analyti ally through  2n = 1
for ea h n 2 N . In other words any root of the equation
z 2 = 1; z 4 = 1; : : : ; z 2n = 1 (n 2 N )
is a singular point of f and hen e any ar , however small it may be, of

ontains an innite number of singularities. Thus, f on
annot be
ontinued analyti ally a ross the boundary 
of
. This observation
shows that the unit ir le jz j = 1 is a natural boundary for the power series
dened by (10.13).
Similarly if X
(10.14) f (z ) = z k !
k 0
then, f 2 H(
). Upon taking  = e2im=n ; m = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1; z = r;
(where m=n is the irredu ible fra tion), and hoosing r lose to 1 from below
along a radius of the unit ir le it an be seen that limr!1 jf (r)j = 1.
Hen e, f is singular at every n-th root of unity for any n 2 N .
Sin e every point on jz j = 1 is a singular point, f annot be ontinued
analyti ally through the n-th root of unity for any natural number n. In
414 Analyti Continuation
y
∂1(ζ ; Rζ )

O R x

∂1R

Figure 10.2: Illustration for singularity on ir le jz j = R.

other words, there an be no ontinuation anywhere a ross jz j = 1 and

hen e, jz j = 1 is a natural boundary for the power series dened by (10.14).
P
10.15. Theorem. If f (z ) = n0 an z n has a radius of onvergen e
R > 0, then f must have at least one singularity on jz j = R.
Proof. Suppose, on the ontrary that f has no singularity on jz j = R.
Then f must be analyti at all points of jz j = R. This, together with
Theorem 3.71, implies that f is analyti for jz j  R. It follows, from the
denition of analyti ity at a point, that for ea h  2 
R there exists some
R > 0 and a fun tion f whi h is analyti in
( ; R ) (see Figure 10.2)
and
f = f on
( ; R ) \
R :
In this way, if k and l 2 
R (k 6= l) with G =
(k ; Rk ) \
(l ; Rl ) 6= ;
then we have two fun tions fk and fl whi h are respe tively analyti in

(k ; Rk ) and
(l ; Rl ) su h that
f = fk = fl on G \
R :
Sin e G is onne ted and G \
R is an open subset of G, by the uniqueness
theorem, fk = fl on G. Sin e j j = R is ompa t, by the Heine-Borel theo-
rem, we may sele t a nite number of
(1 ; R1 ),
(2 ; R2 ); : : : ;
(n ; Rn )
from the olle tion f
( ; R ) :  2 
R g su h that it overs the ir le 
R .
Let

= [nk=1
(k ; Rk ) and Æ = dist (
R ;
):
Then, as Rk > 0 for ea h k, we have Æ > 0. Moreover,
fz : R Æ < jz j < R + Æg 
and
R+Æ  D =
R [
:
Then g dened by

f (z ) for jz j < R
g(z ) =
fk (z ) for jz k j < Rk ; k = 1; 2; : : : ; n;
10.1 Dire t Analyti Continuation 415
y
iα
e

r δ+r
δ
O 1 x

Figure 10.3: Existen e of a singularity on the ir le of onvergen e.

is well dened, single-valued and analyti on D and has same power series
representation as f for jz j < R. Thus there exists an analyti fun tion, say
, in
R+Æ , whi h oin ides with f on
R . But then by Taylor's Theorem
we have the power series expansion
X
(z ) = bn z n for z 2
R+Æ :
n0

Sin e f = g on
R , by the uniqueness theorem (see Theorem 3.75), we

have an = bn for ea h n. This shows that the radius of onvergen e of f is
R + Æ, whi h is a ontradi tion.
P
10.16. Theorem. If an  0 and f (z ) = n0 an z n has the radius of
onvergen e 1, then (f;
) has no dire t analyti ontinuation to a fun tion
element (F; D) with 1 2 D.
Proof. For ea h z = rei 2
(0 < r < 1,  2 [0; 2)), we have
X
(10.17) f (k ) (z ) = n(n 1)


(n (k 1))an z n k
nk

so that (sin e an  0)
X
(10.18) jf (k) (rei )j  n(n 1)


(n (k 1))an rn k = f (k) (r):
nk
We have to show that 1 is a singular point of f . Suppose, on the ontrary,
that 1 is a regular point of f . Then, f an be analyti ally ontinued in a
neighborhood of z = 1 and so there is a Æ with 0 < Æ < 1 (see Figure 10.3)
for whi h the Taylor's series expansion of f about Æ, namely the series
X f (k) (Æ )
(10.19) (z Æ)k ;
k0 k!
416 Analyti Continuation

would be onvergent for jz Æj < r with Æ + r > 1. Now, by (10.18), we

nd that
jf (k) (Æei )j  f (k) (Æ) :
k! k!
From this, the Root test and the omparison test with (10.19), it follows
that the radius of onvergen e of the Taylor series about Æei is at least r.
This observation implies that the Taylor series
X f (k) (Æei )
(z Æei )k
k0 k !
would be onvergent in the disk jz Æei j < r for ea h , with Æ + r > 1.
In other words, the Taylors series
X f (k) (z0 )
(z z0)k
k 0
k !
about ea h z0 with jz0 j = Æ would have radius of onvergen e  r > 1 Æ.
Sin e this ontradi ts Theorem 10.15, 1 must be a singular point of f . This
ompletes the proof.
P n.
Noti e that the last series is a tually a rearrangement of n0 an z
Indeed, by (10.17),
0 1
  n  
X n
X XX n
 an z0n k A (z z0 )k = an z0n k (z z0 )k
k0 nk k n0 k=0 k
X
= an (z z0 + z0 )n
n0
X
= an z n :
n0
P
10.20. Corollary. If an  0 and f (z ) = n0 an z n has the radius
of onvergen e R > 0, then z = R is a singularity of f (z ).
Finally, we state the following result whose proof may be found in stan-
dard advan ed texts (e.g. [24℄).
P
10.21. Theorem. Let f (z ) = k0 ak z
nk and lim inf k!1 nnk+1
k > 1.
Then the ir le of onvergen e of the power series is the natural boundary
for f .
By this theorem, it is easy to see that the unit ir le jz j = 1 is the
natural boundary for
X1 z 3k X1 z 2k
f1(z ) = k and f2 (z ) = k2 :
k=0 3 k=0 2
10.2 Monodromy Theorem 417

10.2 Monodromy Theorem

We start with a power series 1
P n
n=0 an (z z0 ) that represents a fun tion
f with
(z0 ; R) as its disk of onvergen e. A fun tion element of the type
(f;
(z0 ; R)) is alled \an analyti germ of f at z0 ", or brie y a \germ at
z0 ". Obviously, an arbitrary fun tion element (f; D) determines a germ at
ea h point of D.
If : [0; 1℄ ! C is a urve with z0 = (0) as its initial point and f (z ) is
a germ at z0 , then we say that f (z ) is ontinued analyti ally along if for
every t 2 [0; 1℄ there is an (analyti ) germ at (t), i.e. there is a onvergent
power series
1
X
(10.22) ft (z ) = an (t)(z (t))n
n=0
for z 2 Dt = fz : jz (t)j < R(t)g, su h that
(i) f0(z ) is the power series representing the fun tion f (z ) at z0
(ii) for ea h t 2 [0; 1℄, Dt is the disk of onvergen e with enter at (t)
(iii) whenever s and t in [0; 1℄ are near to ea h other, then fs (z ) = ft (z )
for all z 2 Ds \ Dt , where Ds and Dt are the disks of onvergen e of
fs and ft , respe tively (Note that Ds \ Dt 6= ;); i.e. when s is near t,
(fs ; Ds ) and (ft ; Dt ) are dire t analyti ontinuations of ea h other.
In this way, we obtain a one parameter family of germs fftg and refer
to f1(z ) as the analyti ontinuation of f0 (z ) = f (z ) along , where we
regard ft (z ) either as a series or as an analyti fun tion dened near (t):
Clearly, for s near t, the ondition (i) implies that
f (n) ( (s))
an (s) = t
n!
and so the Taylor oeÆ ients in (10.22) depends ontinuously on the param-
eter t. Further, in the domain Dt of the germ ft , the radius of onvergen e
depends ontinuously on the enter of the expansion of the power series.
More pre isely, we have
10.23. Lemma. Let : [0; 1℄ ! C be a urve and f be a germ at
z0 = (0). Assume that f (z ) an be ontinued analyti ally along with
a onvergent power series given by (10:22). Then either R(t) = 1 for all
t 2 [0; 1℄, or
jR(s) R(t)j  j (s) (t)j =: jzs zt j
whenever s and t are su h that js tj < Æ for some Æ > 0, i.e. the radius of
onvergen e of ft is a ontinuous fun tion of t.
Proof. Fix t so that
X1
ft(z ) = an (t)(z zt)n ; jz ztj < R(t);
n=0
418 Analyti Continuation

where R(t) is the radius of onvergen e for the series about zt := (t) to
whi h ft extends analyti ally. Thus, ft does not extend analyti ally to a
larger disk ontaining Dt . If we onsider the power series
X1
an (s)(z zs )n
n=0
and hoose zs 2 Dt so that jzs zt j < R(t), then the radius of onvergen e
R(s) of this new series is at least R(t) jzs zt j. Consequently,
R(s)  R(t) jzs zt j; i.e. R(t) R(s)  jzs zt j:
Inter hanging the roles of zs and zt , we see that
R(s) R(t)  jzs zt j:
From the last two inequalities, we obtain that either R(t) = 1 for all
t 2 [0; 1℄, or
jR(s) R(t)j  jzs zt j
holds for all s and t nearby. In parti ular, the ontinuity of implies that
R(t) is a ontinuous fun tion of t.
Suppose that f is analyti at z0 , and : [0; 1℄ ! C is a urve with
z0 = (0) and z1 = (1), along whi h f has an analyti ontinuation ft .
Then the message of Lemma 10.23 is that the radius of onvergen e R(t)
of the power series about (t) that represents ft given by (10.22), is a
ontinuous fun tion of t on [0; 1℄. In fa t, R(t) is uniformly ontinuous on
[0; 1℄. As R(t) > 0 for ea h t 2 [0; 1℄, we on lude that
R = minfR(t) : t 2 [0; 1℄g > 0
and so, R(t)  R for all t 2 [0; 1℄.
10.24. Example. Consider the prin ipal bran h of log z , where its
Taylor series expansion about z = 1 is given by
X1 ( 1)n 1
f (z ) = Log z = (z 1)n ; z 2 D = fz : jz 1j < 1g:
n=1 n
Note that Log z is analyti in C n fz : Re z  0; Im z = 0g. Let : [0; 1℄ !
C be the urve given by (t) = e2it , starting from z0 = (0) = 1. Then
f (z ) a tually has an analyti ontinuation along . In fa t, for ea h t 2
[0; 1℄, there is a olle tion of fun tion elements fft; Dt g su h that
(i) (f0 ; D0 ) = (f; D)
(ii) for ea h t 2 [0; 1℄, Dt is the disk of onvergen e with enter (t)
10.2 Monodromy Theorem 419

(iii) for ea h t 2 [0; 1℄, and s near t, we have Ds \ Dt 6= ; and fs (z ) = ft (z )

for all z 2 Ds \ Dt ; i.e. (fs ; Ds ) is a dire t analyti ontinuation of
(ft ; Dt ).
More pre isely, we have
X1 ( 1)n 1 e 2int
ft (z ) = 2it + (z e2it )n
n=1 n
valid for z 2 Dt = fz : jz e2it j < 1g: In parti ular, for t = 0, we have
f0 (z ) = f (z ) and for t = 1
f1 (z ) = 2i + Log z for z 2 D = D1 ;
whi h is a tually another bran h of log z . Thus, we an see that Log z has
an analyti ontinuation along any urve in the pun tured plane C n f0g.
Note that ( Log z; D0 ) and ( Log z + 2i; D0) are the initial and the nal
fun tion elements, respe tively. 
10.25. Theorem. Let (f; D0 ), D0 =
(z0 ; R(0)), be a germ at z0
and be a urve with initial point (0) = z0 : Then any two analyti
ontinuations of f along oin ide in the following sense: if (ft ; Dt ) and
(gt ; Ut ), t 2 [0; 1℄, are two analyti ontinuations of (f; D0 ) with (f1 ; D1 )
and (g1 ; U1 ) as the terminal elements of (ft ; Dt ) and (gt ; Ut ), respe tively,
then f1 = g1 on D1 \ U1 . Here Dt =
( (t); R(t)) and Ut =
( (t); r(t))
are the disks of denition for the germs (ft ; Dt ) and (gt ; Ut ), respe tively.
Proof. Set E = ft0 2 [0; 1℄ : ft = gt in Dt \ Ut for all t 2 [0; t0 ℄g. By
the denition, f0 = g0 in D0 \ U0 and so 0 2 E . Thus, E 6= ;. To omplete
the proof, we need to show that E is both open (in [0; 1℄) and losed. Then
the onne tedness of [0; 1℄ will imply E = [0; 1℄.
First we show that E is losed. Take an arbitrary t0 2 E and an in-
reasing sequen e ftn g of elements of E su h that tn ! t0 . Choose n so
large that jtn t0 j < minfR(t0 ); r(t0 )g: Then
(tn ) 2 Dtn \ Utn \ Dt0 \ Ut0 :
Also sin e tn 2 E , ftn = gtn on Dtn \ Utn . Therefore,
ft0 = ftn = gtn = gt0 on Dtn \ Utn \ Dt0 \ Ut0
whi h gives ft0 = gt0 on Dt0 \ Ut0 showing that t0 2 E: Hen e E is losed.
To see that E is open in [0; 1℄, we onsider the omplement E = [0; 1℄nE
and show that E is losed. As before it suÆ es to show that if ftn g is a
onvergent sequen e in E with tn ! t0 ; then t0 2 E . To see this we note
that tn 2= E and so by denition of E , there exists sn 2 [0; 1℄ su h that
tn  sn for all n and
(10.26) fsn 6 gsn on Dsn \ Usn :
420 Analyti Continuation

Passing to the subsequen e if ne essary, we may assume that sn onverges

to some s0 : Clearly t0  s0 : Now we easily see that t0 2 E : To onrm this
it suÆ es to show that
fs0 6 gs0 on Ds0 \ Us0 :
But if fs0 = gs0 on Ds0 \ Us0 , then the previous reasoning shows that
fsn = gsn on Dsn \ Usn for n large enough. This ontradi ts (10.26) and
so E is open. We have that E = [0; 1℄.
Theorem 10.25 asserts that the analyti ontinuation of a given fun tion
element along a given urve is unique if it exists.
10.27. Theorem. (Monodromy Theorem) Let z0 and z1 be two
points in a domain D. Let f be an analyti germ at z0 su h that f an be
ontinued analyti ally along every urve in D that begins at z0 and ends
at z1 : Assume that
(i) 0 and 1 are two urves with initial point z0 and terminal point z1 .
(ii) 0 and 1 are homotopi in D.
Let f 0 and f 1 be the analyti ontinuations of f along 0 and 1 , respe -
tively. Then f 0 and f 1 agree in a neighborhood of z1 , i.e. the analyti
ontinuations of f along 0 and 1 produ e the same terminal germ at z1 .
Proof. Let the homotopy onne ting 0 and 1 be F : [0; 1℄[0; 1℄ ! C ,
and xes the end points of 0 and 1 (i.e. F (0; u) = z1 and F (1; u) = z2
for all u 2 [0; 1℄). We denote by u , the intermediate path asso iated with
F : u (t) = F (t; u), where
F (t; 0) = 0 (t) and F (t; 1) = 1 (t) for all t 2 [0; 1℄:
Note that
z0 = 0 (0) = 1 (0) and z1 = 0 (1) = 1 (1):
Thus, for ea h xed u 2 [0; 1℄, let ft;u denote an analyti ontinuation
of f (z ) along the urve u = F (:; u): Then the on lusion of the theo-
rem is that f1;0 = f1;1 (see Figure 10.4): Set E = fu 2 [0; 1℄ : f1; =
f1;0 for all  2 [0; u℄g. Sin e 0 2 E , E 6= ;: If we an show that E is both
open (in [0; 1℄) and losed, then the onne tedness of E would imply that
E = [0; 1℄: In parti ular, 1 2 E so that f1;1 = f1;0 whi h ompletes the
proof.
To prove that E is open, take an arbitrary u0 2 E: Then, by Lemma
10.23, there exists an R > 0 su h that for ea h t 2 [0; 1℄, the radius of
onvergen e of the power series expansion of fu0 ;t about u0 (t) is at least
R: By the uniform ontinuity of F on the ompa t set [0; 1℄  [0; 1℄; there
is a Æ > 0 su h that for every t 2 [0; 1℄,
j u (t) u0 (t)j = jF (t; u) F (t; u0 )j < R = 
10.2 Monodromy Theorem 421

z0

γ (t)
R(t)
z1

Figure 10.4: Illustration for Monodromy theorem.

Dt,u

γ1 γu (t)
ft,1 γu
γu0(t)
z0 z1
γ0
f0,u = f0,0 f1,1 = f1,0
ft,0 Dt,u0

Figure 10.5: Illustration for Monodromy theorem.

whenever ju u0j < Æ and u 2 [0; 1℄: We x u1 2 (u0 Æ; u0 + Æ) \ [0; 1℄ and

set
T = ft 2 [0; 1℄ : ft;u1 = ft;u0 on Dt;u1 \ Dt;u0 g
where Dt;u1 and Dt;u0 are the disks of denition of ft;u1 and ft;u0 , respe -
tively. Sin e 0 2 T , T 6= ;: By Theorem 10.25, T = [0; 1℄ and so (see Figure
10.5)
f1;u1 = f1;u0 = f1;0 :
Thus, every u1 2 (u0 Æ; u0 + Æ) \ [0; 1℄ belongs to E . It follows that E is
open in [0; 1℄: To show that E is losed, let fung be a sequen e in E su h
that un ! u0 . A similar argument shows that there exists a Æ > 0 su h
that if u 2 (u0 Æ; u0 + Æ) \ [0; 1℄ then

f1;u = f1;u0 on D1;u \ D1;u0 :

For large n, un 2 (u0 Æ; u0 + Æ) \ [0; 1℄, so it follows that
f1;un = f1;u1 = f1;0 :
So u0 2 E and hen e E is losed. We have that E = [0; 1℄:
422 Analyti Continuation

10.3 Poisson Integral Formula

For f 2 H(
), the Cau hy integral formula gives
Z Z 2
1 f ( ) 1
f (0) = d = f (ei ) d (0 <  < 1):
2i j j=  2 0

If, in addition, f is ontinuous on
then f (z ) is uniformly ontinuous on

so that, allowing  ! 1 ,
Z 2
1
(10.28) f (0) = f (ei ) d:
2 0
That is, the value of f at the enter of the unit ir le jz j = 1 is the mean
value of f on jz j = 1. Our pro edure for omputing f (a) for an arbitrary
a 2
will be as follows: onsider
a z
a (z ) = :
1 az
We know that a 2 H(
) and maps the unit ir le jz j = 1 onto itself. Also,
a (a) = 0, a (
) =
, a 1 = a ,
 
0 1 jaj2 0a (z ) 1 jaj2
a (z ) = ; and = :
(1 az )2 a (z ) (1 az )(z a)
Clearly, F = f Æ a 1 2 H(
), F (0) = f (a) and F is ontinuous on
(as f
is ontinuous on
and a 2 H(
)). Therefore, by (10.28), we get
Z 2 Z 2
1 1

(10.29) f (a) = F (0) = F (eiT ) dT = f a 1 (eiT ) dT:
2 0 2 0
If we let (T ) = f a 1 (eiT )
,
then (T ) is 2-periodi and so, we may
hange the variable of integration by setting
a 1 (eiT ) = ei ; i.e. eiT = a (ei );
so that ieiT dT = i0a (ei )ei d. Thus,
0 (ei )ei (1 jaj2 )ei 1 jaj2
dT = a i d = d = i
a (e ) i
(1 ae )(e i a) je aj2 d:
Substituting this into (10.29), we obtain
10.30. Theorem. Suppose that f 2 H(
) and ontinuous on
.
Then we have
Z 2
1 1 jaj2
f (a) =
2 0 je aj2 d (a 2
):
f (ei ) i
10.3 Poisson Integral Formula 423

The fa tor appearing after f (ei ) under the integral sign has a spe ial
notation: with a = reit ,
 i 
e
+a 1 jaj2
Re i
e a je aj2 =: Pr (
= i t)

where Pr () is known as the Poisson kernel:

1 r2
Pr () = :
1 2r os  + r2
The extension of Theorem 10.30 for jz j < R follows.
10.31. Theorem. Suppose that f 2 H(
R ) and ontinuous on
R .
Then we have
Z 2
1 R2 jaj2
f (a) =
2 0
f (Rei )
jRei aj2 d (a 2
R ):
Proof. Dene g(z ) = f (Rz ) with a = bR so that jaj < R () jbj < 1
and f (a) = f (bR) = g(b). Further, g 2 H(
) and ontinuous on
. By
Theorem 10.30,
Z 2
1 1 jbj2
g(b) =
2 0 je bj2 d (b 2
)
g(ei ) i

whi h is equivalent to the desired formula.

10.32. Example. If we let f (z )  1 in Theorem 10.31, it follows
that
Z
1 R2 jaj2
1= d ( = Rei ; d = id; jaj < R);
2 j j=R jRei aj2
or equivalently (sin e jd j = jidj = Rd)
Z
jd j = 2R if jaj < R:
j j=R j aj2 R2 jaj2
How does one handle the problem if jaj > R? (see Example 8.31). 
Theorem 10.31 is alled the Poisson integral formula for analyti fun -
tions in disks, rather than just the unit disk. The integral in Theorem
10.31 is alled Poisson integral for analyti fun tions in
R and an be
equivalently written as
Z 2
1
(10.33) f (z ) = f (Rei )Pr (R;  t) d (z = reit 2
R );
2 0
424 Analyti Continuation

where Pr (R; ) is the Poisson kernel given by

R2 r 2
Pr (R; ) = :
R2 2Rr os  + r2
Set f (z ) = f (reit ) = u(z ) + iv(z ) := u(r; t) + iv(r; t): Sin e Pr (R;  t)
is real-valued, we may equate the real parts of both sides of (10.33) and
obtain the Poisson integral formula for harmoni fun tions in the ir ular
domain jz j < R and ontinuous on jz j  R. The Poisson integral formula
then reads (with z = reit 2
R )
Z 2 Z 2
1 R2 jz j2 1
u(z ) = u(Rei ) d = u(Rei )Pr (R;  t) d
2 0 jRe z j
i 2 2 0
and a similar expression holds for v(z ). Equivalently, we may write
Z 2
1
u(r; t) = u(R; )Pr (R;  t) d (0  r < R):
2 0
This formula implies that if u is harmoni in
R and ontinuous on
R ,
then its value u(z ) (= u(r; t); r < R) at an interior point z = reit is
ompletely determined by its boundary values u(Rei ) (= u(R; )) on the
ir le j j = R. Several extensions of this formula are immediate. For
example if u(z ) is harmoni in
(z0 ; R) and ontinuous on
(z0 ; R), then
for ea h z 2
(z0 ; R) one has
Z 2
u(z ) =
1
u(z0 + Rei )
R2 jz z0 j2 d:
2 0 jRei (z z0 )j2
It means that the value of a harmoni fun tion at a point z an be expressed
as 1=2 times the integration of the Poisson kernel with the values of the
harmoni fun tion on the boundary of the disk.
10.34. Theorem. Suppose that f = u + iv 2 H(
R ) and is ontin-
uous on
R . Then for ea h z 2
R we have
Z 2
1 Rei + z
f (z ) = u(Rei ) d + iv(0):
2 0 Rei z
Proof. Set  = Rei , z = reit (r < R) so that d = i d, and let
Z 2 Z
1  +z 1  + z d
g (z ) = u( )
d = u( ) :
2
0  z 2i j j=R  z 
It is easy to see that g(z ) is analyti with
Z 2
g(z + h) g(z ) 1 2
g0 (z ) = lim = u( ) d:
h!0 h 2 0 ( z )2
10.3 Poisson Integral Formula 425

Indeed, as ( + z )=( z ) = 1 + 2 1
P
n=1 (z= ) for jz j < j j, we an perform
n
the term by term integration by the uniform onvergen e of the series (with
z 2
R xed) and obtain
X1 1
Z
u( )
n
g(z ) = b0 + 2 bn z ; bn = d:
n=1 2i j j=R  n+1
Now, with M = sup ju( )j;
j j=R
Z
jbnj  1 ju( )j jd j  M
2 j j=R j jn+1 Rn
and so,
1 1
lim sup j2bnj1=n  nlim (2M )1=n =
n!1 R !1 R
showing that g is analyti in
R . Now, sin e
 Z  Z
1 2  +z 1 2  +z
Re g(z ) = Re u( ) d = u( )Re d;
2 0  z 2 0  z
a omparison (see Equation (10.33)) shows that f and g have the same real
parts
Z
1 2 R2 r 2
Re f (z ) = Re g(z ) = u(Rei ) 2 d:
2 0 R 2rR os( t) + r2
Hen e, an appli ation of the Cau hy-Riemann equations gives
Z
1 2 Rei + z
f (z ) = g(z ) + i; or f (z ) = u(Rei ) i d + i:
2 0 Re z
Setting z = 0, we have  = v(0) (sin e, by the Mean value theorem, the
integral on the right equals u(0)), and the result follows.
Equating the imaginary part on both sides of the last integral shows
that
Z
1 2 2rR sin(t )
v(reit ) = u(Rei ) 2 d + v(0)
2 0 R 2rR os(t ) + r2
or equivalently
Z
1 2 2Im (z )
j z j2 d + v(0) ( = Re ; jz j < R)
v (z ) = u( ) i
2 0
whi h is of ourse another representation for harmoni fun tions. The quan-
tity Q(; z ) dened by
2Im (z )
Q(; z ) =
j z j2
426 Analyti Continuation

is known as the onjugate Poisson kernel.

10.35. Example. . We wish to provide an alternate proof of Exer ise

6.89. For jz j = R=2 < R, where R is large enough, Theorem 10.34 gives
that Z  
1  + z d
f (z ) = Re f ( ) + iIm f (0)
2 j j=R  z i
and therefore,
 
jf (z )j  21 (R ) RR + R=
R=2
2
2 + jIm f (0)j = 3R + jIm f (0)j

so that there exist onstants A and B su h that jf (z )j  Ajz j + B for all

jz j suÆ iently large. The desired on lusion follows from the generalized
Liouville's theorem (see Theorem 6.60). 
We have shown that a harmoni fun tion on
whi h is ontinuous on

has the property that its values at any point in
an be a hieved by
its values on the boundary 
. We wish to work the other way around.
First we remark that, the Cau hy integral formula not only reprodu es
analyti fun tions but also reates them. Indeed, let us suppose that f ( )
is ontinuous on j j = 1. Then there exists an M > 0 su h that jf ( )j  M
on j j = 1. Now dene g(z ) on
by
Z 2 Z
1 f ( ) 1 f ( )
g (z ) = d and let bn = d:
2 0  z 2i j j=1  n+1
Then
1
Z
f ( ) 1
Z X1 f ( ) ! X1
g (z ) = d = z n d = bn z n :
2i j j=1  z 2i j j=1 n=0  n+1 n=0

Note that jbn j  M and lim supn!1 jbn j1=n  limn!1 M 1=n = 1. So, g has
a power series representation with radius of onvergen e not smaller than
1 and therefore, g is analyti for z 2
. Also, the fa t that g is analyti
in
is a onsequen e of Morera's theorem, sin e 1=( z ) (jz j < 1) is an
analyti fun tion of z for ea h  with j j = 1 and g is ontinuous on j j = 1.
This observation shows that the Cau hy integral formula reates analyti
fun tions. But, in general, there exists no dire t onne tion between f and
g. Is it then possible to re over f as the boundary limit of g? The fun tion
f ( ) =  = 1 for j j = 1 says `no' as g(z ) = 0. On the other hand, for
harmoni fun tions the situation diers. The Poisson integral formula both
reprodu es and reates harmoni fun tions. Suppose that f () := f (ei ) is
a real-valued ontinuous fun tion of ,  2 (0; 2℄ and dene a new fun tion
10.3 Poisson Integral Formula 427

u(z ) a ording to the Poisson integral formula for a harmoni fun tion on

, namely,
Z 2
1 1 jz j2
u(z ) =
2 0 je z j2 d if jz j < 1:
f (ei ) i

What property will the fun tion u have? In ontrast to the analyti ase,
there is a simple onne tion between f and the reated fun tion u, whi h
we shall soon see is harmoni in
. This onne tion is pre isely given by
the next theorem whi h is often referred to as the \solution to the Diri hlet
problem for disks." What is a Diri hlet problem? Given a bounded domain
D and a ontinuous (more generally pie ewise ontinuous) fun tion f :
D ! R, the simplest version of the Diri hlet problem is to nd a fun tion
u : D ! R su h that u is harmoni on D, ontinuous on D, and equal
to f on D. An important onsequen e of the maximum and minimum
prin iples is that the solution u to the Diri hlet problem is unique. Indeed,
if U is another su h fun tion, then u U is harmoni on D, ontinuous on
D, and vanishes on the boundary D, but it takes its maximum and its
minimum on the boundary, so it is identi ally zero, i.e. u  U on D. Our
spe ial emphasize here on the Diri hlet problem is when D is the unit disk

.
10.36. Theorem. (Solution to a Diri hlet Problem) Suppose that
f : 
! R is ontinuous. For 0  r < 1, let z = reit and
Z 2 Z 2  i 
1 1 e +z
u(reit ) = f (ei )Pr ( t) d = f (ei )Re d:
2 0 2 0 ei z
Then u is the unique fun tion that is ontinuous on
su h that
(a) u(z ) is harmoni for jz j < 1 and u(z ) = f (z ) for jz j = 1
(b) u(reit ) ! f (eit ) uniformly as r ! 1 .
Proof. Set  = ei , z = reit (r < 1) so that d = i d, and let
Z
1 2 i ei + z
g (z ) = f (e ) i d:
2 0 e z
Then (for example as in the proof of Theorem 10.34), g is analyti in

and so u(z ) = Re g(z ), being the real part of an analyti fun tion in
, is
harmoni in
. For a proof of (b), we shall use only the following basi
properties of the Poisson kernel Pr ():
1 r2
Pr () = :
1 2r os  + r2
(i) Pr () > 0 for  2 R and 0  r < 1. Moreover, Pr () = Pr ( ) and
Pr () is a 2-periodi fun tion.
428 Analyti Continuation

(ii) The Poisson integral in Theorem 10.30 for the onstant fun tion 1
shows that Z
1 2
P () d = 1 for 0  r < 1.
2 0 r
(iii) If 0 < Æ < , then limr!1 Pr () = 0 uniformly in  for Æ  jj  .
This property follows from the following observation. For ea h xed
Æ, 0 < Æ < , we see that

0
Pr () =
2r(1 r2 ) sin   0 for Æ    
(1 2r os  + r2 )2  0 for     Æ
and so Pr () is in reasing for     Æ and de reasing for Æ 
  . This implies that
1 r2
0 < Pr ()  Pr (Æ) = whenever Æ  jj  
1 2r os Æ + r2
and the assertion follows.
Next, a ording to (ii), we an write
Z
1 2
u(reit ) f (eit ) = P ( t)[f (ei ) f (eit )℄ d
2 0 r
Z
1 2 t
= Pr ()[f (ei(+t) ) f (eit )℄ d
2 t
Z
1 
= P ()[f (ei(+t) ) f (eit )℄ d;
2  r
be ause the integrand is a periodi fun tion of period 2. It remains to
show that
lim
z2

u(z ) = lim u(reit ) = f (eit ):
z!eit r !1
Sin e f is ontinuous on [ ; ℄, it is bounded. So, we may let M =
max jf (ei )j. By the uniform ontinuity of f , given  > 0 there exists a
Æ > 0 su h that
jf (ei(+t) ) f (eit )j <  for all t, whenever jj < Æ.
Now, hoose Æ > 0 suÆ iently small to satisfy this ondition and split the
interval of integration as
f : jj  g = I1 [ I2 := f : 0  jj  Æg [ f : Æ  jj  g
so that
Z
1 Æ
u(reit ) f (eit ) = P ()[f (ei(+t) ) f (eit )℄ d
2 Æ r
Z
1
+ P ()[f (ei(+t) ) f (eit )℄ d
2 Æjj r
=: J1 + J2 :
10.3 Poisson Integral Formula 429

On the set I1 ,
Z Z 2

jJ1 j  21 Pr () d 
2
Pr () d = :
I1 0
On the set I2 , we have Æ  jj   and Pr ()  Pr (Æ) so that

jJ2 j  22M Pr (Æ)2 = 2MPr (Æ):

We get the estimate
ju(reit ) f (eit )j  2MPr (Æ) + 
and, as r is suÆ iently lose to 1,
lim sup ju(reit ) f (eit )j  :
r!1
Hen e, limr!1 ju(reit ) f (eit )j = 0 and the uniqueness is a onsequen e
of the maximum modulus prin iple for harmoni fun tions.
10.37. Corollary. Suppose that a 2 C , R > 0 and h : 
(a; R) !
R is ontinuous. Then there is a unique ontinuous fun tion w(z ) on
(a; R)
su h that w(z ) = h(z ) on 
(a; R) and w(z ) is harmoni on
(a; R).
Proof. Consider f (ei ) = h(a + Rei ). By the previous theorem, the
fun tion w with the desired properties is given by w(z ) = u((z a)=R),
where u is dened as in Theorem 10.36.
The proof of a general ase for pie ewise ontinuous fun tions f uses
similar ideas but is slightly te hni al whi h we avoid in this text. So we
state the result without proof.
10.38. Theorem. Theorem 10:36 ontinues to hold under a weaker
ondition that f : 
! R is a pie ewise ontinuous (i.e. ontinuous ex ept
for nitely many points) bounded fun tion.

As an appli ation of Poisson's integral formula, we prove

10.39. Theorem. (Harna k's Inequality for the unit disk) Let
u = u(z ) be harmoni on
and ontinuous on
. If u(ei )  0 for all ,
then for z = rei 2
we have
1 r 1+r
u(0)
1+r
 u(rei )  u(0)
1 r
(r < 1):

The estimate is sharp.

430 Analyti Continuation

Proof. Sin e u(ei )  0, by the Poisson integral formula for u, it follows

that u(z )  0 for all z 2
. The proof depends on the estimate
1 r 1 r 2 1+r
1+r
 1 2r os(  t) + r 2 = Pr ( t) 
1 r
for 0  r < 1:

Multiplying this by 21 u(ei ) ( 0) and integrating, we obtain

 Z 2   Z 2 
1 r 1 1+r 1
1 + r 2
u(ei ) d  u(rei )  1 r 2
u(ei ) d :
0 0
TheR desired inequality is a onsequen e of the mean value property, namely,
1 2 i
2 0 u(e ) d = u(0). The above inequalities be ome an equality for the
fun tion u(z ) = Re ((1 + z )=(1 z )) at z = r.
A suitable s aling and translation of Harna k's inequality immediately
implies the following:
10.40. Corollary. Let u = u(z ) be harmoni on
(a; R) and on-
tinuous on
(a; R). If u(a + Rei )  0 for all , then for z 2
(a; R) we
have
R r
u(a)
R+r
 u(z )  u(a) RR + rr (0  r < R):
The estimates in this orollary is referred to as Harna k's inequality for
arbitrary disks. In parti ular, if u is harmoni and non-negative on
(a; R)
then u(z ) 2 [u(a)=3; 3u(a)℄ on
(a; R=2).
We know that if u is a harmoni fun tion in a domain D and
(a; r) is
ontained in D, then u satises the Mean value property
Z 2
1
(10.41) u(a) = u(a + rei ) d:
2 0
Conversely, it is easy to show that a ontinuous fun tion with the Mean
value property is ne essarily harmoni .
10.42. Theorem. Let u : D ! R be ontinuous on a domain D su h
that for ea h point a 2 D, (10:41) holds whenever
(a; r)  D. Then u(z )
is harmoni on D.
Proof. The fun tion u is obviously ontinuous on
(a; r). Also, if

(a; r)  D, by Corollary 10.37, there exists a fun tion U (z ) harmoni on

(a; r), ontinuous on
(a; r), and equal to u(z ) on the ir le 
(a; r).
Sin e U (z ) u(z ) is ontinuous on
(a; r) and satises the Mean value
property, by Theorem 6.16, U (z ) u(z ) attains both its maximum and
minimum on the boundary 
(a; r). As U (z ) u(z )  0 on jz aj =
10.3 Poisson Integral Formula 431

r, it follows that U (z )  u(z ) on
(a; r). Hen e, u(z ) is harmoni in a

neighborhood of a. Sin e a is arbitrary, the result follows.
10.43. Corollary. A ontinuous fun tion in a domain D is harmoni
in D i it satises the Mean value property at ea h point of D.
As an appli ation, we prove the following analog to Weierstrass' theorem
for sequen es (see Theorem 4.84) of harmoni fun tions.
10.44. Theorem. If fun(z )g is a sequen e of real-valued harmoni
fun tions that onverges uniformly on all ompa t subsets of a domain D
to a fun tion u : D ! R, then u(z ) is harmoni in D.
Proof. Sin e the limit of a uniformly onvergent sequen e of ontinuous
fun tions is ontinuous (see Theorem 2.57), u(z ) is ontinuous on D. Also,
if
(a; r)  D, then
Z
1 2
un(a) = u (a + rei ) d
2 0 n
for ea h n. By the uniform onvergen e (see the proof of Theorem 4.84),
Z Z
1 2 i ) d = 1
2
u(a) = nlim
!1 u n ( a ) = lim
n!1 2 0
un ( a + re u(a + rei ) d:
2 0
So, by Theorem 10.42, u is harmoni on
(a; r) (and hen e on D).
The Harna k inequality allows us to draw some striking on lusion, for
example, the following ` onvergen e theorem' for sequen es of harmoni
fun tions.
10.45. Theorem. (Harna k's Prin iple/Theorem) Let fun(z )gn1
be an in reasing (i.e. un+1  un on D and for ea h n  1) sequen e of
harmoni fun tions dened on a domain D. Then either un (z ) ! +1 for
ea h z 2 D (and uniformly on ompa t subsets of D) or un (z ) onverges to
a harmoni fun tion u on D, uniformly on ompa t subsets.
Proof. We may assume that u1 (z )  0 (for otherwise, repla e un (z )
by the nonnegative sequen e fun(z ) u1 (z )g). By the monotoni ity prop-
erty, for ea h z in D either the pointwise limit limn!1 un(z ) exists or
limn!1 un(z ) = +1. The fun tion u(z ) an be dened by this limit as a
map u : D ! R. Dene
A = fz 2 D : un (z ) ! 1g and B = fz 2 D : fun(z )g onvergesg:
Given a 2 D, hoose a disk
(a; R)  D. Then, for all z 2
(a; R=2),
Harna k's inequality gives
(10.46) (1=3)un(a)  un (z )  3un(a):
432 Analyti Continuation

If a is su h that un (a) ! 1, then the left hand inequality of (10.46) shows

that un (z ) ! 1 for jz aj  R=2, and that the onvergen e is uniform in
this disk.
If a is su h that fun(a)g onverges to a nite limit, then the right hand
inequality shows that fun(z )g onverges for jz aj  R=2. Hen e, A and
B are both open sets with A [ B = D. Sin e D is onne ted, either A = ;
or B = ;. If A = ;, then B = D, and so fun(z )g onverges for all z in D.
Next we must show that fun (z )g onverges uniformly on ompa t subsets
of D. By using the right hand part of Harna k's inequality (10.46), we nd
that
(10.47) un+p (z ) un(z )  3[un+p(a) un (a)℄
for jz aj  R=2 and p = 1; 2; : : : . By the Cau hy riterion, this inequality
in turn implies that the onvergen e at a point a implies the uniform on-
vergen e in a neighborhood of a. Sin e every ompa t subset of D an be
overed by nitely many su h neighborhoods, fun (z )g is uniformly Cau hy
and so it onverges uniformly on every ompa t subset of D to u(z ). Fi-
nally, it follows from Theorem 10.44 that the limit fun tion is harmoni
throughout D.
The fun tion un (z ) = x + n, or y + n2 , ea h of whi h is harmoni in
every domain, satises the onditions of the theorem.

10.4 Analyti Continuation via Re e tion

A domain
is said to be symmetri with respe t to the origin if for every
z 2
, the point z 2
. For example, disks entered at the origin. Now,
we onsider the following two sets of fun tions
F = f1 + z 2; os z; sin z; exp z g; and G = fi + z 2; os(iz ); i sin z; i exp z g:
For ea h f 2 F , we have f (z) = f (z ) and f (x) 2 R for all x 2 R. For
example, if we allow the three steps for os z we nd that
eiz + e iz e iz + eiz
z 7! z 7! 7! 2 = os z:
2
On the other hand, for ea h g 2 G , we have
g(z) 6= g(z ); and g(x) 2= R if x 2 R :
Note that the domain of analyti ity for ea h f 2 F and ea h g 2 G is the
whole omplex plane. Further, the re e tion of z with respe t to the real
axis of z -plane does not orrespond to the re e tion of g(z ) with respe t to
the real axis of the w-plane. We are interested in the following problem:
10.48. Problem. Under what onditions, does an analyti fun tion
f on some domain
possess the following property: f (z) = f (z ), i.e. the
10.4 Analyti Continuation via Re e tion 433

re e tion of z with respe t to the real axis of z -plane equals the re e tion
of w = f (z ) with respe t to the real axis of the w-plane.

Our rst result a tually des ribes how it is possible to use two re e tions
to onstru t a new analyti fun tion from an old one.

10.49. Theorem. Let

be a domain whi h is symmetri with respe t
to the real axis. Then, f (z ) 2 H(
) i f (z ) 2 H(
).
Proof. Dene f (z ) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y) and F (z ) = f (z). Then,
F (z ) = u(x; y) iv(x; y) =: U (x; y) + iV (x; y):
Note that u and v belong to C 2 (
) i U and V belong to C 2 (
). Further,
Ux (x; y) = ux(x; y); Uy (x; y) = uy (x; y);
Vy (x; y) = vy (x; y); Vx (x; y) = vx (x; y);
whi h, in parti ular, give that u and v satisfy the C-R equations on
i
U and V satisfy the same property on
. Now, the desired on lusion is
a onsequen e of Theorem 3.26 and the fa t that the real and imaginary
parts of analyti fun tions in
are C 1 -fun tions on
.

Theorem 10.49 leads to a general symmetri prin iple for analyti fun -
tions.

10.50. Theorem. Let

be a domain su h that it ontains a segment
(a; b) of the real axis, and is symmetri with respe t to the real axis. Sup-
pose that f (z ) 2 H(
). Then, f (z ) is real on (a; b) i f (z ) = f (z ) for all
z 2
.
Proof. Suppose that f (z ) is real on (a; b). Consider the dieren e
h(z ) = f (z ) f (z):
Then, by Theorem 10.49, h 2 H(
). Moreover, h(z ) = 0 for all z 2 (a; b).
By the uniqueness theorem, h(z )  0 on
.
Conversely, if f (z ) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y) and f (z ) = f (z ) on
then it
follows that
u(x; y) + iv(x; y) = u(x; y) iv(x; y):
In parti ular, when z = x + iy 2
is real, this equation gives
u(x; 0) + iv(x; 0) = u(x; 0) iv(x; 0)
so that v(x; 0) = 0. Therefore, f (z ) is real when z is real.
434 Analyti Continuation

+

σ
x

−

Figure 10.6: Re e tion Prin iple

10.51. Lemma. (Re e tion Prin iple for Harmoni Fun tions)
Let
be a domain whi h is symmetri with respe t to the real axis and
dene
+ ,
, and  as the interse tion of
with the upper half-plane
fz : Im z > 0g, the lower half-plane fz : Im z < 0g, and the real axis,
respe tively (see Figure 10.6). Let v (z ) be a real-valued ontinuous fun tion
on
+ [  , harmoni on
+ , and zero on  . Then v admits a unique
harmoni extension V on all of
and the extension satises the symmetry
relation
(10.52) V (z ) = V (z ) for z 2
:
Proof. First we note that if su h an extension exists it is ertainly
unique, so it suÆ es to show that the stated extension denes a harmoni
fun tion in
. Se ondly, we note that
is a disjoint union of
+ ,
and
. We extend v(z ) to
by setting
8
< v (z ) for z 2
+
V (z ) = 0 for z 2 
:
v(z ) for z 2
:
Then, V is ontinuous on
, harmoni on
+ [
, and (10.52) holds. We
laim that V has the mean value property. Fix a 2
. If a 2
+ or
,
then V (z ) has the mean value property for small disks entered at a, sin e
V (z ) is harmoni near a. For a 2 , we have
Z  Z 0 Z 
V (a + rei ) d = v(a + re i ) d + v(a + rei ) d
  0
Z  Z 
= v(a + rei ) d + v(a + rei ) d = 0
0 0
Thus, V satises the mean value property on
and hen e, it is harmoni
on
.
Lemma 10.51 not only provides a method of extending a harmoni fun -
tion from a given open set to a larger open set but also gives a proof of a
stronger S hwarz's re e tion/symmetry prin iple for analyti fun tions.
10.5 Exer ises 435

10.53. Theorem. (S hwarz's Re e tion Prin iple for Analyti

Fun tions) Let
,
+ ,
, and  be as above. Suppose that f 2 H(
+ ),
ontinuous on  and f (z ) is real on  . Then f extends to be analyti on

and the extension satises the symmetry relation f (z ) = f (z ), z 2 D.

