Book 1 Module 14 PROPULSION - AVIONICS JET ENGINE CONFIGURATION FADEC Licence By Post The spies ia tis book ea etch fingers. Not suitable for small children, Care when handling ——— Licence By Post © copyright B2 14.1 ISSUE 222) AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments. NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis. LBP 140 Nazbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 1QA UK Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433871 Fax: (+44) 01296 330697 Email: info@licencebypost.com Website: licencebypost.com) ” ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With special thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE ALLIED SIGNAL ROLLS ROYCE ple for permission to reproduce drawings.VO CONTENTS Jet engine principles The working cycle Combustion system Fuel system. Lubrication system Engine indicating parameters Jet engine configuration Fuel flow indicating systems Induction boost pressure Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) ‘The V2500/CFM56 FADEC ‘The PW4000 FADEC Power management control system (Boeing) PAGE. wWIdAAanH 18 27 29 52 54 55HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK The engine instrument section for the B2 person (module 14) is published in two books. Book 1 (this book) covers engine configuration, fuel flow transducers, FADEC and electronic engine control. Book 2 covers the rest of the engine instruments. Both books are written specifically for the B2 engineer, although will make good reading for the B1 person taking the Jet Engine module licence examination. ‘This book is fairly straight forward, except possibly for FADEC. It might need a second or third read through (and careful study of the drawings) to obtain a reasonable grasp of the subject. In all cases you should be able to describe the operation of the systems, the maintenance and the fault finding procedures.PRINCIPLES OF THE JET ENGINE ‘The jet engine relies on the principle of taking in a mass of air and accelerating it rearwards. This means that according to Newton Laws of Motion a forward reaction will be produced. The two important laws for a jet engine are: Newtons 2n4 Law: This states that the force produced is proportional to the mass times the acceleration and can be written as: F « ma (« means “is proportional to”) Using SI units in can be written F = ma Where —-F = force in Newton's m = mass in kgs a = acceleration in m/s? Newton’s 3" Law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. (The schoolboy’s - or schoolgir!’s - favourite). Now how do these laws help us with the jet engine - or a propeller for that matter? ‘The jet engine causes the air in front of it to be drawn into the intake and accelerated rearwards via the exhaust. Thus we have “a” in Newton’s second law. Air has mass (1.2kg for each cubic metre at sea level ISA) so we also have “m” in the equation F = ma. Thus we have force - BUT it is in the “wrong” direction - BACKWARDS. Newton’s 3" Law states that for every action (the backwards force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (a forwards force acting on the engine). So we have forward thrust. For a pure jet engine a relatively small mass of air is given a high acceleration. For a propeller, a large mass of air is accelerated backwards relatively slowly. A fan engine lies somewhere in between. To increase the thrust of a jet engine the rpm is increased. This also applies to a fixed pitch propeller. For a Variable Pitch (VP) propeller the thrust can be increased by altering the pitch to make it coarser (take a deeper cut into the air) - but to keep the rpm constant the power setting to the engine must be increased also — increasing fuel burn. -1- Cag—~ — q oe _ — TAKE AIRFLOW xuauer AIRFLOW Weveerry sme Arecrry = Vinee maces a km TIRFLOW AECELERATION =A com <——_-o—_> neaction peTiON=F= mA Fig. 1 THRUST THE WORKING CYCLE OF A GAS TURBINE By reference to figure 2, it can be seen that air is drawn from the atmosphere (ambient air) into a compressor. The compressor raises the pressure of the air (A to B) on the as shown on the Pressure Volume graph. As the pressure of the air is increased the volume is decreased. ‘The air passes to the combustion chamber and heat is added by burning fuel with a proportion of the air. From the graph (B to C) it is seen that combustion takes place at constant pressure so the gas turbine working cycle is known as a Constant Pressure cycle. In the combustion chamber the air expands rearwards and the volume of the gas increases and the gas kinetic energy increases. The gas flow passes to the turbine section to drive the turbine(s), energy is extracted to drive the compressor/fan/propeller and the pressure decreases. ‘The gas passes via an exhaust unit via the propelling nozzle, which forms a convergent duct. The velocity of the gas increases. The reaction to the high velocity jet produces