Proof. Set f (z ) = u(z ) + iv(z ), z 2
+ . By the previous result applied
to v(z ) = Im f (z ), v(z ) extends to be harmoni on
with v(z ) = v(z ),
z 2
. Again, we x a 2  and let
(a; Æ) be a disk that is ontained in

. Sin e v(z ) is harmoni in this disk, whi h is simply onne ted, it has
a harmoni onjugate u1 in
(a; Æ) su h that f1 = u1 + iv is analyti in

(a; Æ). Thus,
Im (f (z ) f1 (z )) = 0 on
+ \
(a; Æ):
We on lude that f (z ) = f1 (z ) + , a real onstant, on
+ \
(a; Æ). But
f1 is analyti in
+ \
(a; Æ) and therefore, f is also analyti in
(a; Æ).
Consequently, the original fun tion f (z ) extends to be analyti in
(a; Æ).
By Theorem 10.49, f (z) is also analyti in
(a; Æ). Moreover, f (z ) = f (z)
on the interval (a Æ; a+Æ), and hen e on
(a; Æ) by the uniqueness theorem.
Extend f (z ) to
by setting f (z ) = f (z) for z 2
. Then the extended
fun tion f is analyti on
and oin ides with the analyti ontinuation of
f (z ) a ross  from
+ . Hen e, f is analyti on
and satises f (z ) = f (z)
on
.
We observe that the line of re e tion ould be an arbitrary line, not
just the real axis. Thus if
is a domain symmetri with respe t to a line
and f is dened and analyti on one side of the line, and real on the line,
then f an be extended to be analyti on the whole domain. The proof an
be obtained by translating and rotating the domain to the standard ase.
Similarly, we an also translate and rotate the image, so it is not ne essary
that f (z ) be real on the symmetry line, it is suÆ ient that it maps the line
into some other line.

10.5 Exer ises

10.54. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is true
or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexample.
(a) If f is analyti for jz j < R and satises the relation f (2z ) = 2f (z )f 0(z )
for jz j < R=2, then f an be ontinued analyti ally into the whole
plane.
(b) For 0 6=  2 R, the fun tions dened by the series
X1 X1 (1 )n z n
(z )n and ( 1)n
n=0 n=0 (1 z )n+1
are analyti ontinuations of ea h other.
436 Analyti Continuation

( ) The series
1 zn
X 1
X (z 2)n
and i + ( 1)n
n=1 n n=1 n
have no ommon region of onvergen e, but they represent the same
fun tion Log (1 z ) in their respe tive disks of onvergen e.
The fun tion f dened by the series 1
P n 1 z n =n on
, and
(d) n=1 ( 1)
the fun tion F dened by the series
1 z (1 z )2 (1 z )3
ln 2
2 2
22 3
23




on
(1; 2) are analyti ontinuations of ea h other.
P
(e) The imaginary axis is a natural boundary for n0 exp( n!z ):
The unit ir le jz j = 1 is the natural boundary for the series 1
P 3k
(f)
P k=0 z .
(g) If f (z ) = n0 an z n is analyti for jz j  R, then R annot be the
radius of onvergen e of this series dened by the sum f (z ).
(h) The fun tion element (1=(z (1 + z )); C n f0; 1g) is the analyti ontin-
uation of
X1 X1 (1 z )n
f (z ) = (1 z )n n+1 ; for j1 z j < 1 :
n=0 n=0 2
P 2n
10.55. Show that the fun tion f (z ) = n1 zn2 is ontinuous for
jz j  1, but every point on jz j = 1 is a singular point.
10.56. Let f be analyti in the ut plane D = C n ( 1; 0℄ su h that
f (x) = xx for all x > 0. Show that f (z ) = f (z) for all z 2 D.
10.57. Suppose that f (z ) is analyti for jz j < 1 and jf (n) (0)j  3n for
all n 2 N: Show that f an be extended to an entire fun tion g su h that
f (z ) = g(z ) for jz j < 1:
10.58. Find a fun tion u(x; y) that is harmoni in the region of the
right half-plane between the urves xy = 1 and xy = 2 and takes the value
3 when xy = 1, and the value 7 when xy = 2.
10.59. Use S hwarz's re e tion prin iple to show that every fun tion
whi h is bounded and analyti in the upper half-plane Im (z )  0, and real
on the real axis is onstant.
10.60. Use S hwarz's re e tion prin iple to show that
(i) sin z = sin z for z 2 C
(ii) z 4 2z + 2 os z = z4 2z + 2 os z for z 2 C .
Chapter 11

Representations for Meromorphi and

Entire Fun tions

The entral importan e of this hapter is to study representations of mero-

morphi fun tions by an innite de omposition into partial fra tions as well
as representations of analyti fun tions by innite produ ts. These will be
done in many dierent ways and we shall also see several appli ations.
In Se tion 11.1, we dis uss the Mittag-Leer expansion whi h gives a
formula for representing a meromorphi fun tion f as a series involving the
prin ipal parts of f at ea h of the poles of f . We begin Se tion 11.2 by
presenting a brief introdu tion and basi properties of innite produ ts of
sequen es of omplex numbers and show that their onvergen e properties
are similar to those of innite series. In parti ular, we prove several im-
portant tests for the onvergen e of innite produ ts In Se tion 11.3, we
onsider the onvergen e of innite produ ts of analyti fun tions whi h
will be useful in expressing a non- onstant entire fun tion f as a produ t
of the form f (z ) = P (z )H (z ), z 2 C ; where
 P and H are entire fun tions
 P and f have exa tly the same zeros with pres ribed multipli ities
 H (z ) has no zeros in C .
In Se tion 11.4, we present an interesting and useful result alled the Weier-
strass produ t formula whi h gives a way of fa toring ertain entire fun -
tions into an innite produ t. Clearly, some entire fun tions (su h as poly-
nomials p(z ) and the trans endental entire fun tion p(z )ez ) have only a
nite produ t representation. A omparison of produ ts and series expan-
sions provides us a number of interesting identities. In the Weierstrass
produ t expansion the prin ipal part of f has no role to play whereas the
Mittag-Leer expansion emphasizes the prin ipal parts at the poles of f ,
but gives no information about its zeros. In Se tion 11.5, we study the
438 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

gamma fun tion as a meromorphi fun tion in C having simple poles at

z = 0; 1; 2; : : : . Se tion 11.6 dis usses the zeta fun tion and its various
properties. In Se tion 11.7 we prove Jensen's formula. In Se tion 11.8,
we ontinue our dis ussion on entire and meromorphi fun tions, and in-
trodu e the on ept of order and the genus of entire fun tions. Also, we
study ertain basi properties of entire fun tions of nite order and of nite
genus in order to prove the mu h waited Hadamard fa torization theorem
whi h provides an interesting relationship between the order and the genus
of entire fun tions.

11.1 Innite Sums and Meromorphi Fun tions

In this se tion we are interested in the onstru tion of meromorphi fun -
tions by their poles. Con erning poles there are two possibilities:
 meromorphi fun tions with a nite number of poles
 meromorphi fun tions with innite number of poles.
A meromorphi fun tion whi h has a pole of order m at a is (z a) m and
a slightly dierent meromorphi fun tion may be obtained by taking linear
ombinations of nitely many su h simpler ones. For example,
1 4 2
+ :
(z 1)2 (z 3)3 (z 2)8
Let us now dis uss the onstru tion of meromorphi fun tions in the nite
ase. Suppose that f is a meromorphi fun tion whi h has a nite number
of poles at aj (1  j  n) of order mj (1  j  n). Then, by Laurent's
expansion of f around ea h aj , there is an asso iated prin ipal part
  mj
1 A(jk) X
Pj = k
z aj k=1 (z aj )
whi h may be thought of as a polynomial in the variable 1=(z aj ). Dene
n  
X 1
g(z ) = Pj :
j =1 z aj

Clearly, g is analyti in C nfa1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an g. Sin e, for s 6= r, Ps (1=(z as ))

is analyti at ar , the prin ipal part of g about ar is Pr (1=(z ar )). Thus, f
and g are meromorphi fun tions in C with poles at aj and have the same
prin ipal parts at aj , 1  j  n. In parti ular, if we let (z ) = f (z ) g(z )
then  is analyti in C n fa1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an g and has removable singularities
at a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an . Consequently,  an be extended to an entire fun tion.
Thus, f (z ) = g(z ) + (z ) where  is entire. Finally, be ause g(z ) ! 0 as
11.1 Innite Sums and Meromorphi Fun tions 439

z ! 1, g has a removable singularity at 1 whi h shows that  and f have

the same prin ipal part at 1. The above dis ussion gives
11.1. Theorem. Let f be a meromorphi fun tion with only poles
at aj (1  j  n). If Pj (1=(z aj )) denotes the prin ipal part of f (z ) at
aj (1  j  n), then there exists an entire fun tion (z ) su h that
n  
X 1
f (z ) = Pj + (z ):
j =1 z aj
In addition,  and f have the same prin ipal part at 1.

11.2. Corollary. Every proper rational fun tion of the form

p(z ) p(z )
(11.3) R (z ) = := ;
q(z ) (z a1 )m1 (z a2 )m2


(z an )mn
where p and q are polynomials with deg p(z ) < deg q (z ), an be expanded
as a sum of polynomials in 1=(z ak ). Here ak 's denote the poles of R(z )
with order mk  1 (k = 1; 2; : : : ; n).
P
n P (1=(z a )) = (z ) is an
Proof. By Theorem 11.1, R(z ) j =1 j j
entire fun tion. Furthermore,  is bounded sin e R(z ) and ea h of its
prin ipal part about ea h aj approa hes 0 as z ! 1. As a onsequen e of
P theorem, (z ) is equal to a onstant, in fa t, (z )  0 so that
Liouville's
R(z ) = nj=1 Pj (1=(z aj )) as asserted.
Suppose that R(z ) is a proper rational fun tion of the form (11.3). Then
the partial fra tion expansion of R(z ) may be written uniquely in the form
mj !
n
X X A(jk)
(11.4) R(z ) = k :
j =1 k=1 (z aj )
In general, a meromorphi fun tion f in C may have an innite number of
poles at ak , k 2 N . In that P
ase the series (whose terms are the prin ipal
parts of these poles of f ), k Pk ( z 1ak ), need not onverge. It is then
ne essary to modify the terms to produ e a onvergent series. For example,
suppose we wish to nd a meromorphi fun tion in C having a simple pole
at k (k 2 N ) with residue 1 at ea h k. From the pres ription, our fun tion
orresponding to the prin ipal part at z = k is
 
1 1 1
Pk = =
z k z k k(1 z=k)
but the sum 1
P
k=1 z k does not onverge in C n N . We need to modify the
1
series suitably so that it be omes onvergent. The onstant term in the
440 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

series expansion of 1=(z k) about 0 is 1=k. So we an try with

X1   1   1  X 1 1 1
 X 1 z
Pk = + = :
k=1 z k k k=1 z k k k=1 k (z k )
This series does onverge uniformly on every ompa t subset
P of C ex ept at
k, k 2 N (by a omparison with the onvergent series k1 k 2 ). Indeed,
 
1
 k 1 jz j < k2 whenever jz j < k=2
 
 
z k
so that, for jz j  R and R < k=2, we have
X1  1  X1 1
 2
2
k=1 k (z k ) k=1 k
 

and hen e, by the Weierstrass M -test, the series 1

Pz
k=1 k(z k) represents an
analyti fun tion on C n fk : k 2 Ng.
Given a meromorphi fun tion f in C with an innite number of poles
at ak , we may always assume that the poles of f are indexed so that fjak jg
is non-de reasing. Let us now state and prove a general theorem of Mittag-
Leer although its simple form (namely, Theorem 11.7) suÆ es for our
purposes.
11.5. Theorem. (Mittag-Leer) Let fan gn1 be a sequen e of dis-
tin t non-zero omplex numbers su h that jan j < jan+1 j for n 2 N and
jan j ! 1 as n ! 1. Then, for a given sequen e of polynomials fPn (z )g
without onstant term, there exists a meromorphi fun tion f in C having
poles at an with prin ipal part Pn (1=(z an)). Moreover, any other general
meromorphi fun tion F having the stated property will be of the form
X 
1
 
F (z ) = Pn Qn(z ) + h(z )
n z an
for some polynomial Qn (z ) and for some entire fun tion h(z ). The series
onverges absolutely and uniformly on any ompa t subset of C not on-
taining the poles (This series is usually alled a Mittag-Leer expansion of
F ).
Proof. As Pn (z ) is a polynomial, we see that n (z ) dened by
   
1 1
n ( z ) := P n = P n
z an an (1 z=an)
is analyti for jz j < jan j and hen e, we may expand it as a Taylor series
1
X
n ( z ) = A(kn) z k for jz j < jan j:
k=0
11.1 Innite Sums and Meromorphi Fun tions 441

By elementary fa ts about omplex power series, the series on the right

onverges absolutely and uniformly to n (z ) for jz j  12 jan j. Let
n
X
Qn (z ) = A(kn) z k
k=0
be the partial sum of the series up to the degree n , where n has been
hosen large enough to satisfy

j n (z ) Qn (z )j < 2 n for jz j  12 jan j:

Sin e limn!1 jan j ! 1 and jan j < jan+1 j, given any ompa t subset
K =
R of C , there exists an N = N (K ) su h that K 
jan j=2 for
n  N , i.e. jan j > 2R for n  N . It follows that the series
X1
( n (z ) Qn (z ))
n=N
onverges absolutely and uniformly on K , and therefore represents an an-
alyti fun tion on K . Sin e K is arbitrary, the full series
X1 NX1 X 1 !
(11.6) ( n (z ) Qn (z )) = + ( n (z ) Qn (z ))
n=1 n=1 n=N
represents a meromorphi fun tion in C whi h has an as its pole with prin-
ipal part equal to n (z ) = Pn (1=(z an )). Note that the nite sum in
(11.6) is a rational fun tion with pres ribed behavior of poles exa tly at an
with jan j < R. The rest of the theorem is trivial.
For simpli ation purposes, we prove the following simple version that
has wider appli ations and falls under the general theorem of the Mittag-
Leer (see Theorem 11.5).
11.7. Theorem. Let f be meromorphi with only simple poles at
a1 ; a2 ; : : : su h that
0 < ja1 j  ja2 j 


 jak j 


; and bk = Res [f (z ); ak ℄:
Let fCk g be a nested sequen e of positively oriented simple losed ontours
(whi h avoid these poles) su h that ea h Ck in ludes only a nite number
of poles. Suppose that
Rk = dist (0; Ck ) ! 1 as k ! 1;
Lk = length of Ck = O(Rk );
jf (z )j  M for ea h k for z 2 Ck
442 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

( e.g. Ck is a square with verti es Rk (1  i) su h that Rk ! 1 as

k ! 1 ). Then, for all z ex ept at these poles, we have the Mittag-Leer
series expansion of f
X1  1 1

f (z ) = f (0) + bk + :
k=1 z ak ak
Proof. If  is not a pole of f and  2= Ck , then
f (z )
g(z ) =
z 
has simple poles at , and at ea h ak with Res [g(z ); ℄ = f () and
f (z ) b
Res [g(z ); ak ℄ = zlim
!a (z ak ) = k :
k z  ak 
Then
Z
1 f (z )
Fk () := dz
2i Ck z 
X
= Res [g(z ); Ck ℄
X bk
(11.8) = f () + ;
k ak 
P
where k is taken over all the poles of f inside Ck and k is hosen large
enough so that  lies inside Ck . Letting  = 0 gives
Z
1 f (z ) X bk
(11.9) Fk (0) = dz = f (0) + :
2i Ck z k ak
Subtra ting (11.8) from (11.9) gives
Z
1 f (z )
Fk (0) Fk () = dz
2i Ck z (z )
X  1

1
(11.10) = f (0) + bk + f ():
k  ak ak
Now, for z 2 Ck , jz j  Rk = dist (0; Ck ) and jz j  jz j jj  Rk jj > 0
so that
 Z 
jFk () Fk (0)j =  2i1 z (fz (z )) dz   21 R ML (Ck )
 
! 0 as k ! 1
Ck k k jj)
(R
and therefore, the sequen e fFk () Fk (0)g onverges to zero uniformly
on the ompa t set Ck . Allowing k ! 1 in (11.10) gives
11.1 Innite Sums and Meromorphi Fun tions 443
1
X

1 1

f () = f (0) + bk + :
k=1  ak a k

Most often Ck is taken to be a ir le or the boundary of a re tangle. In

pra ti e, verifying the boundedness ondition, namely jf (z )j  M on Ck ,
is often a diÆ ult job. Suppose we wish to expand a meromorphi fun tion
f whi h has a simple pole at the origin, then the theorem is not dire tly
appli able. However, we an apply Theorem 11.5 or 11.7 by onsidering
the fun tion f (z ) p0 (z ), where p0 (z ) is the prin ipal part of the Laurent
series expansion of f about z = 0.
The partial fra tion expansions of fun tions su h as
s z; se z; tan z; ot z; os az; se z os az; s z sin az; se z sin az;
(jaj < 1) and of their orresponding hyperboli fun tions are well-known
and may be found in some standard texts either as examples or as exer ises.
For example, in order to apply Theorem 11.7 for the fun tions  s z
and  ot z; we need to onsider
 s z 1=z; and  ot z 1=z;
respe tively. Let us now dis uss the situation in detail.
11.11. Example. Let us derive the Mittag-Leer expansion of
g(z ) =  ot z:
The poles of g(z ) are at n, n 2 Z, ea h pole being simple. As g has a simple
pole at the origin, we need to ompute
 z 
Res [g(z ); 0℄ = zlim
!0 sin z os z = 1
and onsider the modied fun tion
( 1
f (z ) =  ot z z for z 6= 0
0 for z = 0
whi h is now analyti at the origin and has simple poles only at n, n 2
Z nf0g. It follows that, for ea h n 2 Z nf0g,
 
 os z 1 os n
Res [f (z ); n℄ = zlim
!n(z n) = = 1:
sin z z os n
Choose Ck = fRk (1  i) : k 2 Ng with Rk = k + 1=2 so that
L(Ck ) = 8(k + 1=2) = 8 dist (0; Ck ) ! 1 as k ! 1
444 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

and all the other required onditions of Theorem 11.7 are satised. Re all
that (see the proof of Theorem 9.65) j ot z j < 2 for all z on Ck . Clearly,
for z 2 Ck , we have
jz j  dist (0; Ck ) = Rk = k + 1=2 > 1
and therefore,

jf (z )j  j ot z j + jz1j < 2 + 1 for all z on Ck :

Finally, it now follows from Theorem 11.7 that
n  
n  
1 X 1 1 X 1 1
 ot z = nlim
!1 + = lim
!1 +
z k= n z k k n
k=1 z k z + k
k6=0

whi h shows that

1 X1 2z
(11.12)  ot z = + ; z2C n Z:
z k=1 z 2 k2

From this equation, the partial fra tion de omposition of 2 = sin2 z an

be obtained by dierentiating (11.12):
2 1 X1 1
2 2 = ; z 2 C n Z:
sin z z k= 1 ( z k)2
k6=0

Allowing z ! 0 gives that

2 X1 1 2 X1 1
= ; i.e. = :
3 k= 1 k 2 6 k=1 k2
k6=0

Similarly, if we onsider g(z ) =  s z then it is easy to see that g has

a simple pole at n (n 2 Z) with Res [g(z ); n℄ = ( 1)n for n 2 Z. Now, we
dene f (z ) =  s z z 1: Then, applying Theorem 11.7 (sin e f is again
uniformly bounded on Ck ), it follows easily that
1 X 1 2( 1)k z
 s z = + ; z 2 C n Z: 
z k=1 z 2 k2

11.13. Example. We onsider f (z ) =  tan z: Then we see that

(i) f has simple poles at (n + 1=2); n 2 Z with Res [f (z ); n + 1=2℄ = 1
(ii) f is analyti at z = 0 with f (0) = 0
11.1 Innite Sums and Meromorphi Fun tions 445

(iii) jf (z )j  2 for ea h z in the square Ck with verti es k(1  i), k 2 N

and f is analyti on Ck , k 2 N :
By Theorem 11.7, we see that
k 1  
X 1 1
f (z ) = lim ( 1) +
k!1 z ( n + 1 = 2) n + 1=2
n= k
kX1
z
= lim
k!1 n=0 (z (n + 1=2))(n + 1=2)
1 !
X z
+
n= k (z (n + 1=2))(n + 1=2)
kX1
z
= lim
k!1 n=0 (z (n + 1=2))(n + 1=2)
kX1 !
z
+
n=0 z ( n 1=2))( n 1=2)
kX1  
z 1 1
= lim
k!1 n=0 n + 1=2 z (n + 1=2) z + (n + 1=2)
kX1
2z
= lim :
k!1 n=0 z 2 (n + 1=2)2

Thus, ex ept at the simple poles of tan z , we have

1
X 2z
 tan z = ; z2C n f(n + 1=2) : n 2 Zg:
n=0 ( n + 1 = 2)2 z2

Letting z ! 0 gives

tan z X 1 2 X1 1 2
2 zlim
!0 z = 2 ; i.e. 2 = :
n=0 (n + 1=2) n=0 (2n + 1) 8

Choosing z = 4 shows that

 X1 1
= :
8 n=0 4(2n + 1)2 1

One an also obtain the partial fra tion de omposition of  tan z just by
using the identity tan w = ot w 2 ot(2w). 
446 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

11.2 Innite Produ t of Complex Numbers

Let us start by introdu ing the denition of innite produ ts. Let fzng1 n=1
be a sequen e of non-zero omplex numbers. We want to dis uss the on-
vergen e of produ ts of the form 1
Q
k=1 zk : To doQthis, we dene the partial
produ t Pn (or n-th partial produ t) to be Pn = nk=1 zk : The innite prod-
u t is said to onverge if the sequen e fPn g1n=1 of partial produ ts onverges
to a non-zero (nite) limit P Qas n ! 1. We symbolize the onvergen e of
the produ t by writing P = 1 k=1 zk ; where P 6= 0. If limn!1 Pn fails to
exist or if limn!1 Pn = 0, then we say that the innite produ t diverges.
Clearly, some te hni alities are involved if zk = 0 for a nite number
of k's. But we would like to allow the innite produ t to be zero yet able
to dis uss the onvergen e of su h produ ts by imposing some onditions.
Suppose that zk = 0 for nitely many values of k and let zk 6= 0 for k > m.
Then, for k > m, we an write
Pn = (z1 z2


zm )[zm+1 zm+2


zn ℄ := (z1 z2


zm )Pm;n
where Pm;n = zm+1 zm+2


zn : In this ase, we say that the innite produ t
Pn onverges to zero provided Pm;n onverges to a non-zero limit Q as
n ! 1. Indeed, if limn!1 Pm;n = Q (Q 6= 0; 1) then
lim P
n!1 n
= (z1 z2


zm )Q = 0:

If Q = 0 or Q =Q1 or if fPm;n g has no limit in C as n ! 1, then the

innite produ t 1 k=1 zk is said to be divergent.
More generally, we say that the innite produ t Q onverges to zero if
zk = 0 for a ountable number of k's and that 1 k=1;zk 6=0 zk onverges
a ording to the earlier denition. For instan e, if
8
< 1
1 + k if k = 2m
k = 2 ; m 2 N;
:
0 if k = 2m 1
then 1 1
Q Qk

k=1 k onverges to 0. For instan e, the produ t k=1 1 + ( 1)
diverges be ause innitely many fa tors are zero, and that
Y1

1 + ( 1)k = lim 2k = 1:
k=1 k!1
k22N

Sequen es of this type do not o ur in pra ti e and hen e, no importan e

is given for su h sequen es in the dis ussion of the onvergen e of the or-
responding produ ts. In on lusion, we formulate
11.14. Denition. The innite produ t 1
Q
k=1 zk is said to onverge
i
11.2 Innite Produ t of Complex Numbers 447

(i) zk = 0 for \at most" nitely many values of k, k 2 N

Q
(ii) nk=m zk = zmzm+1


zn (when zk 6= 0 for k  m) onverges to a
non-zero (nite) limit as n ! 1.
11.15. Examples of onvergen e and divergen e of produ ts.
(i) Consider the innite produ t 1 1

Q
k=1 1 + k : Set zk = 1 + 1=k 6= 0 for
k 2 N . Then
Pn =
234
123



n n 1 n +n 1 = n + 1 ! 1 as n ! 1
showing that the innite produ t diverges.
(ii) The innite produ t 1 1

Q
k=2 1 k has no zero fa tor but it does
diverge be ause
123 n 1 n 1
Pn =
234



n n+1 n+1
= ! 0 as n ! 1:
Note that for the innite produ t to be onvergent we need the limit
to be a non-zero number, whi h is not the ase here. Even if we
allow the produ t from k = 1, the produ t would still diverge. This
example shows that just the existen e of
n
Y
lim P = lim
n!1 n n!1
(1 + ak )
k=1
does not guarantee the onvergen e of 1
Q
k=1 (1+ ak ) even if 1+ ak 6= 0
for ea h k 2 N . Another simple example may be given by the ase
when all ak 's are equal to 1=2 (or 1=3 or 1=4).
(iii) Consider 1 1

Q
k=2 1 k2 : Writing
  
1 1 1 k 1 k+1
1
k2
= 1
k
1+
k
=
k

k
the n-th partial produ t Pn is given by
    
13 24 n n+2
Pn =
22 33





n+1 n+1
    
1 32 43 n+1 n n+2
=
2 23 34



n n+1 n+1
 
1 n+2 1
=
2 n+1
! 2 as n ! 1:
Thus, the innite produ t onverges to 1=2. If we had started the
produ t with k = 1 to 1 (instead of k = Q2 to 1), then the prod-
u t would have onverged to zero be ause 1 k=2 zk , zk = 1 1=k ,
2
onverges.
448 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions
Q1  k 1
(iv) Consider k=1 1 + ( 1)k : It follows that
8
1 2m 1
( 1)k 1
>
< 1 = if k = 2m
1+ = 2m 2m ; m 2 N;
k > 1 2m
:1 + = if k = 2m 1
2m 1 2m 1
and so, the innite produ t onverges to 1 be ause
 
2143 ( 1)n 1
Pn =
1234



1+
n
8
< 1 if n = 2m
= 1 ; m 2 N:
:1+ if n = 2m 1
n
In dis ussing the \ onvergen e tests", without loss of generality, we may
only onsider the inniteQprodu t 1
Q
k=1 k with zk 6= 0, k 2 N . Suppose
z
that the innite produ t 1 z
k=1 k onverges. Then, there exists P 6= 0 su h
that
lim P = P = nlim
n!1 n !1 Pn 1 :
Further, as Pn 1 6= 0, we have
zn = Pn =Pn 1

and therefore by the \Quotient Theorem" for limit, zn ! 1; i.e. zn 1 ! 0:

In view of this observation, it is ustomary to write zn := 1Q+ an so that
an ! 0. Thus, we express the innite produ t 1 1
Q
k=1 zk as k=1 (1 + ak ).
Using this notation, we formulate the following simple result whi h gives a
ne essary ondition for the onvergen e of an innite produ t.
11.16. Proposition. If the innite produ t 1
Q
k=1 (1+ ak ) onverges,
then ak ! 0 as k ! 1.

Clearly, Proposition 11.16 implies the following: if ak 6! 0 as k ! 1,

then the innite produ t diverges. For instan e, ea h of the produ ts
1
Y ( 1)k
 1 
Y ( 1)k

1+ and 1+
k=1 1+i k=1
3
diverges. The onverse of this proposition is false as ExamplesQ11.15(i) and
(ii) illustrate. Thus, there exists a divergent innite produ t 1 k=1 (1 + ak )
with ak ! 0 as k ! 1.
Also, we observe
Q that the ne essary ondition for the onvergen e of the
innite produ tP 1 k=1 (1 + ak ) is similar to the ne essary ondition for the
onvergen e of 1 k=1 ak . It is then natural to investigate the onne tion
11.2 Innite Produ t of Complex Numbers 449

between series and produ ts. Before we present this onne tion in various
Q11 + ak is zero, it is natural to relate the
general forms, sin e no fa tor
onvergen e of the produ t k=1 (1 + ak ) with the onvergen e of the se-
ries 1
P
k=1 Log (1 + a k ), where Log z denotes the prin ipal bran h of the
logarithm,  < Arg z = Im Log z  .

P1
11.17. Theorem. Suppose that zQ k 6= 0 for k 2 N . Then the series
Log zk onverges i the produ t 1 z onverges, in whi h ase
k=1
Q1 P1 k=1 k
the series 1
P
k=1 zk = exp
Q1 ( k =1 Log zk ) . Equivalently, k=1 Log zk and
the produ t z either onverge or diverge together.
k=1 k
Q Pn
Proof. Let Pn = nk=1 zk and Sn = k=1 Log zk : Then, be ause
ez+w = ez ew for z; w 2 C , we have
eSn = e Log z1 e Log z2


e Log zn = z1 z2


zn = Pn :
=): As ez is ontinuous on C , we get
Sn ! S ) Pn = eSn ! eS 6= 0:
Hen e, if the series 1
P Q1
k=1 Log zk onverges to S then the produ t k=1 zk
onverges to eS .
(=: Conversely, suppose that Pn ! P 6= 0. For ea h k 2 N , we write
Log zk = ln jzk j + iArg zk :
Without loss of generality, we may assume that P 2= ( 1; 0℄. For, if
P 2 ( 1; 0℄ then we may simply onsider in pla e of fzk g a new sequen e
fwk g with w1 = z1 and wk = zk for k  2. Then,
Y1 1
Y
wk = zk = P 2= ( 1; 0℄;
k=1 k=1
so that the two series k=1 Log zk and 1
P1 P
k=1 Log wk diering only in their
rst term, either onverge or diverge together. As Pn ! P 2= ( 1; 0℄, we
have Pn 2 C n( 1; 0℄ for large n and, sin e Log z is ontinuous at P ,
Log Pn ! Log P as n ! 1. Sin e eSn = Pn , we an write Sn as a
logarithm of Pn . Indeed (see Theorem 3.103) we have
(11.18) Sn = Log Pn + 2kn i
so that Log zn+1 = Sn+1 Sn = Log Pn+1 Log Pn + 2i(kn+1 kn ); for
some kn+1 and kn 2 Z. Equating the imaginary parts on both sides of this
equation gives
(11.19) Arg zn+1 = Arg Pn+1 Arg Pn + 2(kn+1 kn ):
Now, we observe the following
450 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

 as the produ t Q1 n=1 zn onverges, we have zn ! 1 and, be ause Arg z

is ontinuous at 1, we obtain that Arg zn ! Arg 1 = 0 as n ! 1:
 sin e Pn ! P and Log z is ontinuous at P , we have Log Pn ! Log P
as n ! 1:
Now, allowing n ! 1 in (11.19), it follows that kn+1 kn ! 0 as n ! 1;
but then, sin e kn is an integer, there exists an N su h that
kn+1 = kn = m for n  N;
m being an integer, independent of n. By (11.18), we on lude that
Sn ! Log P + 2mi as n ! 1
for some integer m, and we omplete the proof.
P1
11.20.
P1 Theorem. The series k=1 ak onverges absolutely i the
series k=1 Log (1 + ak ) onverges absolutely.
Proof. As limz!0 z 1 Log (1 + z ) = 1, for  = 1=2 (in fa t any  with
0 <  < 1 would work), it follows that
 
 Log (1 + z ) 
 1 <  whenever z ! 0:
 z
The triangle inequality shows that
(11.21) (1 )jz j < j Log (1 + z )j < (1 + )jz j whenever z ! 0:
t!0 t 1 Log (1 + t) = 1, we have
Similarly, lim 0<t1
(1 )t < Log (1 + t) < (1 + )t whenever t ! 0:
Now, assume ak ! 0 as k ! 1. Consequently, we have
(1 )jak j < j Log (1 + ak )j < (1 + )jak j as k ! 1
and
(1 )jak j < Log (1 + jak j)j < (1 + )jak j as k ! 1:
By the omparison test, for any omplex sequen e fak g onvergent to 0,
the three series
X1 1
X X1
j Log (1 + ak )j; Log (1 + jak j); jak j
k=1 k=1 k=1
either onverge or diverge together.
11.2 Innite Produ t of Complex Numbers 451

In analogy with series we introdu e the following Q1 notion of absolute

onvergen e of a produ t. The innite Q1 produ t k=1 (1 + ak ) is said to
onverge
Q1 absolutely i the produ t k=1 (1 + j a k j) onverges. For instan e,
exp( i k =k 2 ) onverges, sin e
k=1
X1
 X 1 1
 Log exp(ik =k 2 )  = < 1:
k=1 k=1
k2
Our next result, whi h is a reformulation of Theorem 11.20, gives the
onne tion between the absolute onvergen e of produ ts and the absolute
onvergen e of series. Here we present an alternate proof of this result.
11.22.Q Corollary. Suppose that ak  0Pfor all k 2 N . Then the
1 1 a onverges i the
P1 k=1 (1 + ak ) onverges i the series
produ t k=1 k
series k=1 Log (1 + ak ) onverges.
Proof. As 1 + x  ex for all x  0,
!
n
X n
Y n
X
Sn = ak  Pn = (1 + ak )  exp ak = eSn :
k=1 k=1 k=1
First we observe that fPn gn1 is an in reasing sequen e, sin e ak  0 for
all k 2 N .
If Pn ! P 6= 0, as Pn is in reasing, then it is bounded above by P . This
observation shows that fSn gn1 is a sequen e (in reasing) bounded above
by PP. Therefore, by the monotoni -bounded prin iple, fSn gn1 onverges,
i.e. 1 n=1 ak onverges. Conversely, if Sn onverges to S , as fSn gn1 is an
in reasing sequen e bounded above by S , the in reasing sequen e fPn gn1
is bounded above by eS (as eSn ! eS by the ontinuity of the exponential
fun tion) and hen e onverges to a non-zero limit.
The hypothesis that ak  0 in Corollary 11.22 is ru ial as Q the Example
11.25 shows. P If ak = 1=k, then the orresponding produ t 1 (1 1=k)
diverges and 1 1 = 1. Moreover, if a = O(1=kp ) as k !k=2 1 then the
k=2 k k
series 1
P
k=1 a k is onvergent if p > 1 and divergent if p  1. From this, we
an easily see that 1
Q p ) is onvergent if p > 1 and divergent if
k=1 (1 + 1 =k
p  1.
Here is a simple result whi h is almost our \standard onvergen e test"
for innite produ ts.

P111.23.
Corollary. Q Let ak 2 C with 1 + ak 6= 0 for all k 2 N . If
ja j onverges, then 1 (1 + a ) onverges.
k=1 k k=1 k
Proof. If k=1 jak j onverges, then 1
P1 P
k=1 Log (1+ ak ) onverges
Q1 abso-
lutely (and hen e onverges). By Theorem 11.17, the produ t k=1 (1+ ak )
onverges.
452 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Corollary 11.22 shows that if 1

Q P1
k=1 (1 + jak j) onverges then
Q1 k=1 jak j
onverges whi h, in turn, by Corollary 11.23, implies that k=1 (1 + ak )
onverges. Thus, as in the ase of series where \absolute onvergen e implies
onvergen e ", we also have
11.24. Theorem. If an innite produ t onverges absolutely, then it
onverges but not onversely.

11.25. Example. Next we show by an example that the onvergen e

of the produ t 1
Q
k=1 (1 +Pa1k ) is neither suÆ ient nor ne essary for the
onvergen e of the series k=1 ak unless ak  0. To do this, we dene

a2k = p1 and a2k 1 = p1 for k 2 N :

k+1 k+1
Q1
Then the produ t k=1 (1 + ak ) will be of the form
    
1 p1 1+ p
1
1 p1 1+ p
1




2 2 3 3
Q  
so that P2n = nk=1 1 k+1 1 : Therefore, P diverges. On the other
2n
hand, by the alternating series test, the orresponding series
1 1 1
p1 + p1 p1 +



X
ak = p + p
k=1 2 2 3 3 4
onverges (but not absolutely). In fa t
8
n
X < 0 if n = 2m
if n = 2m 1 ; m 2 N
Sn = ak = 1
: p
k=1 m+1
and therefore, Sn ! 0 as n ! 1. Also,
2n n n+1
2X n
p1 p1 1
X X X
jak j = 2 and jak j = 2 +p
k=1 k=1 k+1 k=1 k=1 k+1 n+2
P1
so that the series k=1 jak j is divergent.
Next, we dene
1 1 1
a2k = p ; a2k 1 = p + (k 2 N )
k+1 k+1 k+1
and show that the series 1
P Q1
k=1 ak diverges but the produ t k=1 (1 + ak )
onverges (but not absolutely). Now
S2k = a1 + a2 +


+ a2k
11.3 Innite Produ t of Analyti Fun tions 453
   
= p1 + 12 p1 + p1 + 13 p1 +



2 2 
3 3
1 1 1
+ p + p
k+1 k+1 k+1
1 1 1
= + +


+
2 3 k+1
and
1 1 1 1
S2k 1 = + +


+ +p  S2k
2 3 k+1 k+1
P1
so that k=1 ak is divergent. On the other hand, we nd that
  
1 1
(1 + a2k 1 )(1 + a2k ) = 1+ p + 1 p1
k+1 k+1 k+1
1
= 1
(k + 1)3=2
Q  
so that P2n = nk=1 1 1
(k+1)3=2 ! P 6= 0 as n ! 1 and
 
1 1
P2n+1 = P2n 1 + p + ! P as n ! 1:
n+2 n+2
Thus, the produ t onverges. By Corollary 11.22, the P1produ t does not
onverge absolutely sin e 1
P
j
k=0 ka j diverges (in fa t k=0 ak diverges). 

11.3 Innite Produ ts of Analyti Fun tions

Until now we have dis ussed innite produ ts of omplex numbers. Just
as transferring from series of omplex numbers to series of fun tions, we
an dis uss onvergen e of innite produ ts whose fa tors are fun tions of
z rather than just omplex numbers. Then the following problem o urs.

11.26. Problem. Given a sequen e ffk (z )gk1 of fun tions dened

on some set
 C , determine whether the innite produ t
Y1
(11.27) (1 + fk (z ))
k=1
(i) onverges for all z 2

(ii) onverges absolutely for all z 2

(iii) diverges for z 2

(iv) onverges for a parti ular z 2

.
454 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

We say that the innite produ t (11.27) onverges in

if, for ea h
a 2
,
n
Y
lim P (a) = nlim
n!1 n !1 k=1(1 + fk (a))
exists and is non-zero. The innite produ t (11.27) is said to onverge uni-
formly to a fun tionQP (z ) in
if the sequen e fPn (z )g of partial produ ts,
dened by Pn (z ) = nk=1 (1+ fk (z )); is uniformly onvergent to the fun tion
P (z ) in
, with P (z ) 6= 0 in
.
11.28. Example. Consider the produ t 1
Q 2k
k=0 (1 + z ): We have
1  k X 1
jz k j = 1 1 jz j for jz j < 1,
X
z  
 2 
k=0 k=0
so that the series 1
P 2k
k=0 z onverges absolutely for jz j < 1. It follows that
the produ t onverges absolutely (and hen e onverges by Theorem 11.24)
k
for jz j < 1. Note also that 1 + z 2 6= 0 for jz j < 1. Further,
2 1
2X
P0 (z ) = 1 + z; P1 (z ) = (1 + z )(1 + z 2 ) = zk
k=0
and, by indu tion, it an be shown that for jz j < 1
+1 1
2nX n+1
1 z2
Pn (z ) = zk =
1 z
! 1 1 z as n ! 1
k=0
Q1 2k ) = 1=(1
so that k=0 (1 + z z ) for jz j < 1: 
Q Q
11.29. Lemma. Dene Pn = nk=1 (1+ ak ) and P~n = nk=1 (1+ jak j):
Then
(i) jPn j  P~n
(ii) jPn 1j  P~n 1
(iii) jPn Pm j  P~n P~m for n > m.
Proof. Part (i) is learly a onsequen e of the triangle inequality. For
the proof of (ii), we write
X
Pn 1 = ai1 ai2


aik
1ij n; 1kn
= monomial terms onsisting of produ ts of ak 's
X
so that jPn 1j  jai1 j jai2 j


jaik j = P~n 1:
1ij n; 1kn
11.3 Innite Produ t of Analyti Fun tions 455

(iii) For n > m, we have

n
Y
jPn Pm j = jPm (1 + ak ) Pm j
k=m+1
n !
Y
 jPm j (1 + jak j) 1 ; by (ii),
k=m+1
!
m
Y n
Y
 (1 + jak j) (1 + jak j) 1 ; by (i),
k=1 k=m+1
= P~n P~m
and we are done.
11.30. Theorem. Let P ffk (z )g be a sequen e of analyti fun tions in
an open set
 C su h that 1 k=1 jfk (z )j onverges uniformly on ompa ta
( i.e. on Q
ompa t subsets of
). Then the sequen e of partial produ ts
Pn (z ) = nk=1 (1 + fk (z )) onverges uniformly on ompa ta to an analyti
fun tion f (z ) in
,
1
Y
f (z ) = (1 + fk (z )):
k=1
The order of the fa tors does not alter the limit fun tion f (z ).14 Further-
more, f (a) = 0 at a point a 2
i the fa tor 1 + fk (z ) vanishes at a for
some k . The order of the zero of f at a is the sum of the multipli ities of
the zeros at those fa tors having a zero at a.
Proof. By virtue of Corollary 11.22, 1
Q
k=1 (1 + fk (z )) onverges ab-
solutely (therefore onverges) for ea h point in
and hen e the produ t
represents a well dened fun tion. In view of this, it suÆ es to show that
the sequen e fPn (z )g forms a uniformly Cau hy sequen e on every ompa t
subset of
. To do this, we x a ompa t subset K 
. By hypothesis,
P 1 jf (z )j onverges uniformly on K and therefore, the partial sums
k=1 k
n
X
Sn (z ) = jfk (z )j
k=1
of the series are uniformly bounded on K by a onstant . Sin e 1 + x  ex
for x  0, it follows that
n
Y
jPn (z )j  P~n (z ) = (1 + jfk (z )j)  exp(Sn (z ))  e for ea h n:
k=1
14 We say that an absolutely onvergent produ t (series) is un onditionally onvergent
i the order of fa tors (the terms of the summation) does not alter the limit fun tion.
456 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Let 0 <  < ln 2. Choose N so large that if n > m  N = N (), then the
Cau hy- riterion for onvergen e gives
n
X
Sn Sm = jfk (z )j <  for z 2 K:
k=m+1
For n > m  N and z 2 K , by Lemma 11.29(iii), we have
!
n
Y
jPn (z ) Pm (z )j  jPm (z )j (1 + jfk (z )j) 1
k=m+1
 jPm (z )j(e 1)


(Note that for 0 <  < ln 2, we have e < eln 2 = 2, i.e. 0 < e 1 < 1).
Sin e e 1 ! 0+ as  ! 0+ and jPm (z )j  P~m (z )  e , it follows that the
sequen e of partial produ ts fPn (z )g forms a uniformly Cau hy sequen e
and hen e, onverges uniformly on K . Letting n ! 1, we obtain
(11.31) jf (z ) Pm (z )j  jPm (z )j(e 1)
so that
jf (z )j + jPm (z )j  jf (z ) Pm (z )j  jPm (z )j(e 1):
If 0 <  < ln 2 (i.e. 2 e > 0), then, for any m  N (), and for z 2 K
(11.32) jf (z )j  jPm (z )j jPm (z )j(e 1)  jPm (z )j(2 e ):
Therefore, if Pm (z ) = 0 at z = a, that is, if one of the fa tors 1 + fk (z )
vanishes at z = a when 1  k  m, then, by (11.31), we have f (a) = 0.
Conversely if f (z ) = 0 at some point z = a, then, by (11.32), Pm (a) = 0
and therefore, 1 + fk (a) = 0 for some k.
As in the ase of the absolute onvergen e of the series, it is easy to see
that the order of the fa tors in an Qinnite produ t is immaterial whenever it
onverges absolutely. Indeed if 1 k=1 (1 + fk (z )) onverges absolutely then,
for every permutation  = ((1); (2); : : :) of the list of positive integers
(1; 2; : : :), Theorem 11.17 shows that
!
Y1 X1
(1 + fk (z )) = exp Log (1 + fk (z ))
k=1 k=1
!
1
X
= exp Log (1 + f(k) (z ))
k=1
1
Y
= (1 + f(k) (z )):
k=1
11.4 Fa torization of Entire Fun tions 457

Thus, the sum of an absolutely onvergent produ t is not ae ted by rear-

ranging the order of the terms of the produ t.
Some qui k examples follow. For jz j  Æ < 1, we have
1 1
jz jk  Æk = 1 Æ Æ
X X

k=1 k=1
showing that 1
P
k=1 jz j onverges uniformly
k
Q on every
ompa t subset of

. Consequently, ea h of the produ ts 1 k=1 (1 + z k ) and Q1 (1 z k )
k=1
onverges uniformly on every ompa t subset of
and hen e ea h of them
represents an analyti Pfun tion in the unit disk
.
It follows that if 1 k=1 jak j onverges
Q1 Q1for ak = kj
(for instan e p with
p > 1), then ea h of the produ ts k=1 (1+ ak z ) and k=1 (1+ ak z ) (j 2 N
xed) onverges uniformly on every ompa t subsets of C . Consequently,
ea h of these produ ts represents an entire fun tion.
k
11.33. Example. Let fk (z ) = ez 1, k 2 N . Then ffk (z )gk1 is a
sequen e of entire fun tions and
Log (1 + fk (z )) = z k for all z:
Also, for jz j  r < 1, the series 1
P
k=1 Log (1Q + fk (z )) onverges uniformly
to z=(1 z ) for jz j  r (r < 1). Therefore, 1 zk
k=1 e onverges uniformly
to exp(z=(1 z )) for every ompa t subset of jz j < 1. Note that this an
be veried dire tly. 
11.4 Fa torization of Entire Fun tions
Every polynomial p(z ) of degree n  1 an be fa tored as a produ t of
linear fa tors. More pre isely, if p(z ) = zQn + an 1 z n 1 +


+ a1 z + a0 then
n
p(z ) an be written in the form p(z ) = k=1 (z k ), or equivalently
nYm
p(z ) = z m (z k )
k=1
whenever p(z ) has a zero of order m  0 at the origin with k 6= 0 for
k = 1; 2; : : : ; n m, ounting multipli ities (take m = 0 when p(z ) has no
zero at the origin). Then this expression takes the form
nYm  
z
p(z ) = z m 1
k=1
k
with  = 1


n m 6= 0. Note that if k = 0 for all k, then p(z ) = z n
whi h is a trivial ase. Sin e ea h polynomial of degree n has n roots and
458 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

an be written as a produ t of the above form, it is therefore natural to

know its generalization whi h we en ounter for ertain entire trans endental
fun tions. Thus, our rst task in this se tion is to undertake a solution to
the following problem.