thrust (C to D). On a turbo-prop engine most of this thrust energy is extracted by the turbine to drive the propeller. You should study figure 2 and be able to recall the approximate pressure and temperature variations from inlet to exhaust. Inputs/Outputs ‘The inputs to the engine include: * Air its main working medium. * Fuel - in general the control of the fuel is the main thrust control of the engine.Pilot - The pilot controls the thrust levers etc. Auto control ~ This may be selectable to produce automatic control of the engine within certain parameters. Electrical power — For operation of transducers, selection valves, starter motors etc. From aircraft batteries /electrical system. Pneumatic power for engine starting. B COMBUSTION - heat energy acsed —Te PRESSURE VOLUME GRAPH EXPANSION - through turbine and nozzle PRESSURE Zi COMPRESSION prescreened AMBIENT AIR . ' \ comBusTion INTAKE, \ CHAMBER TURAINE PROPELLING NOZZLE CENTRE LINE. deg ¢ [VEL mises name Pst 100 “10700 yaa + aac) - 72800 «SOHO 1D ‘THRUST DISTRIBUTION - EFFECTIVE FORWARD THRUST = 7500 Ibf Fig. 2: WORKING CYCLE OF THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE ¢rc ¢ r OWL, COOLANT MAINTENANCE TASKS > AIRCRAFT FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM FUEL INPUT ELECT INPUT PILOT INPUT PNEUMATIC INPUT AUTO CONTROL INPUT ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINE PARAMETERS TRANSDUCERS PNEUMATIC, /}————> ELECTRICAL FEED BACK TO PILOT HYDRAULIC AND AUTO CONTROL, OUTPUTS SYSTEMS Fig. 3 ENGINE INPUTS/OUTPUTS ‘The outputs include: ‘Thrust - the main purpose of the engine. Pneumatic supplies for cabin air-conditioning and pressurisation ~ also for pneumatically operated components. Hydraulic power to operate flaps, landing gear etc. Electrical power - ac and/or de depending on aircraft. Engine operating parameters - this information sent to flight deck instruments for pilot monitoring and also sent to auto- control equipment. ‘The Working Cycle ‘The air goes through the following stages: 1. Induction through the intake. When the aircraft is flying this is assisted by “ram effect” and at any speed must be kept well below the speed of sound (Mach 1). The design of the intake is critical to the performance of the engine. Compression. This is adiabatic and it gets hot. Compression ratios range from 4:1 for the early centrifugal compressors to 8:1 for a single 17 stage axial flow compressor. Combinations of compressors/multi spool arrangements will give higher values than this.Combustion. Usually carried out using kerosene type fuels, although almost any fuel will work. The fuel burns best at a air:fuel ratio of about 15:1 so the total amount of air used for the actual combustion is a small proportion of the total air Ss entering the engine. Approximately 20% is used in the é combustion process with the remaining air being used for cooling. Combustion is carried out in lined combustion chambers with the heated air leaving at high temperature (up to 1000°C) and high speed (up to 1500 ft/sec). Expansion. After leaving the combustion chamber the hot air is, made to do work on the turbine. Here, pressure and temperature drop as the energy of the gas is converted into mechanical energy of the turbine. Enough energy has to be taken out to drive the compressor, any engine driven 7 accessories (generators, pumps etc), and allow for provision of air bleeds for cabin air conditioning, anti-icing etc. The remaining energy left in the gas stream flow is then allowed to ~ exit the jet pipe to be used to provide thrust. For turbo-prop engines most of the energy is extracted to drive the propeller with only about 10% of the propulsive thrust coming from the jet efflux (residual energy). Exhaust. With a pure jet engine the efflux gases should have a high mass and high velocity. The gases exit the system via a jet-pipe which may be fitted with a propelling nozzle (a narrowing of jet pipe as it gets to the end). Cg Fig. 4 TYPICAL COMBUSTION CHAMBERy Combustion Systems Combustion is normally arranged to be in a combustion chamber with. fuel supplied to a burner. On start-up ignition is provided by a high energy igniter, but once combustion is established it is self sustaining — only used again for re-start or put on continuously in emergencies (when there is a possibility of a flame-out). ‘The combustion chamber is double lined with an inner flame tube and may be fitted to the engine in one of several arrangements. Flame Cosing Flome Cosing Tube Tube ri eYo 6x0 O80 ‘b&b Multiple Cennulor Annular Fig. 5 COMBUSTION CHAMBER ARRANGEMENTS ‘The chambers may be arranged equally around the engine or may be of Cannular configuration where the flame tubes are separate with the chamber casing being continuous concentric inner and outer casings. In an Annular system the flame tube and casing are both concentric continuos structures making up one continuos