11.34. Problem. Find an innite produ t representation of tran-

s endental entire fun tions admitting an innite number of zeros.

We re all that there are analyti fun tions having an innite number
of zeros (e.g. z 1 sin z , os z ) and therefore we wish to know whether ea h
su h fun tion an be represented as an innite produ t at least in some
ases. So, the rst thing that we should know is about the onvergen e of
su h a produ t representation.
We have already shown in Theorem 4.40 that an entire fun tion f has 2
no zeros i f (z ) = eh(z) for some entire fun tion h. For example, ez , ez ,
2
ez+z , esin z are all entire fun tions with no zeros in C . So we need to deal
with the following two sets of entire fun tions:
 entire fun tions whi h have a nite number of zeros in C
 entire fun tions whi h have an innite number of zeros in C .
As a rst step, we have the following result whi h on erns the rst ase
while the se ond ase will be done in the form of the Weierstrass fa toriza-
tion theorem.

11.35. Theorem. Let f be an entire fun tion with n zeros, say,

a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an (multiple zeros being repeated a ording to their orders).
Then there exists an entire fun tion h su h that f (z ) = p(z ) exp(h(z ))
where p(z ) is a polynomial of degree n with the same zeros as f (z ) (with
the same multipli ities).
Proof. Dene
8
f (z )
>
>
< Qn for z 6= ak
F (z ) = k=1 (z ak ) ; k 2 f1; 2; : : : ; ng:
> f (z )
: lim Qn
>
z!ak k=1 (z ak )
for z = ak

Then, F is a zero free entire fun tion. By Theorem 4.40, there Q exists an
entire fun tion h(z ) su h that F (z ) = eh(z) ; i.e. f (z ) = eh(z) nk=1 (z ak );
as desired.

11.36. Remark. Observe that if the fun tion f onsidered in Theo-

rem 11.35 is a polynomial, then h(z ) would be a onstant fun tion. Further,
by Theorem 11.35, it follows that if f is an entire fun tion with (m + 1)
11.4 Fa torization of Entire Fun tions 459

distin t zeros, say, 0 = a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; am (ak 6= 0 for k = 1; 2; : : : ; m) of

order p0 ; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pm (pk  0), then we an express f (z ) as
m  
Y z pk
(11.37) f (z ) = z p0 eh(z) 1
k=1 ak
for some entire fun tion h(z ). That is, f (z ) an be expressed as the produ t
of a polynomial and a zero free entire fun tion. The zeros of the polynomial
are exa tly the same as the zeros of f (z ). 
Our next step is to onsider entire fun tions whi h have innitely many
zeros in C . In prin iple, allowing m ! 1 in (11.37), we get a statement
about the innite produ t provided the orresponding right hand side of
(11.37) makes sense. Clearly, su h a representation is valid if the innite
produ t of fun tions onverges uniformly on every ompa t subset. Let us
now start our dis ussion by raising some simple questions. Are there entire
fun tions with a limit point of a set of zeros in C ? Noti e that if f is entire
with zeros at the points ak , with ak ! a 2 C as k ! 1, then, by the
uniqueness theorem, f is identi ally zero in C . Next we ask: Is there a
non-trivial entire fun tion having a zero at 1? Again the answer is no,
be ause, otherwise this would imply that the fun tion is analyti at 1,
and so is a onstant (sin e every analyti fun tion in the extended omplex
plane is onstant, by Liouville's theorem)-hen e, identi ally zero in C 1 .
Consequently, the set of zeros of an entire fun tion whi h has innitely
many zeros in C must have 1 as its only limit point. For example, ea h
of the familiar entire fun tions os z , sin z and ez 1, has innitely many
zeros in every neighborhood of 1, and the limit point of these zeros, in
ea h ase, is 1.
Now, we are in a position to dis uss in detail those entire fun tions
whi h have innitely many zeros in C . Suppose that fak gk1 is a sequen e
of omplex numbers su h that ak ! 1 as k ! 1. We wish to onstru t an
entire fun tion with zeros pre isely at ea h ak (with desired multipli ity)
and nowhere else. To do this, let us make an attempt to onsider the
produ t of the form
1
Y
(z ak ):
k=1
Does this produ t then onverge? We note that, as ak ! 1 as k ! 1,
for no xed z 2 C would we get z ak ! 1 as k ! 1, whi h is a required
ne essary ondition for the onvergen e of the produ t. Thus, the produ t
of the above form diverges. In view of this observation, it is natural to
modify the present form to a new form
1
Y z

(11.38) 1
k=1
ak
460 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

assuming for the moment that ak 6= 0 for ea h k 2 N . Although this

new form is similar to the polynomial ase above, the produ t unfortu-
Q1 may diverge. For instan e, if ak = k then the orresponding produ t
nately
k=1 (1 z=k Q1) does not represent an entire fun tion (e.g. set z = 1 and
re all
P1 that k=1 (1 + 1=k ) is divergent). On the other hand, if the series
k=1 1 = ja k j onverges (e.g. ak = (k + 1) ln(1 + k), (k + 1)(ln(1 + k))2 , k2 ),
then the series 1  z  1 1
X X
  = jz j
k=1 ak k=1 jak j
 

onverges uniformly on every ompa t subset of C and so, by Theorem

11.30, the produ t given by (11.38) represents an entire fun tion f (z ) with
zeros at the same points ak (k 2 N ) with the same multipli ities as f (z ), and
at no other points. Therefore, if the produ t (11.38) is not onvergent then
we must somehow modify the produ t form to ensure the onvergen e of the
produ t whi h will enable us to onstru t an entire fun tion whi h vanishes
at ak , k 2 N , and at no other points. This is exa tly what Weierstrass
demonstrated by means of `primary fa tors' whi h ensure the onvergen e
of the innite produ t.
To arry out further dis ussion on this topi , we let E0 (z ) = 1 z . Then
0 2= E0 (
). Moreover, for z 2
,
Z z 0
E0 ( )
Z z
1 X1 zk
d = d = = Log (1 z )
0 E0 ( ) 0 1  k=1 k
and exponentiating the last equality gives
X1 zk ! X1 zk !
1 z = exp ; i.e. (1 z ) exp = 1:
k=1 k k=1 k
This suggests to dene
8
<1
> z ! if p = 0
p k
Ep (z ) = X z
: (1
> z ) exp if p 2 N :
k=1
k
We all Ep (z ), the Weierstrass primary fa tors. We note that
lim E (z ) = (1
p!1 p
z ) exp( Log (1 z )) = 1

and we have the following result whi h serves to estimate the error term in
the above approximation.
11.39. Lemma. For p 2 N [ f0g, we have j1 Ep (z )j  jz jp+1 for all
jz j  1.
11.4 Fa torization of Entire Fun tions 461

Proof. For p = 0, the inequality is trivial. For p  1, ea h Ep is analyti

in C and is in fa t an entire trans endental fun tion admitting z = 1 as its
only zero. Now, for p  1, Ep (0) = 1 and a simple al ulation gives
p ! p k !
X X z
Ep0 (z ) = 1 + (1 z ) zk 1 exp
k=1 k=1
k
p k!
X z
= z p exp
k=1
k
1
X
= zp ak z k (say):
k=0
It follows that Ep0 (z ) has a zero of order p at z = 0, a0 = 1 and ak > 0 for
all k  1 (using Cau hy's rule on multipli ation of series). Moreover,
Z z X1 z k+p+1
Ep (z ) 1 = Ep0 ( ) d = ak
0 k=0 k + p + 1
whi h, for z = 1, gives 1 = 1 ak : Using this, one obtains
P
k=0 k+p+1
1
X jz jk+p+1 1
X ak
jEp (z ) 1j  ak
k+p+1
 jz jp+1 k + p + 1
= jz jp+1
k=0 k=0
and we are done.
With the help of Ep (z ), we are now prepared to onstru t entire fun -
tions with pres ribed zeros. We onsider an arbitrary sequen e of non-zero
omplex numbers fan gn1 su h that jan j ! 1 as n ! 1 and show the
existen e of a sequen e of nonnegative integers pn  0 su h that
X1  r pn +1
(11.40) <1
n=1 jan j
for ea h r > 0: Su h a sequen e fpngn1 exists, for example, any pn with
pn  n 1 will always work (implying the ondition that is ne essary for
the uniform onvergen e of the series
X1  z pn +1
n=1 jan j
in every disk jz j  r). This fa t is lear be ause, if jan j ! 1 as n ! 1
then for ea h given R > 0 only a nite number of an 's lies in jz j < R.
Further, as jan j ! 1, for the given R = 2r > 0, there exists an N = N (r)
su h that jan j > 2r for n  N . (In parti ular, if pn  n 1 then
   
r pn +1 r n 1
jan j  jan j < 2n for n  N
462 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

so that for ea h r > 0

X1  r pn +1 X 1 1 1
< = N < 1 ):
n=N
j a n j n=N 2 n 2 1

Note that for jz j  R = 2r,

   
z   z
 1 jaR j > 0 for n  N
 
1
 an 
1 
a


n n
and therefore, in the disk jz j  R, only a nite number of fa tors (1 z=an)
vanish. In parti ular, for all n  N = N (r) and jz j  r, Lemma 11.39
yields that
      
 z j z j pn +1 r pn +1
1
 Epn
an
 ja j

  ja j
n n
P1
whi h, by (11.40), assures that the series n=1 j1 Epn (z=an)j onverges
uniformly for jz j  r (see Weierstrass M -test for the uniform onvergen e
of the series for ompa t subset of C ). Sin e r is arbitrary, this series
onverges uniformly on every ompa t subsets of C . Thus, by Theorem
11.30, the innite produ t
Y1  
z Y1    z  
P (z ) = Epn = 1 + Epn 1
n=1 an n=1 an
onverges absolutely and uniformly on every ompa t subset of C . Letting
Pn (z ) denote the n-th partial produ t for P (z ), we have for jz j < r
Z
1 Pn ( )
Pn (z ) = d;
2i j j=r  z
by the Cau hy integral formula. Sin e Pn ! P uniformly on ompa t
subsets of C and ea h Pn is entire, P is entire (e.g. see Theorem 12.4 and
re all that analyti ity is preserved under uniform limits). Therefore, the
innite produ t denes an entire fun tion. Moreover, P (z ) has zeros only
at the points an with pres ribed multipli ities. Indeed, by Theorem 11.30,
the zeros of P (z ) o ur exa tly at the points z , where Epn (z=an) = 0: Thus,
we need Epn (z=an) = 0 for some n. From the denition of Ep (z ), we know
that this happens exa tly at z=an = 1 so that the zeros of P are the points
fan : n 2 Ng. In on lusion, the desired entire fun tion whi h vanishes at
an (n 2 N ), and at no other points is given by
Y1  
z
Epn
n=1 a n

and therefore, we have the following result due to Weierstrass.

11.4 Fa torization of Entire Fun tions 463

11.41. Theorem. Let fangn1 be a sequen e of non-zero omplex

numbers (not ne essarily distin t) su h that jan j ! 1 as n ! 1. Suppose
that there exists a sequen e of non-negative integers fpn g su h that
1 
X

r pn +1
<1
n=1 jan j
Re all that any pn  n 1 will always work). Then the
for every r > 0 (Q
innite produ t 1 n=1 Epn (z=an ) represents an entire fun tion P (z ) and
has zeros at ea h point an and not elsewhere. If a zero aj o urs mj times,
then P has a zero of order mj at aj .

P1First, we should make it aPpoint that it is possible that the series

n=1 1=jan j may diverge but 1 n=1 1=jan j onverges. Moreover, there
2
are
P1sequen es fan g (e.g. an = ln(n + 1)) su h that jan j ! 1 and yet
n=1 1=jan j diverges for ea h p. Se ondly, the Weierstrass fa torization
p
theorem a tually onstru ts entire fun tions with pres ribed zeros. In this
ontext, the Weierstrass fa torization theorem may be onsidered to be
\ni er than" the Riemann mapping theorem whi h demonstrates existen e
of onformal maps between ertain simply onne ted domains.

P1 Let f2an gn1 be a sequen e of non-zero omplex

11.42. Corollary.
numbers su h that n=1 jan j < 1; and m 2 N . Then the produ t
Y1 z Y1  
z z=an
z m E1 =z m 1 e
n=1 an n=1 an
denes an entire fun tion, and it has zeros pre isely at an (n 2 N ) with
pres ribed multipli ities and has a zero of order m at z = 0, but has no
other zeros.

Theorem 11.41 is often stated in the following simplied form.

11.43. Theorem. (Weierstrass Fa torization Theorem) Let f be
an entire fun tion satisfying the following onditions:
(i) f has a zero of order m at z = 0 (by onvention take m = 0 if
f (0) 6= 0)
(ii) the remaining zeros of f are fangn1 listed with multipli ities.
Then there is an entire fun tion h su h that
1
Y

z

(11.44) f (z ) = z meh(z) Epn
n=1 an
for some sequen e of non-negative integers fpn gn1 .
464 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Proof. As mentioned already, we may onstru t an entire fun tion g(z )

by dening
Y1  
z
g(z ) = z m Epn :
n=1 an
Then, g and f have exa tly the same zeros with the same multipli ities and
therefore, the quotient f (z )=g(z ) is a nowhere vanishing entire fun tion.
Consequently (see Theorem 4.40), there exists an entire fun tion h(z ) su h
that f (z ) = g(z ) exp(h(z )) as desired.

Note that the innite produ t representation given by (11.44) is not

unique sin e the sequen e fpng an be hosen in various ways. We know
that pn = n 1 always works but we do not know whether this is the
only hoi e that might work. In Examples 11.45, we deal with two ases
where pn = 0 and pn = 1, respe tively. The formula (11.44) onstitutes the
Weierstrass innite produ t representation of an entire fun tion in terms of
its zeros.

11.45. Examples. Suppose that we wish to onstru t an entire fun -

tion f with simple zeros at the points a0 = 0 and an = np (n 2 N ); where
p > 1 is xed. We may hoose pn = 0, sin e the series
X1  z pn +1 X1 1
 
 p = jz j p
n=1 n n=1 n
is onvergent for ea h z , and the desired entire fun tion is then given by
Y1  z
f (z ) = z 1 :
n=1 np
Similarly, if we want to onstru t an entire fun tion f with simple zeros
at a0 = 0 and at an = n; n 2 Z (note that these are pre isely the zeros of
sin z ). We may therefore hoose pn = 1, sin e the series
 
X  z pn +1
 
X  z 2 X1 1
  =   = 2jz j2
a  a  2
n2Znf0g n n2Znf0g n n=1 n

onverges for ea h z . Again, Weierstrass's theorem gives

Y1  z Y 1  z
f (z ) = z E1 1 E1 1 +
n=1 n n=1 n
Y1 
z2

= z 1
n=1 n2
11.4 Fa torization of Entire Fun tions 465

whi h is an entire fun tion with the desired properties. Note that the rear-
rangement of the fa tors in the last expression is justied by the absolute
onvergen e of the innite produ t. 
As in Examples 11.45, for ertain sequen es fan gn1 of points, the non-
negative integers in fpn gn1 an be hosen independent of n, say pn = p
for all n and for someQ p  0. In this situation, the produ t in Theorem
11.43 takes the form 1 n=1 Ep (z=an ) for some non-negative integer p, and
the produ t onverges uniformly on every ompa t subset of C , see Se tion
11.8 for further dis ussion. The Weierstrass fa torization theorem has the
following important orollary.
11.46. Corollary. Every meromorphi fun tion in C an be repre-
sented as a quotient of two entire fun tions.
Proof. Assume that f is analyti on C ex ept for poles say at the points
a1 ; a2 ; : : :. Let g be an entire fun tion with zeros pre isely at an su h that
the order of the zero of g at an equals the order of the pole of f at an
(su h a fun tion g exists by Theorem 11.41). Then, fg has only removable
singularities at the points a1 ; a2 ; : : : and thus an be extended to an entire
fun tion G with no zeros in C . Hen e
G(z )
G(z ) = f (z )g(z ) or f (z ) = ;
g(z )
where g and G are entire.
We have the following interpolation result for analyti fun tions.
11.47. Corollary. Suppose fangn1 is a sequen e of distin t om-
plex numbers having no nite limit point. Then for a given sequen e
fbngn1 of omplex numbers, there exists an entire fun tion G su h that
G(an ) = bn for every n.
Proof. Assume that f is analyti on C ex ept for simple poles at z = an
with Res [f (z ); an ℄ = bn =g0(an ), where g is an entire fun tion with simple
zeros pre isely at an . Note that su h fun tions exist by Mittag-Leer's
theorem and Weierstrass's theorem (In ase bn is zero for some n, then
assume that f is analyti at an ). Then fg has only removable singularities
at the points a1 ; a2 ; : : : and thus an be extended to an entire fun tion G.
Further, we have the expansions for g and f
X1 g(k) (a ) b =g0(an )
n
g(z ) = (z an )k and f (z ) = n + f1 (z );
k=1 k! z an
where f1 (z ) is analyti in some neighborhood of an . Finally,
G(an ) = zlim
!a f (z )g(z ) = bn
n
466 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

and we omplete the proof.

11.48. Example. We know that sin z has simple zeros at n 2 Z.
Arrange the non-zero zeros of sin z in a su h a way that theyP form a se-
quen e with non-de reasing moduli, and observe that the series 1 1=n2
P1 n=1
onverges whereas n=1 1=n diverges. Therefore, it is onvenient to hoose
the number pn guring in Theorem 11.43 equal to 1. Choosing pn = 1, by
Theorem 11.43, it follows that
Y  z  z=n
sin z = eh(z) z 1 e
n2Znf0g
n
Y1  z  z=n  z  z=n
= zeh(z) 1 e 1+ e
n=1 n n
Y1 
z2

(11.49) = zeh(z) 1
n=1 n2
where h(z ) is some entire fun tion. Next we need to show that h(z ) is a
onstant su h that eh(z) = . On e this is done, then we get the produ t
representation for sin z in the form
sin z Y 1  z2

(11.50) = 1 :
z n=1 n2
Now, to nd h(z ), we pro eed as follows: Let
n  
Y z2
(11.51) Pn (z ) = eh(z) z 1 :
k=1
k2
Then we know that Pn ! sin z (uniformly on dis s) as n ! 1 so that
Pn0 (z ) !  os z as n ! 1. Thus, as n ! 1,
Pn0 (z )
Pn (z )
!  ot z for z 2 C n fm : m 2 Zg:
Using the lo al uniform onvergen e of 1
P
k=1 jz=k j in C , we may form the
2
logarithmi derivative on both sides of (11.51) and nd that
n
Pn0 (z ) 1 X 2z
= h0 (z ) + + !  ot z as n ! 1:
Pn (z ) z k=1 z 2 k2
A omparison of this with (11.12) shows that h0 (z ) = 0, so h(z ) is a on-
stant, say, . Therefore, (11.49) be omes
sin z Y1  z2 
= e 1 :
z k=1
k2
11.4 Fa torization of Entire Fun tions 467

Sin e limz!0 (sin z )=z =  and the right hand side approa hes e as z ! 0,
we have e =  and we obtain the desired formula (11.50). 
11.52. Example. Using Example 11.11, we an provide an alter-
nate
P1
proof of (11.50). To do this, we start by observing that the series
k=1 z =k onverges uniformly on every ompa t subset of C . Thus,
k 2

Y1  z2 
g(z ) = z 1
k=1 k2
represents an entire fun tion. Observe that for x 2 (0; 1), g(x) > 0 and
X1  x2 
ln g(x) = ln x + ln 1 ;
k=1
k2
by the uniform onvergen e of the derived series. Finally, for x 2 (0; 1),
d 1 X 1 2x
(ln g(x)) = +
dx x k=1 x2 k2
=  ot x; by Example 11.12,
d
= (ln sin x) ;
dx
whi h shows that
    
d g(x) g(x)
ln = 0; i.e. ln = onstant:
dx sin x sin x
Therefore, there exists a real onstant su h that
sin x 1 Y 1  x2 
g(x) = sin x; i.e. = 1 ; x 2 (0; 1):
x  k=1 k2
Taking the limit x ! 0, we get  = 1. Thus, the formula (11.50) follows
from the uniqueness theorem. Now, some spe ial ases follow.
(i) Substituting z = i in (11.50) gives
Y1  1

e e  sinh 
1+ 2 = = :
n=1 n 2 

(ii) The produ t representation for the osine fun tion may be obtained
dire tly from (11.50). Indeed, by (11.50), we see that
sin 2z Y 1  4z 2 
= 1
2z n=1 n2
468 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

whi h, by the identity 2 sin z os z = sin 2z; gives


sin z
 1  4z 2 
Y
os z = 1
z n=1 n2
1  2 !   !
Y 2z 2z 2
= 1 1
n=1 2n 2n 1
1
Y
 
z2 Y 1 
4z 2

= 1 1
n=1 n2 n=1 (2n 1)2
so that 1  
Y 4z 2
os z = 1 ; z 2 C:
n=1 (2n 1)2
Using the formulae
eiz + 1 = 2eiz=2 os(z=2) and eiz 1 = 2ieiz=2 sin(z=2);
the produ t representation for the entire fun tions eiz + 1 and eiz 1
an be a hieved with the help of the orresponding representations
for os z and sin z . Consequently, if we repla e z by iz then we an
qui kly establish the formula
Y1  z2

(11.53) ez 1 = zez=2 1+ 2 2 ; z 2 C:
n=1 4 n

(iii) A omparison of the produ t expansion of an entire fun tion with

its power series expansion often leads to interesting on lusions. For
example, by equating the produ t expansion (11.50) of sin z with its
Taylor's series expansion about 0, we see that
Y1  z2

(z )3 (z )5
(11.54) z 1
n 2 = z
3!
+
5!



:
n=1
Be ause of the uniqueness of the Taylor oeÆ ients, a omparison of
the oeÆ ients of z 3 on both sides shows that

1 1

3 X1 1 2
 1+ 2 + 2 +


= ; i.e. 2 = 6:
2 3 3! n=1 n

(iv) If z = 1=2, then (11.50) gives the `Wallis produ t formula'

Y 1 1

Y 1  4k2 1 
1= 1 = :
2 k=1 4k2 2 k=1 4k2
11.5 The Gamma Fun tion 469

Consequently,
 Y1 2k 2k
  
2
2 4
4 6
6

=
=
1
3 3
5 5
7




2 k=1 2k 1 2k + 1
     
2
2 4
4 2n
2n 1
!1 1
1 3
3


(2n 1)
(2n 1) 2n + 1
= nlim

or equivalently
r  
 2
4
6


2n 1
2
= nlim
!1 p
1
3
5


(2n 1) 2n + 1
whi h is often alled the \Wallis identity". This formula an be writ-
ten in the form
r ( )
 (2
4
6


2n)2 1
2
= nlim
!1 p p
(1
3


(2n 1))(2
4


2n) 2n 1 + 1=2n
p
whi h gives  = nlim
22n (n!)2
: 
!1 (2n)!n1=2

11.5 The Gamma Fun tion

The study of the -fun tion that involves the integral form
Z 1  Z 1
1 x 1
(11.55) (x) := log dt = e ttx 1 dt (x > 0)
0 t 0
was rst introdu ed by Euler in 1729. Dierentiating the integral (11.55)
gives Z 1
(n) (x) = e t tx 1 (log t)n dt; n 2 N :
0
Clearly (1) = 1 and for x > 0, integration by parts yields the fun tional
equation
(11.56) (x + 1) = x (x)
be ause
Z 1 Z 1
1
(x + 1) = tx d( e t) = tx e t j0 + x e t tx 1 dt = x (x):
0 0
For x = n 2 N , the fun tional equation be omes (n + 1) = n! and there-
fore, the -fun tion is seen as an extension of the fa torial fun tion for x
belonging to R n f0; 1; 2; : : : g: Indeed, in view of the fun tional equation
(11.56), we have
(x + 1) (x + 2)
(x) =
x
=
x(x + 1)
=


= x(x + 1) (
x

+(xn+) n 1) :
470 Analyti Continuation

This observation suggests that it is possible to extend the -fun tion on

the whole real axis ex ept on the negative integers f0; 1; 2; : : : g. We
are interested in dis ussing the following questions:
 Does there exist an analog of (11.55) for Re z > 0?
 Is it possible to extend (x) dened by (11.55) to C n f0; 1; 2; : : : g?
 What an we say about the points in f0; 1; 2; : : : g?
 What is the ounterpart of (11.56) when x takes omplex values?
 What are the basi onsequen es of the extended gamma fun tion?
There are two simple approa hes through whi h one an answer these ques-
tions. Let us rst allow the integral (11.55) to extend the \fa torial fun -
tion" to the omplex plane. Now,
jtz j = jez log t j = eRe z ln t = tRe z for t > 0
so that if we repla e x in (11.55) by the omplex variable z , the resulting
fun tion ( alled the lassi al gamma fun tion) given by
Z 1
(11.57) (z ) = e t tz 1 dt
0
is uniformly onvergent for Re z > 0. For this fun tion, the point z = 0 is
a singularity be ause
Z 1 Z 1
e t
1  dt ! 1 as  ! 0:
() = t  1
e t dt =
0 0 t
11.58. Gamma fun tion via produ t representation. We re all
that 1 h z 
sin z Y i
(11.59) zG(z )G( z ) = ; G(z ) = 1 + e z=n :
 n=1 n
Here G(z ) is entire and it has simple zeros at all negative integers. Clearly,
the zeros of G and G(z 1) are the same, ex ept that G(z 1) has a zero
at z = 0. It follows from the Weierstrass fa torization theorem that
G(z 1) = ze (z)G(z )
or equivalently,
1 z + n 1
Y 1
Y

z+n

e (z 1)=n = ze (z) e z=n ;
n=1 n n=1 n
for some entire fun tion (z ) whi h is to be determined. In order to nd
(z ), we take the logarithmi derivative of the last equation and obtain
X1  1 1

1 X1  1 1

= + 0 (z ) + :
n=1 z + n 1 n z n=1 z + n n
11.5 The Gamma Fun tion 471
 
Repla e n by n + 1 on the L.H.S and note that 1
P 1 1
n=1 n+1 n = 1.
This gives that 0 (z ) = 0 so that (z ) is a onstant whi h we denote by .
Therefore,
G(z 1) = ze G(z ):
To nd the value of the onstant , we observe that G(0) = 1 and so we
may let z = 1. This gives
Y1  1


1 = e G(1); i.e. e = 1+ e 1=n :
n=1 n
Taking the logarithm on both sides
X1   1

1

= ln 1 +
n=1 n n
n    
X 1 1
!1 k=1 ln 1 + k
= nlim
k
      
2 3 n 1 1 1
= nlim
!1 ln

1 2



n 1
+ ln 1 +
n
1 +
2
+


+
n
    
1 1 1
!1 ln n
= nlim 1+ +


+ ; sin e nlim
!1 ln 1 + n = 0:
2 n
Thus,  
1 1
(11.60) !1 1 + 2 +


+ n ln n = 0:5772


:
= nlim
The onstant is alled Euler's onstant. The question of whether is
rational or irrational seems to be still open. In on lusion, the produ t
representation of the gamma fun tion is dened by
1 e z Y 1  z  1 
(11.61) (z ) = z = 1+ e z=n :
ze G(z ) z n=1 n
We have the following onsequen es of the denition:
 In view of (11.61) and taking into a ount (11.60), we dedu e the
formula of Gauss
n  
e z Y z  1 z=k
(z ) = nlim
!1 z k=1 1 + e
k
n  
ez ln n Y k
= nlim !1 z k=1 z + k
n!nz
= nlim !1 z (z + 1)


(z + n)
whi h is valid for all z 6= 0; 1; 2; : : : .
472 Analyti Continuation

 In view of (11.61), we have (z +1) = z (z ), whi h is alled Riemann's

Fun tional Relation for the gamma fun tion.
 By (11.59), we have the identity
1 
(1 z ) (z ) = z ( z ) (z ) = = :
zG(z )G( z ) sin z
In parti ular, (1=2) = .
p
 Repeated appli ation of (z + 1) = z (z ) gives (n + 1) = n!.
 (z ) never vanishes in C as, for z 62 f0; 1; 2;


g, the gamma
fun tion is given by a onvergent innite produ t of non-zero fa tors.
Moreover, the representation
1 Y1 h z  i
= ze z G(z ) = ze z 1 + e z=n ; z 2 C ;
(z ) n=1 n
makes expli it that the gamma fun tion never vanishes and that it
has simple poles pre isely at 0; 1; 2; : : : . The fun tional equation
(z + 1)
(z ) =
z
=


= z (z +(z1)+
n

+(z1)+ n)
shows that Res [ (z ); 0℄ = limz!0 z (z ) = limz!0 (z +1) = (1) = 1
and for n 2 N , we have
Res [ (z ); n℄ = z!
limn(z + n) (z )
(z + n + 1)
= z!
limn
z (z + 1)(z + 2)


(z + n 1)
(1) ( 1)n
= = :
( n)( n + 1)


( 1) n!
So, (z ) is meromorphi in C .
 Take the logarithmi derivative of (11.61) to get
0 (z ) 1 X 1  1 1

= + +
(z ) z n=1 z + n n
so that  1
d 0 (z )  X 1
(11.62)
dz (z )
= 2:
n=0 (z + n)
As (z ) (z + 1=2) and (2z ) have the same set of poles, we an write
(z ) (z + 1=2) = e(z) (2z )
11.6 The Zeta Fun tion 473

for some entire fun tion (z ). In fa t, by (11.62), we see that

d
 0
(z ) 0 (z + 1=2)  X1 4 X1 4
+ = 2 +
dz (z ) (z + 1=2) n=0 (2 z + 2n ) n=0 (2 z + 2n + 1)2
X1 1
= 4
n=0 (2 z + n)2
 0 
d (2z )
= 2
dz (2z )
whi h, upon integration, shows that
(z ) (z + 1=2) = eaz+b (2z )
for some onstants a and b. To nd the values
p of a and b, wepsubstitute
z = 1=2; 1 and obtain (note that (1=2) =  , (3=2) = =2)
p = e(a=2)+b ; p
= ea+b
2
whi h, by dividing one by the other, gives ea=2 = 1=2 and eb = 2 :
p
It follows that a = 2 ln 2 and thus, we obtain the so alled Legendre's
dupli ation formula

(11.63)
p (2z ) = 22z 1 (z ) (z + 1=2):

11.6 The Zeta Fun tion

The zeta fun tion was rst introdu ed by Euler. There are two important
formulas whi h dene the zeta fun tion in two dierent ways either as
series form or as an Euler produ t. By the series formula of Riemann, this
is expressed as
X1 1
(11.64)  (s) = s ; s =  + it;
n=1 n
where we use the traditional notation to denote the omplex variable by
s =  + it. The fun tion  represented by the series (11.64) is alled the
Riemann zeta fun tion or simply the zeta fun tion. This fun tion, whi h
is of spe ial interest, provides a link between number theory and fun tion
theory. Also, it is of entral importan e in number theory parti ularly in
the study of the distribution of prime numbers. First we shall show that
the series (11.64) onverges for  > 1. To do this we let   0 > 1. Then,
by the denition of ns ,
 
jns j = je(+it) log n j = e ln n = n  n0 ; i.e.  n1+it   n10 :
 
474 Analyti Continuation

Further, sin e x10 is de reasing for x > 0,

Z n+1 n dx Z
dx 1
< <
n x0 n0 n 1 x0
where the inequality on the left holds for n  1 and that on the right holds
for n  2. Hen e, for any natural number N  2, we have
N Z N  
1 dx 1 1
! 1 1  as N ! 1
X
0 < 0 = 
0 + 1 N 0 1 1
n=2 n 1 x 0

and so, as the partial sum is an in reasing sequen e bounded above, the
series onverges. Indeed,
1   1 Z 1
dx 0
j (s)j   n1+it   n10 < 1 + 1
X  X
1 x0 = 1 + 0 1 = 0 1 :
n=1 n=1
Therefore, the series on the right of (11.64) onverges uniformly and abso-
lutely for   0 > 1. As f (s) = n s = e s ln n , ea h term in the series
(11.64) is an analyti fun tion of s and therefore, f 0 (s) = lnnsn : Moreover,
the Weierstrass M -test shows that the  fun tion is analyti for Re s > 1
with derivatives
X1 ln n X1 (ln n)k
 0 (s) = s and  (k) (s) = ( 1)k
s ; k 2 N:
n=1 n n=1 n
The  fun tion so dened is related to the study of prime numbers by the
following

11.65. Theorem. (Euler's Produ t Formula) For s =  + it,  > 1,

we have
Y
 1  
1 1 Y 1
(11.66)  (s) = 1 or = 1 ;
ps  (s) ps
6 0
where the produ t is taken over all prime numbers p. In parti ular,  =
for Re s > 1.
Q s
Proof. By Corollary 11.22, the innite produ t
P p; prime (1 p ) on-
verges uniformly forP  0 > 1 as the series p prime p s is obtained by
omitting terms of 1 n=1 n whi h onverges uniformly for   0 > 1.
s
Now onsider the series (11.64) for  > 1, and
1 1 1 1
 (s) s = s + s + s +


:
2 2 4 6
11.6 The Zeta Fun tion 475

Subtra ting this equation from (11.64), we obtain that

 
1 1 1
 (s) 1
2 s =1+ s + s +
3 5



:
Similarly, one an nd that
  
1 1 1 1 1
 (s) 1
2s
1
3s
=1+ s + s + s +
5 7 11



:
More generally,



X
 (s) 1 2 s 1 3 s


1 pNs = m s = 1 + pNs+1 +



where the sum on the right being over all positive integers that ontain
none of the prime Q fa tors 2; 3; : : : ; pN . Therefore, allowing N ! 1, it
follows that  (s) p; prime (1 p s ) = 1 and the on lusion follows.
The two denitions of the Riemann zeta fun tion, namely the series
form (11:64) and the produ t form (11.66), are equivalent. Either of them
may be taken as a denition of  (s) for Re s > 1. The following relationship
between the -fun tion and the  -fun tion may be studied in several forms.
11.67. Theorem. (Integral representation of zeta fun tion) For
Re s > 1, we have Z 1 s 1
1 x
(11.68)  (s) = dx:
(s) 0 ex 1
Proof. The integral denition of the -fun tion given by (11.57) to-
gether with the hange of variable t = nx imply that for Re s > 1
Z 1
(s)
= e nx xs 1 dx:
ns 0
Summation over all positive integer n in the equation gives
Z 1 X1 Z 1 s 1
x
(s) (s) = xs 1 (e x)n dx = x 1 dx
0 n=1 0 e

whereP we have used the fa t that the partial sums of the geometri se-
ries 1 x n
n=1 (e ) form an in reasing sequen e of fun tions that onverges
uniformly on ea h interval [; 1),  > 0. This observation justies the
inter hange of the summation and the integration.
11.69. Global representation of  (s). The denition of the  fun -
tion given by (11.64) and (11.66) are valid only for Re s > 1. We wish to
extend the  fun tion to C n f1g and show that  is meromorphi in C and
476 Analyti Continuation
y y
2π i 2(n + 1)πi

2nπ i
C = Cǫ
O x −n n x

−2nπ i

−2π i −2(n + 1)πi

Figure 11.1: Contour for the ontinuation of  fun tion.

has a simple pole only at s = 1 with residue 1. A ording to (11.68), if

we an show that the integral in (11.68) is a meromorphi fun tion of s
in C then the  -representation given by this integral an be used as the
denition of the  fun tion on C . Unfortunately, in the present form, the
integral in (11.68) is improper and is divergent for Re s < 0, be ause as x
nears zero,  s 1 
 x 
 ex 1   x
  Re s 2 :

Riemann over ame this diÆ ulty, through a tri k. To dis uss this, we need
to represent  (s) as a ontour integral by hoosing a suitable ontour that
avoids the origin so that the resultant form be omes entire. For s 2 C xed,
onsider
( z )s 1 e(s 1) Log ( z)
f (z ) = z = :
e 1 ez 1
This fun tion is analyti in C n [fx 2 R : x  0g [ f2ki : k 2 Zg℄: Dene
Z
1
(11.70) (s) = f (z ) dz;
2i C
where C = C = C (Æ) is the \Hankel ontour" shown in Figure 11.1 with
0 <  < 2. This integral onverges, and it represents an entire fun tion
of s. Indeed, the integrand is an entire fun tion of s implying that (s) is
entire. Sin e the region bounded by the ontours C and C ontains no
poles of f (z ) for 0 <  <  < 2, by Cau hy's theorem, we see that the
value of the integral in (11.70) is independent of .
11.71. Theorem. For Re s > 1,
Z
(1 s) ( z )s 1
(11.72)  (s) = dz:
2i C ez 1
11.6 The Zeta Fun tion 477

Proof. Sin e the integral in (11.70) is independent of the shape of C as

long as C does not en lose any integer multiple of 2i, we are free to allow
 ! 0. We also note that, for z = x + iÆ := ei with x > 0,
Log ( z ) = Log ( x iÆ) ! ln x i as 0 < Æ ! 0
and, for z = x iÆ,
Log ( z ) = Log ( x + iÆ) ! ln x + i as 0 > Æ ! 0:
First, as Æ ! 0, we express the integral (11.70) as
Z Z Z 
( z )s 1
2i(s) = + + f (z ) dz; f (z ) = ;
1 2 3 ez 1
Z  (s 1)(ln x i) Z Z 1 (s 1)(ln x+i)
e e
= x dx + f (z ) dz + dx
1 e 1 jzj=  ex 1
Z 1 s 1 Z
x
= 2i sin(s) dx + f (z ) dz
 ex 1 jzj=
be ause
h i
e(s 1)(ln x+i) e(s 1)(ln x i) = xs 1e(s 1)i e (s 1)i

= xs 1 2i sin(s):
Suppose, for the moment, that Re s > 1. As ez 1 has a simple zero at
the origin, by the ontinuity of ez 1, we see that for jz j suÆ iently small,
jez 1j  jz j=2 and so there exists an M > 0 su h that
Z  Z

( z )s 1  2Re s 1

 z dz   M jdz j = 4MRe s 1 :
 jzj= e 1  jzj= 
Consequently, the integral tends to zero as  ! 0 and be ause Re s > 1.
Finally, we may evaluate (s) by letting  ! 0 in the last equation. This
gives
sin s 1 xs 1
Z
(s) = dx
 0 ex 1
sin s
= (s) (s); by Lemma 11.67;

 (s)
= ; sin e (1 s) (s) = sins :
(1 s)
Thus, (11.72) follows.
Note that (s) is an entire fun tion of s and the fa tor (1 s) has
simple poles at s = 1; 2; : : : . The left hand side of (11.72), on the other
478 Analyti Continuation

hand, is dened at all su h points ex ept for s = 1. Thus, the equation

(11.72) denes an analyti fun tion ex ept possibly with a simple pole at
s = 1. Now, (s) has a simple pole at s = 0 with residue 1 and so,
1 1
(1 s)  = for s near 1:
1 s s 1
Thus,
 Z 
1 ( z )s 1
lim (s 1)  (s ) = lim (s 1) (1 s ) dz
s!1 s!1 2i ez 1
 Z 
1 dz
= ( 1)
2i ez 1
 
1
= Res z ;0 = 1
e 1
and we have established the following
11.73. Theorem. The  fun tion is analyti in C n f1g and has a
simple pole at s = 1 with residue 1.
Riemann used the denition of the  fun tion dened by (11.72) to
derive many interesting relations (su h as the fun tional equation of the
 fun tion and the fun tion  (s), below) whi h a tually help to verify the
so- alled Riemann hypothesis. Let us rst prove the fun tional equation
whi h provides more expli it information about the analyti ontinuation
of  to C n f1g.
11.74. Theorem. For all s 2 C , the  -fun tion satises Riemann's
fun tional equation
(11.75)  (s) = 2s s 1 sin(s=2) (1 s) (1 s):
In parti ular (as  (1 s) 6= 0 for Re s < 0),  ( 2k) = 0 for k 2 N .
Proof. It suÆ es to prove this theorem for s < 0. Dene
Z
1 ( z )s 1
n (s) = f (z ) dz; f (z ) = z ;
2i Cn e 1
where Cn is as shown in Figure 11.1. Note that the re tangle has verti es
at n  (2n + 1=2)i. The idea is to relate (s) to n (s) using the al ulus
of residues and then to let n ! 1.
For z on the sides of the re tangle, we have jez 1j > 1=2 and so for
s < 0,  
 (s 1) Log ( z) 
e
jf (z )j =  ez 1   2ns 1 :
11.6 The Zeta Fun tion 479

By the ML-inequality (see Theorem 4.9(iii)), jn (s)j  Kns ! 0 as n ! 1.

Consequently,
n (s) (s) = 2i  (sum of the residues of f (z ) inside the re tangle):
The poles of f (z ) are simple and they o ur at zk = 2ki, 1  k  n,
with residue
( z )s 1 1
lim
z!zk
( z z k ) z = lim lim ( z )s 1
z!zk ez z!zk
e 1
= (2ki)s 1
= e(s 1)[ln j2kji=2℄
= (2k)s 1 e(s 1)i=2 :
It follows that
Z n
1 ( z )s 1 X  
dz = (2k)s 1 e (s 1)i=2 + e(s 1)i=2
2i CnnC ez 1 k=1
n
X
= 2 (2k)s 1 os[(s 1)=2℄
k=1
n
X 1
= 2s s 1 sin(s=2) 1 s:
k=1
k
Allowing n ! 1, it follows that (sin e n (s) ! 0 as n ! 1)
Z
1 ( z )s 1
dz = 2s s 1 sin(s=2) (1 s):
2i C ez 1
If we ombine this with (11.72) and follow the dis ussion presented after
its proof, we obtain the fun tional equation for s < 0. Sin e both sides of
the fun tional equation are meromorphi and agree on a non-empty open
set, it holds for all s by the uniqueness theorem.
There are equivalent forms of the fun tional equation (see for example,
Exer ise 11.125). If we repla e z by (1 s)=2, then Legendre's dupli ation
formula for the gamma fun tion (11.63) be omes
2 s  ((1 s)=2)
1=2 (1 s) = 2 s ((1 s)=2) (1 s=2) =
(s=2) sin(s=2)
so that
2 s1=2 ((1 s)=2)
(1 s) sin(s=2) = :
(s=2)
In view of this equation, (11.75) is equivalent to
 s=2 (s=2) (s) =  (1 s)=2 ((1 s)=2) (1 s):
480 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Thus, the fun tional equation takes the form

(s) = (1 s); (s) =  s=2 (s=2) (s):
Clearly,  has simple poles at s = 0; 1. If we multiply it by s(1 s)=2, we
see that the fun tion
s(1 s) s(1 s) s=2
 (s) = (s) =  (s=2) (s)
2 2
is entire and satises the relation  (s) =  (1 s).
11.76. Riemann Hypothesis. The fun tional equation of the  fun -
tion enables us to lo ate the zeros of  (s). Be ause of the produ t repre-
sentation (11.66), the  fun tion has no zeros if Re s > 1. We know that
(s) never vanishes in C and is analyti ex ept at s = 0; 1; 2; : : : . Con-
sequently, both (1 s) and  (1 s) are analyti and non-zero for Re s < 0.
The fun tional equation then says that the only zeros of  (s) for Re s < 0
are the zeros of sin(s=2), that is only at s = 2; 4; : : : : These are known
as the trivial zeros of the  fun tion. It is not diÆ ult to show that there
are no zeros on Re s = 0 and Re s = 1. We on lude that all the non-trivial
zeros of the  fun tion lies in the strip fs : 0 < Re s < 1g, whi h is alled
the riti al strip. It is known that there are innitely many zeros on the
line s = 1=2 + it; t 2 R. This line in the s-plane is alled the riti al line.
Again, sin e
1 1
(1 21 s ) (s) = 1 s + s


> 0
2 3
for 0 < s < 1 and  (0) 6= 0,  (s) has no zeros on the real interval (0; 1). This
observation implies that all possible zeros of  (s) in the riti al strip are
omplex numbers. The Riemann hypothesis asserts that \All the nontrivial
zeros of  fun tion lie on the riti al line Re s = 1=2".
Although this has been shown to be true for more than one billion
non-trivial zeros, the onje ture remains open, despite the eorts of some
of the greatest analysts sin e Riemann's time. It is the most famous un-
solved problem onfronting 21-th entury mathemati ians, espe ially after
the proof of Fermat's last theorem. No al ulation had ever ontradi ted the
hypothesis. The Clay Mathemati s Institute of Cambridge, Massa husetts,
oers one million US dollars for a proof of the Riemann hypothesis.

11.7 Jensen's Formula

Suppose that g 2 H(
) and that it is zero-free on
. Then g is a nowhere
vanishing analyti fun tion on
R for some R > 1, and so there exists
an h 2 H(
) su h that g(z ) = eh(z) . In parti ular, g admits an analyti
logarithm on
R . The Cau hy integral formula applied to log g(z ) yields
that Z
1 2
log g(0) = log g(ei ) d:
2 0
11.7 Jensen's Formula 481

Equating the real parts gives

Z 2
1
(11.77) ln jg(0)j = ln jg(ei )j d
2 0
(we observe that the right hand side of (11.77) is an improper integral if g
has a zero on the ir le jz j = 1). For example, if jaj < 1 and one onsiders
g(z ) = 1 az then g 2 H(
) and is zero-free there so that (11.77) gives
Z 2 Z 2
1 1
(11.78) 0 = ln 1 = ln j1 aei j d = ln j1 ae i j d:
2 0 2 0
More generally, we prove

11.79. Lemma. For a 2 C with jaj < r, we have

Z 2
1
(11.80) ln jr ae i j d = ln r:
2 0
(Note that r = 1 gives (11:78)).
Proof. We may rewrite jr ae i j as rj1 (a=r)e i j = rj1 (a=r)ei j
so that ln jr ae i j = ln r + ln j1 (a=r)ei j and
Z 2 Z 2
1 1
ln jr ae i j d = ln r + ln j1 (a=r)ei j d:
2 0 2 0
Note that the integral on the right vanishes with the same reasoning as
above (by onsidering g(z ) = 1 (a=r)z ). Therefore, (11.80) follows.
Alternatively, for jbj < 1, we obtain that
Z 2  Z 
1 1 2
ln j1 bei j d = Re Log (1 bei ) d
2 0 2 0
" Z #
1 Log (1 z )
= Re dz
2i jzj=b z
= ln 1 = 0; by the Cau hy integral formula,
and therefore, (11.80) holds.
R 2
11.81. Lemma. If I = 21 0 ln j1 ei j d; then I = 0.
Proof. Sin e sin '  0 on [0; ℄, we write
j1 ei j = je i=2 ei=2 j = 2 sin(=2)
482 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

for  2 [0; 2℄. Therefore, ln j1 ei j = ln 2 + ln sin(=2) so that

Z 2 Z 2
I= ln j1 ei j d = 2 ln 2 + ln sin(=2) d
0 0Z

= 2 ln 2 + 2 ln sin t dt ( = 2t):
0
R
To omplete the proof it suÆ es to show that 0 ln sin t dt =  ln 2. Noti e
that this integral is improper, but its onvergen e is obvious. Now, we nd
that Z  Z =2 Z =2
J= ln sin t dt = 2 ln sin t dt = 2 ln os s ds
0 0 0
(use the hange of variable t = =2 s in the se ond integral) and we also
see that
Z 
J = ln[2 sin(t=2) os(t=2)℄ dt
Z0  Z  Z 
= ln 2 dt + ln sin(t=2) dt + ln os(t=2) dt
0 0 0
Z =2 Z =2
=  ln 2 + 2 ln sin(t) dt + 2 ln os(t) dt
0 0
=  ln 2 + 2J:
Thus, J =  ln 2 and so, I = 0.

We will now investigate what happens to (11.77) in the presen e of zeros

as well as poles in
. Also, we remark that there is a similar generalization
of the Poisson integral formula (see Exer ise 11.119).

11.82. Theorem. (Jensen's Formula for the losed unit disk) Let
f be meromorphi in
. Suppose that
(i) 0 is neither a zero nor a pole of f
(ii) ai (1  i  m) and bj (1  j  n) denote the zeros and poles of f in

( ounted as many times as its order of multipli ities), respe tively.
Then we have
Qn !
j =1 jbj j
Z 2
1
(11.83) ln jf (ei )j d = ln jf (0)j + ln Qm :
2 0 i=1 jai j

11.84. Observations. There are a number of interesting observa-

tions we an make from (11.83).
11.7 Jensen's Formula 483

(i) Equation (11.83) is alled the Jensen formula for meromorphi fun -
tion in the losed unit disk
. First we shall obtain a general result
(see Corollary 11.85) as a onsequen e of this result.
(ii) The se ond sum on the right hand side of (11.83) will not appear when
f has neither zeros nor poles on jz j  1 (in this ase, f is a tually in
H(
) with f (0) 6= 0; ompare with (11.77)). This fa t will be lear
in the proof.
(iii) Equation (11.83) yields Jensen's inequality:
" Qn !#
j =1 jbj j
ln jf (0)j Qm  sup ln jf (ei )j:
i=1 jai j 0<2

(iv) Jensen's formula (11.83) may be equivalently written as

Qn !
j =1 jbj j
 Z 2 
1
jf (0)j Qm = exp ln jf (ei )j d :
i=1 jai j 2 0

(v) Formula (11.83) shows that the integral on the right exists even if the
fun tion f has a zero or pole on the unit ir le jz j = 1. In ase f in
Theorem 11.82 has a zero of order p  1 at z = 0 but has no poles at
z = 0, then onsider the fun tion
(
z p f (z ) if z 6= 0
G(z ) = lim z p f (z ) if z = 0
z!0
whi h guarantees that G(0) = f (p) (0)=p! 6= 0. Now, apply Theorem
11.82 to G(z ) and obtain
 (p)  Qn !
j =1 jbj j
Z 2
1  f (0) 
ln jf (ei )j d = ln 
  + ln Qm :
2 0 p!  i=1 jai j
Do the same tri k if f has a pole of order q at 0. This means that
one has to multiply by z q and apply Theorem 11.82 for z q f (z ).
Proof. Case (i): Suppose that none of the zeros or poles of f (z ) are
situated on jz j = 1. We need to dene a fun tion F (z ) whi h is free from
all the zeros and the poles of f (z ) in
and su h that F 2 H(
) with
jf (z )j = jF (z )j on jz j = 1. By re alling
a z
a (z ) = (a 2 H(
); a (0) = a; a (
) =
; a (
) = 
);
1 az
su h a fun tion is learly given by
!0 n 1
m
1
Y Y
F (z ) = f (z )  bj (z )A :
i=1 ai (z )
 j =1
484 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Sin e F 2 H(
) and F (z ) 6= 0 for jz j  1, there exists a g 2 H(
) su h that

F (z ) = eg(z) . In parti ular, g(z ) = log F (z ) and its real part is ln jF (z )j so
that Z
1 2
ln jF (ei )j d = ln jF (0)j
2 0
whi h is same as (11.83), sin e jf (ei )j = jF (ei )j and
!0 1
m n
Y 1 Y
F (0) = f (0)  bj A :
a
i=1 i j =1

Case (ii): Suppose that f does have zeros on jz j = 1. Then these zeros
may be enumerated so that
ja1 j 


 jap j < 1; jap+1 j =


= jam j = 1:
In this ase F (z ) dened in Case (i) should be repla ed by
p !0 10 1
m n
Y 1 Y ai Y
F (z ) = f (z )  A bj (z )A
i=1 ai (z )
 i=p+1 ai z j =1

provided none of the poles lies on jz j = 1. In ase some of the poles also lie
on jz j = 1, then enumerate these poles as above, say
jb1 j 


 jbq j < 1; jbq+1 j =


= jbm j = 1;
and set F (z ) by
p !0 10
q
10 1
m n
Y 1 Y ai Y Y bj zA
F (z ) = f (z )  A bj (z )A  :
i=1 ai (z ) i=p+1 ai z j =1 j =q+1 bj

Note that (as ja (ei )j = 1 for ea h a 2
)

 0 10 1
 m n 
 Y ai Y bj ei A
jF (ei )j = f (ei ) 
ei
A
i=p+1 ai bj
 
 j =q+1 

and !0 q 1
p
Y 1 Y
F (0) = f (0)  bj A :
a
i=1 i j =1
In either situation, F 2 H(
) and F (z ) 6= 0 for jz j  1. Thus,
Z 2
1
ln jF (ei )j d = ln jF (0)j
2 0
11.7 Jensen's Formula 485

and it follows that

0 1
Z 2 Z 2 m n
1 1 X X
ln jf (ei )j d  ln jai ei j ln jbj ei jA d
2 0 2 0 i=p+1 i=q+1
 !0 q 1
 p 
 Y 1 Y 
= ln f (0)  bj  :
A
 i=1 ai j =1 

Re all Rthat if jaj = 1 then ln ja ei j = ln j1 aei j and so, by Lemma

11.81, 02 ln ja ei j d = 0 whenever jaj = 1. In view of this observation,
the last equation be omes
 !0 q 1
Z 2  p 
1  Y 1  Y 
ln jf (ei )j d = ln f (0) bj A
2 0  i=1 ai j =1 

whi h is learly equivalent to (11.83).

11.85. Corollary. Let f be meromorphi in
R . Suppose that
(i) 0 is neither a zero nor a pole of f
(ii) ai (1  i  m) and bj (1  j  n) denote the zeros and poles of f in

R ( ounted as many times as its order of multipli ities), respe tively.
Then we have
Z 2 m   n  
1 R X X R
ln jf (Rei )j d = ln jf (0)j + ln
2 0 i=1 jai j j =1
ln
jbj j :
Proof. It is suÆ ient to note that f (z ) is meromorphi in
R if and
only if g(z ) dened by g(z ) = f (Rz ) is meromorphi in
. Note also
that g(ei ) = f (Rei ) and a 2
R i a=R 2
. The result follows if we
apply Theorem 11.82 for g(z ) and repla e ai and bj by ai =R and bj =R,
respe tively. This gives
Qn !
j =1 jbj =Rj
Z 2
1
ln jf (Rei )j d = ln jf (0)j + ln Qm
2 0 i=1 jai =Rj
whi h is the desired formula.
A tually, rather than Theorem 11.82, Corollary 11.85 is often referred
to as the Jensen formula for meromorphi fun tions. We may need to
remember that ln(jai j=R) = 0 if jai j = R for some i. The same applies
when jbj j = R for some j . Moreover, if f is analyti in
R then f is free
486 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

from poles so that the Jensen formula in Corollary 11.85 takes a simple
form Z m  
1 2 X R
ln jf (Re )j d = ln jf (0)j + ln
i
2 0 i=1 jai j :
There are several types of interesting fun tions in the theory of entire
fun tions. The simplest of these is the fun tion (t), denoting the number
of zeros of an analyti fun tion f (z ) in jz j  t. Now we draw an important
orollary dealing with (t).

11.86. Corollary. Let f 2 H(
2 ) and f (0) 6= 0. Then

Z 2  
1 M (2)
(11.87) () ln 2  ln jf (2ei )j d ln jf (0)j  ln
2 0 jf (0)j ;
where (t) denotes the number of zeros of f (z ) in the losed disk jz j  t.
Proof. Jensen's formula applied to f 2 H(
R ) tells us that
Z 2  
1 X R
ln jf (Rei )j d ln jf (0)j = ln ;
2 0 jai j<R j a ij

where a1 ; : : : ; a (R) are the zeros of f in jz j  R, arranged in the non-

de reasing order, ja1 j  ja2 j 


so that ea h zero being ounted with
multipli ity. If we onsider only these zeros on the losed disk jz j  r
(r < R), then the sum on the right is nonin reasing, be ause we omit those
zeros (if there is any) ai with r < jai j  R. Thus,
   
X R X R
ln
jai j  ln
jai j
jai j<R jai jr
X
 ln(R=r) (* jai j  r < R ! R=jai j  R=r)
jai jr
= (r) ln(R=r):
The rst inequality in (11.87) follows if we repla e R by 2 and r by . The
se ond inequality is lear be ause jf (2ei )j  M (2).

Suppose that we know a bound for the maximum modulus of f (z ) on

some ir le jz j = R, and the value of the f (z ) at the origin. Then using
Corollary 11.86, one an nd an upper bound for (r). From the proof of
this orollary, it is also lear that if r < R, then one has
 
1 M (R)
(r) 
(11.88)
ln(R=r)
ln
jf (0)j :
11.8 The Order and the Genus of Entire Fun tions 487
p
11.89. Example. Suppose that f 2 H(
R ), f (0) = 1 + i 3 and
M (R)  256. Then, for r < R, (11.88) implies that
     
R
ln
r

(r)  ln M (R)
jf (0)j  ln 256
2
= ln(27 ) = 7 ln 2:

In parti ular, if r = R=2, then the last inequality gives that (R=2)  7
and so f annot have more than 7 zeros inside and on the ir le of radius
R=2. 
11.8 The Order and the Genus of Entire Fun tions
The maximum modulus theorem plays an important role in the theory of
entire fun tions. It asserts that if f is a non- onstant entire fun tion, then
M (r; f ) dened by
M (r; f ) := M (r) = max jf (z )j
jzj=r
is an in reasing fun tion of r (0  r < 1). Also, by Liouville's theorem,
f is unbounded. Moreover, limr!1 M (r) = 1. Otherwise, there exists a
sequen e frn g with rn ! 1 su h that fM (rn )g is bounded, say by M , for
all large rn . But then by the Cau hy integral formula applied to f for all
points on jz j  rn =2 gives
 Z   

 1 f ( )  M 1
jf (z )j = 
 2i j j=rn
d  
 z  2 rn rn =2
2rn = 2M

for large rn , so that f is bounded for jz j  rn =2. Taking rn suÆ iently

large, it follows that f (z ) is bounded on C , a ontradi tion. Re all that if
f1 (z ) = ez , f2 (z ) = os z and f3 (z ) = sin z , then we have
er + e r er e r
M (r; f1 ) = er ; M (r; f2 ) = ; M (r; f3 ) =
2 2
and, for ea h k = 1; 2; 3, we see that M (r; fk ) ! 1 as r ! 1. In view of
this, it is interesting to know how fast M (r) approa hes innity. Thus, the
modulus of every trans endental entire fun tion f grows faster than any
xed positive power of r.
The rate of growth of an entire fun tion is of great importan e and is
hara terized by omparing M (r) with usual fun tions tending to innity as
r ! 1. Therefore, it is natural to utilize exponential fun tions to measure
the rate of growth of f , i.e. the growth of M (r).
11.90. Theorem. Let f be a non- onstant entire fun tion. Dene
ln ln M (r)
(11.91) 1 (f ) = lim sup
r!1 ln r
488 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

and
2 (f ) = inf fA  0 : jf (z )j  ejzj for suÆ iently large jz jg:
A
(11.92)
Then 1 (f ) = 2 (f ).
Proof. Let 0  1 ; 2 < 1. A ording to (11.92), for every  > 0,
there exists an r0 su h that


jf (z )j  exp jz j2 + for jz j  r0 :
This implies that


M (r) = max jf (z )j  exp r2 + for jz j = r  r0
jzj=r
so that for large r, we have
ln ln M (r)
ln ln M (r)  (2 + ) ln r; i.e.  2 + :
ln r
On the other hand, by denition,

ln ln M (r)
M (r) > exp r2  ; i.e > 2 
ln r
for an innite number of r's, r ! 1. Thus,
ln ln M (r)
2 = lim sup
r!1 ln r
and hen e, 1 = 2 .
Finally, 1 = 1 i 2 = 1. Indeed, if 2 = 1 then for any given
A > 0,
ln ln M (r)
M (r) > exp(rA ) or >A
ln r
for some values of r suÆ iently large. Thus, 2 = 1 i 1 = 1.
We have the following
(i) the number (f ) = 1 = 2 is alled the order of f (z ). When there
is no onfusion, we may simply use the notation  instead of (f ) as
we did in the proof of the above theorem. So, 0   < 1 as we work
here only with fun tions of nite order.
(ii) Clearly, if 2 < 0, then f (z ) is bounded on C and so redu es to
a onstant, by Liouville's theorem. This is another reason why we
have dened 2 (f ) in (11.92) through nonnegative real numbers A
satisfying the growth ondition.
11.8 The Order and the Genus of Entire Fun tions 489

11.93. Example. For z = rei

(i) j exp(ez )j = j exp(er os  eir sin  )j = j exp er os  os(r sin ) j so that
M (r) = exp(er ) and
ln ln M (r) r
ln r
=
ln r
! 1 as r ! 1:
Therefore,  = 1 and we say that f (z ) = exp(ez ) is of innite order.
Alternatively, as x ! 1 along the positive real axis, we have
exp(ex ) > exp(xk )
so that   k for any k  0. Consequently, by (11.92), f (z ) = exp(ez )
is of innite order.
(ii) If f (z ) = exp(z m) for some m 2 N , then jf (z )j = j exp(rm os(m))j
so that M (r) = exp(rm ) whi h gives easily that  = m, by (11.91).
2
In parti ular, the order of ez is 1 while the order of ez is 2. More
generally, if p(z ) is a polynomial of degree m ( 1) then the order of
exp(p(z )) is m.
(iii) If f (z ) = os z , then
jf (z )j  j(eiz + e iz )=2j  (ey + e y )=2  (ejzj + ejzj)=2 = ejzj
so that   1, a ording to (11.92). But, for z = iy,
 
jf (iy)j = (e y + ey )=2  ejyj=2
whi h shows that  is at least 1. Thus, the order of os z is 1.
(iv) If f (z ) = sin z , then for jz j = r
 iz 
e e iz  ey + e y
jf (z )j = 
 2i 
 2  ejzj
so that   1, a ording to (11.92). But, for z = iy
 
jf (iy)j = (e y ey )=2  (ejyj e jyj)=2  ejyj=3 as y ! 1
whi h shows that  is at least 1. Thus, (sin z ) = 1.
P
(v) If f (z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+ an z n, then, for jz j = r > maxf1; nk=0 jak jg,
jf (z )j  (ja0 j + ja1 jr +


+ jan jrn )
< (ja0 j + ja1 j +


+ jan j) rn
and so, jf (z )j < rn+1 , i.e. M (r)  rn+1 . Thus,
ln ln M (r) ln(n + 1) + ln ln r
ln r
 ln r
! 0 as r ! 1
showing that every polynomial is of order 0. 
490 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Before we turn to the dis ussion on Hadamard's fa torization theorem

for entire fun tions, we re all the Weierstrass fa torization theorem (see
Theorem 11.43) whi h states that every entire fun tion f an be fa tored
in the form Y
(11.94) f (z ) = z m eh(z) Epn (z=an)
1n!
where
(i) h is entire
(ii) fang!n=1 forms a sequen e of zeros of f distin t from z = 0, ea h of
them listed a ording to its multipli ity
(iii) ! 2 N if the sequen e is nite and ! = 1 otherwise
(iv) m = 0 is allowed if f (0) 6= 0; otherwise m is the multipli ity of the
zero of f at the origin
(v) fpng!n=1 is a sequen e of non-negative integers su h that
X  
r pn +1
< 1 for every r > 0:
1n!
jan j
Our main task is to deal with the situation ! = 1.
Let f be entire with zeros fan gn1 , listed a ording to multipli ity and
arranged su h thatP0 < ja1 j  ja2 j 


. If p is the smallest nonnegative
integer su h that 1 n=1 jan j
(p+1) < 1, then f is said to be of rank p. It
is trivial to see that p = 0 whenever f has only a nite number of zeros.
An
P1entire fun tion
f is of innite rank, i.e. if there exists no p for whi h
ja j (p+1) < 1. This is possible whenever P1 ja j (p+1) = 1 for
n=1 n n=1 n
all p  0.
IfPf is of nite rank p, i.e., there exists a nonnegative integer p  0 su h
that 1 n=1 jan j
(p+1) < 1, then, by (11.94), f (z ) an be rewritten as

Y1  
z
(11.95) f (z ) = z meh(z) Ep =: z meh(z) P (z ):
n=1 a n
Q1
Here the produ t P (z ) := n=1 Ep (z=an) is alled the Weierstrass produ t
or the anoni al produ t asso iated with the sequen e fangn1 . Further, if
f is of nite rank p, and p0 is any integer with p0 > p, then
X1
jan j (p0 +1)  jan j (p+1) ; i.e. jan j (p0 +1) < 1
n=1
Q1
and so there is another produ t n=1 Ep0 (z=an) showing that the fa tor-
ization for f is not unique.
If p happens to be the rank of f , then p is alled the genus of the
anoni al produ t P (z ). Moreover, the produ t P (z ) so dened is said to be
11.8 The Order and the Genus of Entire Fun tions 491

form for f . It is important to remember that 1

P
n=1 jan j = 1
in standard p
P1
whereas n=1 jan j ( p +1) < 1. Further (as in Examples 11.45), in the
representation (11.95), the fa torization is unique ex ept that h(z ) may be
repla ed by h(z ) + 2mi for any m 2 Z.
If p is the genus of the anoni al produ t and h(z ) is a polynomial in
the representation (11.95), then the fun tion f (z ) is said to be of nite
genus and, in addition, if q is the degree of the polynomial h(z ) then the
 := maxfp; qg is dened to be the genus of f (z ). The number q is referred
to as the exponential degree of f (z ). If P (z ) is not of nite rank or h(z )
is not a polynomial, then f is said to be of innite genus. In the sequel,
we are interested only on fun tions of nite genus. For example, an entire
fun tion of genus zero is of the form
Y1  z

z m 1
n=1 an

with 1
P
n=1 jan j < 1. By denition, the anoni al representation of an
1
entire fun tion of genus 1 is either of the form
Y1 z
z me z E1 ; 2 C;
n=1 an
P1 P1
n=1 jan j < 1, n=1 jan j = 1, or of the form
with 2 1

1 
Y z

z me z 1
n=1 an
P1
n=1 jan j < 1 and 6= 0.
with 2

11.96. Examples.
(i) From the representation of sin z shown in (11.50), we see that sin z
is an entire fun tion of genus 1.
2
(ii) ez is of genus 1 whereas ez is of genus 2.
(iii) A polynomial p(z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+ an z n is of genus 0. 
11.97. Lemma. Let f be a non onstant entire fun tion of order
, with zeros at a1 ; a2 ; : : : , with ounting multipli ities. Suppose that
0 < ja1 j  ja2 j 


. If p is an integer with p + 1 > , then for z 2
C n fa1 ; a2 ; : : : g,

dp f 0 (z )

X1 1
p = p ! p+1 :
dz f (z ) j =1 (aj z )
492 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Proof. First we assume f (0) 6 0. Let a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an be the zeros of f

in
R so that f (z ) 6= 0 on jz j = R. Dene
Y
(R)
1  z
F (z ) = f ( z ) ;  (z ) = :
j =1 aj =R (z=R) 1 z
Then F is a non-vanishing analyti fun tion in
R with jF (z )j = jf (z )j
on jz j = R and so there exists a g 2 H(
R ) su h that F (z ) = exp(g(z )),
z 2
R . This gives
Y
(R)
R2 aj z
f (z ) = exp(g(z )):
j =1 R(aj z )
Taking the logarithmi derivative with respe t to z , we obtain
X
(R)  
f 0 (z ) 1 aj
+ = g0(z )
f (z ) j =1 aj z R2 aj z
and so dierentiating p-times yields that
  X(R) " #
dp f 0 (z ) 1 apj +1
= p ! + + g(p+1) (z );
dz p f (z ) j =1 (aj z )p+1 (R2 aj z )p+1
(11.98)
p = 0; 1; : : : : As for the se ond term on the right in (11.98), we rst note
that for jz j < R=2 and jan j  R,
jR2 aj z j  R2 jaj j jz j > R2 R2 =2 = R2 =2
and so
 
 (R) 
X apj +1 
 Rp+1 2p+1

 (R2 aj z )p+1  (R2 =2)p+1
(R )  R(p+1)
(AR+ + B )
 j =1

for some onstants A and B . Here, as f is of order , we have used the

estimate (see (11.88))
(R)  AR+ + B for R suÆ iently large:
As p +1  > 0, if we hoose  so that  +  < p +1 (e.g.  = (p +1 )=2),
2p+1 (R)R (p+1) approa hes zero as R ! 1; that is the se ond sum in
(11.98) onverges to zero.
As for the last term, we note that Re g(z ) = ln jF (z )j for z 2
R and
Re g(z ) = ln jf (z )j for jz j = R. By Theorem 10.34, g has the form
Z 2  i 
1 Re +z
g(z ) = iIm g(0) + i ln jf (Rei )j d:
2 0 Re z
11.8 The Order and the Genus of Entire Fun tions 493

Thus, for jz j < R

Z 2
(p + 1)! 2Rei
(11.99) g(p+1) (z ) = ln jf (Rei )j d:
2 0 (Rei z )p+2
For ea h xed z with jz j < R=2, the Cau hy integral formula applied to the
fun tion (w) = (w z ) p 2 shows that
Z Z 2
(p + 1)! dw (p + 1)! Rei
0= = d:
2i jwj=R (w z )p+2 2 0 (Rei z )p+2
In view of this, for jz j < R=2
 Z 2 
2Rei
jg(p+1) (z )j =  (p 2+1)!
 i )j ln M (R)
d
i z )p+2 ln j f ( Re
0 (Re

Z 2
 ((Rp + j1)! R

ln M (R) ln jf (Rei )j d
z j)p+2 0
  Z
(p + 1)!R 2 p+2 2
  R
(ln M (R) ln jf (0)j) d
0
on a ount of R jz j > R R=2 = R=2 and the Jensen inequality
Z 1
1
ln jf (Rei )j d  ln jf (0)j:
2 0
Therefore, sin e ln M (R) < R+ for large R and for a given  > 0, we have
 p+2
jg(p+1) (z )j  (p + 1)! R2 (R+ ln jf (0)j)2R
= (p + 1)!2p+3 (R+ ln jf (0)j)R (p+1)
! 0 as R ! 1 ( sin e ( + )=(p + 1) < 1):
Finally, as R ! 1, (11.99) gives the desired formula whenever f (0) 6= 0.
If f (0) = 0 and zero is of multipli ity m, then we write
f (z ) = z mG(z ); G(0) 6= 0:
Then
f 0 (z ) m G0 (z )
= + :
f (z ) z G(z )
Dierentiate p times to omplete the argument.
11.100. Theorem. (Hadamard's Fa torization Theorem) Let f
be an entire fun tion of nite order . Suppose that a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; are the zeros
494 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

of f (z ) listed with multipli ities and 0 < ja1 j  ja2 j 


 jan j 


.

Then f has a nite genus  satisfying the inequality   .
Proof. Let f have an order  and p = [℄. Then, p   < p + 1 and
for any small  > 0
ln M (r)  r+=2 for r suÆ iently large.
If f has a zero of order m at the origin, then for jz j = r
ln jf (z )=z mj  ln(M (r)r m )
 r+=2 m ln r
 r+ for r suÆ iently large.
So F (z ) = f (z )z m is an entire fun tion of order  with no zero at the origin
and F (0) = limz!0 f (z )z m = f (m) (0)=m!. Thus, by Corollary 11.86,
1
(11.101) (r)  ((2r)+ ln jF (0)j) = Ar+ + B;
ln 2
where A = 2+ = ln 2 and B = ln jF (0)j= ln 2, independent of r. There-
fore, taking r = jan j, we obtain
n  (jan j)  Ajan j+ + B for large n:
In parti ular,
 (p+1)=(+)
1 A
(11.102)
jan jp+1  n B for large n

and if we hoose  (e.g.  =P(p + 1 )=2) so that p + 1 >  +  (re all that
p + 1  > 0), the series jan j p 1 is dominated by a onvergent series.
Therefore,
X1
jan j (p+1) < 1
n=1
and so, f (z ) an be written in the form
1
Y
(11.103) f (z ) = z m eg(z) Ep (z=an) =: z meg(z) P (z ); p = [℄;
n=1
where m = 0 when f (0) 6= 0. Next, we laim that g(z ) is a polynomial of
degree  . Q
First we let PN = N j =1 qj (z ) be the N th partial produ t of P (z ). Note
that PN (z ) ! P (z ) lo ally uniformly on C and so, PN0 (z ) ! P 0 (z ) lo ally
uniformly on C . Consequently,
PN0 (z ) X N q 0 (z )
P 0 (z ) X1 q0 (z )
j j
=
PN (z ) j=1 qj (z )
! =
P (z ) j=1 qj (z )
11.8 The Order and the Genus of Entire Fun tions 495

where the series on the right onverges uniformly on every ompa t subset
of C not ontaining the zeros of P (z ). Also, we note that
!
z z2 zp
qj (z ) = Ep (z=aj ) = (1 z=aj ) exp + 2+
aj 2aj



+ p
paj
so that
qj0 (z ) 1 1 z zp 1
= + + 2 +


+ p
qj (z ) aj z aj aj aj
and
dp qj0 (z )
 
p!
= :
dz p qj (z ) (aj z )p+1
Thus   1
dp P 0 (z ) X 1
(11.104)
dz p P (z )
= p ! p+1 ; z 6= a1 ; a2 ; : : : :
j =1 j z )
(a
Finally, by (11.103), we have
f 0(z ) m P 0 (z ) 0
= + + g (z ):
f (z ) z P (z )
Dierentiating both sides p times and applying Lemma 11.97 and (11.104)
gives g(p+1) (z ) = 0 and g is a polynomial of degree at most p. In parti ular,
the genus  of f is less than p. Sin e p  , we have   .
The Hadamard fa torization theorem is often stated in the following
equivalent form.
11.105. Theorem. (Hadamard's Fa torization Theorem) Let f be
an entire fun tion of nite order . Suppose that a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; are the zeros
of f (z ) listed with multipli ities and 0 < ja1 j  ja2 j 


 jan j 


.
Then there exists a polynomial g (z ) of degree not greater than , and a
nonnegative integer p (p  ) su h that
1
Y
f (z ) = z meg(z) Ep (z=an):
n=1
The onverse of Theorem 11.100 is also true. In fa t, we have
11.106. Theorem. If f is an entire fun tion of nite genus , then
f is of nite order  and    + 1.
Proof. If f is of nite genus , then
1
Y
f (z ) = z meh(z) P (z ); P (z ) = E (z=an)
n=1
496 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

where the degree q of the polynomial h(z ) is  . We note that the order
of the produ t of the two entire fun tions annot ex eed the order of the
ea h of the fa tors. In view of this observation,
(f )  maxf(eh(z) ); (P (z ))g:
Sin e f is of nite genus , the order of exp(h(z )) is q whi h is  .
Hen e, to omplete the proof, it suÆ es to show that the order of the
anoni al produ t P (z ) is   + 1. Sin e P1 = max fq; pg  p and the
onvergen e of the produ t P ( z ) implies j
n=1 na j (p+1) < 1, it follows
that 1
P
n=1 jan j
(+1) < 1. First we laim that

(11.107) ln jE (z )j  (1 + )jz j+1 ; z 2 C :

Note that 1 + jz j  ejzj, i.e. ln(1 + jz j)  jz j for z 2 C . Consequently
ln jE0 (z )j = ln j1 z j  ln(1 + jz j)  jz j; z 2 C ;
showing that the estimate (11.107) holds when  = 0. Next we prove
(11.107) for   1. To do this, we re all Lemma 11.39:
1 + jE (z )j  jE (z ) 1j  jz j+1 for jz j  1
so that jE (z )j  1 + jz j+1 for jz j  1. Consequently, for ea h   1
(11.108) ln jE (z )j  ln(1 + jz j+1 )  jz j+1  ( + 1)jz j+1 for jz j  1:
For arbitrary z 2 C with jz j  1, and   1
jE (z )j = j1 z j jez j jez2 =2 j


jez = j  (1 + jz j)ejzjejzj2 =2


ejzj =
so that, for all jz j  1,

ln jE (z )j  ln(1 + jz j) +
X jz jk

k=1 k

 jz j +
X jz j (be ause jz jk  jz j for k = 1; 2; : : : ; )
k=1
k
 !
X 1
 1+ k
jz j  (1 + )jz j
k=1
 (1 + )jz j+1 :
Combining the last inequality with (11.108) proves (11.107). The estimate
(11.107) gives at on e
1
X 1
X
ln jP (z )j = ln jE (z=an)j  (1 + )jz j+1 jan j (+1)
k=1 n=1
11.8 The Order and the Genus of Entire Fun tions 497

and so, there exists an  > 0 with ln jP (z )j  jz j+1 for all z 2 C . It

follows that P (z ) is at most of order  + 1, i.e.    + 1.
Finally, we obtain the following result whi h exhibits the strength of
Hadamard's fa torization Theorem.
11.109. Corollary. An entire fun tion of fra tional order assumes
every omplex value innitely often.
Proof. Let f be an entire fun tion of order , where  62 N . Clearly,
(f ) = (f a) for any onstant a 2 C . Therefore, it suÆ es to show that
f has innitely many roots. Suppose not. Then f has only nitely many
zeros, namely a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an . Then f is of the form
n
Y
f (z ) = eh(z) (z ak ) =: eh(z) P (z ):
k=1
By Hadamard's fa torization theorem, h is a polynomial of degree m 
(f ). But then (f ) = (eh(z) ) = m. This ontradi tion proves the orol-
lary.
Thus, every entire fun tion of nite order has either innitely many
zeros or else f (z ) = eh(z) P (z ), where h(z ) and P (z ) are some polynomials.
11.110. Convergen e exponent. Let fan gn1 be a sequen e of nonzero
omplex numbers, listed a ording to in reasing moduli su h that jan j ! 1
as n ! 1. Then the onvergen e exponent of fangn1 is dened by
( )
X 1
 = inf  > 0 : jan j < 1 :

n=1
Thus, for ea h  > 0, one has
X1 1 X1 1
< 1 and   = 1:
n=1 nj a j  + 
n=1 n j
j a
For example, if an = n for all n 2 N , then we have  = 1. Also, we have
(i) If 1
P
n=1 jan j
 = 1 for all  > 0, then we set  = +1 as the
inmum of an empty set.
(ii) If 1
P
n=1 jan j < 1 for all  > 0, then  = 0.

(iii) From the proof of Theorem 11.100, we have the following: if f is an
entire fun tion of order  and a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; are the zeros of f (z ) listed
with multipli ities and 0 < ja1 j  ja2 j 


 jan j 


, then
X 1
jan j  < 1 for  > :
n=1
498 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Indeed, let  be a number su h that  <  < . Then, for small  > 0
and for large n, we have
 =( +)
1 A
n  (jan j)  Ajan j+ + B; i.e.
jan j  n B :

The on lusion follows, as = > 1.

If f is an entire fun tion having fangn1 as its non-zero zeros, then  :=
(f ) dened as above is alled the onvergen e exponent for the zero-
sequen e fan gn1 of f .
11.111. Examples.
(i) For > 0, set an = n1= for all n 2 N . Then, as
1
X X1
jan j  = n = < 1 if  > ;
n=1 n=1
the exponent of onvergen e  of fn1= g is . Note that
1
X 1
X X1
jan j  = jan j = n 1 = 1:
n=1 n=1 n=1

(ii) If f (z ) = sin z , then the zeros of f (z ) are an = n (n 2 Z) and so

X X1 2 X1 1
jan j = 2 jan j =  n
 
n2Znf0g n=1 n=1

showing that (f ) = 1 = (f ). If g(z ) = os z , then (g) = (g) = 1.

(iii) Sin e ez has no zero in C , we set that (ez ) = 0. 
11.9 Exer ises
11.112. Determine whether ea h of the following statements is
true or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterexam-
ple.
(a) The meromorphi fun tions sin z=[e2iz + 1℄ and 1=(2i os z ) dier by
an entire fun tion.
(b) If f is meromorphi and has an innite number of poles, then every
losed disk jz j  R (0 < R < 1) ontains only a nite number of
poles inside it.
( ) There an be no meromorphi fun tion in C with poles at 1=n, n 2 N .
11.9 Exer ises 499

(d) If f is entire and f (z ) 6 0, then either f has a nite number of zeros

or has an innite number of zeros an with an ! 1 as n ! 1.
(e) An innite produ t 1
Q
k=1 (1+ak ) is divergent i the sequen e of partial
produ ts either diverges to innity or onverges to zero or os illates.
(f) If f is a non- onstant entire fun tion su h that f (z ) 6= 0 in C , then
f 0(z ) may or may not have a zero in C .
(g) The innite produ t 1
Q P1
k=1 (1 + ak ) onverges i the series k=1 ak
onverges.
ak  1 for k 2 N , the produ t 1
Q
(h) For 1 < P k=1 (1 + ak ) onverges i
1
the series k=1 ak onverges.
(i) The onvergen e of the produ t 1
Q
k=1 (1 + ak ) isPne essary and suÆ-
ient for the absolute onvergen e of the series 1 k=1ak .
Q1   
(j) Ea h of the produ ts k=1 1 + 2k+11 1 and 1
Q 1
k=2 1 + k2 1 on-
verges.
(k) For 0 6=  2 C , the innite produ t 1 1

Q
n=2 1 n onverges abso-
lutely provided Re  > 1.
(l) The innite produ t 1
Q
n=1 (1+a z ), jaj < 1, denes
n an entire fun tion.
P1
(m) If R is the Q1radius of onvergen e
of the series n=1 an z n , then the
n
produ t n=1 (1 + an zP) onverges for jz j < R.
Note: As the series 1 jz 3n j onverges for jz j < 1, the produ t
Q1 n=1
3n
n=1 (1 + z ) onverges for jz j < 1.
(n) For z 2 C n fx + i0 : x  0g, 1
Q 2 n onverges to z whereas
Q1 n n=1 z
3 does not onverge to z .
n=1 z
(o) PLet p(z ) be a non- onstant polynomial in z (e.g. z , z 2 ). If the series
1 ja j is onvergent (e.g. a = 1=k with  > 1), then the produ t
Q1 k=1 k k
k=1 (1 + p(z )ak ) is onvergent for all z 2 C and represents an entire
fun tion.  
(p) The produ t 1
Q 2
k=1 1 + kz +k3 1 represents an analyti fun tion for
Re z > 3:  
(q) The region of absolute onvergen e of ea h of 1
Q
1 + z n2 and
n=1
Q1 2
is dierent.
n=1 1 + z=n
(r) The produ tQ 1
Q 2
n=1 (1 z=n ) represents an entire Q fun tion whereas
the produ t n=1 (1 z=n) does not although 1
1
n=1 (1 z=n)e
z=n is
an entire fun tion.
(s) There exists an entire fun tion whi h has zeros of multipli ity n at
z = n (n 2 N ), and no other zeros.
(t) The produ t 1
Q z
n=1 (1 + n ) onverges uniformly on every ompa t
subset Re z  1 + Æ (Æ > 0) and represents an analyti fun tion in the
half-plane Re z > 1.
500 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions
 
(u) The produ t 1
Q 2z
n=1 1 n2 +z represents a bounded analyti fun -
tion on the right half-plane Re z > 0.
(v) The terms of an absolutely onvergent produ t an be rearranged
without ae ting the onvergen e or the value of the produ t.
(w) There exist entire fun tions with simple zeros at n2 , n 2 N .
(x) There exists no non- onstant entire fun tion having zeros at z = 1=n
(or 1=n2 or 1=n3), n 2 N .
(y) An entire fun tion, whi h has simple zeros at 0, n1=4 (n 2 N ) and
no other zeros, is given by
Y1  z2
  2
z z4

z 1 p exp p + :
n=1 n n 2n

(z) There exists an analyti fun tion f in the unit disk su h that f (z ) = 0
i z = 1 1=n, n 2 N .
11.113. Determine whether ea h of the following statements
is true or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a ounterex-
ample.
(a) The order of entire fun tions f (z ) and f (z ) ( 6= 0) are the same.
(b) The entire fun tions f (z ) and z nf (z ) (n 2 N ) have the same order,
where the point z = 0 is a zero of multipli ity n for f (z ).
( ) The order of the entire fun tion f (z ) = zez is 1.
(d) For any two entire fun tions f and g, (f + g)  maxf(f ); (g)g.
(e) For any two entire fun tions f and g, (f + g) = maxf(f ); (g)g
whenever (f ) 6= (g).
(f) If f and g are two entire fun tions su h that (f ) > (g), then (f +
g) = (f ).
(g) For any two entire fun tions f and g, (fg)  maxf(f ); (g)g.
(h) If f is an entire fun tion and h(z ) = f (az ), then (h) = (f ).
(i) If f is an entire fun tion and h(z ) = f (z n), then (h) = n(f ).
(j) If f is an entire fun tion and h(z ) = z nf (z ), then (h) = (f ).
(k) The exponent of onvergen e of 1
Q
n=1 E1 (z=n) is 1.
Q 1
n=1 E1 (z=n) ( m 2 N ) is 1.
(l) The order of z m
(m) If (f ) 6= 0 and (g) 6= 0, then (f + g) is not ne essarily a non-zero
number.
(n) There are innitely many prime numbers.
(o) If R is the re tangle with verti es at n  (2n + 1=2)i, then one has
jez 1j > 1=2 for z 2 R.
11.9 Exer ises 501

11.114. Constru t meromorphi fun tions f in C with the following

properties:
(i) simple poles only at an = n 2 N with Res [f (z ); an℄ = n
(ii)
p
simple poles only at an = n, n 2 N , with Res [f (z ); an℄ = 1
(iii) simple poles only at an = n, n 2 Z, with Res [f (z ); an℄ = 1
(iv) simple poles only at an = n(1+ i), n 2 Znf0g, with Res [f (z ); an ℄ = 1
(v) poles only at an = n 2 N of order n.

11.115. P
p
Set an = ( 1)n+1 = n. Show that 1
Q
n=1 (1 + an ) diverges
even though 1 a
n=1 n onverges. Does this provide an example of a series
that is onvergent but not absolutely?

11.116. Constru t entire fun tions with the following properties

(i) simple zeros at an = n; n 2 N and no other zeros
(ii) simple zeros at an = n; n 2 N and no other zeros
p p
(iii) simple zeros at an = n; n 2 N and double zeros at bn = i n;
n 2 N , and no other zeros
(iv) simple zeros at an = n5=4 ; n 2 N and no other zeros
(v) simple zeros at an = n4=5 ; n 2 N and no other zeros
(vi) simple zeros at an = n1=2 ; n 2 N and no other zeros.
Q1
11.117.
Q1 Suppose that the produ t k=1 (1+ ak ) onverges whereas the
produ t k=1 (1 + jak j) diverges. What an we say about the sequen e?
Q1
11.118. Show that produ t P1 k=1 (1 + fk (z )) is uniformly onvergent
in a domain
if the series k=1 jfk (z )j onvergesQuniformly in
: Using
this result, dis uss the onvergen e of the produ t 1 k=1 (1 + fk (z )) when
(i) fk (z ) = (k=(k + 1))k z k , z 2

(ii) fk (z ) = (1 z )=(1 z 2k ), z 2

(iii) fk (z ) = (1 z 2k )=(1 z ), z 2

(iv) fk (z ) = z k =k!, z 2 C
(v) fk (z ) = z=[k(ln k)2 ℄, z 2 C .
11.119. Let f be meromorphi in
R . Suppose that
(i) a is neither a zero nor a pole of f
(ii) ai (1  i  m) and bj (1  j  n) denote, respe tively, the zeros and
poles of f in
R ( ounted as many times as its order of multipli ities).
502 Representation for Entire and Meromorphi Fun tions

Then show the Poisson-Jensen Formula of the form

Z  
1 2 R + ae i
Re ln jf (Rei )j d
2 0 R ae i
m  2  n  
X R ai a  X  R2 bj a 
= ln jf (a)j + ln  ln  
i=1 R(ai a)  j =1  R(bj a) 

a (z ) = (a z )=(1 az ) (Note that if f is free from poles, then the last

term on the right does not appear in the formula). Also, dis uss what
modi ation is required if a is a zero or a pole of f (z ).
11.120. Give an example of an entire fun tion f (z ) whose order is not
an integral number.
11.121. Prove that, whenever  62 Z,
Y1  z

sin (z + ) = e z ot  sin  1+ e z=(n+) :
n= 1 n + 

11.122. Find the order and genus of the entire fun tion
Y1  z

f (z ) = 1 :
n=2 n(ln n)2

11.123. For a > 0, onsider the Hurwitz zeta fun tion  (s; a) dened
by
X1 1
 (s; a) = :
n=0 ( n + a)s
Show that  (s; a) is analyti for Re s > 1. Also show that
Z 1
1 e (a 1)sxxs 1
 (s; a) = dx:
(s) 0 ex 1
11.124. Prove the Gauss multipli ation formula
nY1  
k
(2)(n 1)=2 (nz ) = nnz 1=2 z+ :
k=0 n

11.125. For s 2 C , prove the fun tional equation

 (1 s) = 21 s  s os(s=2) (s) (s):
Chapter 12

Mapping Theorems

We shall dis uss a number of interesting results on erning ertain mapping

problems between domains. Se tion 12.1 begins with the open mapping
theorem whi h is a elebrated result about analyti mappings. In Se tion
12.2, we study some basi results on univalent fun tions. Se tion 12.3 is
devoted to a preliminary dis ussion on normal families. In addition, we
also prove Montel's theorem for normal families of analyti fun tions. The
main result in Se tion 12.4 is the Riemann mapping theorem whi h asserts
that every simply onne ted domain of the omplex plane having at least
two boundary points an be mapped onformally onto the open unit disk.
In Se tion 12.5, we state the elebrated onje ture due to Bieberba h whi h
led to the development of a great number of dierent and deep methods
that have solved a large number of problems in fun tion theory. Sin e
the onrmation of the Bieberba h onje ture by de Branges, one of the
outstanding open problem in omplex analysis is that of nding the exa t
value of the Blo h onstant. Our nal se tion dis usses this onstant along
with the long awaited Pi ard's little theorem and S hottky's theorem.