combustion chamber. Fuel System ‘The fuel is pumped from the aircraft fuel tanks (bag type or integral with the wing structure) by electrically (usually 3 phase) operated fuel pumps (sometimes called boost pumps). These supply fuel via filters and shut- off/by-pass valves to the engine driven fuel pump. This pumps fuel to the fuel control valve which is controlled directly by flightdeck throttle position or electrical commands from an engine electronic control system/FADEC. Note. The fuel control valve/control systems are usually very complex to include servo valves, governors etc.PRESSURE», PUMP. Fig. 7 DRY SUMP SYSTEM - PRINCIPLE ‘The fuel coming from the tank pump is called low pressure (Ip) fuel and the fuel from the engine driven pump is called high pressure (hp) fuel. Both pumps are usually of the spur gear type and the tank pump is there to supply the engine pump with a positive supply of fuel. If the engine pump was to try and suck fuel all the way from the tanks it would suffer from severe cavitation which would cause rapid erosion of the pump gears, so boost pumps are fitted. Lubrication System A lubrication system is required to provide a lubricant film of oil to reduce bearing contact, wear and heat. The system will have components such as: A tank - for topping-up and fluid level check purposes. Air or fuel cooled oil coolers. Pumps - engine driven spur gear types - usually. Filters/strainers. De-aerators. Pressure relief valves. Oil pressure transducers ~ usually of the pressure differential type. * Low oil pressure/low oil level warnings. ~~4 In general the pump will draw oil from the tank through strainers. This pressure oil then goes to all bearings requiring lubrication passing the differential oil pressure switch and low pressure warning switch on the way. After lubricating the consumer services it is returned via oil coolers, filters and de-aerators to the tank. | =}-8 }-=}-8 Low pressure, Fig. 8 TYPICAL OIL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC Oil systems may be of the following types: Wet Sump System - where the oil is kept in the sump of the engine. Dry Sump System - where the oil is kept in a tank ~ typical for most jet engines. Pressure Relief Valve System. This system controls the pressure to the bearings by the use of a spring controlled pressure relief valve - when operated allows oil directly back to the tank. The oil supply pressure is not affected unduly by engine rpm. Full Flow System. For engines where bearing chamber pressures can be high and the oil pressure has equally to be high (normally about 40psi higher). This system dispenses with the pressure relief valve and allows pressure pump delivery to supply the consumer services (bearings) directly allowing increasing pressure with increasing rpm. Fitted to turbo fan engines.Total Loss System. Sometimes called an expendable system and used on engines that run for short periods of time. It is lighter as the system requires no return lines, no oil cooler, no scavenge pumps or filters. After use the oil is collected in a collector tray and ejected into the gas stream or kept until the engine is shut down, then dumped overboard. aoa TACHOMETER | Bauer aes Sa aro vers tran OUR Menniorc MONITORENG come aoa ESOME myore cute CONVERTER resurione sain, vasguon = cote Fig. 9 ENGINE PARAMETER TRANSDUCERS PW4000 FITTED TO THE B777 Engine Parameters Monitored (Figures 9 to 14) Pressure. May be sensed at various stages in the engine depending on type, eg Pl, P2, P4, P7. Used for engine condition monitoring, Engine Electronic Control(EEC)/FADEC and also for calculating EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio) - the ratio of pressure, say, between P1 and P7 ~ check the AMM. RPM (Revolutions Per Minute), The rotational speed of the engine is picked up by sensors and fed back to cockpit indicators and engine monitoring equipment (EEC/FADEC) (N1 for a single spool engine, N1 and N2 for a twin spool and N1, N2 and N3 for a three spool engine). Helicopter engines will usually have Ng for the engine as it is considered a gas generator, and some propeller driven aircraft will have propeller rpm indication. cad) EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature). Again this data is used for pilot information and feedback to engine monitoring systems (EEC/FADEC). AVB (Airborne Vibration Monitoring). Vibration monitors fitted to the engine casing to send vibration data to flight deck instruments and monitoring systems (EEC/FADEC). ‘Torque Transducers. For propeller driven aircraft and for helicopters, these provide the only true indication of engine output power. For phase Gisplacement systems taken from the power shaft to the propeller/rotor shaft, For helical gear type transducers taken from the helical gear in the gear box. Pressure. Flow. Quantity. Temperature. Position. These additional monitoring systems may be found on the