12.1 Open Mapping Theorem and Hurwitz' Theorem

In the subje t of topology, ontinuity of f on
 C is equivalent to saying
that the inverse image of every open set in f (
) under f is open. We are
interested now in these fun tions for whi h the dire t image of any open
set is open. A fun tion dened on an open set D is said to be an \open
mapping" if for every open subset
of D, the image f (
) is open. Thus if
there exists an open set in D whose image under f is not open, then f is
not an open mapping in D. Consider fj : R ! R (j = 1; 2; 3) dened by
ex + e x
f1 (x) = x2 ; f2 (x) = sin x and f3 (x) = ;
2
504 Mapping Theorems

respe tively. Clearly,

f1 (R) = [0; 1); f2 ((0; )) = (0; 1℄ and f3 (R) = [1; 1)
showing that for ea h j , ea h of the real-valued fun tions fj of a real variable
fj is not an open mapping. Our emphasize will be on plane domains in C ,
and the above examples show that the following theorem has no analog in
R.
12.1. Theorem. (Open Mapping Theorem) If f is a non- onstant
analyti fun tion on a domain D, then f is an open mapping, i.e. f (D) is
an open set in C .
Clearly, the name of this theorem is derived from the property of \open-
ness". What does this theorem onvey? If D is a domain in C and
f 2 H(D), then f (D) is either a domain or a single point; i.e. f (D) is
a domain or else f is a onstant fun tion. For example, this theorem pro-
hibits a non- onstant C 1 -analyti mapping of a disk onto a portion of a
line (see Corollary 12.3). Is there an analogous result for real-valued C 1
fun tions dened on D  C ? Dene f : C ! C by f (z ) = jz j2 : Then
f (C ) = fx + i0 2 C : x  0g
whi h is not an open subset of C . Note that f is nowhere analyti but is
real-dierentiable be ause f (x; y) = x2 + y2 and the partial derivatives of
all orders exist and are ontinuous on R2 . On the other hand, f (z ) = z 2 is
an open mapping on C . Is there a non- onstant omplex-valued fun tion
(need not be analyti ) dened on a domain that is an open map? How
about f (z ) = z, z 2 C ?
Proof of the open mapping theorem. We shall show that if f
is a non- onstant analyti fun tion in D and
is an open subset of D
ontaining a, then f (
) ontains an open disk about f (a). Sin e zeros of
the non-vanishing analyti fun tion f (z ) f (a) are isolated, there exists a
disk
(a; r) with
(a; r) 
su h that
f (z ) f (a) 6= 0 in 0 < jz aj < r:
In parti ular, f ( ) f (a) 6= 0 for  2 C = 
(a; ) where 0 <  < r. Let
2m = min jf ( ) f (a)j:
 2C
Then m > 0. Further, for every w 2
(f (a); m), we note that
jf ( ) wj  jf ( ) f (a)j jf (a) wj > 2m m = m > jf (a) wj
for all  2 C . Rewrite the last inequality as
jf (a) wj = j(f ( ) w) (f ( ) f (a))j < jf ( ) wj for all  2 C:
12.1 Open Mapping Theorem and Hurwitz' Theorem 505

It follows from Rou he's theorem that the fun tions f ( ) w and f ( ) f (a)
have the same number of zeros inside the ir le C . But as f ( ) f (a) has
at least one zero inside C , f ( ) w has at least one zero inside C . Hen e
there exists z 0 2
(a; ) su h that f (z 0 ) = w and so w is in the range of f ,
w being an arbitrary element of
(f (a); m) the assertion is true.
As the onne tedness of D implies the onne tedness of f (D) (see The-
orem 2.24), the open mapping theorem is often formulated in the following
form:

12.2. Theorem. A non- onstant analyti fun tion maps the domain
D onto the domain f (D).
Proof. By the open mapping theorem f (D) is open; so we only need
to show that f (D) is onne ted. We provide a dire t proof to show that
f (D) is onne ted. Let w1 ; w2 2 f (D). Then there exist z1 ; z2 2 D su h
that f (z1) = w1 and f (z2) = w2 . Be ause D is onne ted, z1 and z2 an
be onne ted by a nite number of line segments that lie entirely within D.
The image of ea h line segment under f is always a urve in f (D), sin e
f is dierentiable in D. It follows that w1 and w2 an be onne ted by a
urve in f (D). Note that this urve an be approximated by line segments
in f (D).

12.3. Corollary. Theorem 3.31(ii) follows from Theorem 12.2.

Proof. The hypothesis of Theorem 3.31(ii) shows that, in the w-plane,
f (D) is either a subset of a ir le or u = onstant, or v = onstant, or
tan 1 (v=u) = onstant, respe tively. However, we note that none of these
takes open sets into open sets. It follows from Theorem 12.2 that in ea h
ase, f must be a onstant. This ompletes the proof.

Here is another appli ation of Rou he's Theorem.

12.4. Theorem. (Hurwitz' Theorem) Let ffng be a sequen e of
non-vanishing analyti fun tions in a domain D whi h onverges to f uni-
formly on every ompa t subset of D. Then either f (z )  0 or f has no
zeros.
Proof. Sin e, by assumption, ffng onverges uniformly on D, f is
analyti on D. Suppose f (z0 ) = 0 but f (z ) 6 0. Then (as zeros are
isolated) there exists a small ir le C = 
(z0 ; Æ) su h that
(z0 ; Æ)  D
and

(z0 ; Æ) nfz0 g \ fz : f (z ) = 0g = ;:
In parti ular, f (z ) 6= 0 on C . Let f have k zeros in
(z0 ; Æ). Sin e f is
analyti on
(z0 ; Æ), jf j attains a minimum value m on C . As f (z ) 6= 0
506 Mapping Theorems

on C , m > 0. Sin e fn ! f uniformly on the ompa t set C , for a given

m > 0, there exists an N su h that
jfn (z ) f (z )j < m=2 < m  jf (z )j for n  N and for all z 2 C:
By Rou he's Theorem, it follows that fn and f have the same number of
zeros on
(z0 ; Æ), and for some n  N . Thus, fn has a zero in
(z0 ; Æ);
this is a ontradi tion. Hen e we must have f (z )  0.
We note that for ea h n 2 N , fn (z ) = ez =n has no zeros in C , but the
limit fun tion f is identi ally zero in C .
12.5. Corollary. Let ffn g be a sequen e of analyti and univalent
fun tions in a domain D whi h onverges to f uniformly on every ompa t
subset of D. Then either f is onstant or univalent on D.
Proof. Assume that f is a non- onstant analyti fun tion that is not
univalent. Then there exist two distin t points z1 and z2 in D su h that
f (z1 ) = f (z2) = . Choose r so small that

(z1 ; r)  D;
(z2 ; r)  D and
(z1 ; r) \
(z2 ; r) = ;:
If f (z ) 6 , then, sin e fn  ! f  uniformly on ompa t subsets of
D, Hurwitz' Theorem applied to fn(z )  shows that there is an n su h
that fn (z )  has a zero in
(z1 ; r) and a zero in
(z2 ; r). That is,
fn (z10 ) = fn (z20 ) for some z10 2
(z1 ; r) and z20 2
(z2 ; r):
This is a ontradi tion to the hypothesis that fn is univalent in D. So
f (z )  .
For example, we note that fn (z ) = z=n, n  1, is univalent in C , and
the limit fun tion f is identi ally zero in C .

12.2 Basi Results on Univalent Fun tions

We have already en ounted a large number of examples of univalent fun -
tions. Now start with
12.6. Theorem. If f (z ) = z + 1
P P1
n=2 an z is su h that n=2 njan j 
n
1, then f is univalent in the unit disk
.
P
Proof. SupposeP that n2 nPjan j  1. Then, we
P have jan j  1 for all
n  2, and hen e n2 jan z nj  n2 jz jn: Sin e n2 jz jn onverges for
jz j < 1, by the omparison test, we see that the series represented by f
onverges for jz j < 1 so that f is analyti in
. Let jz0j < 1. We have
12.2 Basi Results on Univalent Fun tions 507

(f (z ) f (z0)) (z z0 )
X
= an (z n z0n )
n2
X
= (z z0 ) an (z n 1 + zn 2z
0+


+ z0n 1 ):
n2

As jz n 1 + z n 2z
0+


+ z0n 1 j < n for jz j < 1, we have
X
j(f (z ) f (z0 )) (z z0)j < jz z0 j njan j  jz z0 j:
n2
A ording to Rou he's Theorem, f (z ) f (z0) and z z0 have the same
number of zeros in
, that is f (z ) = f (z0 ) has exa tly one solution.
12.7. Theorem. Let f be analyti at a. Then f is one-to-one in
some neighborhood of a i f 0 (a) 6= 0.
Proof. Clearly, f is analyti at a i g dened by g(z ) = f (z + a) f (a)
is analyti at 0. Note that f 0 (a) = g0 (0). In view of this observation, it
suÆ es to prove the theorem with a = 0 and f (a) = 0.
(=: Let f 0 (0) 6= 0, f (0) = 0 and h(z ) = f (z )=f 0(0). Then h0 (z ) =
f (z )=f 0(0) whi h is analyti at 0, and h0 (0) = 1. The ontinuity of h0 (z )
0
at z = 0 shows that there exists an open disk jz j < Æ su h that
jh0 (z ) 1j < 1=4 for jz j < Æ:
(The univalen y of h in jz j < Æ may be obtained qui kly from Theorem
12.18). In parti ular, for any two distin t points z1 and z2 in this disk, and
for = [z1 ; z2 ℄, the line segment joining z1 and z2 , we have
Z z2 
 
jh(z2 ) h(z1 ) (z2 z1 )j = 
 (h0 (z ) 1) dz 
Z
z 1
 jh0 (z ) 1j jdz j
[z1 ;z2 ℄
 (1=4)jz1 z2 j
whi h, by the triangle inequality, implies that
jh(z2 ) h(z1 )j  jz2 z1j (1=4)jz1 z2 j > 0:
Thus, h and (hen e f ) is one-to-one in a neighborhood of 0.
=): Let f be analyti , f (0) = 0 and one-to-one in a neighborhood

R of 0 . Assume the ontrary that f 0 (0) = 0. Then by the Ma laurin
series of f around 0, there exists k  2 su h that f (z ) = z k (z ) where 
is analyti at 0 and (0) 6= 0. By hypothesis, f is univalent (and so f is
508 Mapping Theorems

not a onstant). As zeros are isolated (and f 0 (z ) is analyti in
R with

f 0 (0) = 0), we have
f (z ) 6= 0 and f 0 (z ) 6= 0 for 0 < jz j  Æ:
Now, m = min jf (z )j > 0. Pi k any omplex number su h that 0 <
jzj=Æ<R
j j < m. Then
jf (z ) (f (z ) )j = j j < m  jf (z )j for jz j = Æ:
Therefore, by Rou he's Theorem, f (z ) has the same number of zeros
inside jz j = Æ as that of f (z ). But, sin e f (z ) has a zero of order k (k  2) at
the origin, we must have f (z ) = at two or more points. This ontradi ts
the hypothesis that f is univalent in
R . Hen e we must have f 0 (0) 6= 0,
whi h proves the assertion.
The vanishing of a derivative does not pre lude the possibility of a
real-valued fun tion of a real variable being one-to-one. For example, if
f (x) = x3 then f 0(0) = 0 but the fun tion is still one-to-one on R. This
situation annot o ur for omplex-valued fun tions. This fa t is indeed a
spe ial ase of Theorem 12.7 and is important enough to merit a spe ial
mention.
12.8. Corollary. (Lo al Mapping Theorem) If f is analyti and
univalent in a domain D, then f 0 (z ) 6= 0 in D.

12.9. Remark. Note that there exists an analyti fun tion having
non-vanishing derivative on a domain D without being univalent on D.
Thus, the onverse of Corollary 12.8 is not ne essarily true. For example,
the fun tion f (z ) = ez is not univalent in jz j < R if R >  even though
f 0 (z ) = ez 6= 0 throughout C . As another example we note that the fun -
tion g(z ) = z 2 is not univalent in the pun tured plane C n f0g even though
g0 (z ) = 2z 6= 0 on C n f0g: Here we bring an interesting omparison between
the derivatives of real and omplex fun tions. For real dierentiable fun -
tions, the non-vanishing of the derivative on an open interval is suÆ ient
to guarantee that the fun tion is one-to-one on that interval. As we have
seen above, this is not the ase for omplex-valued fun tions dened on a
domain. 
12.10. Example. Consider f (z ) = z=(1 z ) 3 . Then
f 0 (z ) = (1 + 2z )=(1 z ) 4
so that f 0 ( 1=2) = 0. This means that f annot be univalent in jz j < r if
r > 1=2. Next we show that f is a tually univalent if r = 1=2. Indeed, if
12.2 Basi Results on Univalent Fun tions 509

z1 ; z2 2
1=2 , then
f (z1) = f (z2 ) ) z1 (1 z2 )3 = z2 (1 z1 )3
) z1 [1 z23 3z2(1 z2 )℄ = z2[1 z13 3z1 (1 z1 )℄
) (z1 z2 ) z1 z2 (z22 z12 ) 3z1z2 (z1 z2 ) = 0
) (z1 z2 )[1 + z1 z2 (z1 + z2 ) 3z1z2 ℄ = 0
) z1 z2 = 0
as jz1 z2 (z1 + z2 ) 3z1z2 j < 11 1
2 2(2 + 12 ) + 3( 12 )( 12 ) = 1. 
The next result is a dire t onsequen e of Corollary 12.8 and Theorem
7.43.
12.11. Theorem. A fun tion f is a onformal mapping from C onto
C (i.e. f 2 Aut (C ) \ H(C )) i f (z ) = a0 + a1 z (z 2 C ), a0 ; a1 onstants,
6 0.
a1 =
An analog of Theorem 12.7 for meromorphi fun tions follows.
12.12. Theorem. Let g be meromorphi with a pole at a. Then g is
one-to-one in some neighborhood of a i a is a simple pole ( of multipli ity
one ).
Proof. Just look at 1=g(z ) (see also Corollary 12.14).
12.13. Theorem. Let f be analyti at z = 1. Then f is univa-
lent at z = 1 (i.e. univalent in the neighborhood of 1) if and only if
Res [f (z ); 1℄ 6= 0.
Proof. Suppose f is analyti at z = 1. Then f an be expanded in a
power series whi h onverges absolutely for jz j > R:
X
f (z ) = an z n:
n0

Sin e w = 1=z is bianalyti whi h maps fz : jz P

j > Rg nf1g onto
r nf0g,
r = 1=R, f (z ) is univalent at z = 1 i g(w) = n0 an wn is univalent at
w = 0. By Theorem 12.7 we note that g is univalent at 0 i a1 = g0 (0) 6= 0.
The result now follows from the fa t that a1 = Res [f (z ); 1℄.
12.14. Corollary. Let D be an open set in C , and f : D ! C 1 be
meromorphi and univalent in D. Then f has only a simple pole in D.
Proof. The result follows immediately from Theorem 12.13. An alter-
nate proof of this orollary is as follows:
510 Mapping Theorems

It is lear that a meromorphi univalent fun tion f : D ! C 1 annot

have two distin t poles in D be ause otherwise 1 would be assumed more
than on e.
Let z0 6= 1 be a pole of order n, n  1. Then in a deleted neighborhood
of z0 we have f (z ) = (z z0) n g(z ); where g is analyti at z0 and g(z0) 6= 0.
As g(z ) 6= 0 on a neighborhood of z0 , the re ipro al
1 (z z0 )n
=
f (z ) g(z )
is learly analyti at z0 and has a zero of order n at z0 and is univalent on
a neighborhood of z0 . Hen e we must have n = 1.
If z0 = 1 is a pole of order m (m  1), then 0 is a pole of order n for
f (1=z ) = g(z ). Applying the pre eding argument to g = f Æ h (h(z ) = 1=z ),
we obtain m = 1. This ompletes the proof.
12.15. Example. Consider the fun tion f (z ) = (1=2)(z + z 1 ). Ev-
idently, f is meromorphi and has two simple poles at 0 and 1. This
fun tion is often referred to as (a spe ial ase of) a Joukowski mapping.
(i) As f (z1 ) = f (z2 ) =) (z1 z2 )(1 1=z1z2 ) = 0, f is univalent on D
if the domain D has the property that no two distin t points z1 ; z2
in D satisfy the ondition z1 z2 = 1, i.e. z2 = z1 =jz1 j2 . For example,
f is univalent in D whenever D is
nf0g, or C n
or H + or H
respe tively.
(ii) Clearly, f 0 (z ) = 0 at z = 1 and so, f is not onformal at z = 1.
(iii) Setting z = rei and w = f (z ) = u + iv, we nd that


u = a os ; v = b sin  a = (1=2)(r + r 1 ); b = (1=2)(r r 1 )
and therefore, the image of the ir le jz j = r (r 6= 1) is the ellipse
dened by
u2 v2
+ = 1 (a2 b2 = 1):
a2 b2
The semi-major and the semi-minor axes of the ellipse are seen to
be a and b with fa ii at w = 1. The ellipse degenerates into the
line segment [ 1; 1℄ on the u-axis if r ! 1. Sin e f (z ) = f (1=z ), the
ir le jz j = r and jz j = 1=r (r 6= 1) are mapped into the same ellipse.
Consequently, f (
) = f (C n
) = C n[ 1; 1℄:
(iv) The image of the ray Arg  is a bran h of the hyperbola
u2 v2
= 1;
os2  sin2 
whose fo i are also at 1, be ause os2  + sin2  = 1:
12.2 Basi Results on Univalent Fun tions 511

(v) Rewrite w = k(z ) = z=(1 z )2 as

1 1
w= ;  = g(z ) = z + :
 2 z
Re all that the unit disk
in the z -plane is mapped under g onto
the  -plane minus the real interval [ 2; 2℄. Under w = ( 2) 1 , the
domain C n[ 2; 2℄ is mapped onto the w-plane minus the negative real
axis from 1 to 1=4. 
12.16. Theorem. Let f (z ) be analyti and one-to-one on an open
set D. Then the inverse map g (w) = f 1 (w) is analyti on f (D).
Proof. Let f be one-to-one and analyti on D. Then f 0 (z ) 6= 0 on D.
Also, f 1 is single-valued and univalent in f (D). We know that f (D) is
open (why?). By hypothesis, g = f 1 is ontinuous in f (D). Let z0 be
arbitrary, and set w0 = f (z0 ). Suppose that wn is a sequen e su h that
wn ! w0 , but never equals w0 . Setting zn = g(wn ), we see that zn ! z0
(as g is ontinuous), and therefore, taking the limit wn ! w0 , we have
g(wn ) g(w0 ) zn z0
wn w0
= ! 1 as n ! 1
f (zn ) f (z0 ) f 0 (z0 )
so that g0 (w0 ) = 1=f 0(z0 ): Therefore g is also analyti and onformal, sin e
z0 is arbitrary.

12.17. Corollary. (Inverse fun tion theorem) Let f (z ) be analyti

in a neighborhood of z0 , and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 in D. Then the relation w = f (z )
denes z as analyti fun tion f 1 (w) in some neighborhood of the point
w0 = f (z0 ).

12.18. Theorem. If f (z ) is analyti on a onvex domain D, and

Re f 0 (z ) > 0 in D, then f (z ) is univalent in D.
Proof. We pi k two distin t points z1 ; z2 2 D. Then the straight line
segment z (t) = (1 t)z1 + tz2 (0  t  1) must lie in D. Now,
Z z2 Z 1
f (z1 ) f (z2 ) = f 0 (z ) dz = f 0 (z (t)) (z2 z1 ) dt
z1 0
so that
    Z 1 
 f (z2 ) f (z1 ) 

 z z1 
 Re f (zz2 ) zf (z1) = Re f 0 (z (t)) dt > 0:
2 2 1 0
Thus, f (z2 ) 6= f (z1 ) and so f is univalent in D.
512 Mapping Theorems

A ording to Theorem 12.18, the fun tions

f1 (z ) = z 2 log(1 z ) and f2 (z ) = log(1 z )
are univalent in
.
12.19. Corollary. Let f 2 H(
), where
is an open set in C and
f 0 (a) 6= 0 for some a 2
. If further, there exists a disk
(a; Æ) 
su h
that
(12.20) jf 0 (z ) f 0 (a)j < jf 0 (a)j for z 2
(a; Æ);
then f is one-to-one on
(a; Æ ).

12.21. Examples.
(i) Consider f (z ) = z + z n, n  2. Then f 0 (0) = 1 and f 0 (z ) 1 = nz n 1.
Further, f 0 ( Æn ) = 0 for Æn = ( 1=n)1=(n 1) so that f annot be
univalent on
(0; Æ) if Æ  n 1=(n 1) . Finally, for jz j < n 1=(n 1) , we
have
jf 0 (z ) 1j = njz jn 1 < 1
implying that f is univalent on jz j < n 1=(n 1) . In parti ular, f (z ) =
z + z 2 is univalent for jz j < 1=2 but not on any larger disk around 0.
Similarly, we see that g(z ) = z + z n =n is univalent in the unit disk

but not in any larger disk about 0.
P
(ii) Consider
Pn the polynomial f (z ) = nk=1 ak z k of degree n  2 su h that
k=2 k jak j  ja1 j and a1 6= 0. Then, for z 2
,
n
X n
X
jf 0 (z ) a1 j  kjak j jz jk 1 < kjak j  ja1 j = jf 0 (0)j
k=2 k=2
so that f is one-to-one on
, by Corollary 12.19. Note that if a1 = 0,
then f annot be one-to-one in any neighborhood of 0 (prove!). 

12.3 Normal Families

The proof of the Riemann mapping theorem whi h we are going to deal
with in the next se tion relies on the idea of a normal family whi h is a
basi on ept in fun tion theory. We know that every bounded sequen e of
omplex numbers fzng possesses a limit point and so, fzng has a onvergent
subsequen e. Analogous situation for sequen es of fun tions ffn g leads to
the denition of a normal family.
Let
be a domain in C , and F  H(
). We say that F is a normal
family if every sequen e of fun tions ontains a subsequen e whi h onverges
uniformly on ompa t subsets of
(i.e. lo ally uniformly on
). The limit
of su h a subsequen e must be analyti on
.
12.3 Normal Families 513

A family F  H(
) is said to be lo ally uniformly bounded in
if for
any ompa t set K 
, there exists a onstant M = M (K ) su h that
jf (z )j  M for all f 2 F
and for all z 2 K . We say that the family F is uniformly bounded on
if
there exists a onstant M > 0 su h that
jf (z )j  M for all z 2
and all f 2 F :
Clearly, uniformly boundedness of a family implies that ea h member of the
family is bounded. However the onverse is not true. For instan e, onsider
F1 = fnz : n 2 Ng; F2 = f1=(z ein) : n 2 Ng; F3 = f1=(1 z n) : n 2 Ng:
Then ea h Fk (k = 1; 2; 3) is a lo ally uniformly bounded family in
but
none of them is uniformly bounded in
.
Our next result shows that every ompa t subset K of a domain
is
ontained in a nite union of losed disks ontained in
.
12.22. Lemma. Let
be a domain in C . Then there exists a se-
quen e fKn g of ompa t sets su h that
(i)
(z ; Æn)  Kn+1 with Æn = n(n1+1) and for z 2 Kn
(ii) Kn  int (Kn+1 ), int K denotes the interior of the set K
(iii)
= [n2NKn
(iv) If K 
is any ompa t set, then K  Kn for some n 2 N .
Proof. If
= C , then we let Kn =
(0; n). If
6= C , then we let
Kn = fz 2
: dist (z;
)  1=ng \
(0; n):
Clearly dist (z;
)  0 if
6= C , and if
= C , we ould perhaps interpret
it as 1. Now Kn is bounded (be ause Kn 
(0; n) for ea h n) and Kn is
losed be ause it is an interse tion of two losed sets. Thus, Kn is ompa t
for ea h n. For z 2
\ Kn , we show that
(z ; Æn )  Kn+1. It follows that
jz j  n and w 2
(z ; Æn ) =) jwj  jw z j + jz j < Æn + n < 1 + n
=) w 2
(0; n + 1):
Also, for ea h a 2
, z 2 Kn and w 2
(z ; Æn), we have
jz aj  1=n and jw z j < Æn
so that
jw aj  jz aj jw z j > n1 Æn = n1 n(n1+ 1) = n +1 1 :
514 Mapping Theorems

Thus, w 2 Kn+1 and so,
(z ; Æn )  Kn+1 . Note that ea h z 2 Kn implies

that
(z ; Æn)  Kn+1 . This means that Kn is ontained in the interior of
Kn+1 . Hen e, (i) and (ii) follow.
To prove (iii), we let z 2
. Sin e
is open, there exists some disk

(z ; r) 
. In parti ular,

(z ; 1=n) 
(z ; r) 

where n isSlarge enough so that n  jz j > 1=r. This gives z 2 Kn . There-

fore,
 1 n=0 Kn : But Kn 
for all n and so we also have
[1
n=1 Kn 
:
and (iii) follows.
For the proof of (iv), we onsider a ompa t subset K 
. Then
K  [1 1
n=1 Kn  [n=1 int (Kn+1 )
and so we have an open over of K by the sets int (Kn+1 ). A ording to
the Heine-Borel theorem, there exists a nite sub over of K . Thus, there
is an N su h that
K  [Nn=1 int (Kn+1 ) = int (KN +1 )  KN +1
and (iv) holds.

We prove the following general result whi h we shall need later on.

12.23. Lemma. Let

be a domain in C and F  H(
) su h that F
is lo ally uniformly bounded in
. Then, for ea h k  1, the family
F (k) = ff (k) : f 2 Fg
is lo ally uniformly bounded in
.
Proof. Let a 2
be an arbitrary point of
and 0 < Æ < dist (a; 
).
Then
(a; Æ) 
. As F is lo ally uniformly bounded in
, there exists a
onstant M > 0 su h that
jf (z )j  M for all z 2 C and for every f 2 F ;
where C is the boundary of the disk
(a; Æ) oriented positively. By the
Cau hy integral formula for derivatives
Z
k! f ( )
f (k) (z ) = d for z 2
(a; Æ)
2i C ( z )k+1
12.3 Normal Families 515

and for all f 2 F . For z 2
(a; Æ=2), as j z j  j aj ja z j > Æ Æ=2,

we obtain
jf (k) (z )j  2k! (Æ=M
2)k+1
k!M
2Æ = k 2k+1
Æ
so that F (k) is lo ally uniformly bounded in
.
Next we begin with the denition of an equi ontinuous family. Let

be a domain in C and F be a family of omplex-valued fun tions (not

ne essarily analyti ) in
. We say that F is equi ontinuous on
if for
every  > 0 there is a Æ > 0 (depending only on  and not on f 2 F ) su h
that
jf (z ) f (z 0)j < 
for all f 2 F whenever z; z 0 2
and jz z 0j < Æ.
For example, onsider F = ff : f (z ) = 3z + onstantg. Then for all
f 2 F,
jf (z ) f (z 0 )j = 3jz z 0j < 
whenever jz z 0 j < Æ = =3 and z; z 0 2 C . Thus, F is an equi ontinuous
family on C .
12.24. Lemma. (Bounded derivatives imply equi ontinuity) Let

be a domain in C and F  H(
) su h that the family of their derivatives,
F 0 = ff 0 : f 2 Fg, is lo ally uniformly bounded in
. Then F is (lo ally)
equi ontinuous.
Proof. It suÆ es to prove equi ontinuity of F on an arbitrary bounded
losed disk K ontained in
. As F 0 is lo ally uniformly bounded in
, for
a losed disk K 
there exists a onstant M = M (K ) > 0 su h that
jf (z )j  M for all z 2 K and for every f 2 F :
Then for any two points z; z 0 2 K , integrating over a straight line path
from z 0 to z gives
Z z Z
f (z ) f (z 0 ) = f 0 ( ) d = f 0 ( ) d
z0 [z0 ;z℄
so that
jf (z ) f (z 0)j  M jz z 0j:
For any  > 0, let Æ = =M . Then jf (z ) f (z 0)j <  whenever z; z 0 2 K
and jz z 0 j < Æ: Thus, F is equi ontinuous on ompa t subset of
.
12.25. Lemma. Suppose that ffn(z )g is a sequen e of analyti fun -
tions that is lo ally uniformly bounded in a domain
. Suppose that
ffn( )g onverges at every  on a dense subset E of
. Then ffn (z )g
onverges lo ally uniformly on
.
516 Mapping Theorems

Proof. Fix a ompa t set K 

. By Lemmas 12.23 and 12.24, ffn (z )g
is equi ontinuous on K . Therefore, for any given  > 0, there exists a Æ > 0
su h that
(12.26) jfn (z ) fn (z 0)j < =3 for jz z 0 j < Æ and z; z 0 2 K;
where n is arbitrary. Sin e K is ompa t, we an over K by a nite
sub over, say p neighborhoods
(zk ; Æ=2) with zk 2 K and 1  k  p.
In ea h of these p neighborhoods, hoose a point k = zm(k) (1  k  p)
from the dense subset of K . By hypothesis, ffn (k )g onverges for ea h
1  k  p. As a result, this sequen e is Cau hy. Consequently, there is an
integer N su h that n > m  N
(12.27) jfn (k ) fm (k )j < =3 for 1  k  p:
Now, let z 2 K be an arbitrary point. Then, z 2
(zk ; Æ=2) for some k. It
follows from (12.26) and (12.27) that for the above n > m  N
jfn (z ) fm (z )j  jfn (z ) fn (k )j + jfn (k ) fm(k )j + jfm (k ) fm (z )j
< =3 + =3 + =3 = :
Thus, the sequen e ffn(z )g is uniformly Cau hy on K , and therefore on-
verge uniformly on K , sin e K is ompa t.
Using the notion of equi ontinuity and uniform boundedness, we are
now prepared to state the following simple version of Montel's theorem
whi h is one of the key ingredients in the proof of the Riemann mapping
theorem.
12.28. Theorem. (Montel's theorem) Let
be a domain in C and
F  H(
) su h that F
is lo ally uniformly bounded in
. Then F is a
normal family.
Proof. Let ffn g be a sequen e from F . To prove that F is normal, we
have to onstru t a subsequen e that onverges lo ally uniformly in
. Let
K be a ompa t subset of
. Then, by Lemma 12.22, K is ontained in Kn
for some n, where Kn is dened as in Lemma 12.22. Therefore, it suÆ es
to prove that there exists a subsequen e that onverges uniformly on ea h
Kn . Let E 
be a ountable dense subset. For instan e,
E = fz = x + iy 2
: x and y are rationalg:
As E is ountable, we may enumerate the points of E by z1 ; z2 ; : : : ,
E = fz1; z2 ; z3 ; : : :g:
We are given that F is uniformly bounded on ea h ompa t subset of
and
hen e it is pointwise bounded (be ause Kn = fzn g onsisting of singleton
12.3 Normal Families 517

subsets are ompa t). Thus, ffn (z1 )g is a bounded sequen e of omplex
numbers. Thus (by Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem), there is a onvergent
subsequen e of ffng, whi h we shall denote by ffn;1g, that is onvergent at
z1 . Now onsider the sequen e ffn;1(z2 )g whi h is bounded, and so we an
nd a further subsequen e ffn;2g of ffn;1g su h that ffn;2(z2 )g onverges.
Sin e ffn;2g is a subsequen e of ffn;1g, ffn;2(z1 )g is onvergent too. Hen e
ffn;2g a tually onverges at two points z1; z2 . Repeating the pro ess, for
ea h k  1, we obtain a subsequen e ffn;k g that onverges at z1 ; z2; : : : ; zk
and ffn;k g  ffn;k 1 g. We get a list of lists:
f1;1(z); f2;1 (z ); f3;1 (z ); : : : fk;1 (z ); : : : onveges at z1
f1;2 (z ); f2;2(z); f3;2 (z ); : : : fk;2 (z ); : : : onverges at z1 ; z2
f1;3 (z ); f2;3 (z ); f3;3 (z); : : : fk;3 (z ); : : : onverges at z1 ; z2 ; z3
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
f1;k (z ); f2;k (z ); f3;k (z ); : : : fk;k(z); : : : onverges at z1 ; : : : ; zk .
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
Now we onsider the fun tions gn (z ) = fn;n (z ), n 2 N . Then for ea h
xed k, fgn(zk )g is a (diagonal) subsequen e of the onvergent sequen e
ffn;k (zk )g; n  k, and hen e onverges at ea h zk 2 E . By Lemma 12.25,
fgn(zk )g onverges lo ally uniformly on
and so, the limit fun tion g(z )
is analyti on
.
Let use onsider some simple examples.
1. Let fn (z ) = z n and F be the olle tion of all fn (z ), z 2
. Then
fn ! 0 lo ally uniformly to 0 on
, but does not onverge uniformly
on
be ause limn!1 supz2
jfn (z )j 6= 0. It follows that F is a
normal family of analyti fun tions in
. Also, we remark that fz ng
does not onverge lo ally uniformly on the losed disk jz j  1, be ause
limn!1 jz n j = 1 at z = 1.
2. Let fn(z ) = z=n, and F be the olle tion of all fn (z ),
= C . Clearly,
there is no M > 0 su h that
jz=nj  M
for all n and all z 2 C . On the other hand, on any xed ompa t set
K , there exists an M > 0 (e.g. M = supz2K jz j) su h that jz=nj  M
for all n and all z 2 C . Thus, F is a normal family (as F is a
lo ally uniformly bounded family of analyti fun tions in C ). Note
that fn ! 0 lo ally uniformly on C .
3. Consider F = fnz 2 : n 2 Ng. If fn (z ) = nz 2, then fn(0) = 0 ! 0 as
n ! 1 whereas fn (z ) ! 1 as n ! 1 for z 6= 0. This observation
518 Mapping Theorems

shows that F annot be normal in any domain whi h ontains the

origin. Also, F is not normal in any domain that does not ontain
the origin.
4. Dene F = ff 2 H(
) : f (0) = 1 and Re f (z ) > 0 for z 2
g. Then
we have (see Theorem 6.49)

jf (z )j  11 + jjzz jj for z 2
:
Thus, F is lo ally uniformly bounded and therefore, F is a normal
family.
5. Let F denote the family of all fun tions from H(
) su h that
Z 2
jf (rei )j d  for ea h r 2 (0; 1)
0
and for some > 0. Then for ea h ompa t set K 
, there exists
a  su h that K 
 . Now, we x r with  < r < 1 and let
m = maxjzj=r jf (z )j. By the Cau hy integral formula, for ea h f 2 F
and a 2 K , we have
 Z 

 1 f ( )  1 m
jf (a)j = 
 2i j j=r
d  
 a  2 r jaj
2r = M (K ) (say):

Thus, F is lo ally uniformly bounded in
and therefore, by Montel's

theorem, F is normal.

12.4 The Riemann Mapping Theorem

The Riemann mapping theorem is on erned with the mapping of a do-
main in the z -plane onto a domain on the w-plane. In this se tion, we are
on erned with this important problem whi h has a lot of appli ations.
12.29. Problem. Given two domains
,
0 , is it always possible to
nd a onformal map of
onto
0 ? That is, given two domains
and
0 ,
under what onditions is there a fun tion f 2 H(
) su h that
0 = f (
)?
Does the problem always have a solution? For instan e, does it have a
solution if
is a multiply onne ted domain and
0 is a simply onne ted
domain? In general, the answer is no as there exists no map (why!) whi h
takes the multiply onne ted domain
onto the simply onne ted domain

0 .
So unless otherwise stated expli itly, from now onwards, we restri t our
attention to when
and
0 are simply onne ted domains. Two simply
onne ted domains
and
0 in C are said to be onformally equivalent if
12.4 The Riemann Mapping Theorem 519

there exists an analyti fun tion  from

to
0 su h that  is one-to-one
and onto. Clearly onformality is an equivalen e relation. If the domains

and
0 are onformally equivalent, then  1 :
0 !
with  1 2 H(
0 )
so that  and  1 are onformal. However, it is natural to ask whether
it is always possible to say that two given simply onne ted domains are
onformally equivalent. Is the omplex plane C onformally equivalent to
the unit disk
, for example? Note that both C and
are simply onne ted
domains. A ording to Liouville's theorem, C and
are not onformally
equivalent (why!).
12.30. Theorem. (Riemann Mapping Theorem) Let
be a simply
onne ted domain and
6= C . Then there exists a univalent fun tion
f 2 H(
) su h that f (
) =
; i.e. every simply onne ted domain whi h
is a proper subset of C is onformally equivalent to the unit disk.

The map f in Theorem 12.30 is essentially unique in the following sense:

if a is an element of
and  2 ( ; ℄ is an arbitrary angle, then there
exists pre isely one f as above with the additional properties f (a) = 0
and arg f 0 (a) = . Without loss of generality we may simply assume that
 = 0. Also, we remark that the ondition f (a) = 0 is simply a onvenient
normalization. Moreover, the Riemann mapping theorem15 implies that
 among the simply onne ted domains, there are exa tly two equiva-
len e lasses: one onsisting of C alone and the other ontaining the
unit disk (and mu h more).
 among the doubly onne ted regions, there are un ountably many
equivalen e lasses, ea h ontaining a ir ular annulus for some unique
real (and mu h more). In parti ular, the two annuli A(r1 ; R1 ) and
A(r2 ; R2 ) are onformally equivalent i R1 =r1 = R2 =r2 , that is the
ratio of outer radius and inner radius is a onformal invariant. We do
not dis uss these in detail here.
 the fun tion provided by the Riemann mapping theorem is a homeo-
morphism. Indeed, as a orollary to the Riemann mapping theorem,
we say that if
and
0 are onformally equivalent, then they are
homeomorphi . The onverse is false; for example, C is homeomor-
phi to
, but not onformally equivalent to
.
A number of proofs are available today, see Bur kel's survey [5℄. Be-
fore we present the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem, we re all the
following fa ts:
 every non- onstant analyti fun tion is an open map.
15 Riemann's dissertation, ompleted under Gauss's supervision in 1851, was on the
foundations of omplex analysis. It introdu ed several ideas of fundamental importan e,
su h as the denitions of onformal mapping and simple onne tivity.
520 Mapping Theorems
y
v
1+z
 
i w=i
1−z

−1 O 1 x
O u
−i Im ζ
1
ζ = Log w
1 π

O Re ζ

Figure 12.1: A onformal map of
onto

0 = fw : 0 < Im w < 1g:

 every one-to-one analyti fun tion has non-vanishing derivative and,

so has an analyti inverse.
 every analyti fun tion with non-vanishing derivative preserves angles
and their orientations and so, the fun tion provided by the Riemann
mapping theorem is, in parti ular, onformal. In view of this reason-
ing the Riemann mapping theorem is frequently alled the \ onformal
mapping theorem".
 frequently the omposition of onformal maps makes the problem
easier. For instan e, it follows that if
1 and
2 are two simply
onne ted domains with C n
k 6= ; for k = 1; 2 then, by Theorem
12.30, there exist two onformal maps fk :
k !
(k = 1; 2) and
therefore, f = f2 1 Æ f1 :
1 !
2 is the desired onformal map from

1 onto
2 . Thus, the use of the unit disk in the proof is a onvenient
intermediate step in the statement of the Riemann mapping theorem.
Before we undertake the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem it is
important to examine several examples of su h mappings.
12.31. Example. A onformal map whi h arries the unit disk

onto the horizontal strip
0 = fw : 0 < Im w < 1g is given by
 
1 i(1 + z )
Log :
 1 z
A proof for this fa t follows easily from Figure 12.1. 

12.32. Example. Consider the res ent shaped domain D1 dened

by
D1 = fz 2 C : jz ij > g \ fz 2 C : jz 2ij < 2g ( > 0)
12.4 The Riemann Mapping Theorem 521
y v
w = f1 (z) O −i/4α
2iα
iα
O x −i/2α
f = f3 ◦ f2 ◦ f1 ζ = f2 (w)
Im η Im ζ

η = f3 (ζ ) iπ

O Re η O Re ζ

Figure 12.2: A onformal map of D1 onto D2 :

and D2 , the open rst quadrant. The Riemann mapping theorem assures
the existen e of a univalent analyti fun tion f from D1 onto D2 (although
it does not give any method for onstru ting su h a mapping). In this
spe ial ase, we an a tually des ribe the method of nding a onformal
mapping whi h arries D1 onto D2 . To do this we rst see that if a > 0
then, under the inversion w = 1=z , one has
 jz iaj < a is mapped onto the half-plane Im (w) < 1=(2a)
 jz iaj = a is mapped onto the straight line Im (w) = 1=(2a)
 jz iaj > a is mapped onto the half-plane Im (w) > 1=(2a).
If we let (see Figure 12.2)
 
1 i
w = f1 (z ) = ;  = f2 (w) = 4 w + ;  = f3 ( ) = exp(=2);
z 2
then the above information help us to on lude that f = f3 Æ f2 Æ f1 is a
map with the desired property. This gives f (z ) = exp(2=z ). Also we
note that f (2i) = 1 and f (4i) = i. In parti ular if D3 is the open upper
half-plane H + , then a onformal mapping whi h arries D1 onto D3 is given
by f (z ) = exp(4=z ). 
12.33. Example. For k = 1; 2, let Dk = fz : 0 < rk < jz j < Rk g
su h that (r2 =r1 ) = (R2 =R1 ). Then we see that f given by
f (z ) = (r2 =r1 )z
maps the annulus D1 onto D2 .
522 Mapping Theorems

Next, we let A(r) = fz : r < jz j < 1g, r > 0, and B =
n
(1=3; 1=3).
Let us now des ribe a method of nding a onformal map that takes A(r)
onto B . Dene
 z
 (z ) = ; C1 = 
(1=3; 1=3) and C2 = 
:
1 z
First we need to nd  su h that  (C1 ) = 
r . For the moment, let 
be real. Then  (x) is real and  maps the real line into itself. Now,
 (2=3)
 (0) = ; and  (2=3) =
1 (2=3)
meets the real axis. Note that C1 meets the real axis in a perpendi ular
fashion, real goes to real and that  is onformal. As we need  (C1 ) to
be the ir le 
r entered at the origin,  (0) =  (2=3) whi h gives
 
 (2=3)
= or 2 3 + 1 = 0:
1 (2=3)
p p
That is  = (3  5)=2. As jj < 1, we hoose  = (3 5)=2 whi h is
positive. Thus, p
((3 5)=2) z
 (z ) = p
1 ((3 5)=2)z
maps 
onto itself,pand maps C1 onto the ir le with enter at the origin
and radius r = (3 5)=2.
Suppose that 1 = 
(1=4; 1=4) and 2 = 
: Then,  (0) =  (1=2)
gives  
 (1=2)
= or 2 4 + 1 = 0
1 (1=2)
p
so that  = 2  2. Thus, 2 p2 (z ) maps 
onto itself,pand maps 1
onto the ir le with enter at the origin and radius r = 2 2. Moreover,
as the inverse of  is itself,
p
(2 2) w
z = 2 p2 (w) = p
1 (2 2)w
p map whi h arries the annulus A(r) = fz : r < jz j < 1g
is a onformal
(r = 2 2) onto B =
n
(1=4; 1=4). 
12.34. Proof of the Riemann mapping theorem. The proof is
long and it involves a onsiderable number of tri ky ideas. So, we divide
the proof into several steps.
Uniqueness: We know that the every member of the (analyti ) auto-
morphisms of the unit disk
whi h xes the origin is given by the mapping
f (w) = ei w for some real . This result makes the uniqueness part easier.
Indeed, if
is a simply onne ted domain with
6= C , a 2
and su h
that (see Figure 12.3)
12.4 The Riemann Mapping Theorem 523

f1

1 a
f=

f2
f2
◦f−
1 1
1

Figure 12.3: Uniqueness of the Riemann map.

 fi :
!
is analyti , one-to-one and onto for ea h i = 1; 2;
 fi (a) = 0 and fi0(a) > 0 for ea h i = 1; 2;
then the fun tion f = f2 Æ f1 1 belongs to H(
) and maps
onto itself
onformally. Further,
 f (0) = f2 (f1 1 (0)) = f2 (a) = 0
0
 f 0(0) = f20 f1 1 (0) f1 1 0 (0) = ff20 ((aa)) > 0:



1
Observe that if z =  1 (w), then w = (z ) so that
d 1 (w) dw
dw

dz = 1; i.e. ( 1 )0 (w) = 0 ( 11 (w))
and, for (a) = 0, we have  1 0 ((a)) =  1 0 (0) = 1=[0(a)℄: Now,

by S hwarz' lemma (see also Corollary 6.48), f (w) = ei w for some  2 R.
Sin e f 0 (0) = ei > 0, it follows that f = f2 Æ f1 1 is the identity mapping
f (w) = w and so, f2 (z ) = f1 (z ) for all z 2
, as asserted. Having proved
the uniqueness part, we now turn to the problem of the existen e part.
Existen e: Let a 2
. Consider the family F dened by
F = ff 2 H(
) : f univalent on
, f (a) = 0, f 0 (a) > 0 and jf (z )j < 1g:
We show that the family F is non-empty.
Case (i): If
is bounded, then the assertion is easy. To do this we
simply need to nd an f meeting the stated spe i ations. If f (z ) = (z a)
and if  > 0 is taken suÆ iently small, then jf (z )j an be made less than
1 for all z 2
. Indeed,
jf (z )j = jj jz aj  (jz j + jaj)  2 sup jz j = 1
z2

524 Mapping Theorems

provided  = 1=(2 supz2

jz j):
Case (ii): Let
be unbounded. Sin e
6= C , there exists a point
b 2 C n
. Further, as z b 6= 0 on
(by Theorem 4.39), there exists a
fun tion h :
! C analyti on
with h2 (z ) = z b for z 2
: We have
 h is univalent on
, sin e, for z1 , z2 2
,
h(z1 ) = h(z2 ) ) z1 b = h2 (z1 ) = h2 (z2 ) = z2 b ) z1 = z2 :
 there exist no two points z1 ; z2 2
su h that h(z1 ) = h(z2). Indeed
if z1 ; z2 2
, then
h(z1) = h(z2 ) ) z1 b = h2 (z1 ) = h2 (z2 ) = z2 b
) z1 = z2
) h(z1 ) = h(z2 ) = h(z1)
) 0 = h(z1 )
) 0 = h2 (z1 ) = z1 b
) z1 = b 2 C n

whi h is a ontradi tion to the fa t that z1 2

.
 h, being a (one-to-one) non- onstant analyti fun tion, is an open
mapping. Now, by the open mapping theorem, h(
) is open and
hen e, h(
) ontains a disk, say
(w0 ; Æ) (about a point w0 2 h(
)
with some radius Æ), (see Figure 12.4).