engine fitted to equipment such as: Engine oil systems. Hydraulic systems. Pneumatic systems. Fuel systems. ‘Thrust reverses. VP propeller position Motorised valves - position. Figure 9 shows the sensors as fitted to PW4000 series engines, and figure 10 shows the locations. REMOTE CHARGE CONVERTER, ACCELEROMETER EGT (v4.05) & EPR (PA4.95) PROBES, Ni spEED PMA ‘TRANSDUCER Fig. 10 TRANSDUCER LOCATION - PW4000 E10Fig. 12 JT9D INSTRUMENTATION -1- ¢y y TEMPERATURE ® Tt 1 8 1%] 15 16 17 RPK pressure > Pt P2 3 pees] PsP? wp, | cont on |conPiesson! cH ser Pre a te compe: . TURBINE Fig. 13 N, P, & T - EXAMPLE LOCATIONS Figure 11 shows the equipment as fitted to an RB211 whilst figure 12 shows the instrumentation of the twin spool JT9D. Figure 13 shows a general arrangement of the locations of N, P and T. Figure 14 shows the instrumentation layout of the Turbomecca engine with the following indications: Ng - gas generator rpm. NTL - free turbine rpm. 14 - gas temperature. Oil pressure. Oil temperature. Low oil pressure warning light. General warning panel. Aaapeye Fig. 14 TURBOMECCA ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION -12-oe When the engine is fitted to a helicopter additional parameters are included such as: Torque indication. Power loss warning. Cycle calculator. Preventative maintenance calculator. JET ENGINE CONFIGURATION ‘The jet engine can vary considerably in design although they all use the same basic principle of taking air in via a compressor, mixing it with fuel and after combustion expelling the products rearwards. OuELE sioeD, CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR Fig. 15 JET ENGINE WITH A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR Figure 15 shows the earliest type of jet engine. It used a centrifugal compressor driven by a single turbine. It has a double air entry intake supplying air to a double entry centrifugal compressor. The auxiliary 2 gearbox is fitted to the front of the engine. ¢ Air is fed through grills into the eye of the compressor then thrown out by centrifugal force into the combustion chambers. On combustion it accelerates rearwards to give some of its energy up to the turbine to drive the compressor. In the quest for higher specific fuel consumption figures with increased power outputs the axial flow compressor was developed (figure 16). It produces a higher compression ratio, and hence increased efficiency. It has a single stage turbine and an 11-stage compressor (each stage consists of a rotor and a stator), although the actual number of stages depends on the manufacturer. -13-y High pressuae RATIO AXIAL FLOW ‘COMPRESSOR STATORS BURNERS CAN ANNULAR ‘GOMGUSTION SYSTEM ice vetocrry SET EFFLUX BEVELGEAR — gcceSsonYORWE SINGLE STAGE TURGINE ‘DRIVING COMPRESSOR Fig. 16 SINGLE SPOOL JET ENGINE WITH AN AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR Figure 17 shows a twin spool engine. This was brought about by the need for greater pressure ratios with increased performance. To obtain these figures with a single spool engine required a large engine that was slow to accelerate, suffered airflow disturbance resulting in surge and stall. ‘The compressor of the twin spool engine is divided into two, or sometimes three - each driven by its own set of turbines. This allows them to operate at their own speed giving greater flexibility, higher pressure ratios and greater power outputs. LP COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY TWO ‘STAGE TURBINE HP COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY SINGLE STAGE TURBINE ‘TWO CONNECTING SHAFTS Fig. 17 TWIN SPOOL JET ENGINE To improve the specific fuel consumption still further high by-pass engines were developed. Figure 18 shows a low by-pass ratio, twin spool engine where some of the compressed air from the low pressure (Ip) compressor by-passes the main combustion section of the engine. pittsFigure 19 shows a high by-pass ratio, three-spool engine similar to the Rolls Royce RB211. The fan of this type of engine can be considered as a multi-bladed propeller within a duct - it is not of course, but the engine does produce a very high specific fuel consumption. The three spools allow each to operate at the most efficient speed ~ it does, of course, increase manufacturing costs. The fan is driven by the Ip turbine with the ip compressor being driven by the ip turbine. Speeds (N1, N2 and N3) are usually picked off by the use of tacho-probes (pulse type rpm probes). Some engines have a reduction gearing between the turbine and the fan to allow the fan to rotate at its optimum speed (figure 20). LP COMPRESSOR He COMPRESSOR BYPASS TURBINE AR BEARINGS, BEARINGS, BEARINGS Fig. 18 LOW BY-PASS RATIO JET ENGINE IP COMPRESSOR IPTURBINE LP TURBINE HP COMPRESSOR C@ L sraBluuneo verona saecans PN (PCOMPRESSOR) CASING ao Fig. 19 THREE SPOOL HIGH BY-PASS RATIO JET ENGINE -15-y wo stack: SUPERCHARGER py