( w0 ; Æ) fails to meet h(
), i.e.
( w0 ; Æ) \ h(
) = ;. Indeed,
if there exists a point w1 2
( w0 ; Æ) \ h(
) then w1 = h(z1) for
some z1 2
and also, jw1 + w0 j = j w1 w0 j < Æ showing that
w1 2
(w0 ; Æ)  h(
). The last fa t infers that
w1 = h(z2 ) for some z2 2
:
Thus, h(z1 ) = h(z2) whi h is not possible (as seen above) so that

( w0 ; Æ) \ h(
) = ;:
 for every z 2
, jh(z ) ( w0)j = jh(z )+ w0j  Æ > 0 so that g dened
by
Æk
g(z ) = (k 2 (0; 1))
h(z ) + w0
is a one-to-one analyti fun tion (sin e h is one-to-one on
with
h(z ) + w0 6= 0 on
) dened on
satisfying jg(z )j < 1 for all z 2
.
That is, g is a univalent map of
into a subdomain g(
) of
, but g(a) 6= 0.
To onstru t a fun tion f with f (a) = 0 and f 0 (a) > 0, we simply onsider
 
g(z ) g(a)
f (z ) = e i ;  = Arg (g0 (a)):
2
12.4 The Riemann Mapping Theorem 525
y v
z 7→ z − b = φ(z)
b

 φ() = 1
x u

h(
z)
= √
z− √
f =g◦h w
b

δ
w0 h()
−1 1 O δ
w0
g

Figure 12.4:

Therefore, F 6= ;. Thus, we have established the existen e of a onformal

mapping f from
into a subdomain of
satisfying the desired ondition;
that is, f 2 F .
Onto: Sin e F is uniformly bounded, by Montel's Theorem, F is a
normal family. We have already noted in the proof of Lemma 12.23, there
is a nite upper bound for f 0 (a) for all f 2 F . Let
 = supff 0 (a) : f 2 Fg:
Clearly,  > 0 be ause f 0 (a) > 0 for the fun tion dened by F . Also, 
is nite. By the denition of supremum, there is a sequen e fgn(z )g in F
su h that gn0 (a) ! . By Montel's Theorem, there exists a subsequen e
(whi h we may as well assume is the whole sequen e fgn(z )g) of fgn (z )g
that onverges lo ally uniformly on
(to a limit fun tion g(z ), say). But
then Weierstrass's theorem (see Theorem 4.84) tells us that gn0 ! g0 lo ally
uniformly on
, whi h gives that
lim g0 (a) = g0 (a):
n!1 n
Being the lo al uniform limit of a sequen e of univalent analyti fun tions,
g(z ) is either analyti and univalent on
or g(z ) is onstant there. As fgn0 g
is lo ally uniformly onvergent on
with limit g0 , we have g(a) = 0 and
g0 (a) =  > 0. Thus, g annot be onstant in
, and is therefore univalent
526 Mapping Theorems

 Tβ
g g()

O O
a P

Tβ (g())

Figure 12.5:

in
. Sin e g(
) is open (by the open mapping theorem), g(
) 
and so
jg(z )j < 1. The above dis ussion shows that the family F is ompa t; i.e.
g 2 F.
Observe that the map g 7! g0(a) : F ! R is a ontinuous fun tion on
the ompa t family F , and so it attains it maximum value. Let g 2 F be
a fun tion su h that g0 (a) is as large as possible. It remains to show that g
is an onto map. To prove g is onto, we use Koebe's tri k.
Suppose that g is not onto. Then there exists a point  2
ng(
) (see
Figure 12.5). We onsider the familiar Mobius mapping
 w
T (w) = :
1 w
We know that T is a one-to-one mapping of
onto itself with inverse T
itself. Also T (w) = 0 i w =  . Dene
 g(z )
(z ) = (T Æ g)(z ) = ; z 2
:
1 g(z )
Now,  2 H(
), (z ) 6= 0 on the simply onne ted domain
(sin e  2=
g(
)) and so,
admits a square root mapping H 2 H(
) su h that
H 2 (z ) = (z ); z 2
:
Sin e T and g are one-to-one, so is H . Sin e H 2 (
) 
, it follows that
H (
) 
. But H (a) 6= 0 and hen e, H annot be in F . Now, set H (a) = 
and note that 0 < jj < 1. Dene
H (z ) 
F (z ) = ei (T Æ H )(z ) = ei ;
1 H (z )
where  is hosen to ensure that F 0 (a) > 0. Indeed, F 2 H(
), F (a) = 0
and  
(1 jj2 )H 0 (z )
F 0 (z ) = ei
(1 H (z ))2
12.5 Bieberba h Conje ture 527

so that (note that H 0 (a) 6= 0)

H 0 (a)
F 0 (a) = ei :
1 jj2
If we hoose  su h that ei = jH 0 (a)j=H 0 (a); then we obtain that

F 0 (a) =
jH 0 (a)j = jH 0 (a)j > 0:
1 jj2 1 jH (a)j2
Now, F is in F . As H 2 (z ) = (z ) and (z ) = (T Æ g)(z ), we have
1 j j2
2H (z )H 0(z ) = 0 (z ) = T0 (g(z ))g0 (z ) and T0 (w) = ;
(1 w)2
whi h, for z = a, gives (note that g(a) = 0)
T 0 (0)  
1 j j2 0
H 0 (a) =  g0 (a) = g (a):
2H (a) 2H (a)
Further, (a) = T (g(a)) = T (0) =  gives H 2 (a) =  . Finally, using the
above observations, we have
F 0 (a) =
jH 0 (a)j
1 jH (a)j2
1 j j2 0 1
= g (a)
2jH (a)j 1 jH (a)j2
1 + j j
= p g0 (a) (sin e jH (a)j2 = j j)
2 j j
> g0 (a):
Thus F is in F , but F 0 (a) is greater than g0(a) ontradi ts the hoi e of
g 2 F as maximizing g0 (a). This ontradi tion proves that g(
) =
.

12.5 Bieberba h Conje ture

We re all that f 2 H(
) admits the Ma laurin series expansion about 0:
1
X f (n) (0)
f (z ) = an z n ; an = :
n=0 n!
We note that univalen y is preserved under translation. Moreover, if f is
univalent on
then f 0 (z ) 6= 0 on
(see Corollary 12.8). In parti ular,
f 0 (0) 6= 0. Sin e univalen y is unae ted by magni ation and translation,
f is univalent in
i g dened by
f (z ) f (0) 1
X
g (z ) = = z + bn z n (bn = an =a1);
f 0 (0) n=2
528 Mapping Theorems

is univalent in
. The fun tion g in this form is referred to as a normalized

(in the sense that g(0) = 0 = g0 (0) 1) analyti fun tion in
. It is
onvenient to introdu e the following standard notation:
S = ff 2 H(
) : f (0) = 0 = f 0 (0) 1 and f is univalent on
g:
Clearly, S is not losed under addition or multipli ation of fun tions al-
though it is losed under a number of elementary transformations (see also
Exer ise 12.61). Interesting members of S that an be he ked geometri-
ally are
z 2 ez 1 z z z
z; z ; ; ; ; :
2  1 z 1 z 2 (1 z )2
There are a number of basi questions that arise naturally in the theory
of univalent fun tions. For instan e, the problems of nding ne essary and
suÆ ient onditions for f to be a member of S .
In 1916, Bieberba h proved that if f (z ) = z + 1
P
n=2 an z 2 S , then
n
ja2 j  2 and asked whether we always have jan j  n for all n = 2; 3; : : : .
This be ame his famous onje ture. Although, the ases n = 3; 4; 5; 6 have
been proved using powerful analysis, the onje ture was proven only in 1984
by de Branges. For a proof of the result that ja2 j  2 (due to Bieberba h
himself), it will be easier if we dene a new lass of analyti fun tions,
namely , the set of all analyti and univalent fun tions on fz : 1 < jz j <
1g with simple pole at 1 with residue 1. Thus, a typi al element g 2 
will be of the form
X1
g(z ) = z + bnz n ; 1 < jz j < 1:
n=0
12.35. Theorem.P(Area Theorem) Suppose that g(z ) = z + 1
P n
1 n=0 bn z
is in . Then we have n=1 njbn j  1: In parti ular, jb1 j  1.
2

Proof. For an arbitrary r > 1, let r be the image of the ir le r =

fz 2 C : jz j = rg under g 2 . Sin e g is univalent, r is a simple losed
urve. Then Green's theorem (see Exer ise 12.56) implies that the area Ar
of the bounded domain surrounded by r is given by
Z Z Z 2
1 1 1
Ar = w dw = g(z )g0 (z ) dz = g(rei )g0 (rei )rei d
2i r 2i jzj=r 2 0
whi h leads to 1 !
X
Ar =  r2 njbn j2 r 2n :
n=1
Sin e Ar > 0 for r > 1, we have 1
P
n=1 njbn j r
2 2n 2 < 1 whi h is true for
every r > 1. The required result follows if we allow r ! 1+ .
12.36. Theorem. If f (z ) = z + 1 a z n 2 S , then we have
P
n=2 n
12.5 Bieberba h Conje ture 529

(i) ja2 j  2 [Bieberba h Theorem℄

(ii)
1=4  f (
). [Koebe 1/4-Theorem℄
The assertions annot be improved.
Proof. For the proof of (i), we dene

F (z ) = f (z )=z1 ifif 0z < jz j < 1
= 0:
Then, F 2 H(
). Sin e f 2 S and f (0) = 0, f (z ) 6= 0 for 0 < jz j < 1.
Consequently, F (z ) 6= 0 in
and hen e, F admits a square root fun tion:
h(z ) = (F (z ))1=2 with h(0) = 1. Dene g(z ) = zh(z 2): This in turn shows
the existen e of g 2 H(
) with
g(0) = 0 = g0 (0) 1 and g2 (z ) = f (z 2 ) for all z 2
:
We laim that g is univalent in
. Observe that
g(z1 ) = g(z2 ) =) g2(z1 ) = f (z12) = f (z22) = g2 (z2 )
=) z12 = z22 (sin e f is univalent)
=) z1 = z2
=) z1 = z2 :
Note that if z1 = z2, then g(z1 ) = z1h(z12 ) = z2h(z22 ) = g(z2) whi h
(together with g(z1 ) = g(z2)) gives g(z1) = 0 = g(z2). But 0 2= h(
) and
so, z1 = z2 = 0. It is a simple exer ise to see that
a2 3
g(z ) = z +
2
z +


and (z ) = g(11=z ) = z a22 z 1 +


;
where (z ) 2 . By the area theorem, ja2 =2j  1; that is ja2 j  2.
(ii) To prove the in lusion
1=4  f (
) it suÆ es to show that w 2
C n f (
) =) jwj  1=4: If w 2 C n f (
), then G dened by
wf (z )
G(z ) =
w f (z )
is in S . Indeed, G 2 H(
) with G(0) = G0 (0) 1 = 0 and w 6= 0 so that
f (z1 ) f (z2 )
G(z1 ) = G(z2 ) =) =
1 w 1 f (z1 ) 1 w 1 f (z2)
=) f (z1)(1 w 1 f (z2)) = f (z2)(1 w 1 f (z1))
=) f (z1) = f (z2 )
=) z1 = z2 (sin e f 2 S ):
530 Mapping Theorems

Thus, G 2 S . Moreover, as G00 (0)=2! = a2 + w 1 , it follows from Case (i)

that ja2 + w 1 j  2. This inequality implies that
jw 1 j  ja2 j + 2  4; i.e. jwj  1=4;
whi h proves the in lusion
1=4  f (
).
Finally, onsider the Koebe fun tion
1 "  #
z X
i ( n 1)  n e i 1 + ei z 2
k (z ) = =z+ ne z = 1 :
(1 ei z )2 n=2 4 1 ei z
It follows that k 2 S and k (
) is the omplement of the slit from
(1=4)e i to 1. Note that ja2 j = 2 and
1=4 is the largest disk en-
tered at 0 and ontained in k (
). Thus, the on lusion is sharp.

12.6 The Blo h-Landau Theorems

Basi ally Blo h's theorem leads to two important topi s:
 Blo h onstants and Landau onstants
 Blo h spa e (more generally, many fun tion spa es asso iated with
it).
For f 2 H(
), we raise the following
12.37. Problem. How big is the image domain f (
) in size?
We an talk about size of image domains in terms of disks, in parti ular
open disks in the following sense. That is, what size open disks (need not
be entered at the origin) an be pla ed inside f (
)? Thus, this problem
an be answered by means of giving a good estimate rather than nding
the exa t size of these disks.
Clearly, the answer does not seem to be easy. Intuitively, it is lear that
it is not easy to nd the pre ise size of su h disks for ea h fun tion in the
spa e of all analyti fun tions dened on any arbitrary domain. Neverthe-
less, we shall try to answer these questions step by step. Before we get into
the subje t, we shall dispose some of the simple ases. We have already
en ountered many results on erning the size of the image domains, for ex-
ample Liouville's theorem, exponential fun tions, and ertain trigonometri
fun tions. Re all that the set of all entire fun tions is divided into two sub-
sets, namely the set of all polynomials (in luding onstant fun tions) and
the set of all (entire) trans endental fun tions. Let us onsider the following
ases:
 Entire bounded fun tions: In this ase, by Liouville's theorem, the
image domain f (C ) is a singleton set. So, no open disk an be pla ed
inside f (C ).
12.6 The Blo h-Landau's Theorems 531

 Entire unbounded fun tions: In this ase, we see that f (C ) is either

the whole omplex plane C or the plane C minus a single point. For
example, we know that if p(z ) is a non- onstant polynomial (see fun-
damental theorem of algebra), then p(C ) = C . Also, sin(C ) = C ,
os(C ) = C and exp(C ) = C n f0g (see Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem
when 1 is an isolated essential singularity of sin z , os z and ez ). So,
an open disk of arbitrarily large radius an be pla ed inside f (C ).
 Analyti fun tions on the unit disk
: As f (z ) is entire i g dened
by g(z ) = f (Rz ) is analyti in
for ea h R > 0, we note that this
ase leads to the previous ase.
Thus, we deal only with the analyti fun tions on
. The reason for this
is due to the elebrated Riemann Mapping Theorem. So, it suÆ es to pay
attention to the last ase be ause, by means of ompositions, we retrieve
the properties of the image domain of the analyti fun tions dened on any
arbitrary simply onne ted domain. Avoiding onstant fun tions in our
dis ussion, it suÆ es to onsider the family of fun tions F = ff 2 H(
) :
f 0 (0) = 1g: The ondition f 0(0) = 1 is to ensure that f is not a onstant
fun tion. First we noti e that the existen e of su h a disk in f (
), f 2 F ,
is ensured by the open mapping theorem.
To make the size of su h disks more meaningful, we dene two onstants.
Consider f 2 F . Choose a point w 2 f (
) and nd the radii of all possible
disks entered at w su h that they lie ompletely in f (
). Repeat this
with every point of f (
). Let these radii be named as r; , where  and 
belong to some indexed sets  and 0 , respe tively. If r; is the radius of
the  -th disk entered at w 2 f (
), then we dene
Lf = supfr; :  2 ;  2 0 g:
Then the Landau16 onstant is dened as
L = inf Lf :
f 2F
Clearly, the denition of L is related to the size of the image domains of
fun tions in F .
For L, Ahlfors's [1℄ ultra-hyperboli method produ ed the non-sharp
lower bound 1=2. Later Yanahigara [12℄ improved the lower bound for L
to 12 + 10 335. Again it is important to mention that, we do not know
the exa t value of L. The following bounds were determined by Robinson
(1938) and independently by Radema her [10℄,
1 (1=3) (5=6)
<L ;
2 (1=6)
16 The name \Landau" is in honor of the great mathemati ian Landau who ontributed
a lot to this eld of resear h.
532 Mapping Theorems

who further onje tured that L is a tually the above mentioned upper
bound, namely,
(1=3) (5=6)
= 0:5432588


:
(1=6)
We let H0 denote the spa e of all fun tions in H(
) su h that f 0 (0) 6= 0.
12.38. Theorem. (Blo h) For ea h f 2 H0 , there exists a positive
onstant b su h that f maps some subdomain of
bianalyti ally onto a
disk of radius bjf 0 (0)j.
The disk referred to in this theorem is alled a univalent disk. Thus,
a disk about some point in f (
) is said to be a univalent disk i it is the
one-to-one and onto image of some subdomain of
. For f 2 H0 , dene
Bf = supfr; :  2 ;  2 0 g;
where r; is the radius of the  -th univalent disk about w 2 f (C ). Then
the Blo h onstant B is dened as
B = inf Bf :
f 2H0
The following upper and lower estimates for B were found by Ahlfors and
Grunsky [1℄, and Ahlfors [2℄:
p
3 (1=3) (11=12)
0:43


=
4
B p  0:4719:
(1=4)(1 + 3)1=2
It is onje tured that the orre t value of B is pre isely this upper bound
although they did not prove this onje ture. Re ently, on the basis of Bonk's
work [4℄ and the S hwarz-Pi k lemma, Chen Huaihui and P. M. Gauthier
[6℄ improved the lower bound for Blo h's onstant further as follows:
p
3
+ 2
10 4  B:
4
Theorem 12.38 yields the following
12.39. Corollary. The range f (C ) of every non- onstant entire
fun tion ontains open disks of arbitrary radius.
12.40. Example. Consider the following fun tions:
 
1 1+z z
f1 (z ) = z; f2 (z ) = az; f3 (z ) = log ; f4 (z ) = ;
2 1 z 1 z
where a is some non-zero omplex number. Then

Lf1 = 1 = Bf1 ; Lf2 = jaj = Bf2 ; Lf3 = = Bf3 ; Lf4 = 1 = Bf4 :
4
12.6 The Blo h-Landau's Theorems 533
y v
w = f (z)
1 f (1)

−1 1 x −M M u

w1 ∈
/ f (1) 11/4M
w2 ∈
/ f (1)

Figure 12.6: Des ription for a Blo h theorem

Finally, for the familiar Koebe fun tion k(z ) = z=(1 z) 2 (also for its
rotation), we have Lk = Bk = 1: 
12.41. Theorem. Let f 2 H(
) with f (0) = 0 = f 0 (0) 1. If
furthermore jf (z )j  M for some M > 0, then
(0; 1=4M )  f (
):
Proof. We suppose that w 2= f (
), i.e. w 6= f (z ) for any z 2
. We
wish to show that jwj  1=(4M ) (see Figure 12.6). To do this, we dene g
by
f (z )
g(z ) = 1 ; z 2
:
w
Thus g 2 H(
), g(0) = 1, g(z ) 6= 0 on
and therefore, by the square
root property (see Theorem 4.39), g has an analyti square root fun tion
h 2 H(
) with h(0) = 1 su h that
f (z )
h2 (z ) = 1 :
w
From this, it follows that
f 0 (0) 1
2h(0)h0 (0) = ; i.e. h0 (0) = :
w 2w
By the triangle inequality
 
jh(z )j  1 +  w   1 + jM
 f (z ) 
2  ; z 2
:
wj
The Ma laurin series expansion of h is then given by
X 1
h(z ) = hk z k ;
k=0
where h0 = h(0) = 1, h1 = h0 (0) = 1=(2w). Also, for z = rei ; r 2 (0; 1)
(see Remark 12.43),
1 Z 2
jhk j2 r2k = 21 jh(rei )j2 d  1 + jM
X
1 + jh1 j2 r2 
k=0 0 wj
534 Mapping Theorems

whi h gives
r2 M r2
1+
4jwj 2  1 + ; i.e. jwj 
jwj 4M
:
Letting r ! 1, we get the desired result.
12.42. Corollary. If g 2 H(
R ), g(0) = 0, g0(0) 6= 0 and jg(z )j 
M for jz j < R, then
 
R2 jg0 (0)j2

0;
4M
 g(
R ):
Proof. Dene f by
g(Rz )
f (z ) =
Rg0 (0)
=z+


; z 2
:
Then f is a normalized analyti fun tion and jf (z )j  M=(Rjg0(0)j) for
z 2
: Using Theorem 12.41, we have
 
1

0;
4(M=Rjg0(0)j)
 f (
) = Rjg10 (0)j g(
R )
whi h is equivalent to
 
0 Rjg0 (0)j
Rjg (0)j
0;  g(
R )
4M
and the desired on lusion follows.
12.43. Remark. For those who are familiar with Hilbert spa es and
omplex
P1 Fourier series, it is easy to show that if f 2 H(
) and f (z ) =
k
k=0 ak z , then
1 Z 2
jak j2 r2k = 21
X
jf (reit )j2 dt:
k=0 0

Indeed, this equality is a onsequen e of Parseval's equality (see for example

the book by Ponnusamy [8℄) applied to the fun tion
1
X
t 7! f (reit ) = ak rk eikt :
k=0
However, one an provide a dire t proof of Bessel's inequality
1 Z 2
jak j2 r2k  21
X
(12.44) jf (reit )j2 dt:
k=0 0
12.6 The Blo h-Landau's Theorems 535

To do this we onsider the spa e X of all omplex-valued fun tions dened

on [0; 2℄ with an inner produ t given by
Z 2
h; i = 21 (t) (t) dt:
0

If ek (t) = eikt ; k 2 Z, then


hek ; el i = 10 ifif kk =6= ll
so that fek (t) : k 2 Zg forms an orthonormal basis for the inner prod-
u t spa e X . We onsider the orresponden e fr : t 7! f (reit ) and the
orthonormal proje tion of fr onto the spa e Yn = span fe0 ; e1; : : : ; en 1g:
This proje tion is given by
sn (t) = hfr ; e0 ie0 + hfr ; e1ie1 +


+ hfr ; en 1ien 1 :
It follows that
Z 2 Z 2
hfr ; ek i = 21 fr (t)e ikt dt = 1
2
f (reit )e ikt dt = ak rk :
0 0
Therefore, for ea h n 2 N ,
nX1 Z 2
jak j2 r2k = ksn k2  kfr k2 = 21 jf (rei )j2 d:
k=0 0

Letting n ! 1; we get the inequality (12.44). 

12.45. Theorem. (Landau's Theorem) Let f 2 H(
) and f 0 (0) =
1. Then f (
) ontains a disk of radius  > 0, where  is an absolute
onstant.
Proof. We may assume that f is analyti on
, sin e otherwise we an
onsider  1 f (z ) for  near 1. For t 2 [0; 1℄, we set
M (t) = max jf 0 (z )j:
jzjt
Then M (t) is non-de reasing and, be ause f 0 (0) = 1, we have M (t)  1.
In fa t, M (t) = maxjzj=t jf 0 (z )j (by the maximum prin iple). Now, we put
w(t) = tM (1 t):
Then w : [0; 1℄ ! R is ontinuous, w(0) = 0 and w(1) = 1 (see Figure
12.7).
536 Mapping Theorems

s s
s = w(t)
1 (1, 1) 1 (1, 1)

t)
w(
s=

O 1 t O t0 1 t

Figure 12.7: Choosing suitable bran h.

Therefore, there exists at least one t, say t0 > 0 su h that w(t0 ) = 1

and w(t) < 1 if 0 < t < t0 (Note that we an hoose t0 = inf ft : w(t) = 1g
so that w(t0 ) = 1 and w(t) < 1 for 0  t < t0 ). Let a be a point with

jaj = 1 t0 and jf 0 (a)j = M (1 t0 ) = w(tt0 ) = t1 :

0 0
Dene (z ) = f (z +a) f (a) and note that jz +aj  jz j+jaj = jz j+1 t0 < 1
if jz j < t0 . Moreover,
  is analyti for jz j < t0 , (0) = 0, and j0 (0)j = jf 0 (a)j = 1=t0 > 0
 jz + aj  jz j + 1 t0 < 1 t0 =2 if jz j < t0 =2
 for jz j < t0 =2,
j0 (z )j = jf 0 (z + a)j  M (1 t0 =2) = w(tt0==22) < t2
0 0
(be ause w(t) < 1 for 0 < t < t0 ). Hen e, for jz j < t0 =2,
Z z 
j(z )j = j(z ) (0)j =   ( ) d   t2 jz j < 1:
 0 

0 0

Finally, as  2 H(
t0 =2 ) with (0) = 0, j0 (0)j = 1=t0 and j(z )j < 1 on

t0 =2 , we an apply Corollary 12.42 to get
 
R2 j0 (0)j2

0;
4M
 (
R )
where R = t0 =2, M = 1, j0 (0)j = 1=t0. Substituting these values we get

1=16  (
t0 =2 ):
This expresses the fa t that the image of
(0; t0 =2) under (z ) overs the
disk
(0; 1=16). Equivalently, the image of jz aj < t0 =2 under (z ) =
f (z + a) f (a) overs the disk
(0; 1=16). That is,

(f (a); 1=16)  f (
(a; t0 =2))
12.6 The Blo h-Landau's Theorems 537

so that the image of
under f ontains the disk
(f (a); 1=16).
Theorem 12.45 does not say anything about the enter about whi h the
disk of radius  an be found in f (
). In general, f (0) is not the enter of
su h a disk as the fun tion
z2
f(z ) = (ez= 1) = z + +



2!
shows. Note that f(0) = 0 = f0 (0) 1, and f(z ) omits the value  as
 2= f (
). This fun tion shows that for small values of  > 0, f(
)
never ontains any disk
(f (0); ). Thus, although f(
) ontains some
disk
(b; 1=16), b is not ne essarily f (0).
12.46. Corollary. If f 2 H(
( ; R)) and f 0 ( ) 6= 0, then the image
f (
( ; R)) ontains a disk of radius Rjf 0 ( )j with  = 1=16.
Proof. Dene
f ( + Rz ) f ( )
g (z ) =
Rf 0 ( )
= 0 +z+
Rf ( )



:
Then g 2 H(
) and g0 (0) = 1. By Theorem 12.45, g(
) ontains a disk of
radius  with  = 1=16. The result follows.
Let us now prove the following stronger version of Theorem 12.45.

12.47. Theorem. (Blo h's Theorem) Let f 2 H(
) and f 0 (0) = 1.

Then there exists a subdomain
(in fa t a disk) in
on whi h f is univalent
su h that f (
) ontains a disk of radius 1=24.
Proof. Following the proof of Theorem 12.45, the fun tion  dened
by (z ) = f (z + a) f (a) satises the following onditions
(i)  2 H(
t0 ), (0) = 0, j0 (0)j = 1=t0 > 0
(ii) j0 (z )j < 2 for jz j < t0 =2.
t0
Now, we note that for jz j < t0 =2,

j0 (z ) 0 (0)j  j0 (z )j + j0 (0)j < t2 + t1 = t3 = 3j0 (0)j:

0 0 0
S hwarz' lemma (see Corollary 6.28) applied to F (z ) = 0 (z ) 0 (0) for
jz j < t0 =2 implies that
   
j0 (z ) 0 (0)j  3j0 (0)j tjz=j2 = j0 (0)j 6tjz j < j0 (0)j
0 0
538 Mapping Theorems

whenever jz j < r = t0 =6. By Corollary 12.19, (z ) is univalent for jz j < r.

Thus, the fun tion h dened by
f (rz + a) f (a)
h(z ) =
rf 0 (a)
is a normalized univalent fun tion in
. By the Koebe 1=4-theorem, h(
)
overs the disk
(0; 1=4). Consequently, f (rz + a) f (a) overs the disk
of radius rjf 0 (a)j=4 whi h is 1=24, as jf 0 (a)j = 1=t0 = 1=6r. Equivalently,
f (rz + a) ontains a (univalent) disk of radius 1=24 about f (a). The desired
result follows.

Although the exa t value of B is unknown, by our argument, for all

fun tions in F = ff 2 H(
) : f 0 (0) = 1g it follows that B  1=24.

12.7 Pi ard's Theorem

We begin by deriving some easy onsequen es of simple onne tivity for the
representation of fun tions that omit two values. To do this, we re all that
every analyti fun tion on a simply onne ted domain admits a primitive.
Moreover, if
 C is a simply onne ted domain then, ea h non-vanishing
fun tion f 2 H(
) admits an analyti bran h of the logarithm and an
analyti bran h of the square root fun tion in
(see Theorems 4.38 and
4.39). That is, there exist h; g 2 H(
) with g(z ) 6= 0 on
su h that
 eh(z) = f (z ) or h(z ) = log f (z ); z 2

 f (z ) = (g(z ))2 or g(z ) = (f (z ))1=2 ; z 2

.
We start by proving two lemmas whi h lead to the lassi al proof of Pi ard's
little theorem with the help of Blo h's theorem.

12.48. Lemma. Let

 C be a simply onne ted domain, and let
f 2 H(
) be su h that 1 2= f (
) and 1 2= f (
). Then there exists an
F 2 H(
) su h that f (z ) = os F (z ) for z 2
.
Proof. Consider the fun tion 1 f 2 (z ) = (1 + f (z ))(1 f (z )) whi h is
non-vanishing in
and belongs to H(
). Sin e 1 f 2 (z ) has no zeros in

, by the square-root property there exists a fun tion g 2 H(

) su h that
g2 (z ) = 1 f 2 (z ); i.e. (f + ig)(f ig) = f 2 + g2 = 1; z 2
;
whi h shows that f + ig belongs to H(
) and has no zeros in
. As a
onsequen e, f + ig = exp (iF ) for some F 2 H(
) and it follows that
1
f ig = = exp( iF )
f + ig
12.7 Pi ard's Theorem 539

so that
exp(iF ) + exp( iF )
f= = os(F )
2
whi h ompletes the proof.
12.49. Lemma. Let
 C be a simply onne ted domain, and let
f 2 H(
) be su h that 0 2= f (
) and 1 2= f (
). Then there exists a
g 2 H(
) su h that
1 + os( os g(z ))
(12.50) f (z ) =
2
and with the property that g (
) ontains no open disk of radius 1.
Proof. Clearly the fun tion 2f (z ) 1 omits the values 1 and 1 in
.
Thus, by Lemma 12.48, there exists a fun tion F 2 H(
) su h that
2f (z ) 1 = os F (z ); z 2
:
Moreover, as os F (z ) omits the values 1 and 1, the fun tion F 2 H(
)
must omit all integer values whi h implies the existen e of g 2 H(
) with
F = os(g). Therefore, the desired representation in (12.50) follows. It
remains to show that g(
) ontains no disk of radius 1 in the w-plane. We
dene
n p o
A = am;n = m + i 1 log(n + n2 1) : m 2 Z; n 2 N :
We laim that the points of A do not belong to g(
), yet every open disk
of radius 1 ontains one point of A. To do this, we onsider a general point
in A:
a := am;n for some m 2 Z, n 2 N :
p
Then, as ia = im log(n + n2 1), we have
eia + e ia
os a =
2 
( 1)m 1 p
=
2
p + n + n2 1
n + n2 1
= ( 1)m n
so that os ( os a) = os (n( 1)m ) = os n = ( 1)n . Thus, if a 2
g(
), there exists a point za 2
with a = g(za ) and therefore,
1 + os ( os g(za )) 1 + os ( os a) 1 + ( 1)n
f (za ) = = =
2 2 2
showing that f (z ) assumes the values 0, or 1 or both, whi h ontradi ts
that f (z ) 6= 0; 1 for z 2
. This observation shows that the rst laim
g(
) \ A = ; is veried.
540 Mapping Theorems

Next we must show that no disk of radius 1 an be disjoint from the

set A. For this, we estimate the dieren e between the onse utive real
and imaginary parts of points from A. Clearly, the points of A are simply
the verti es of a re tangular grid in C and the length of every re tangle
(i.e. the dieren e between the real parts of the two onse utive horizontal
points) is seen to be 1. Also, ea h re tangle has a height (i.e. the dieren e
between the imaginary points of the two onse utive verti al points) less
than 1. Indeed, by the monotoni ity of log(x), we have
q
 p  1 + 1 + 1 + n2 
n + 1 + n2 + n n
log p = log q
n + n2 1 1+ 1 1
n2
 r 
 log 1 + n1 + 1 + n2
p
 log(2 + 3) < 

so that
1 p 1 p
log(n + 1 + (n + 1)2 1) log(n + n2 1) < 1:
 
These two observations imply that orresponding to every given omplex
number w 2 C there exists an a = am;n (the losest one in A) with
jRe a Re wj  12 and jIm a Im wj < 12 ;
so that
ja wj  jRe a Re wj + jIm a Im wj < 1:
Thus, every disk of radius 1 interse ts A. But we have already shown that
g(
) \ A = ; and therefore, g(
) ontains no disk of radius 1.
We an now prove that the range of every non- onstant entire fun tion
is the omplex plane with at most one ex eption (see Theorem 7.37).
12.51. Proof of Pi ard's little theorem. We shall show that every
f 2 H(C ) whi h omits 0 and 1 is ne essarily a onstant. For this, we apply
Lemma 12.49 with
= C . A ording to Lemma 12.49, we have
1 + os ( ( os g(z )))
f (z ) =
2
where g 2 H(C ) and g(C ) ontains no disk of radius 1. Sin e f is not
onstant, g annot be onstant either. Therefore, we an hoose su h
that g0 ( ) 6= 0. We then dene
 
1  g( )
G(z ) = g 0 z + = +z +



 g ( ) 
12.7 Pi ard's Theorem 541

whi h is entire and G0 (0) = 1. Sin e g(z ) does not ontain any disk of
radius 1, G(z ) does not ontain a disk of radius .
But Blo h's theorem (see Theorem 12.47 with  = 1=24, Landau's The-
orem 12.45 with  = 1=16, and also Corollary 12.39) implies that the range
of every non- onstant entire fun tion ontains disks of every radius. This
is a ontradi tion, so g is a onstant and hen e, f is onstant.
Another appli ation of Lemma 12.49 is S hottky's theorem.
12.52. Theorem. (S hottky's Theorem) Let f (z ) = a0 + a1 z +



be analyti for jz j < R and omit the values 0 and 1. Then, for any 0 <  <
1, there exists a onstant S (a0 ;  ) depending only on a0 and  , su h that
jf (z )j  S (a0 ;  ) for jz j  R .
Proof. By Lemma 12.49, there exists a g 2 H(
R ) su h that
 
1 + os( os g(z )) 2  os g(z )
(12.53) f (z ) = = os
2 2
and with the property that g(
R ) ontains no open disk of radius 1.
Suppose a 2
R . It is lear that the fun tion
g(a + (1  )Rz ) g(a)
G(z ) = 0 = +z +



(1  )Rg (a) (1  )Rg0 (a)
is analyti for jz j < 1 and satises the onditions of the Blo h-Landau the-
orem (see Corollary 12.46), provided that g0 (a) 6= 0. Sin e g(
R ) ontains
no disk of radius 1, G(
) does not over a disk of radius
1
:
(1  )Rjg0 (a)j
On the other hand, by Corollary 12.46, it follows that
1 1 16
> ; i.e. jg0 (a)j < :
(1  )Rjg0 (a)j 16 (1  )R
This is also true if g0 (a) = 0. If jz j  R , we have
Z z 
jg(z ) g(0)j =  g ( ) d   (116jz )j R  116
 0 

0
so that
jg(z )j  jg(0)j + 116 :
Note that g(0) depends only on a0 . If we let w = 2 os(g(z )), then (12.53)
gives
 iw 
 e + e iw 
jf (z )j =  2   ejwj  exp ((=2) exp(jg(z )j))
1 = 2 

 exp ((=2) exp([jg(0)j + 16=(1  )℄) :

542 Mapping Theorems

12.8 Exer ises

12.54. Determine whether the following statements are true or
false. Justify your answer.
(a) Let D be a domain in C and f 2 H(D). Suppose that B is a disk of
positive radius ontained in D. If Re f or Im f or Arg f is onstant
on B , then f is onstant on D.
(b) If f is univalent and analyti in an open set D ex ept for isolated
singularities, then f an have at most one singularity and that as a
simple pole.
( ) An even fun tion in a domain D is not univalent in D.
(d) The fun tion f (z ) = z=(1 z )3 is univalent for jz j < 1=2 but not in
any larger disk entered at the origin.
p
(e) If f 2 H(
) and jf 0 (z ) 1 ij < 2 for z 2
; then f is univalent
in
.
(f) If f is analyti in a onvex domain D su h that Ref 0 (z ) 6= 0 for all
z 2 D, then f is univalent in D.
(g) If the polynomial p(z ) = a0 + a1 z +


+ an z n (an 6= 0) is univalent
in the unit disk
, then njan j  ja1 j.
(h) The fun tion f (z ) = [exp(6z) 1℄=6 omits the value 1=6 and this
fun tion does not ontradi t Koebe's one-quarter theorem.
(i) Both os z and sin z are univalent in
(i) the strip
= fz :  < Re z <  + g
(ii) the semistrip
= fz :  < Re z <  + 2; Im z > 0g
(iii) the semistrip
= fz :  < Re z <  + 2; Im z < 0g,
where  is a xed real number.
(j) If 
= fz : 0 < Re z < 2; Im z > 0g, then the fun tion os z =
1 iz iz is univalent on the domain
and os(
) = C n[ 1; +1).
2 e +e
(k) If 
= fz :  jRe z j < =2; Im z > 0g, then the fun tion sin z =
1 iz e iz is univalent on the domain
and sin(
) is the upper
2i e
half-plane.
z
(l) The fun tion oth(z=2) = eez +11 maps the semistrip
= fz : Re z >
0; jIm z j < g onto
0 = fw : Re w > 0g.
(m) The fun tion f (z ) = z=(1 + jz j) is a homeomorphism of C onto
.
(n) The pun tured unit disk
nf0g is homeomorphi to the pun tured
plane C n f0g but not onformally equivalent.
(o) If D = fz : jz j  1 or jz + 2j  1g and D = (C n D) [ f1g, then D
is onformally equivalent to the open upper half-plane H + .
12.8 Exer ises 543

(p) There exists an analyti univalent fun tion f that maps the innite
strip fz : 0 < Im z < 1g onto the unit disk
.
(q) If
is a simply onne ted domain, f 2 H(
) and 0 2= f (
), then
f has an analyti n-th root; that is there exists a g 2 H(
) with
gn(z ) = f (z ) for z 2
:
(r) If
 C (
6= C ) is a simply onne ted domain with the property
that every non-vanishing analyti fun tion on
has a square root
property, then there exists a univalent analyti fun tion g on
su h
that g(
) 
.
(s) Let
be a simply onne ted domain, a and b be any two points of

. Then there exists an analyti automorphism f of
su h that
f (a) = b.
(t) If f is an univalent analyti mapping from
onto a simply onne ted
domain D su h that f (0) = 0 and  = dist (0; C n D), then jf 0 (0)j  .
(u) There exists a unique onformal map w = f (z ) whi h arries
onto
itself su h that f (1=2) = i=3 and f 0 (i=3) > 0.
(v) If w = f (z ) is a onformal mapping of a domain
RR D onto D0 , then the
0 0
area A of the domain D is given by A = D jf (z )j2 dx dy.
(w) The area of the image of the unit disk
under the univalent fun tion
f (z ) = z + (z 2 =2) is 3=2.
(x) There exists a onformal mapping of the res ent shaped domain
D1 =
(2; 2) n
(1; 1) onto the unit disk.
(y) If A(r) = fz : 0 < r < jz j < 1g and
=
n
(9=28; 5=28), then there
exists an r su h that A(r) is onformally equivalent to
.
(z) If A(R) = fz : 1 < jz j < Rg and
=
(1; 5=2) n
, then there exists
an R su h that A(R) is onformally equivalent to
.
12.55. Suppose f is analyti in a neighborhood N of the origin and
that f 0 (0) 6= 0. Show that there exists a disk
 N , a positive integer n,
and an analyti fun tion h su h that f (z ) = f (0) + (h(z ))n in
.
12.56. If is a positively oriented simple
Z losed urve and D is the
1
region bounded by , then Area (D) = z dz:
2i
12.57.
Z If is a losed urve and f is analyti in a domain ontaining
, then f (z )f 0 (z ) dz is a purely imaginary number.

12.58. If f :
! C is one-to-one on
, then we know that f 0 (z ) 6= 0
on
. Does this result hold for a fun tion of a real variable? Explain with
an example.
544 Mapping Theorems

12.59. Find a onformal, one-to-one map f from the unit disk
onto
the domain
= fw : jIm wj < =2g nfu : u  1g su h that f (0) = 1.
12.60. Let
= fz 2
: Im z > 1=2g: Find a onformal map f whi h
maps
one-to-one and onto
su h that f (3i=4) = 0.
12.61. If f 2 S , then show that ea h of the fun tions G dened below
is in S :
(i) G(z ) =  1 f (z ) (jj  1)
(ii) G(z ) = f (z)
(iii) G(z ) = ff (z n)g1=n (n 2 N )
wf (z )
(iv) G(z ) = (w 2= f (
))
w f (z )
 
f 1+ z + f ()
z
(v) G(z ) = (jj  1).
(1 jj2 )f 0 ()
12.62. Give an example of a normal family of fun tions in H whi h
ontains unbounded fun tions.
12.63. Supply the proof of Corollary 12.17.
12.64. Suppose that f is onformal map of a simply onne ted domain

(6= C ) onto
, and a 2

. Find a onformal mapping g of
onto
su h
that g(a) = 0 and g0 (a) > 0.
12.65. Let
(6= C ) be a simply
p onne ted domain and b 62
. Suppose
that h is an analyti bran h of z b. Show that h is univalent in
and
h(
) is disjoint from h(
).
12.66. Let f 2 H(
), f (0) = f 0 (0) 1 = 0 and jf (z )j  M for all
z 2
. Using the Cau hy estimate show that f (
) 
1=6M :
12.67. For 0 <  < 1, dene
z z z
f (z ) = ; g (z ) = ; and h (z ) = :
(1 z )2 1 z 1 z 2
If f denotes one of these fun tions, then f (0) = f 0 (0) 1 = 0, and f 2 H(
):
Find an expli it radius r > 1=16 su h that
r  f (
): Also, how large an
you make r?
12.68. Suppose that f (z ) is entire and Im f (z ) 6= 0 whenever jz j 6= 1.
Prove that f (z ) is onstant.
Bibliography

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Math. Z. 42(1937), 671{673.
[2℄ L. V. Ahlfors: An extension of S hwarz's lemma, J. Anal. Math.
43(1938), 359{364.
[3℄ A. Blo h: Les theoremes de M.Valiron sur les fon tions entieres et la
theorie de l'uniformisation, Ann. Fa . S i. Univ. Toulouse 17(3)(1925),
1{22.
[4℄ M. Bonk: On Blo h's onstant, Pro . Amer. Math. So . 110(1990),
889{894.
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I, A ademi Press, 1979.
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[8℄ S. Ponnusamy: Foundations of Fun tional Analysis, Narosa Publish-
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du tion, To appear.
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M Graw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1964
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545
546 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS:

[13℄ L. Ahlfors: Complex Analysis, 2nd ed., M Graw-Hill, New York,

1966.
[14℄ L. Carlesson and T.W. Gamelin: Complex Dynami s, Springer-
Verlag, 1993.
[15℄ J.B. Conway: Fun tions of one Complex Variables, 2nd edition,
Springer-Verlag, 1978.
[16℄ H. Edwards: Riemann Zeta Fun tion, A ademi Press, New York,
1974.
[17℄ T.W. Gamelin: Complex Analysis, Springer-Verlag, 2001.
[18℄ B.R. Gelbaum: Modern Real and Complex Analysis, John Wiley &
Sons, In ., 1995.
[19℄ E. Hille: Analyti Fun tion Theory, Vol.2. Lexington, Massa husetts:
Ginn, 1962.
[20℄ A. Ivi : The Zeta Fun tion, John Wiley & Sons, In ., 1987.
[21℄ Z. Nehari: Introdu tion to Complex Analysis (Revised edition),
Boston: Allyn and Ba on, 1968.
[22℄ B.P. Palka: An Introdu tion to Complex Fun tion Theory, Springer-
Verlag, 1991.
[23℄ W. Rudin: Real and Complex Analysis, 2nd, 3rd eds., M Graw-Hill,
New York, 1974 and 1987.
[24℄ E.C. Tit hmar h: Theory of Fun tions, Oxford University Press,
1960.
[25℄ W.A. Vee h: A Se ond Course in Complex Analysis, W.A. Ben-
jamin, In ., New York, 1967.
 Index of Spe ial Notation

Symbol Meaning
; empty set
a2S a is an element of the set S
a 62 S a is not an element of S
fx : : : :g set of all elements with the property : : :
X [Y set of all elements in X or Y ;
i.e. union of the sets X and Y
X \Y set of all elements in X as well as in Y ;
i.e. interse tion of the sets X and Y
XY set X is ontained in the set Y ;
i.e. X is a subset of Y
XY X  Y and X 6= Y ;
or X ( Y i.e. set X is a proper subset of Y
X Y Cartesian produ t of sets X and Y ;
i.e. f(x; y) : x 2 X; y 2 Y g
X nY or X Y set of all elements that live in X but not in Y
X omplement of X
=) implies (gives)
==) does not imply
() if and only if, or brie y `i'
! or ! onverges (approa hes) to; into
=! or !
= does not onverge
N set of all natural numbers, f1; 2; : : :g
N0 N [ f0g = f0; 1; 2; : : :g
Z set of all integers (positive, negative and zero)
Q set of all rational numbers, fp=q : p; q 2 Z; q 6= 0g
R set of all real numbers, real line
R1 R [ f 1; 1g, extended real line
C set of all omplex numbers, omplex plane
C1 extended omplex plane, C [ f1g
548 Index of Spe ial Notations

Rn n-dimensional real Eu lidean spa e, the set of all

n-tuples x = (x1 ; : : : ; xn ), xk 2 R, k = 1; : : : ; n
iR set of all purely imaginary numbers, imaginary axis
domain open and onne ted
H+ upper half-plane
H lower half-plane
z z := x iy, omplex onjugate of z = x + iy
p
jz j x2 + y2, modulus of z = x + iy, x; y 2 R
Re z (Im z ) real part x (imaginary part y) of z = x + iy
arg z set of real values of  su h that z = jz jei
Arg z argument  2 arg z su h that  <   ;
the prin ipal value of arg z
lim sup jzn j upper limit of the real sequen e fjznjg
lim inf jzn j lower limit of the real sequen e fjznjg
lim jzn j limit of the real sequen e fjznjg
sup S least upper bound, or the supremum, of the set S  R1
inf S greatest lower bound, or the inmum, of the set S  R
inf x2D f (x) inmum of f in D
max S the maximum of the set S  R; the largest element in S
min S the minimum of the set S  R; the smallest element in S
f : D ! D1 f is a fun tion from D into D1
f (z ) the value of the fun tion at z
f (D) set of all values f (z ) with z 2 D;
i.e. w 2 f (D) () 9 z 2 D su h that f (z ) = w
f 1 (D) fz : f (z ) 2 Dg, the preimage of D under f
f 1 (w ) the preimage of one element fwg
f Æg omposition mapping of f and g
dist (z; A) distan e from the point z to the set A
i.e. inf fjz aj : a 2 Ag
dist (A; B ) distan e between two sets A and B
i.e. inf fja bj : a 2 A; b 2 B g
[z1 ; z2 ℄ losed line segment onne ting z1 and z2 ;
fz = (1 t)z1 + tz2 : 0  t  1g
(z1 ; z2 ) open line segment onne ting z1 and z2 ;
fz = (1 t)z1 + tz2 : 0 < t < 1g
Index of Spe ial Notation 549

(a; r) open disk fz 2 C : jz aj < rg (a 2 C ; r > 0)

(a; r) losed disk fz 2 C : jz aj  rg (a 2 C ; r > 0)

(a; r) the ir le fz 2 C : jz aj = rg

r
(0; r)


(0; 1), unit disk fz 2 C : jz j < 1g

unit ir le fz 2 C : jz j = 1g
P n
ez exp(z ) = n0 zn! , an exponential fun tion
Log z ln jz j + iArg z;  < Arg z  
log z ln jz j + i arg z := Log z + 2ki; k 2 Z
 
 1  
i , Cau hy-Riemann operator
z 2 x y
 
 1  
+i
z 2 x y
f
fz , partial derivative of f w.r.t z
z
f
fz , partial derivative of f w.r.t z
z
Int ( ) (Ext ( )) interior (exterior) of
1 + 2 sum of two urves 1 ; 2
L( ) length of the urve
( n
f (a) ) n-th derivative of f evaluated at a

f (z ) = O(g(z )) there exists a onstant K su h that jf (z )j  K jg(z )j
as z ! a
for all values of z near a

f (z ) = o(g(z )) lim f (z ) = 0
as z ! a z!a g (z )
)
lim z = z;
n!1 n sequen e fzn g onverges to z
or zn ! z
d(zn ; z ) ! 0 sequen e fzn g onverges to z with a metri d
Res [f (z ); a℄ residue of f at a
P
Res [f (z ); D℄ sum of the residues of f at ea h singularity of f inside D
H(D) family of all analyti (holomorphi ) fun tions on D
550 Index of Spe ial Notations
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted
Exer ises
Chapter 1, Exer ises 1.7:
1.53:
(k) If Im z 6= 0, then
   n 
 Im z n  z (z )n 2i 

 Im z 
 = 
2i

z z
= jz n 1 + z n 2 z +


+ (z)n 1 j  njz jn 1 :

(r) No. For example take z1 = i andpz2 = i. Note that p

the two roots of
z 2 + z + 1 = 0 are w1 = ( 1 + i 3)=2, w2 = ( 1 i 3)=2 and they
satisfy w12 = w2 and w22 = w1 .
(s) If Re z =a > 0, then jz 1j < jz j so that
 n+1   n+1 
z 1  z 1  1

 z1 >

 z
 j z jn
jz j


from whi h we obtain j1 + z + z 2 +


+ z nj > jz jn 1=jz j: Sin e

1=jz j < 1 and the left hand side of the above inequality is an integer
we an negle t the term 1=jz j if we repla e the symbol > by . Proof
of (ii) is similar.
(w) Let limn!1 zn = `. Then, for a given  > 0 there exists an N su h
that jzn `j < =2 for n > N: Now the triangle inequality gives
 
n n
1 X 
 n1
X
jZn `j =  (zk
n k=1
`)

jzk `j:
k=1
Therefore, for n > N , we have
N n
jZn `j  n1 jzk `j + n1
X X
jzk `j
k=1 k=N +1
N
 n1 jzk `j + n1 (n N ) 2
X

k=1
N
 2 + n1 jzk `j:
X

k=1
552 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises
P
Choose n suÆ iently large so that n1 N
k=1 jzk `j < 2 : Thus, we have

jZn `j <  for suÆ iently large n and so, Zn ! ` as n ! 1. A
simple onsequen e of this is that
 
1 1 1 1
1 + +


+ ! 0; sin e ! 0:
n 2 n n
1.54. If we let zj = jzj jeiArg zj (j = 1; 2), then
z1 z2 = jz1 z2 jei(Arg z1 +Arg z2 ) with 2 < Arg z1 + Arg z2  2
and z1 z2 = jz1 z2 jeiArg (z1 z2 ) with  < Arg (z1 z2 )  : Thus, we
must have
Arg (z1 z2 ) = Arg z1 + Arg z2 + 2k1 ;
where k1 is some integer in the set f 1; 0; 1g su h that
 < Arg z1 + Arg z2 + 2k1   :
Now, (a) is lear. Similarly we an establish (b).
1.55. Assume that the result is true for m = n > 1. For m = n + 1, we
have
! !
nX
+1 nX
+1 X
jzk j2 jwk j2 jzk wj zj wk j2
k=1 k=1 1k<j n+1
! !
n
X n
X
= jzk j2 jwk j2 + jzn+1 j2 jwn+1 j2
k=1 k=1
n
X n
X
+ jzk wn+1 j2 + jzn+1 wk j2
k=1 k=1
X n
X
jzk wj zj wk j2 jzk wn+1 zn+1wk j2
1k<j n k=1
 2
Xn 
= 


zk wk  +

jzn+1 wn+1 j2
k=1
n
X
+ [jzk wn+1 j2 + jzn+1 wk j2 jzk wn+1 zn+1 wk j2 ℄
k=1
 2 ( n )
Xn  X
= 


zk wk  +

jzn+1 wn+1 j2 + 2 Re zk wk zn+1 wn+1
k=1 k=1
 2
n +1 
X
=  zk wk  :
 
k=1
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 553
z1
|z
π/3 1 −
z3

1|
|

|z2 − z
π/3 z3
π/3 |
− z3
|z 2
z2

Figure 12.8: Des ription for equilateral triangle.