PASSA ACCESSORY GEARTOX Fig. 20 ALLIED SIGNAL FAN ENGINE WITH MIXED CENTRIFUGAL & AXIAL COMPRESSORS & REDUCTION GEARING TO FAN For turbo prop and helicopter engines a different layout is used. Figure 21 shows a direct drive turbo prop configuration. The (in this case) two-stage turbine drives the compressor and the propeller. Because the engine rpm would be too high for the propeller it is driven via a reduction gearbox. In some cases the propeller, or the main rotor drive shaft of a helicopter (which also drives the tail rotor through bevel gearing), is driven by a separate set of turbines (a free power turbine). This extracts most of the energy from the gas stream flow converting it into shaft power (Shaft Horse Power - SHP). Again a reduction gearbox is used (figure 22). PROPELLER U REDUCTION GEARING APPROX 10% RESIDUAL THRUST Fig. 21 DIRECT DRIVE TURBO PROP ENGINE ‘The turbine that drives the propeller/rotor head is sometimes called the Power Turbine and the other turbine/compressor spool is called the Gas Generator. For best efficiency the majority of the power should be used across the Power Turbine (free turbine). ooPROPELLER DRIVEN BY A FREE TURBINE. COMPRESSOR ae DRIVEN BY ‘TURBINE: c Fig. 22 FREE TURBINE TURBO PROP ENGINE we Figure 23 shows an arrangement used on some helicopters. It consists of a three-stage turbine driving a single sided centrifugal compressor and a reduction gearbox. The output from the reduction gearbox is to the rotor = head gearbox to drive the rotor head and tail rotor. The fuel is injected into the annular combustion chamber by a rotating slinger ring (which is unusual), this improves atomisation and gives more even flame propagation. SINGLE SIDED CENTRIFUGAL GEARSOX AND DRIVE TO ROTOR REDUCTION COMPRESSOR DRIVEN BY A HEAD GEARING THREE STAGE TURBINE. FUEL INJECTOR ROTATING. SLINGER RING. C}@ Fig. 23 DIRECT DRIVE TURBO SHAFT ENGINE Most engines are now constructed on the modular concept which means that major components such as the fan, fan casing, compressor assemblies, turbines ete can be changed as complete units - in may cases whilst the engine is “on the wing”. -17- ~> y FUEL FLOW INDICATING SYSTEMS We shall consider three main types: a Rotating Vane Type * Motor Drive Type Magnetic Pick-up type Variable Transformer type * — Motorless Type Rotating Vane Type (Figures 24 & 25) ‘The transducer consists of two sections in one unit, one section - the flow measuring chamber and the other the data transfer section. The flow measuring chamber is completely sealed from the data transfer section. ‘The transducer is supplied with 400Hz 26Vac. It has a cast body with fuel inlet and outlet connections. When fuel enters the unit it impinges on a metering vane and moves it against a calibrated spring about a pivot. This movement causes it to rotate within a volute shaped chamber so the gap between the end of the vane and the chamber wall becomes wider. Thus with increasing fuel flow the vane is caused to move further round the volute curve to allow the fuel through the increasing gap. BYPASS VALVE Fig. 24 VANE TYPE FLOW TRANSDUCER So as the flow increases the vane is caused to move to a greater angular displacement against the action of the control spring. The vane is mounted on a shaft carried in two bushed plain bearings, one in each cover plate enclosing the metering chamber. SiaTurbulence in the fuel is reduced by the provision fixed guide vanes at the inlet. Should the moving vane become jammed or blocked then provision is made for a spring loaded pressure operated by-pass valve to open to allow fuel to bypass the volute chamber. The fuel will then go direct to the engine fuel burners. Automatic by-pass provision is a mandatory requirement for all fuel system components ~ should they fail or become biocked in any way. Some transducers have a viscosity valve fitted. This is to allow a small quantity of extra fuel to pass through the valve when the viscosity gets too high. It is a small plate cut within the by-pass valve. The position of the plate is controlled by a small bi-metallic spring. As the temperature of the fuel falls the spring will contract and cause the plate to open (at about 10°C) allowing some extra fuel through to the engine. CALIBRATED «og SPRING | > 2 & a 3 GAUGE MAGNETIC COUPLING Goad ‘ 26V ac ‘TRANSMITTER INDICATOR Fig. 25 ROTATING VANE TRANSDUCER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM At one end of the casing the shaft protrudes through the bearing and carries a 2 pole ring magnet which forms part of a magnetic coupling between the vane and the data transfer unit. The shaft of the data transfer unit also carries a two pole magnet. This arrangement ensures a complete seal between the flow measuring chamber and the data transfer unit and provides a “magnetic lock” between the moving vane and the rotor of the torque receiver synchro of the data transfer unit. She C