1.56. We have z2 z1 = ei=3 (z3 z1 ) and z1 z3 = ei=3 (z2 z3 ) so that

(z2 z1)(z2 z3 ) = (z1 z3 )(z3 z1 )
from whi h we get the required on lusion (see Figure 12.8). Let
z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 1 i. Then z12 = 2i, z22 = 2i, z1 + z2 = z1 z2 = 2:
Sin e z1 ; z2 ; z3 should form an equilateral triangle, we should have
2i 2i + z32 = 2 + 2z3; i.e. z32 2z3 2 = 0:
p p
Solving the last equation gives z3 = 1 + 3 or 1 3:
1.61. jz ( 7 + ib)j = (48 + b2 )1=2 , b 2 R:
Chapter 2, Exer ises 2.5:
2.63:
(d) For z1 ; z2 in
, we have f (z1) = f (z2 ) =) (z1 z2)(n +  ) = 0 where
 = z1n 1 + z1n 2 z2 +


+ z1 z2n 2 + z2n 1 lies in
n so that n +  6= 0.
(f) For z1; z2 in
,
k(z1 ) = k(z2 ) =) z1 (1 z2 )2 = z2 (1 z1 )2
=) (z1 z2)(1 z1 z2 ) = 0
=) z1 z2 = 0; sin e 1 z1 z2 6= 0:

(g) Note that k(z ) = (1=4)[((1 + z )=(1 z ))2 1℄.

(j) For z = rei , we note that
Re (z 2 ) Im (z 2 )
= os 2 and
jz j 2 jz j2 = sin 2
and allow r ! 0 along  = 0; =2; =4.
554 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

(m) Clearly, f (z ) is ontinuous on the ut plane C n fx + iy : x  0; y = 0g.

Be ause f ( 2) = 0 = lim (2 + z ), one may use the  Æ notation to
z! 2
see that z = 2 is the only removable dis ontinuity of f (z ).
(o) Re all the binomial theorem:
     
n n 1 n n 2 2 n
n
(z + h) z = n z h+ z h +


+ zhn 1 + hn
1 2 n 1



so that F (z; h) = n2 z n 2h +


+ nn 1 zhn 2 + hn 1 . The on lusion
follows if we use the triangle inequality.
(p) Use the fa t that jfn (z ) 0j  1=(njz j 1) <  whenever n > N (; z ) =
(1 + 1=)=jz j:
(t) Fixing z 6= 0, one ould apply the root/ratio test with an (z ) = 3 n z n
to obtain that the series onverges absolutely for jz j < 3.
(v) Let z = rei and w = u + iv. Then we nd that u = a os  and
v = b sin , where a = 2 1 (r + 2 r 1 ) and b = 2 1 (r 2 r 1 ): From
this we obtain
u2 v2
+ = 1:
a2 b2
whi h is an ellipse.
2.66. Note. For instan e to he k the non-uniform ontinuity of f (z ) = 1=z
in U = fz : Re z > 0g, it is enough to onsider
1+i 1+i
n = and n = :
n n+1
Note that
1+i
n n =
n(n + 1)
! 0 as n ! 1; and jf (n ) f (n )j = p1 :
2
2.67. Set z = x + iy and w = u + iv. Then
z + w = x + u + i(y + v); zw = xu yv + i(xv + yu):
Similarly, if
   
A= x y u v
y x and B = v u
then matrix addition and multipli ation show that
   
A+B = x + u y + v xu yv yu + xv
(y + v) x + u and AB = (yu + xv) xu yv :
Thus, if we let f (z ) = A and f (w) = B , then
f (z + w) = A + B; f (zw) = AB; f (z ) = A
showing that there is a one-to-one orresponden e between C and the
set of matri es of the given form.
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 555

Chapter 3, Exer ises 3.7:

3.116:
(g) Dene f : C !
by f (z ) = z=(1 + jz j). Then f is bije tive and
bi ontinuous, and the inverse mapping is given by f 1 :
! C ,
where f 1(w) = w=(1 jwj).
(h) Let f (z ) = e2iz 1. Then f is entire, f (0) = 0 = f (1), yet there
exist no values of z (real or omplex) su h that
f (1) f (0) = f 0 (z )(1 0); i.e. 0 = 2ie2iz :
4
(n) As limr!0+ f (rei=4 ) = limr!0+ e1=r = 1 6= f (0) = 0; f is not
ontinuous at the origin.
(o) The impli ation `=)' is trivial. For the onverse part, let f (z ) =
u + iv. Then
zf (z ) = (xu yv) + i(xv + yv) =: U + iV
and u; v; U; V are all harmoni in D. It is now a simple exer ise to
see that 52U = 0 and 52V = 0 imply ux = vy and uy = vx ,
respe tively. By Theorem 3.26, f is analyti in D.
(p) Consider f1 (z ) = z and f2 (z ) = 1 in C .
(r) If f (z ) = u(x) + iv(y) is entire, then 52 u = u00 (x) = 0 and 52v =
v00 (y) = 0 on R. Thus, u(x) = ax + b and v(y) = y + d, where a; b; ; d
are real. Using the C-R equations, we get a = so that
f (z ) = (ax + b) + i( y + d) = az + b + id:
What will be the form of f if f (x + iy) = u(y) + iv(x) is entire?
(s) Dene F = f g = i(v V ). Then, F 2 H(
) and the C-R equations
give (v V )x = 0 = (v V )y : Thus, v V (being a real-valued
fun tion) is onstant on every verti al line segment as well as on
every horizontal line segment in
. Sin e every pair of points in the
domain
an be onne ted by verti al and horizontal line segments,
v V is ne essarily onstant in
.
(t) From the previous exer ise (f (z ) = u + iv and f (z ) = u iv) we get
that v ( v) = 2v is onstant.
(u) If u = y2 2x then uxx + uyy = 2 6= 0.
(v) If v = x3 y3 , then vxx + vyy = 6(x y) = 0 for z 2
= f(1 + i) :
 2 Rg. Note that
is not in an open set in C and therefore, v
annot be harmoni in any open subset of C .
556 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

(w) We have
 
vx = 2uux and
vxx = 2uuxx + 2u2x
vy = 2uuy vyy = 2uuyy + 2u2y :
Sin e u and v are harmoni in
, the addition of the last two equations
show that u2x + u2y = 0, i.e. ux = 0 = uy . Similarly, vx = 0 = vy .
Thus, f is onstant.
(z) Consider fn (z ) = z n=n2 .
3.117:
(a) Note that (n!)1=n = exp[(1=n) Log n!℄ and
(1=n) Log n! = (1=n)[ln 1 + ln 2 +


+ ln n℄ ! 1 as n ! 1:
P
(d) Suppose f (z ) = n0 an z n onvergesPfor jz j < R. Then by the
omparison test we see that F (z ) = n0 na+1 n z n+1 onverges for
0
jz j < R and F (z ) = f (z ) for jz j < R:
(f) It suÆ es to note that j(Re an )z n j  jan j jz jn:
P
(g) Let Sn = np=1 (z k )p : Then for z k 6= 1
(1 z kn ) k
Sn = z k
1 zk
! 1 z z k as n ! 1:
 
(j) More generally, for jaj = j j > 0 the series 1
P az+b n onverges
n=0 z+d
whenever Re (z ( d ab)) > (jbj2 jaj2 )=2.
n 4
(k) For jz j = 1, the triangle inequality shows that zn! + znn ! 1 and
P1 n4
therefore, the series diverges for jz j = 1. Note that n=0 zn onverges
for jz j > 1 and diverges for jz j  1.
(l) Let fn (z ) = nz n=(1 z n). Then, for jz j  r with r 2 (0; 1)

jfn (z )j  1 njzjjz jn  1 nr rn :
n n

As limn!1 rn = 0, it follows that 1 rP n  1=2 for large n so that

jfn(z )jP 2nr . Thus, n=1 jfn (z )j  2 1
n P1 n
n=1 nr showing that the
series n1 fn (z ) onverges absolutely and uniformly for jz j  r. A
similar on lusion holds for the se ond series. Now,
X1 nz n X1 1
X
= nz n (z n )m
1 z n
n=1 n=1 m=0
X1 X 1
= n (z n)m+1
n=1 m=0
 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 557
1 X
X 1
= n(z n)k
n=1 k=1
Xn X 1
= n(z k )n
k=1 n=1
and
1 1 1 ! 1 X 1
X zn X
n
X
n m
X
n )2 = z (m + 1)(z ) = k(z n)k :
n=1 (1 z n=1 m=0 n=1 k=1
(p) As ey is stri tly in reasing in R, we have ey > e0 = 1 > e y for y > 0.
Also note that the above inequalities yield
lim j sin z j = lim j os z j = 1:
jyj!1 jyj!1
(r) Consider os z = . Then, by the denition of os z , we see that
eiz = + w; where w2 = 2 1: The on lusion for os z now follows
from the fa t that the exponential fun tion takes every value ex ept
zero. Apply the same prin iple for sin z , osh z and sinh z .
(s) If x > 0 and  = os 1 (x), then  2 (0; =2) so that
os  = x = sin(=2 )
and, sin e  is a ute, we have =2  = sin 1 (x).
(u) Let z 2 
(r; r) nf0g. Then, we have z = r(1+ ei ) with  <  < .
Now
1 1 e i=2 1 i tan(=2)
= = =
z r(1 + ei ) 2r os(=2) 2r
so that jf (z )j = e1=2r .
(y) Suppose that su h a fun tion f exists. Then f (0) = 0. This implies
that z = f 2 (z ) so that f 2 (z ) has a zero of order n, n  2, at 0. This
is a ontradi tion, sin e z has only a simple zero at 0. In other words,
it is not possible to dene Arg z in su h a way that f (z ) = z 1=2 is
analyti in a neighborhood of 0.
3.120. By the C-R equations, we have 1 = uxvy uy vx = jf 0(z )j2 so that
f 0(z ) = ei for some onstant a with jaj = 1.
3.121. We have f 0 (z ) = ux + ivx and f 0 (z ) = vy iuy in C . By hypothesis,
we see that
2f 0 (z ) = (ux + vy ) + i(vx uy ) = 0 + i(vx uy ); i.e. Re f 0 (z ) = 0
0 0
and therefore, jef (z)0 j = 1 in C showing that ef (z) is a onstant 
with jj = 1, i.e. ef (z) = ei for some real : whi h gives f 0 (z ) = it
for some real t.
 558 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

3.123. The given ondition on f for z1 = z2 = 0 implies that f (0) = 0.

Then, as f (z + h) f (z ) = (f (z ) + f (h)) f (z ) = f (h), we have
f (z + h) f (z ) f (h) f (0)
f 0 (z ) = lim = lim = f 0 (0)
h!0 h h!0 h
and so, f (z ) = f (0) + f 0 (0)z = f 0 (0)z .
2
3.124. f (z ) = eiaz
3.125. If f = u + iv and 52jf j = 0, then we nd that ux + vx = uy + vy = 0
so that f 0 (z ) = 0 in
.
p
3.126. For u(x; y) = ln x2 + y2 , z = x + iy 6= 0, we have uxx + uyy = 0; so
u is an harmoni in C n f0g. For a fun tion v to be ome a harmoni
onjugate in C n f0g we must have f = u + iv analyti in C n f0g. In
parti ular, u and v must satisfy the C-R equations:
x y
ux = vy = 2 2 ; uy = vx = 2 2 :
x +y x +y
Therefore, we have the total derivative
v v ydx + xdy
dv = dx + dy = :
x y x2 + y2
Using the hange of variable x = r os ; y = r sin  (where  =
Arg (x + iy)), the above be omes dv = d and so v = Arg (x + iy)+
some onstant. But, as we know, v is not ontinuous on the set
D = f(x; y) : y = 0; x  0g. However, v is harmoni onjugate to u
in C n D and so f = u + iv is analyti in C n D . Hen e in the ut plane
(with the negative real axis removed) the solution is f (z ) = Log z so
that f 0 (z ) = 1=z for z 2 C n D . Again note that there is no analyti
fun tion f for all z 2 C n f0g su h that f 0 (z ) = 1=z (see also Example
4.89).
3.128. From the geometri series, we note that the region of onvergen e for
the rst series is given by jz=(1 + z )j < 1, i.e. Re z > 1=2, whereas
the region of uniform onvergen e is obtained from jz=(1 + z )j  r for
0 < r < 1, whi h is given by
 

z r2  r
< :
 1 r2  1 r2
For the se ond series, we may use Theorem 1.48.
P
3.129. Let f (z ) = n1 an z n and ompute the oeÆ ients using the given
relation.
3.130. Indeed, if g(z ) = 1
P
k=0 ak z (jz j < Æ ); then we see that
k
1
X X1
g0(2z ) + g(z ) = 0 =) (k + 1)ak+1 2k z k + ak z k = 0
k=0 k=0
 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 559
ak
=) ak+1 = for k = 0; 1; 2; : : :
(k + 1)2k
( 1)k+1 a0
=) ak+1 = ; k = 0; 1; 2; : : : :
(k + 1)!2k(k+1)=2
Note that if a0 = 0, then f (z )  0. If a0 6= 0, then by the ratio test
 
 ak+1  1

 a 
 =
(k + 1)2k
! 0 as k ! 1
k

showing that the radius of onvergen e of the series 1

P
k=0 ak z is 1,
k
and so g is entire.
3.136. If the prin ipal values of z a1 and z a2 are used, then, for a1 ; a2 omplex
onstants and z 2 D = C n fz : z = x; x  0g, we have
z a1 z a2 = expfa1 Log z g
expfa2 Log z g = expf(a1 +a2 ) Log z g = z a1 +a2 :
If the prin ipal values of z1a and z2a are used, then for a, a omplex
onstant, and z1 ; z2 2 C n f0g,
z1az2a = expfa Log z1g
expfa Log z2 g
= expfa( Log z1 + Log z2 )g
= expfa[ Log (z1 z2 ) + 2k1 (z1 ; z2 )i℄g
= (z1 z2 )a expf2ak1(z1 ; z2 )ig;
where k1 (z1 ; z2 ) has one of the values of f 1; 0; 1g (see Exer ise
1.54(a)).
3.137. Write
Fk (1) = e(1=4)[ Log (1+i)+2ki℄
= j1 + ij1=4 e(1=4)iArg (1+i) eki=2
= 21=8 ei=16 eki=2 :
Thus, the desired bran h orresponds to the ase k = 2. This means
that F (z ) = e(1=4) Log (z+i) .
3.140. Consider f (z ) = exp((1=3) Log z ).
Chapter 4, Exer ises 4.13:
4.144:
(d) For an arbitrary xed  2 D, let be dened by
(t) = (1 t)
0 + t
; t 2 [0; 1℄;
560 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

and f ( ) = e . Then,
Z Z 1 Z 1
f (z ) dz = f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt = et  dt = e 1
0 0
and for  2 D,
M = max jf ( (t))j = max jet j = max etRe  < 1:
t2[0;1℄ t2[0;1℄ t2[0;1℄
So we have,
Z 
 
je 1j =  f (z ) dz   ML( ) < 1: j j:

Also, we note that jez 1j  jz j for all z 2 D = fw : Re w  0g.
(e) This is a slightly general version of the previous statement. Clearly
(see Theorem 4.16),
Z a 
 
jea eb j =   ez dz   max ex jb
x0
aj = jb aj:
b

(f) On the ir le jz j = r, we have z = rei ( 2 [0; 2℄) and dz = izd.

So, Re z = r os , jdz j = r d and
jz rj2 = jz j2 + r2 2rRe z = 2r2 (1 os ) = 4r2 sin2 (=2):
Thus, jz rj = 2r sin(=2) for  2 [0; 2℄ and hen e,
Z 2  2
os(=2) 
I= 2r sin(=2)r d = 2r2  = 8r2 :
0 1=2 
0

(g) Let z = ei . Then, dz = iz d so that

Z 2
I = i [f (ei ) f (e i )℄ d
0
Z 2 Z 2 
= i f (ei ) d f (ei ) d ( = 2 );
0 0
whi h is zero.
P
(h) Let p(z ) = nk=0 ak z k and z = eit . Then,
n
X Z 2 n
X Z 2
I= ak e ikt ieit dt = i ak e i(k 1)t dt = 2ia
1:
k=0 0 k=0 0
R P R
Also, we observe that jzj=1 p(z ) dz = i nk=0 ak 02 ei(k+1)t dt = 0:
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 561

(i) Note that

e2z + 1 ez (ez + e z )
= = 2ez 6= 0 for z 2 C .
os(iz ) os(iz )
The existen e of an entire fun tion f follows from Theorem 4.38 (see
also Theorem 4.40). Clearly, entire fun tions satisfying the given
equation are given by f (z ) = ln 50 + z + 2ki, k 2 Z.
(l) Let f (z ) = g(z ) z . Apply the Cau hy integral formula for the rst
derivative to f and obtain
Z
1 g (z ) z
g0 (a) 1 = dz
2i jzj=1 (z a)2
so that (as jz j = 1 implies that jz aj  jz j jaj = 1 jaj)

jg0 (a) 1j  21 (1 2jaj)2 = (1 1jaj)2 :

Thus, we have jg0 (a)j  1 + (1 jaj) 2 . For example, if a = 1=2 then
we have jg0 (1=2) 1j  4. In parti ular, jg0(1=2)j  5.
Note: If we use the S hwarz-Pi k lemma for f (z ), one an obtain an
improved estimate.
(m) Apply the Cau hy integral formula for the se ond derivative at a = 1.
(n) Let f (z ) = 1
P
n=1 an z , z 2 C . Then, for any r > 0,
n
 Z  Z 2
jan j =

 1

f (z ) 
dz   21 jf (rei )j r d  1
:
 2i jzj=r z n+1  0 rn+1 2rn 
For n > , allow r ! 1 to obtain an = 0 for n > . For n < ,
allow r ! 0 to obtain an = 0 for n < . Thus, f (z ) = 0 in C . What
happens when  is a positive integer?
(o) Consider
  
1 if z 2 C n f1g 1+z
f (z ) = and f (z ) = i :
0 if z = 1 1 z
(p) Clearly, the radius of onvergen e is 1. We may set the sum of the
series as f (z ). It follows that
X1 1 1
f 0(z ) = (z 3)n = = ; jz 3j < 1:
n=1 1 (z 3) 4 z
Integration gives f (z ) = Log (4 z ) + , where the prin ipal bran h
ut is hosen. The bran h ut is C n fx + i0 : x  4g. As 0 = f (3), we
have = 0 and therefore, the sum is Log (4 z ).
562 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

(q) The onvergen e of 1

P (n)
n=0 f (a) implies that the n-th term of this
series, namely, f (a) = n!an , approa hes zero as n ! 1 showing
( n)
that the radius of onvergen e of the power series about a is 1.
(r) As jbn j1=n < n2=n jan j1=n , the Root test implies that the radius of
onvergen e of the series is at least 1.
(s) Note that the disk of onvergen e ofP 1
P
n=0 an (z + 2) is jz + 2j < 3
n
and therefore, the transformed series 1 a
n=0 n z n onverges for jz j < 3.
What is its sum?
(v) As f (z ) = f ( z ), we have f (n) (z ) = ( 1)n f (n) ( z ) whi h (at z = 0)
gives (1 ( 1)n )f (n) (0) = 0. Thus, an = f (n) (0)=n! = 0 whenever
n > 0 is an oddP integer.2kThe Taylor series of f about 0 will be of the
form f (z ) = 1 k=0 a2k z :
(y) By the Cau hy inequality, we have
 
f (n) (0)
n!
 RMn ; where M = jmax
zj=R
jf (z )j :
 
If the inequality f (n) (0)  n!nn were true, then we would have
nn < MR n for all n 2 N. However, this inequality annot hold for
all n sin e nn grows faster than R n for any xed R 2 (0; 1).
Alternately, we observe that the given ondition implies that jan j1=n 
nP. As n ! 1, we see that the radius of onvergen e of f (z ) =
an z n is zero and hen e, f (z ) annot be analyti at z = 0 whi h is
a ontradi tion.
4.145:
(a) By denition
sin z = 0 () (eiz e iz )=2 = 0 () ei2z = 1 () z = k; k 2 Z:
(b) By the denition of the osine hyperboli fun tion, osh x 6= 0. There-
fore,
osh z = 0 () osh x os y = 0 and sinh x sin y = 0:
Sin e osh x 6= 0, the rst equation implies that os y = 0. Hen e
y = (k + 1=2), k 2 Z. However, sin(k + 1=2) 6= 0 for ea h k 2 Z.
The se ond then be omes sinh x = 0 and this has only one root x = 0.
Therefore, osh z = 0 () z = i(k + 1=2), (k 2 Z): Note that this
an be qui kly obtained from the zeros of os z , sin e os(iz ) = osh z .
(d) Find two distin t harmoni fun tions in a domain D whi h oin ides
in a set S  D whi h has a limit point in D. On the other hand, one
an prove that if u and v are harmoni fun tions in a domain D and
u = v on in open set S in D, then u = v in D.
 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 563

(h) Apply the Uniqueness theorem by equating the oeÆ ients of f 2 and
f.
(j) Suppose that su h an f were to exist in
satisfying the desired
property. Then the fun tion g dened by
g(z ) = f (z ) z 2k 1

belongs to H(
) and g (1=n) = 0 = g ( 1=n) for n = 2; 3; : : : : It

follows from the uniqueness theorem that g(z )  0 in
; i.e. f (z ) 
z 2k 1 in
. But then f ( 1=n) = 1=n2k 1 for n  2, whi h is
not possible. Thus there exists no analyti fun tion with the desired
property.
(q) By the Uniqueness theorem, we have
(f 0 =f )(z ) = (g0 =g)(z ); i.e. g(z )f 0(z ) g0 (z )f (z ) = 0 in

whi h gives (f=g)0 (z ) = 0 in
. Thus, f=g is onstant in
.
4.149. See Example 4.68.
4.150. Use the method of proof of Example 4.68 by hoosing a suitable aux-
iliary fun tion (z ).
4.151. On the unit ir le jz j = 1, we have z = ei ( 2 [0; 2℄) and dz = izd.
So, os  = (z 2 + 1)=(2z ),
   2 
1 + os  1 z 2 + 1 1 z +1
os2 (=2) = = + and sin2 (=2) = :
2 2 4z 2 4z
Thus, I an be rewritten as
Z  
1 z 2 + 1 dz
I = f (z ) +
jzj=1 2 4z iz
Z Z Z
1 f (z ) 1 1 f (z )
= dz + f (z ) dz + dz
2i jzj=1 z 4i jzj=1 4i jzj=1 z 2
2if (0) 0 2if 0(0)
= + +
2i 4i 4i
= (f (0) + f 0 (0)=2):
Similarly, one an obtain that Is = (f (0) f 0 (0)=2).
4.152. If jaj > 4, then Cau hy's theorem shows that the value of the integral
is zero. So, f (a) = 0 for ea h a with jaj > 4. On the other hand, if
jaj < 4 then the Cau hy integral formula for derivatives implies that
the value of the integral is 2iF 0(a) = f (a), where F (z ) = z 2 +3z 7.
Thus, for ea h a with jaj < 4, one has f (a) = 2i(2a + 3).
 564 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

4.154. Fix a 2
. Then, by the Cau hy integral formula,

Z
1 f (z )
f 0 (a) = dz
2i (z a)2
where : jz aj = r, a ir le whi h is ompletely inside the unit disk

. For example, r = (1 jaj)=2 will do. By hoosing r in this way,
we see that (as z = a + rei implies that jz j < jaj + r)

1 jz j  1 (jaj + r) = (1 jaj) r = 1 2 jaj

and
jdz j = jirei dj = rd; jz jdzaj j2 = dr = 1 2 jaj d
so that
Z 2
jf 0 (a)j  21 1
jz j) jz
1
aj2
jdz j
0 (1
Z 2  
 21 1
2
jaj
2
1 jaj
d
0
2+1
=
(1 jaj)+1 :
R
4.155. Follows from f (z ) f (0) = 0z f 0 (z ) dz .
4.157. (a) If there were a fun tion f satisfying the given ondition, then, by
the Cau hy estimate (a = 1, R = M = 5), we would have
5(2!) 2
1 = jf 00 ( 1)j  =
25 5
whi h is learly not true.
4.158. We write f (z ) as
 
1 1 1 1
=
1 z 2 2 6 + (z 5) 4 + (z 5)
and therefore, for jz 5j < 4, we have
X1 
1 ( 1)n ( 1)n

f (z ) = n
an (z 5) ; an = :
n=0 2 6n+1 4n+1

Using this and the root/ratio test, one an see that the radius of
onvergen e of the desired series is R = 4.
 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 565

4.159. Rewrite f (z ) as
1 z3
f (z ) = ; with z 3 6= 1 ( i.e. z 6= 1; e2i=3 ; e4i=3 ):
1 (z 3 )5
Then f has simple poles at zk = e2ki=15 , k 2 f1; 2; : : : ; 14g nf0; 5; 10g,
so that the distan e from 1 to the nearest singularity is j1 e2i=15j =
R.
4.160. By the partial fra tion de omposition, we easily nd that
  p p !
1   1+ 5 1 5
f (z ) = p = ; = :
5 z  z  2 2
 
1 X  
= p z n; jz j < j j:
5 n0 n+1  n+1
Note that j j <  and  = 1.
4.161. By hypothesis, we may write
f (z ) = (z a)m (z ) and g(z ) = (z a)n (z )
where m  0,  and are analyti at a with (a) = f (m) (a)=m! and
(a) = g(n)(a)=n! 6= 0. It follows that
8
(a)>
>
<if m = n
f (z ) m n ( z ) (a)
lim = lim
z!a g (z ) z!a
( z a ) =
(z ) > >
:
0 if m > n
1 if m < n:
Note that the limit exists whenever m  n.
p
4.162. Note that z = 0 pimplies that z = 0 whi h is not to be onsidered
as a zero be ause z is not analyti at z = 0. The point z = 0 is
a singular point (but it annot be an isolated singularity as we shall
see in Chapter 7).
4.163. By the Uniqueness theorem, f 00 (z ) + ez = 0 for all z 2
. From this
one an get an expli it form of f (z ). How about if e1=n is repla ed
by f 0 (1=n) or f (1=n) or sin(1=n) or os(1=n)?
4.164. Dene g(z ) = f 00 (z ) 10 + 3z . Then, g 2 H(C ) and g(1 + 1=n) = 0.
The Uniqueness theorem implies that f 00 (z ) = 10 3z and therefore,
f 0(z ) = 10z 3z 2=2+ a. As f 0(0) = 0, a = 0. So, f (z ) = 5z 2 z 3=2+ b
(b- onstant).
Chapter 5, Exer ises 5.8:
5.82:
566 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

(f) Choose for example, T (z ) = z=(z + 1) and S (z ) = 1 + z . Then

z+1 z 2z + 1
T (S (z )) = and S (T (z )) = 1 + = :
z+2 z+1 z+2
(h) Note that T is one-to-one (if it is not a onstant).
(k) If (z; z1 ; z2; z3 ) = , then from the denition of the ross-ratio, z3
annot be 1 and that this equation redu es to
   
z2 z3 z z2
= = :
z z3 z2 z1
Solving this for z3 yields z3 = (z2 z )=( ):
(m) (=: This is Theorem 5.38.
=): Let (z4 ; z1 ; z2 ; z3 ) = (w4 ; w1 ; w2 ; w3 ), and g(w) = (w; w1 ; w2 ; w3 ).
Then g is a unique Mobius transformation with g(w1 ) = 0, g(w2 ) = 1,
and g(w3 ) = 1. By Theorem 5.38, there exists a unique Mobius
transformation f su h that
f (z ) = (z; z1; z2 ; z3); f (zj ) = wj for j = 1; 2; 3.
It remains to show that f (z4 ) = w4 . In view of the invarian e property
of the ross-ratio for f (z ), the denition of g gives,
(z4 ; z1 ; z2 ; z3 ) = (f (z4 ); f (z1 ); f (z2 ); f (z3 ))
= (f (z4 ); w1 ; w2 ; w3 )
= g(f (z4 )):
By assumption, the L.H.S equals (w4 ; w1 ; w2 ; w3 ) = g(w4 ) and so,
g(w4 ) = g(f (z4 )) whi h, be ause g is univalent, implies that w4 =
f (z4).
(p) If
az + b
T (z ) = (ad b 6= 0)
z + d
is a Mobius transformation whi h xes 0 and 1, then we must have
b = 0 and = 0 so that T (z ) = (a=d)z =: z: For T to have no other
xed points, we must have  6= 1. Again, we want the map T to
take the upper half-plane to itself. Hen e,  must be a positive real
number su h that  6= 1.
(q) If T is a Mobius transformation and 1 2 Fix (T ), then T has the form
T (z ) = z +  ( 2 C n f0g;  2 C ): If T xes 1 and no other points,
then the xed point equation T (z ) = z gives that z = =(1 ),
whi h should be possible only if z = 1 showing that  = 1 (otherwise
T (z ) = z +  will have a xed point in C ). Therefore, T (z ) = z + :
Again, 0 is not a xed point, so  6= 0. We require T to be a self
mapping of the upper half-plane, whi h gives the ondition Im  > 0.
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 567

(r) If T is a Mobius transformation and 1 2 Fix (T ), then T has the

form T (z ) = z +  ( 2 C n f0g;  2 C ). Sin e the required Mobius
map arries R onto R, we must have
T (0) =  2 R and T (1) =  +  2 R
so that both  6= 0 and  are real.
2
(s) For example, f (z ) = ez + z and g(z ) = ez + z . What is the set of
xed points of the omposite fun tion f Æ f ?
(t) Choose  = 2i and  =  (so that ei = 1) in Theorem 5.47.
(u) Follows from the proof of Theorem 5.69. In fa t, if T (z ) is the Mobius
transformation whose oeÆ ients a; b; ; d are non-zero and ad b =
1, then we note that
b a
T (0) = ; T (1) = :
d
Suppose that T takes R into R. Then b=d and a= are real. So we
on lude that a; b; ; d are real or purely imaginary.
(v) Note that g(z ) = z n arries the innite se tor of angle =n onto the
upper half-plane H + . Now ompose with a Mobius map whi h arries
H + onto
.
(x) First map the
(a; r) onto
(0; r) by w(z ) = z a and then map the
disk
(0; r) onto C 1 n
(0; R) by  (z ) = Rr=w. Finally, map jwj > R
onto jw bj > R by (z ) =  + b. The desired Mobius mapping T is
given by T (z ) = ( Æ  Æ w)(z ):
(z) Clearly, f1 (z ) = z 6 maps
onto the upper half-plane H + . A map
whi h arries H + onto
is given by Theorem 5.47. The omposition
will give us the desired map.
5.89. Rewrite the given transformation in the form z = i(w + 1)=(1 w).
Then, we nd that
 
1 + r2 
jz j = r =) j1 + wj = r j1 wj =) w + 1 r2  = j1 2rr2 j :
2 2 2 


Chapter 6, Exer ises 6.8:

6.75:
(a) Use Example 6.15.
( ) Clearly, f 2 H(
) and therefore, jf (z )j attains its maximum value
on jz j = 1. For z = ei ( 2 [ ; ℄),
jf (z )j2  4p2 + 4p 1 os n + 1  4p2 14p + 1 = (2p 1 1)2
and the maximum is attained when  = =n.
568 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

(d) Let 0  x; y  1. Then, it suÆ es to observe that

jf (x + i0)j = jx2 2xj = 1 p(x 1)2  1 p
jf (0 + iy)j = j y2 2iyj = y4 + 4y2  5
jf (1 + iy)j = j(1 + iy)2 2(1 + iy)j =pj 1 y2 j = 1 + y2  2
jf (x + i)j = j(x + i)2 2(x + i)j = (px2 2x 1)2 + (2x 2)2
p
 1 + 22 = 5:
(e) Note that jf (0)j = 2 and so, jf (z )j attains its maximum at the origin
whi h is an interior point.
(f) We an write f (z ) = (z 2 + 4)g(z ), where g is also entire. On jz j = 3,
M  jf (z )j = j(z 2 + 4)g(z )j  (jz j2 4)jg(z )j = 5jg(z )j so that
jg(z )j  M=5. Therefore, on jz j = 3, one has
jf (z )j = j(z 2 + 4)j jg(z )j  (M=5)jz 2 + 4j
and the desired on lusion follows from the Maximum modulus prin-
iple.
Q
(g) We write f (z ) = g(z ) nk=01 (z n !k ), where g is also entire. Apply
the Maximum modulus prin iple.
(k) Choose a = 1=2 and b = 0 in (6.35). Can one prove this without using
the formula (6.35)? Note that among all fun tions whi h are analyti
and bounded by 1 in the unit disk, maxz2
jf 0 (z )j is assumed when
f (1=2) = 0.
(m) Use a = 1=2, b = 0 in (6.35). A ording to (6.35), with f (a) = b, it
follows that
jf 0 (1=2)j = jf 0 (a)j  1 1 jfj(aaj2)j = 11 91==164 = 127 :
2

But if f 0 (1=2) = 3=4, then we would have 3=4  7=12 whi h is not
possible.
(n) As jf 0 (z )j  jz j, we have f 0 (0) = 0 and jf 0 (1)j  1: By Theorem 6.60,
f 0(z ) is a polynomial of degree at most one. So, f 0 (z ) = a0 + a1 z: As
f 0(0) = 0, we have f 0 (z ) = a1 z whi h gives that f (z ) = a + bz 2 with
b = a1 =2. As jf 0 (1)j = ja1 j  1, we have jbj  1=2.
(o) For jz j  1=2, we note that
jp(z )j  1 jp(z ) 1j
 1 fj(z jn + jan 1 j jz jn 1 +


+ ja2 j jz j2 + ja1 j)jz jg
 n  n 1  2  
1 1 1 1
 1 2
+
2
+


+
2
+
2
;
 
1 1 (1=2)n 1
= 1 = n
2 1 1=2 2
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 569

and so p(z ) annot have zeros for jz j  1=2. For jz j  2, that is

j1=z j  1=2, we note that
 n  n 1  n 2  
p(z ) 1 1 1 1
z n =
z
+ a1
z
+ a2
z
+


+ an 1
z
+1

and so pro eeding as above, we obtain jz np(z )j > 0 for jz j  2: Thus,

all the zeros of p(z ) must lie in the annulus D.
(q) As f is entire, (z ) = exp(f (z )) is entire and j(z )j = eRe f (z) : As
Re f (z ) is bounded as jz j ! 1,  is bounded. Thus, by Liouville's
theorem,  and hen e, f is onstant.
Note: The ondition jf (z )j  M on C implies that
M  Re f (z )  M ; M  Im f (z )  M:
Apply the hint with f , f , if and if to show that any one of the
four inequalities suÆ es to prove that f is onstant, if f is entire.
P
(r) Let f (z ) = n0 an z n. Sin e f (R)  R, ea h an is real. Sin e
f (iR)  iR, an = 0 for n even.
(s) Suppose that f does not assume values in a disk, say
( ; M ) for
some omplex number and M > 0. Then, jf (z ) j > M for all
z 2 C . Thus, f is onstant by Liouville's theorem.
(u) For example if k = 2, then
f (2z ) = f (z ) = f (z=2) = f (z=22) =


= f (z=2n) =


:
Dene g(z ) = f (z ) f (z=2n). Then, g 2 H(C ) and g(z ) = 0 for
z 2 C . Moreover,
0 = g(z ) = nlim n
!1(f (z ) f (z=2 )) = f (z ) f (0); or f (z ) = f (0):
(w) First we observe that every zero of f (z ) is also a zero of f 0 (z ). Thus,
f 0(z )=f (z ) is entire and bounded by 2 so that it is a onstant, say a,
with jaj  2. Integration gives the desired form.
2 2
(x) Note that (z ) = exp(f 2 (z )) is entire and j(z )j = eu v on C . By
Liouville's theorem,  and hen e f is a onstant.
(y) Without loss of generality, we may assume that 0 < a < 1. Sin e u(z )
is harmoni in C , there exists a harmoni onjugate v(z ) in C su h
that g(z ) = u(z ) + iv(z ), where g 2 H(C ). Now, f (z ) = exp(g(z )) is
an entire fun tion, and for jz j > 1,
jf (z )j  jeu+iv j = eu  eb ea ln jzj =  jz ja
so that f is a polynomial of degree not greater than a. Thus, f is
a onstant and so, u(z ) is onstant. Does the same on lusion hold
even if a and b are xed real numbers (see the previous Exer ise)?
570 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

6.77. Suppose that f 2 H(
), jf (z )j < 1 and that there exist two distin t
points a; b in
su h that f (a) = a and f (b) = b: Dene
a z
a (z ) = and h = a Æ f Æ a :
1 az
Then, we easily have
 h 2 H(
), jh(z )j < 1 and h(0) = 0
 As a is onto, there exists an  2
su h that a () = b.
 As a 1 = a ,  = a 1 (b) and h() = a (f (b)) =  (b) =
 1 (b) = 
 Sin e a and b are distin t,  6= 0.
By S hwarz' lemma, h(z ) = ei z for some . But h() =  shows
that  = 0 and so,
a f (a (z ))
h(z ) = a (f (a (z ))) = z; i.e. =z
1 af (a (z ))
and this gives f (a (z )) = a (z ): Sin e a (z ) is an automorphism of
the unit disk, it follows that f (z ) = z for z 2
.
6.78. By S hwarz' lemma (see Example 6.41), jf 0 (0)j  3=4: Thus, the
fun tion
z 1=2
f (z ) =
1 z=2
has the desired properties for the rst part of our problem. If one
insists that f 0 (0) = 4=5, then we must have 4=5 = jf 0 (0)j  3=4
whi h is not possible. This observation shows that there exists no
analyti fun tion f :
!
with f (0) = 1=2 and f 0 (0) = 4=5.
6.79. Let w = f (z ) and f (0) = a. Dene G = g Æ f by
a f (z ) a w
G(z ) = (g Æ f )(z ) = ; i.e. g(w) = :
a + f (z ) a+w
Then g maps Re w < 0 onto
and so, G(z ) maps
onto
with
G(0) = 0. Apply S hwarz' lemma to G to obtain the inequality
jG0 (0)j  1 whi h gives jf 0 (0)j  2jRe f (0)j:
6.80. Note that f1 (z ) = iz=2 maps
1 = fz : jRe z j < 1g onto
2 = fw :
jIm wj < =2g, and f2 (w) = ew maps
2 onto
3 = f : Re  > 0g.
Finally, f3 ( ) = ( 1)=( + 1) maps
3 onto
. Therefore,
eiz=2 1
g(z ) = (f1 Æ f2 Æ f3 )(z ) = iz=2
e +1
maps
1 onto
with g(0) = 0. Thus, F = g Æ f maps
onto itself
with F (0) = 0. By S hwarz' lemma,
jF 0 (0)j = jg0 (f (0))f 0 (0)j = jg0 (0)f 0 (0)j  1
and a omputation gives, jf 0 (0)j  1=jg0(0)j = 4=.
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 571

6.81. Set g(z ) = ( f (z ))=. Sin e g(0) = 1 and Re g(z ) > 0, by Theorem
6.49, it follows that jg0 (0)j = jf 0 (0)=j  2 and
   
 1 f (z )  = jg(z )j  11 + jjzz jj ; i.e. jf (z )j  12jzjzjj :
 f (z )   
1 +  
 

6.82. Dene g(z ) = f (Rz )=M for z 2
. Then, g 2 H(
) and jg(z )j  1

for z 2
. Let
f (Rz0) w0  z
 = g(z0 ) = = with jz0 j < 1 and  (z ) = :
M M 1 z
By hypothesis, the analyti fun tion h dened by h =  Æ g is
bounded by 1 and has a zero at z0 2
. By the S hwarz-Pi k lemma
(see (6.36)), we have
(h(z ); 0) = (h(z ); h(z0 ))  (z; z0)
whi h is equivalent to
 
 z z0 
j (g(z ))j = jh(z )j  
1 z0z 
for z; z0 2
:

Substituting ba k the initial substitutions, this inequality is equiva-

lent to
   
 (w0 =M ) (f (Rz )=M )   z z0 
 
 1 (w =M )(f (Rz )=M )   
1 z0 z 
for z; z0 2
;
0

that is
 
 R jRjz2 zz0 jz j for z; z0 2
R :
 w f (z ) 
M  20
M w0 f (z )  0

N  
Y 1 zj z
6.83. Consider the fun tion F (z ) = f (z ) and use the ex-
j =1 z zj
tended version of S hwarz' lemma.
6.84. Choose N = 3, z1 = 0, z2 = 1=3 and z3 = 1=3 in Exer ise 6.83.
6.86. As jf (z )j  eRe z = jez j, we have je z f (z )j  1 for z 2 C . By
Liouville's theorem, e z f (z ) = a where a is a onstant with jaj  1.
Similarly, an entire fun tion g su h that jg(z )j  e Im z for z 2 C
must be of the form g(z ) = aeiz with jaj  1.
6.88. We have already proved the rst inequality (see Se tion 6.6). The
se ond inequality follows similarly. Indeed, by the triangle inequality
572 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

for jz j  1 (so that jz jn  jz jn 


 jz j), we have

1
 
jp(z ) z n j  jz jn jjzaj0nj + jzjjan1 j 1 +


+ jajnz j 1 j
 
 jz jn j1z j (ja0 j + ja1 j +


+ jan 1 j)
 jz2j if jz j > R  R0 ;
n

R0 = maxf1; 2(ja0j +


+ jan 1j)g, whi h shows that jp(z )j  32 jz jn :

6.89. For jz j = r  R, let A(r) = maxjzj=r Re f (z ): Then, the hypothesis
implies that A(r)  r for jz j = r  R: Taking R = 2r in Theorem
6.32, we nd that
jf (z )j  3jf (0)j + 2A(2r)  3jf (0)j + 2 (2r) ;
that is, jf (z )j  3jf (0)j +2+1 jz j for jz j large. Now use the method
of proof of Theorem 6.60 to omplete the proof.
Chapter 7, Exer ises 7.8:
7.49:
(a) If f (z ) is entire and has a removable singularity at z = 1, then g de-
ned by g(z ) = f (1=z ) has a removable singularity at the origin and
therefore, g(z ) is bounded in a deleted neighborhood of 0. Equiva-
lently, f (z ) is bounded on jz j > R for some R > 0. By Liouville's
theorem, f (z ) is onstant.
(b) Let f (z ) = 1
P
k=0 ak z be entire and have a pole of order n at 1. If
k
we dene g(z ) = f (1=z ), then g(z ) has a pole of order n at the origin.
It follows that z ng(z ) is bounded near 0; i.e. z n f (z ) is bounded
near 1. That is, f (z ) is entire su h that jf (z )j  M jz jn for jz j > R.
Consequently, by Theorem 6.60, f (z ) is a polynomial of degree n.
The onverse part is trivial.
(d) If f (z ) is a non onstant entire fun tion, then g(z ) = expff (z )g is
also entire. If g(z ) has a removable singularity at 1, then g(z ) (and
hen e, f (z )) is onstant. If g(z ) has a pole at 1, then 1=g(z ), being
a bounded entire fun tion, is a onstant. In either ase, f (z ) is a
onstant whi h is a ontradi tion. Thus, 1 is neither a removalble
singularity nor a pole for g.
(h) See Remark 7.13 and Theorem 4.102.
(j) False. The denominator of f (z ), namely z 2( z)( z), is not
analyti unless  =  = 0.
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 573

(l) If z0 is a pole of f of order k then f (z ) = (z z0 ) k g(z ), where g

is analyti at z0 , g(z0 ) 6= 0. This gives f 0 (z ) = (z z0 ) k 1 (z ),
where  dened by (z ) = (z z0 )g0 (z ) kg(z ) is analyti at z0 and
(z0 ) 6= 0.
(n) Dene f1 (z ) = exp(1=z ) and f2 (z ) = sin(1=z ). Consider its re ipro-
als F1 (z ) = exp( 1=z ) and F2 (z ) = 1= sin(1=z ). Then z = 0 is an
isolated essential singularity for both f1 (z ) and F1 (z ). On the other
hand, z = 0 is an isolated essential singularity for f2 (z ) but not for
F2 (z ).
(o) If there does not exist su h a sequen e, f would then be bounded on a
deleted neighbourhood of z0 . By the removability theorem, z0 would
be a removable singularity ontradi ting the hypothesis.
(r) For z near 1, onsider the Laurent expansion of f (z ) about 1. Indeed,
1 ! 1 !
e1=(z 1) X 1 1 X 1 m m(z 1)
f (z ) = = e e
1 eez 1 n=0 n ! (z 1)n m
m=0 !
and noti e that there are innitely many negative powers of z 1.
(s) The given inequality shows that jzf (z )j ! 0 as z ! 0 so that z = 0
is a removable singularity of zf (z ) 2 H(C n f0g). Dene
(
zf (z ) for z 6= 0
F (z ) =
0 for z = 0:

Then, F is entire and jF (z )j  ajz j3=2 + bjz j1=2  M jz j3=2 showing

that F (z ) = z + d, by Theorem 6.60. As F (0) = 0, we have d = 0 so
that F (z ) = z or f (z ) = .
(u) Suppose that there exists su h a fun tion f . Then, for z 6= 0,
1=jf (z )j  jz j and therefore, 1=jf (z )j ! 0 as z ! 0. Dene
8
1
<
for z 6= 0
F (z ) = f (z )
:
0 for z = 0:
Then, F is entire and jF (z )j  jz j for large value of jz j. It follows
that F (and, hen e, f ) is onstant. But this ontradi ts the hypothesis
that jf (z )j  jz j  for z near 0. So, no su h fun tion exists.
(x) Rewrite the given equation as eg = 1 ef , where the left hand side
fun tion never assumes zero. This means that f (z ) 6= 2ki for ea h
k 2 Z. That is, f2ki : k 2 Zg  C nf (C ) so that the entire fun tion
f omits 2ki for ea h k 2 Z. By Pi ard's theorem, f is onstant.
Inter hanging the role of f and g shows that g is also onstant.
574 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises
p
(y) We know that z = 0 is a bran h point of z. On the other hand if z
p a little ir le p
z,r whereas
goes along
then z is hanged to
on e in the ounter lo kwise dire tion,
f (z ) is hanged to
pz pz pz p
e e e e z
p = sin pz = f (z ):
sin( z)
Therefore, z = 0 is not a bran h point but is an isolated singularity
of f . It an be seen that z = 0 is a removable singularity
p of f .
Note: It an be seenpin the same spirit that sin z is not an entire
fun tion whereas os z is entire.
7.50. Note that jz 3 f (z )j ! 0 as z ! 0. Dene
(
z 3f (z ) for z 6= 0
F (z ) =
0 for z = 0:
Then, F is entire and jF (z )j  ajz j5 + bjz j  M jz j5 for large values
of jz j. It follows that F (z ) is a polynomial of degree at most 5 with
F (0) = 0. If f is odd, then f must be of the form f (z ) = z + d=z .
7.52. The point at innity is not an isolated singularity of f as it is a limit
point of poles and so, it annot be pole.
7.53. z = 0 is not a pole but is an essential singularity. We may write f (z )
as sin 1 os(1=z ) os 1 sin(1=z ) for jz j > 0.
7.54. Consider f (z ) = ez z1 . The point at innity is an essential singularity
of f (z ). Note that there is no non- onstant meromorphi fun tion
whi h is analyti on the Riemann sphere a onsequen e of Liouville's
theorem.
7.60. Let  satisfy the above onditions. Then the fun tion f dened by
f (z ) = (z z1 )[(z z2 )(z z3)(z z4 )℄ 1 (z )
is analyti at all points ex ept at zj , j = 1; 2; 3; 4. Sin e limz!zj f (z )
exists, f is analyti in C . Further, ondition (iv) implies that f is
analyti at innity. As a onsequen e of Liouville's theorem f redu es
to a onstant, and by (iv) this onstant must be 2 and hen e  takes
the form:
(z ) = 2(z z1) 1 (z z2 )(z z3 )(z z4 ):
7.61. We nd that
 
1 2
lim (z 1)f (z ) = zlim 1 +


+ 2z + 1 + = +
z !1 !1 nz n n(n + 1)
and so = 2=n(n + 1) will do.
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 575

7.62. Observe that both zlim!0 f (z ) and zlim

!2(z 2)f (z ) exist and are non-zero.
Further, if g(z ) = f (1=z ) then
n+2 1=x 1)
lim z n g (z ) = lim x (e =1
z!0 x!0 1 2x
z=x>0 x>0

and
xn+2 (e 1=x 1)
lim
z!0
z n g(z ) = ( 1)n xlim
!0 =0
z= x>0 x>0 1 + 2x
showing that 1 is neither a removable singularity nor a pole of g(z ).
It follows that z = 0 is an essential singularity for g(z ).
7.63. Let g(z ) = z= sin z . Then g has singularities only at z = k, k 2 Z.
We observe that

!0 g(z ) = 1 so that zlim

(i) zlim !0 f (z ) = e
(ii) lim g(z ) = 1 so that lim f (z ) = exp( 1) = 0
z=x!k z=x!k
k even k even
(iii) lim g(z ) = 1 so that lim f (z ) = exp(1) = 1.
z=x!k+ z=x!k+
k even k even

Thus, (ii) and (iii) reveal the fa t that k (k-even and k 6= 0) is

neither removable nor a pole for f . A similar on lusion holds when
k-is odd.
7.64. If k(z ) = z=(1 z ) 2 , then f dened by
1
X  
f (z ) = ei k(e i z ) = z + an z n an = ne i(n 1) ;
n=2
satises the hypotheses. Note that jan j = n so that the sequen e
fang is not bounded. On the other hand, if g(z ) = (1 ze i ) 1
then g 2 H(C n fei g) where ei is a simple pole for g. Note that
g(n) (0)
bn = = e in = os n i sin n
n!
and jbn j = 1: Clearly, fbn g does not onverge although it is a bounded
sequen e.
Chapter 8, Exer ises 8.6:
8.60:
(a) By denition
576 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

Res [af (z ) + bg(z ); z0℄

Z
1
= [af ( ) + bg( )℄d
2i 
(z0;r)
" Z # " Z #
1 1
= a f ( )d + b g( )d
2i 
(z0;r) 2i 
(z0 ;r)
= a Res [f (z ); z0℄ + b Res [g(z ); z0 ℄;
where r is hosen so that z0 is the only singularity of f and g in

(z ; r).
(f) Suppose not. Then, jf (z ) 1=z j < ja 1 1j for all z with jz j = 1.
Moreover,
 Z   
 
1 1
ja 1 1j = 
 2i jzj=1
f (z )
z
dz  < ja

1 1j

whi h is a ontradi tion. Note that if f (z ) = a 1 =z , then, for jz j = 1,

we have the equality jf (z ) 1=z j = ja 1 1j.
(g) Use (8.23).
(h) Use (8.23).
(j) As in the previous exer ise, we on lude that F (z ) = ez 1 2z has
only one zero inside the unit ir le jz j = 1. As F (0) = 0, the only
zero in
is at z = 0 and so 1=F (z ) has a simple pole at the origin
with residue
 
1 z 1
Res
F (z ) !0 e 1 2z z!0 e 2 = 1:
; 0 = zlim z = lim z

(k) Justify your answer by onstru ting expli it examples.

(n) Suppose that su h a fun tion exists. Then, we must have
Z
dz
2i = =0
jzj=1 z
whi h is absurd; so no su h f an exist with the given property.
(o) See Example 8.17.
(p) Sin e Res [ osh z ot z ; k℄ = osh k; k 2 Z; and k lies inside the
ir le C , the assertion follows by the residue theorem.
(q) The Laurent expansion of ez yields
X1 zn ! X 1 z m!
f (z ) = ; jz j > 0:
n=0 n! m=0 m!
Truth of the assertion now follows by obtaining the oeÆ ients of 1=z ,
using the Cau hy produ t of the two onvergent series.
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 577

(s) Set f (z ) = ez 2 and g(z ) = 3z . For jz j = 1,


 X1 z n  X1 1
jez 2j =  1 +

1+

= e < 3 = j 3z j:
n=1 n! n=1 n!
 

Sin e g(z ) has only one zero in the unit disk, f (z )+ g(z ) also has only
one zero in
. In the same way, we see that the number of solutions
of sin z = z + 3z 2 in the unit disk jz j < 1 is two.
(t) On jz j = 1, jez a j = jez a z ( z )j = eRe z a  e1 a < j z j:
(u) On jz j = 2, jp(z )j  1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 = 31 < 25 = jz j5:
(v) As j f (0)j < m < jf (z )j on jz j = 1, f (z ) and f (z ) f (0) have the
same number of zeros in
.
(w) Sin e jf (z )j = j(f (z ) z ) ( z )j < 1 = j z j for jz j = 1, f (z ) z and
z the have same number of zeros in
. Thus, there exists a point
z0 2
su h that f (z0 ) = z0.
(x) Let fn (z ) = 1 + 2z + 3z 2 +


+ nz n 1 and C = 
R . Then, we
see that fn (z ) ! (1 z ) 2 as n ! 1, jz j < 1: Applying the method
of Example 8.59 we an immediately on lude that for R < 1 and n
suÆ iently large, the polynomial fn has no zeros in jz j < R (Also we
an use Hurwitz' theorem with f (z ) = (1 z ) 2).
(z) Nf Pf is the dieren e of the zeros and the poles of f (z ) in
plus
the dieren e of the zeros and the poles of f (1=z ) in
. One may
need to onsider a disk other than
for ertain fun tions.
8.62. As f 0 (z ) 6= 0, f (z ) f (a) 6= 0 in D n fag. Now
g(z ) g(a)
lim (z a) = :
z!a f (z ) f (a) f 0 (a)
Apply the residue theorem.
8.64. (iii) Set f (z ) = sin z and apply the argument prin iple.
(iv) Inside the ir le jz j = 3, the fun tion has two singularities at
z = 1 and z = 2. Sin e Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 1, by Theorem 8.32, the
value of the integral is 2i.
8.66. Let f 2 H(
) and f (z ) 2 R for jz j = 1. Suppose that = a + ib with
b 6= 0. We laim that f (z ) 6= 0 for jz j < 1. To do this, we apply
the argument prin iple and obtain
f 0 (z )
Z
1
dz = N
2i C f (z )
where N denotes the number of zeros of f (z ) in
. Observe that
Im (f (z ) ) = Im f (z ) b = b
 578 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

implying that (the image of 
under f (z ) ), whi h des ribes

a losed ontour, lies either in the lower half-plane or in the upper
half-plane depending upon whether b > 0 or b < 0. Thus, in either
ase, n( ; 0) = 0 so that N = 0, i.e. f (z ) 6= 0 in jz j < 1 whenever
Im 6= 0. It follows that f (z ) never assumes non-real values and
hen e, f (z ) 2 R in jz j < 1 whi h implies that f is onstant (see
Theorem 3.6).
8.74. For jz j = R, we have j ez j = eRe (z) < eR < jajRn = jaz n j (sin e
jRe z j  R). The rst part follows from Rou he's theorem. If R = 1
and jaj > e, the equation az n ez = 0 has n roots in jz j < 1. If z0 is
a root of order k, k  2, then
az0n ez0 = 0 and naz0n 1 ez0 = 0
whi h means that z0n nz0n 1 = 0 and this gives either z0 = 0 or
z0 = n; i.e. either 0 = ez0 = e0 = 1; or Re z0  1 and this is a
ontradi tion. Therefore the equation az n ez = 0 has exa tly n
simple roots with positive real part lo ated in jz j < 1.
8.77. Let z = ei . Then, we have
Z Z 2
f (z ) f (ei ) i
dz = ie d
jzj=1 z a 0 ei a
Z 2
f (e i )
=
0 1 ae
i i d
Z
f ( )
= d;  = e i :
j j=1 (1 a )
Note that f (z ) is analyti for jz j < 2 if and only if f (z) is analyti
for jz j < 2. The result follows if we apply Cau hy's integral formula
or Cau hy's residue theorem.
Chapter 9, Exer ises 9.7:
9.75. It suÆ es to onsider b = 1. With this,
Z 2  ( Z )
ein 2 zn
Re d = Re dz :
0 a + os  i jzj=1 z 2 + 2az + 1

9.76(1). All the zeros z = 0; 2; i of z (z +2)(z i)2 lie inside the ir le jz j = 3.

So I = 2i Res [f (z ); 1℄ = 0:
9.78(1). The ase  = 0 is the error integral while  2 [ 1; 0) follows from the
ase  2 (0; 1℄ by onjugating both the sides of
Z 1  p
22 1 
e (1+i) t dt = :
0 1 + i 2
 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 579

Thus, it suÆ es to prove this whenever  2 (0; 1℄. For the proof, use
a triangular ontour with 0 <  < 1: C = [0; R℄ [ fR + it : 0  t 
2
Rg [ f(1 + i)t : t 2 [0; R℄g and f (z ) = e z .
9.78(2). One may use the ontour shown in Figure 9.9. For  = 0, one an nd
the value of the integral by taking the limit on the right as  ! 0.
9.78(3). Choose f (z ) = Log z=(z 2 + a2 ) = (ln jz j + iArg z )=(z 2 + a2 ).
Chapter 10, Exer ises 10.5:
10.54:
(a) Clearly, f (z ) = z and f (z ) = sin z satises this relation. The given
relation may be rewritten as
f (z ) = 2f (z=2)f 0(z=2) for jz j < R:
As f is analyti for jz j < R, the right hand side is analyti for
jz j < 2R. Consequently, by iteration, f is analyti for jz j < 2nR
for arbitrary n.
(b) The fun tions f and F whi h represent the rst and the se ond series
are given by
1 1 z
f (z ) = and F (z ) = ;
1 z 1 z + (1 )z
respe tively. Note that the rst series onverges for jz j < 1=jj while
the se ond for all z with j(1 )z j < j1 z j.
(d) Clearly, we may write f (z ) = Log (1 + z ) whi h is analyti in the ut
plane C n ( 1; 1℄. Similarly,
   
1 z 1+z
F (z ) = ln 2 + Log 1 = ln 2 + Log
2 2
whi h is also analyti on the same ut plane. If jz j < 1, then both
1 + z and 2 lie in the right half-plane Re z > 0 so that
F (z ) = ln 2 + Log (1 + z ) ln 2 = Log (1 + z )
whi h implies that f (z ) = F (z ) for jz j < 1.
10.56. Set f (z ) = exp(z Log z ) and observe that f (x) is real for x > 0. Apply
Theorem 10.50.
10.58. Consider u(x; y) = Axy +B . By hypothesis A+B = 3 and 2A+B = 7.
Solve for A and B .
Chapter 11, Exer ises 11.9:
11.112:
580 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

( ) Suppose that there exists a meromorphi fun tion with poles at 1=n
for ea h n 2 N . Then, 0 (whi h is a limit point of these poles), is
a non-isolated singularity. Thus, the limit point of the poles of a
meromorphi fun tion must be the point at innity.
(d) Suppose that there are innitely many an 's in some losed disk jz j  R
(0 < R < 1). Then there must exist a subsequen e fank g onverging
to a point a in this disk. Continuity of f then shows that f (a) = 0; but
then this zero is not isolated. Thus, f (z )  0 whi h is a ontradi tion.
(f) If f (z ) = ez , then f 0 (z ) 6= 0 in C . If f (z ) = ep(z) , where p(z ) is a
xed polynomial of degree at least two, then f 0 (z ) = p0 (z )ep(z) and
hen e f 0 (z ) has zero(s) at the point(s) where p0 (z ) has zero(s). For
3
instan e, if f (z ) = ez then f 0 (z ) has a zero of order two at z = 0.
(k) The series 1
P P1
n=2 j n j = n=2 n
 Re  onverges i Re  > 1.

(l) As 1 jaj
P
n=1 ja z j = jz j 1 jaj < 1, the produ t denes an entire fun tion.
n

(n) SuÆ es to observe that for jj < 1,

n
Y 2
z  = z + +


+ = z (1  )=(1 )
k n n
Pn =
k=1

showing that Pn ! z =(1 ): In parti ular, for  = 1=2 and  = 1=3

gives that
Y1 n Y1 n
z 2 = z and z 3 = z 1=2 = exp((1=2) Log z ):
n=1 n=1

(p) Note that

 
 2  2
jfk (z )j = 
 kz + k3

1
 jkz j jk3 1j
2
 kRe z k3 + 1
2 2
 k Re z k 3 = 3 Re z
k (k 3 1)
P1
so that k=1 jfk (z )j onverges uniformly on every ompa t subset
Re z  3 + Æ, Æ > 0:
(r) For instan e, for z = 1, 1
Q
n=1 (1 + 1=n) = 1:
(s) The desired fun tion is given by
Y1  z   z z 2 n Y 1  z n 
z2

1 exp + 2 = 1 exp z + :
n=1 n n 2n n=1 n 2n
Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 581

(v) Similar to the proof for innite series.

p
sin  z
(w) For example, f (z ) = p . Is it entire?
 z
(z) Choose an entire fun tion g with zeros at z = n, n 2 N and onsider
f (z ) = g(1=(1 + z )).
11.113:
( ) Note that (as, for ea h  > 0, jz j  ejzj for jz j large enough)


jzez j = jz jex  jz jejzj  e(+1)jzj  exp jz j1+ :
(d) As maxjzj=r jf (z ) + g(z )j  maxjzj=r jf (z )j + maxjzj=r jg(z )j, we have
M (r; f + g)  M (r; f ) + M (r; g)
   
 exp r(f )+ + exp r(g)+ for large r
 
 2 exp rmaxf(f );(g)g+
 
 exp rmaxf(f );(g)g+2 for large r
so that ln M (r; f + g)  rmaxf(f );(g)g+2 and
ln ln M (r; f + g)
ln r
 maxf(f ); (g)g + 2 as r ! 1:
Sin e  is arbitrary, (f + g)  maxf(f ); (g)g. Thus, the order of
the sum of two entire fun tions f , g annot ex eed the order of f and
g.
(e) Without loss of generality we may assume that (g) < (f ). Then
the previous exer ise gives
M (r; f + g)  exp(r(f )+2 )
so that (f + g)  (f ) + 2. Therefore, it remains to show that
(f + g)  (f ) . First, by denition of lim sup
M (r; f )  exp(r(f )  ):
Now we assume that (f ) > (g). We an hoose  > 0 so small su h
that
(f )  > (g) + :
Then there exists a sequen e of numbers rn su h that rn ! 1 and
M (rn ; f + g)  M (rn ; f ) M (rn ; g)
 exp(rn(f )  ) h exp(rn(g)+ ) i
= exp(rn(f )  ) 1 exp(rn(g)+ rn(f )  )
 21 exp(rn(f )  )
582 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

be ause,
h i
rn(g)+ rn(f )  = rn(f )  rn(g) (f )+2 1 ! 1 as n ! 1:
That is, (f + g)  (f ). Thus, the addition of a fun tion of lower
order does not alter the order of the original fun tion.
(f) Use the previous two exer ises.
(g) As jfgj  jf j jgj implies that M (r; fg)  M (r; f )M (r; g), for every
 > 0 and r suÆ iently large, we have
M (r; fg)  M (r; f )M (r; g))
   
 exp r(f )+ exp r(g)+
 
 exp 2rmaxf(f );)gg+ :
Thus, (fg)  maxf(f ); (g)g and so the order of the produ t of
two entire fun tions f and g annot ex eed the maximum of the order
of f and g.
(h) As maxjzj=r jh(z )j = maxjzj=r jf (az )j = maxj j=jajr jf ( )j;
ln ln M (r; h) ln ln M (jajr; f )
=
ln r ln r
ln ln M (jajr; f ) ln(jajr)
=
ln(jajr)

ln r
! (f )
1 as r ! 1:
(i) As maxjzj=r jh(z )j = maxjzj=r jf (z n)j = maxj j=rn jf ( )j;
ln ln M (r; h) ln ln M (rn ; f ) ln(rn )
ln r
=
ln(rn )

ln r
! (f )
n as r ! 1:
For example, as (e ) = 1, we have (exp z n) = n. Similarly, the
z
order of sin(z n ) is n.
(j) As maxjzj=r jh(z )j = maxjzj=r jz nf (z )j = rn maxjzj=r jf (z )j;
ln ln M (r; h) ln ln(rn M (r; f ))
=
ln r ln r
ln(n ln r + ln M (r; f ))
=
ln r
ln(ln M (r; f ))
 ln r
whi h shows that (h)  (f ). Also, we know that every polynomial
has order 0 and, h being a produ t of two entire fun tions, (h) 
maxf(z n ); (f )g = (f ). Combining the last two inequalities gives
(h) = (f ). For instan e, the order of z n sin(z m ) is m.
 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 583

(k) 1
P 1
n=1 n1+ onverges for every  > 0, so (f ) = 1.
(m) We have (ez ) = 1 = ( ez ) and (ez ez ) = (0) = 0.
(n) By substituting s = 1 in the denition of the  fun tion, we may write
X1 1 Y 1  
1 1 Y 1  1

= 1 = 1+
n=1 n n=1 pn n=1 pn 1
in the sense that the series and the produ t both diverges to 1. Su h
an observation implies that the series 1
P 1
n=1 pn 1 diverges. It follows
that there are innitely many primes.
11.116. (i) By the Weierstrass fa torization theorem,
the desired entire fun -
tion is given by 1 z
Q1
Q z z=n :
n=1 E1 n = n=1 1 + n e
Q1

(iv) n=1 1 n5z=4 :
(v) 1 z
4=5
:
Q
n=1 1 n4=5 exp z=n
(vi) 1 z

Q

1=2 2
n=1Q 1 n1=2 exp z=n + z =(2n) :
11.117. Be ause 1 Q1 we must have ak ! 0 as k ! 1
k=1 (1 + ak ) onverges,
(by
P1
Proposition 11.16). As k=1 (1 + jak j) diverges, then the series
k=1 ak does not onverge absolutely (by Corollary 11.22) so the
series may or mayQnot onverge. For example, if akQ= ( 1)k 1 =k
then the produ t 1 1
k=1 (1 + ak ) onverges whereas k=1 (1P+1jak j)
diverges, see 11.15(i) and (iv). In this hoi e, the series k=1 ak
onverges but not absolutely.
11.118. The proof
P is apparently in the proof of Theorem 11.30. Alternatively,
we let 1 k=1 jfk (z )j < M , z 2
: Then
n n !
Y X
p~n (z ) := (1 + jfk (z )j)  exp jfk (z )j < exp(M )
k=1 k=1
so that p~n+1 (z ) p~n (z ) = p~n (z )jfn+1 (z )j < eM jfn+1 (z )j: Sin e
X 1 X1
(~pn+1 (z ) p~n (z ))  eM jfn+1 (z )j
n=1 n=1
and n=1 jfn (z )j onverges uniformly, it follows that 1
P1 P
pn+1 (z )
n=1 (~
p~n (z )) onverges uniformly, and so does fp~ng. Hen e, 1
Q
k=1 (1 +
jfk (z )j) is uniformly onvergent.
(i) If ak = (k=(k +P1))k , then limk! jak j1=k = 1 so that by the root
test the seriesQ 1
k=1 ak z onverges absolutely for jz j < 1. Thus,
k
1
the produ t k=1 (1 + fk (z )) onverges absolutely for jz j < 1.
What about for jz j  1?
 584 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

(ii) For jz j < 1, fk (z ) ! 1 z 6= 0 so that the produ t diverges for

jz j < 1.
11.119. Dene a (z ) = (a z )=(1 az ) and onsider
!0 1
m n
Y 1 Y
F (z ) = f (z )  bj =R (z=R)A :
i=1 ai =R (z=R) j =1

Apply Theorem 10.31 to Log F (z ) and then equate the real parts on
both sides of the resulting equation. Finally, repla e z by a to get the
desired formula.
11.120. For instan e, onsider
p 1 p p X1 zn
f (z ) = osh z = (e z + e z ) = :
2 n=1 (2n)!
Then f is an entire fun tion of order 1=2. Indeed,
p p p p
jf (z )j < 12 (e r + e r )  e r < e r+ for large values of r
and for z = r > 0,
p p p p
jf (z )j = 21 (e r + e r ) > e r  ; i.e. M (r) > e r 
for large r. Similarly,
p z z2 z3 sin z z z2 z3
p
os z = 1 + +


and p = 1 + +



2! 4! 6! z 3! 5! 7!
are entire fun tions of order 1=2.
The zeros of f (z ) = sin (zP+ ) are an = n , n 2 Z. Sin e
11.121. P
n2Zjan j diverges while n2Zjan j
1 (1+) onverges for ea h  >
0, we set p = 1. Sin e sin z is of order 1, by Theorem 11.100, the
genus of f (z ) is 1. Hen e, we have the representation
Y
sin (z + ) = z 0 eh(z) E1 (z=(n ))
n2Z
where h(z ) is a polynomial of degree at most 1. Thus, we write
 
Y z
sin (z + ) = eaz+b 1+ ez=(n )
n2Z
n 
Y

z
= (sin )eaz 1+ ez=(n )
n2Z
n 
 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 585

(be ause z = 0 gives that eb = sin ). In order to determine a, we

take the logarithmi derivative on both sides. We nd
 
X 1 1
 ot (z + ) = a + +
n2Z
n a z n a
where the pro edure is easy to justify by uniform onvergen e on any
ompa t set whi h does not ontain the points n . Allow z ! 0
to obtain a =  ot . Substituting this value and then hanging n
into n in the produ t gives the desired formula.
11.122. The order and the genus of f is 1 and 0, respe tively.
11.123. Note that for a = 1, this fun tion redu es to the (ordinary) zeta
fun tion (11.64). Use the method of proof of Theorem 11.67, and
ompare with (11.68).
11.124. For nQ= 2, the result
redu es to Legendre's dupli ation formula. Note
that nk=01 z + nk and (nz ) have the same set of poles, namely
at z = 0; n1 ; n2 ;


so that the quotient of these fun tions is entire
without zeros. So, as in the proof of the ase for n = 2, we have
nY1  
k
z+ = eaz+b (nz ):
k=0 n
Repla e z by z + 1=n and ompare the resulting equation with the
former to ompute the values of a and b.
11.125. Rewrite the fun tional equation (11.75) using the identity
 
(s) (1 s) = = :
sin(s) 2 sin(s=2) os(s=2)
Chapter 12, Exer ises 12.8:
12.54:
(f) This statement is simply a reformulation of Theorem 12.18.
(g) By Corollary 12.8, p0 (z ) 6= 0 in
so that a1 6= 0 and ea h zero k of
p0 (z ) must lie outside the unit disk
. We may write
nY1
p0 (z ) = a1 + 2a2 z +


+ nan z n 1 = nan (z k ):
k=1
Q
In parti ular, a1 = nan nk=11 ( k ) and so ja1 j  jnan j, sin e jk j  1
for ea h k = 1; 2; : : : ; n 1.
(r) See Step 1 in the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem. Note
that the last part of Step 1 proves the existen e of su h a fun tion f
satisfying f (a) = 0 and f 0 (a) > 0.
586 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises

(s) We need to distinguish the ases when

= C and
=
6 C . When

= C , the desired automorphism is given by
f (z ) = z + b a:
If
6= C , then a ording to the Riemann mapping theorem there are
two bije tive maps g :
!
and h :
!
su h that g(a) = 0 and
h(0) = b: Then the desired map is given by f = h Æ g: Alternatively, by
the Riemann mapping theorem, if
6= C then there exists a G 2 H(
)
su h that G is bije tive. Choose  2 Aut (
) with (G(a)) = G(b).
Then, f = G 1 Æ  Æ G is the desired map.
(t) By the open mapping theorem, the ondition on  implies that
 
f (D). So, the preimage of
 will be a subregion
of
. Dene
g(z ) = z . Then, F = f 1 Æ g is a one-to-one mapping of
onto
,
g0 (0) 
F (0) = f 1 (g(0)) = f 1 (0) = 0 and F 0 (0) = 0 = 0 :
f (0) f (0)
By S hwarz' lemma, jF 0 (0)j  1 whi h gives jf 0(0)j  .
(u) Consider  :
!
given by
a z
a (z ) = :
1 az
Then, a (a) = 0 and 0a (a) = 1=(1 jaj2 ). Thus, g(z ) = 1=2 (z )
maps
onto itself with g(1=2) = 0 and g0 (1=2) > 0. Similarly,
h(z ) = i=3 (z ) maps
onto itself with h(i=3) = 0 and h0 (i=3) > 0.
The desired mapping is then given by f = h 1 Æ g. Note that
g0 (i=3)
f (1=2) = h 1 (g(1=2)) = h 1 (0) = i=3 and f 0 (i=3) = 0 > 0:
h (g(i=3))
(v) It suÆ es to note that
Z Z Z Z Z Z
A= du dv = Jf (z ) dx dy = jf 0 (z )j2 dx dy:
D0 D D

(w) Now f (z ) = z + z 2=2 is univalent and jf 0 (z )j2 = j1 + z j2 . As

Z Z
A = j1 + z j2 dz
D
Z 2 Z 1
= j1 + rei j2 r drd
0 0
Z 2 Z 1
3
= (1 + 2r os  + r2 )r drd = :
0 0 2
 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises 587

(y) As in Example 12.33, just onsider  (z ) dened there with jj < 1

and -real. Solve  (1=7) =  (1=2) whi h gives  = 3 or  = 1=3.
Thus, 1=3 (z ) = (1 3z )=(3 z ) maps 
onto itself, and maps the
ir le 
(9=28; 5=28) onto the ir le with enter at the origin and
radius r = j1=3 (1=7)j = 1=5.
(z) Using the idea of Example 12.33, we get R = 2 and
zei (1=4)
(z ) = ;  2 R:
1 (1=4)ei z
12.56. Note that
Z Z Z
1 1 1
z dz = (x dx + y dy) + (x dy y dx)
2i 2i 2
Z Z Z Z
1 1
= 0 dx dy + 2 dx dy
2i D 2 D
Z Z
= dx dy = Area (D):
D
12.57. Set w = f (z ) and = f ( ). Then f 0(z ) dz = dw and
Z Z
1 1
f (z )f 0 (z ) dz = w dw;
2i 2i
whi h is a real number(see Exer ise 12.56).
12.61. The proof for the ases (iii) for n = 2, and (iv) have already been
dealt with in the proof of Theorem 12.36. We provide the proof of
(iii) for n 2 N as the remaining ases are easy.
Let f 2 S . As F (z ) = z nf (z n ) 6= 0 on
, there exists h 2 H (
) su h
that (h(z ))n = F (z ) with h(0) = 1. Then g dened by g(z ) = zh(z n)
belongs to H(
) and g(0) = 0 = g0 (0) 1. For the univalen y of g,
g(z1 ) = g(z2) =) f (z1n) = f (z2n )
=) z1 = !z2 (!n = 1)
=) g(z1 ) = g(!z1) = !z1 h(!n z1n) = !g(z1)
=) (1 !)g(z1 ) = 0; i.e. ! = 1 or z1 = 0:
12.64. See the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem.
12.65. See the proof of the Riemann mapping theorem.
12.68. Clearly f (
) is ompa t (as f is ontinuous and 
is a ompa t
set). Then f (C ) = f (
) [ f (C n 
) =: A [ B; where A = f (
)
is a ompa t set and B = f (fz : jz j 6= 1g) is a subset of C n R, by
hypothesis. Thus, f (C ) = C n fR n Ag and so f misses more than one
point in its image. By Pi ard's little Theorem, f must be onstant.
588 Hints and Solutions for Sele ted Exer ises
Index

C k (
), 81 boundary, 24
C [ f1g := C 1 , 54 bounded, 26, 42
R1 , 250 bran h, 122

R , 78 bran h point, 123
n( ; a), 168
H + , 250 C-R equations
H , 268 Cartesianform, 81
H(D), 78 omplex form, 80, 82
Aut (
), 250 anoni al produ t, 490
nite genus, 491
absolute value, 3 genus, 490
analyti bran h, 123 standard form, 491
analyti ontinuation, 407{409 Cantor's theorem, 159
analyti ontinuations Cau hy riterion, 30, 32
along a urve, 417 Cau hy estimate, 296
analyti germ, 417 Cau hy integral formula, 177
analyti part, 318 Cau hy produ t, 35
analyti -logarithm, 123 Cau hy's deformation of ontour,
analyti ally ontinuable, 409 165
anti-derivative, 100 Cau hy's inequality, 187
ar -length fun tion, 147 Cau hy's integral theorem, 163
ar tangent, 9 Cau hy's Theorem
Area theorem, 528 for a Disk, 163
argument, 8 lo al form, 162
argument prin iple, 357 Cau hy-Goursat theorem, 158
automorphism, 250 Cau hy-Riemann, 80
Cayley mapping, 252
base point, 171 hain rule, 79, 127
bianalyti , 297 hordal distan e, 58
bi ontinuous, 138 hordal metri , 59
bije tive, 138 ir ular ring, 165
Bilinear transformations, 235 lose together, 172
binomial, 203 losed, 22
Blo h's Theorem, 532 losed urve, 137

589
590 INDEX

index of a, 168 deleted neighborhood, 21

losed disk, 23 dense set, 328
losure, 25 derivative, 73{75
ompa t, 27 derived series, 107
omparison test, 33 dierentiation
omplex Lapla ian, 90, 91 k-times, 108
omplex line integral, 142 term-by-term, 77
omplex plane, 3 dilation, 234
omplex sphere, 55 dire t analyti ontinuation, 412
onformal, 228 Diri hlet Problem
onjugate, 3 Solution, 427
onne ted, 25 Diri hlet problem, 427
polygonally, 25 dis onne ted, 25
simply, 92, 93 domain, 25
ontinuously dierentiable, 81 simply onne ted, 92, 93, 163,
ontour, 141 172
(=pie ewise smooth urve), 141 starlike, 44
ontour integral, 142 symmetri , 44
onvergen e
ir le of, 103 entire fun tion
disk of, 133 order, 488
pointwise, 65 equi ontinuous family, 515
radius of, 103 error integral, 384, 393
uniform, 65 Eu lidean distan e, 58
onvergen e exponent, 497 Eu lidean metri , 21
onvergent Euler's onstant, 471
absolutely, 33, 66 extended omplex plane, 54, 55
onvex domain, 44
onvex hull, 302 nite genus, 491
ountable, 27 xed point, 241
riti al line, 480 fun tion, 39
riti al point, 231 dis ontinuous, 48
riti al strip, 480 linear, 234
ross-ratio, 247 meromorphi , 324
urve, 137 rational, 325
losed, 137 fun tion element, 412
dierentiable, 140 fun tion(s)
Jordan, 138 ar trig z , 129
of lass C 1 , 140 hyp w, 129
pie ewise C 1 , 141 trig w, 129
pie ewise smooth, 141 trig 1 z , 129
simple, 140 holomorphi , 78
simple losed, 140 analyti , 78
smooth, 140 anti-derivative, 100
ut plane, 127, 558 omplex, 39
INDEX 591

omposition, 42 homotopi to, 171

onstant, 42
ontinuous, 48, 65 identity map, 234, 242
dierentiable, 74 Identity theorem, 200
doubly periodi , 117, 298 index, 168
entire, 74, 78 Inequality
entire trans endental, 291 Harna k's, 429
even, 44 inequality
exponential, 113 Jensen's, 483
harmoni , 89 innite genus, 491
hyperboli , 129 innite produ t
into, 40 absolutely onvergent, 451
inverse, 42 onverge, 446
logarithmi , 123, 124 onvergent, 446
odd, 44 divergent, 446
onto, 40 innite produ ts, 438
periodi , 116 innite rank, 490
polynomial, 50 invariant, 247
primitive, 100 Inverse fun tion theorem, 511
rational, 50, 77 inverse points, 261
real-valued, 40 inverse sine, 129
sequen e of, 65 inversion, 234
trigonometri , 112, 129 isogonal, 228
univalent, 42 isolated, 200
fun tion(s)s isolated point, 49
sequen e of, 68 isolated points, 24
fun tional identities, 202
Fun tional Relation, 472 Jensen's Formula, 482
fundamental region, 119 Jensen's inequality, 483
fundamental theorem of line inte- Jordan ar , 138
grals, 152 Jordan domain, 138
Jordan's Inequality, 386
gamma fun tion, 470, 471 Joukowski mapping, 510
Gauss error integral, 383
Gauss's formula, 471 L'H^ospital rule, 200, 222
Gauss's Theorem, 302 Lapla e operator, 90
generalized ir les, 249 Lapla e's equation, 89
genus, 490 Lapla ian, 90
germ at z0 , 417 Laurent expansion
analyti part, 318
Hadamard's Fa torization Theo- prin ipal part of, 318
rem, 493, 495 regular part, 318
Harna k's Inequality, 429 unique(ness) of, 213
holomorphi bran h, 123 Laurent series, 209
holomorphi fun tion, 78 Legendre's formula, 473
592 INDEX

length, 146 neighborhood, 21

limit, 28, 44 neighborhood of 1, 58
of the sequen e, 28 neighbourhood
pointwise, 65 pun tured, 204
uniform, 188 nontrivial zeros, 480
limit of a sequen e, 28 normal family, 512
limit point, 23 null-homotopi , 171
line segment, 25
linear map, 234 open ball, 21
Liouville's Theorem, 291 open disk, 21
Liouville's theorem, 269, 293, 295 open mapping, 41, 503
lo ally uniformly bounded, 513 Open mapping theorem, 504
loxodromi transformation, 242 open set, 22
Lu as's Theorem, 303
paraboli , 242
M-L inequality, 148 paraboli transformation, 242
Mobius transformations, 223 parametri interval, 137
magni ation, 234 partial sums, 31, 66
map sequen e of, 66
identity, 234 path, 137
inversion, 234 path of integration, 142
magni ation, 234 period, 117
re ipro al, 234 Pi ard's Theorem, 538
rotation, 234 pie ewise smooth urve, 141
translation, 234 Pir ad's theorem, 329, 332
mapping point at innity, 54, 55, 320
Cayley, 252 Poisson integral, 423
Joukowski, 510 Poisson kernel, 423, 424
maxima, 269 onjugate, 426
maximum metri , 21 polar representation, 10
maximum modulus, 269 pole, 310
Maximum Prin iple, 269 order of the, 314
meromorphi at z = 1, 325 simple, 314
meromorphi fun tion, 324 polygonal line, 25
metri spa e, 21 polygonally onne ted, 25
minimum, 269 positively oriented, 170
Mittag-Leer Theorem, 440 power series, 101
modulus, 3 power series method, 409
Montel's theorem, 516 primary fa tors, 460
Morera's theorem, 190 primitive, 100
multiple-valued, 41 prin ipal bran h, 123, 127
prin ipal bran h(of)
natural boundary, 413 hyp 1 , 130
natural logarithm, 118 trig 1 , 130
negatively oriented, 170 prin ipal part, 318, 322
INDEX 593

prin ipal value, 8, 9, 119, 126 simple urve, 140

Prin iple simple zeros, 199
Maximum Modulus, 270 simply onne ted, 93
of argument, 357 simply onne ted domain, 92
pun tured disk, 45 single-valued, 41
singular point, 78, 307, 413
rank, 490 isolated, 308
re e tion, 262 non-isolated, 308
region, 25 singularity, 78, 307
annulus, 165 essential, 310
regular part, 318 isolated, 308
regular point, 307, 413 non-isolated (essential), 323
reparameterization, 143 removable, 310, 311
residue, 318 singularity(ies)
Residue formula, 352 1, 320
Extended, 353 square roots, 14, 15
Riemann hypothesis, 478, 480 standard form, 491
Riemann mapping theorem, 519 star enter, 44
Riemann sphere, 55 stereographi proje tion, 54
Riemann zeta fun tion, 473 subsequen e, 27
roots of unity, 16 symmetri , 261, 432
rotation, 234
Rou he's Theorem, 361 Taylor's expansion
unique(ness), 195
S hottky's Theorem, 541 Theorem
S hwarz' Lemma, 269 Riemann mapping, 519
S hwarz' lemma, 279 Antiderivative, 100
S hwarz-Pi k Lemma, 283 Area, 528
self-map, 250 Bieberba h, 529
self-maps, 288 Binomial Series, 128
sequen e, 27 Blo h's, 532, 537
n-th term, 27 Borel Caratheodary, 282
Cau hy, 30 Casorati-Weierstrass, 329
divergent, 30 Cau hy Criterion, 68
null, 30 Cau hy deformation, 165
series, 31 Cau hy's integral, 163
onvergent, 31 Cau hy's Residue, 351
derived, 101, 107 Cau hy's Theorem, 174
divergent, 31 Cau hy-Goursat, 158
geometri , 66 De Moivre's, 15, 16
harmoni , 32 extended residue, 353
logarithmi , 106 Gauss, 302
Ma laurin, 110 Gauss's Mean-Value, 178
Taylor, 110 Hadamard's Fa torization, 493,
simple losed urve, 140 495
594 INDEX

Hadamard's Three Cir les, 278 identity, 234, 236

Hadamard's Three Lines, 277 linear, 234
Hurwitz', 505 linear fra tional, 223
Identity theorem, 200 loxodromi , 242
Inverse fun tion, 511 Mobius, 223
Jordan Curve, 138 paraboli , 242
Koebe 1/4, 529 translation, 234
Landau's, 535 triangle inequality, 5
Laurent, 211 trivial zeros, 480
Liouville, 269, 291
Liouville's, 293, 295, 350, 354 unbounded, 27
Lo al Mapping, 508 un ountable, 27
Lu as, 303 uniformly bounded, 513
Maximum Modulus, 272, 274 uniformly ontinuous, 49
Minimum Modulus, 273, 274 uniformly onvergent, 454
Mittag-Leer, 440 Uniqueness Theorem
Montel's, 516 for power series, 111
Morera, 190 univalent disk, 532
Open Mapping, 505
open mapping, 504 Wallis formula, 468
Phragmen-Lindelof, 276 Wallis identity, 469
Pi ard, 538 Weierstrass
Pir ad's, 329, 332 primary fa tors, 460
Pir ad's great, 329 Weierstrass produ t, 490
Pir ad's little, 328 Weierstrass' M-test, 69
Ratio Test, 105 Weierstrass's Theorem, 463
Removability, 191 winding number, 168
Removable singularity, 311 zero(s), 199
residue, 352 isolated, 200
Root Test, 103 limit point of, 200, 204
Rou he's, 361 multipli ity, 199
S hottky's, 541 of order m, 199
S hwarz-Pi k, 283 simple, 199
Taylor's, 195 zeta fun tion, 473
Uniqueness, 204
Uniqueness theorem, 200
Weak form of Cau hy's, 151
Weierstrass, 463
Weierstrass produ t, 437
Weierstrass', 188, 189
transforamtion
Mobius, 234
transformation(s)
bilinear, 223, 235
ompostion, 236