Densely spaced high-resolution TOPAS seismic profiles and EM1002 bathymetric data reveal the

presence of numerous pockmarks, mound-like structures and elongated seabed cracks at Nyegga,
offshore mid-Norway. The seabed cracks are located adjacent to the northern escarpment of the
Storegga Slide, appearing as graben-like structures in the TOPAS data. Unlike the cracks, pockmarks and
mound-structures are largely associated with vertical zones of acoustic blanking at depth, interpreted as
pathways for vertically migrating gaseousfluids. Based on the TOPAS data, a new seismostratigraphic
framework has been established and correlated to previously published age models of IMAGES cores
MD99-2291 and MD99-2289. Seismic facies interpretation suggests repeated and rapid deposition of up
to 40 m thick glacigenic wedges in the eastern part of the study area around 18.2 14 C ka BP (21.8 cal.
ka), 17.5 14 C ka BP (20.8 cal. ka) and 16.9 14 C ka BP (20 cal. ka). Towards the west, glacimarine
deposition has prevailed, characterized by progressively increasing sedimentation rates with peak values
of 30 m/ka during the period from 15.0 14 C ka BP (18.2 cal. ka) to 15.814 C ka BP (19 cal. ka). As the
distribution of the Nyegga pockmarks closely coincides with the main Late Weichselian sediment
depocenters, we suggest a relation between rapid and repeated sedimentation and periodic
overpressure generation at depth, ultimately leading tofluid expulsion at the seabed and the formation
of the Nyegga pockmarkfield. In contrast, seabed cracks at Nyegga appear to have formed due to local
extension which we relate to horizontal stress reduction as a consequence of the Storegga Slide event.
Potentially, this event has been accompanied by renewed verticalfluid migration and the most recent
stage of pockmark development.

During the last decade, advances in marine survey technology and improved data coverage have
increasingly shown that continental shelf and slope deposits are frequently subject to small-scale
processes like verticalfluid migration, mud diapirism or seabed cracking (e.g.Driscoll et al., 2000; Perez-
Garcia et al., 2009; Jané et al., 2010). Commonly, such processes affect the seafloor morphology, by
forming features like pockmarks, topographically positive moundstructures or elongated seabed cracks
(Hustoft et al., 2007; Talukder et al., 2007; Mienert et al., 2010).

Previous studies have shown that these processes often require certain geological pre-
conditions. For instance, the formation of pockmarks has been related to the presence of gas
hydrates/free gas, sufficiently permeable pathways for gas-richfluids to reach the seabed and, as
observed for many pockmark provinces, an external triggering mechanism, such as rapid sediment
loading, faulting or seismic activity (Hasiotis et al., 1996; Rise et al., 1999; Gay and Berndt, 2007; Hustoft
et al., 2007, 2009; Pilcher and Argent, 2007; Sultan et al., 2010). In contrast, seabed cracks have been
associated with past or present-day slope instability or with the presence of thick sedimentary
successions which undergo compaction driven dewatering and polygonal faulting (Wattrus et al., 2003;
Blum et al., 2010).

The Nyegga area, offshore mid-Norway, represents a well known and intensively studied
pockmark-province, being associated with many of these geological parameters such as the presence of
gas hydrates (Andreassen et al., 2000; Bünz et al., 2003), shallow gas reservoirs (Plaza-Faverola et al.,
2010a), repetitive large-scale sliding (Solheim et al., 2005) and rapid late-glacial sediment loading
(Hjelstuen et al., 2004). Consequently, this area has been targeted by a number of studies, frequently
using multichannel seismic data to link the seafloor pockmarks to underlying gas hydrates, free gas
accumulations, polygonal faults and buried slide scars (Berndt et al., 2003; Hovland et al., 2005; Solheim
et al., 2005; Hustoft et al., 2007, 2010; Hjelstuen et al., 2010; Plaza-Faverola et al., 2010a). Yet, little
knowledge exists about the relation between more recent, Late Weichselian sedimentary processes and
the formation of pockmarks at Nyegga (Hustoft et al., 2009; Hjelstuen et al., 2010). Additionally,
previous authors have largely focused on the formation of the Nyegga pockmarkfield, whereas few
studies have recognized the presence of several seabed cracks at Nyegga (Evans et al., 1996; Gravdal et
al., 2003; Hjelstuen et al., 2010).

For this study, we use high-resolution TOPAS seismic profiles and EM1002 bathymetric data,
providing particularly detailed insight into the seabed landscape and the shallow subsurface at Nyegga.
We primarily aim (1) to establish a new seismic stratigraphy, (2) to constrain the age of the resolved
sedimentary succession at Nyegga, (3) to get detailed insight into the distribution, morphology and
acoustic characteristics of the Nyegga seabed features and (4) we attempt to present a new conceptual
model in order to contribute to the ongoing discussion about the age and origin of the Nyegga seabed
features.

Since Pliocene times, the depositional environment off mid-Norway has been predominately
influenced by the glacial–interglacial climate cyclicity, culminating in repeated shelf edge advances of
the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet since 0.5 Ma (Dahlgren et al., 2002; Hjelstuen et al., 2005). Whereas during
periods of glacial expansion, fast-flowing ice streams delivered large amounts of glacigenic sediments to
the midNorwegian continental margin, hemipelagic and contouritic deposition prevailed during
interglacial times (Dahlgren et al., 2002; Hjelstuen et al., 2004; Rise et al., 2005). At Nyegga, the Late
Plio-Pleistocene Naust Formation (Fm.) reaches a maximum thickness of 1500 ms(twt), consisting
primarily of stacked, prograding debris flows which are separated by thin layers of hemipelagic
sediments (Hjelstuen et al., 2004, 2005; Rise et al., 2005, 2010). Based on the most recently suggested
stratigraphy byRise et al. (2006), the Naust Fm. may be subdivided intofive distinct units, defined as N, A,
U, S and T (where Naust T is the youngest one).

Recurrently changing depositional processes have influenced the slope stability off mid-Norway.
With Nyegga being located at the northern escarpment of the Storegga Slide (Fig. 1), repeated large-
scale failures have affected the study area since about 0.5 Ma (Solheim et al., 2005). The present-day
exposed Storegga Slide represents the most recent event in a series of several pre-Holocene submarine
mega-slides (Haflidason et al., 2005; Solheim et al., 2005). Dating of several cores from the Storegga
Slide area byHaflidason et al. (2004, 2005)revealed an age of 7 250±250 14 C yrs BP (8100 cal. yrs) for
the sliding event.

Geophysical surveys, targeting the northernflank of the Storegga Slide, have reported the
presence of small-scale faults, slightly offsetting reflectors within the uppermost stratified sediments of
the Naust Fm. (Evans et al., 1996; Gravdal et al., 2003; Hjelstuen et al., 2010; Mienert et al., 2010). Such
cracks are evident from the shelf break to water depths of 1300 m and have commonly been described
as 150 m to 250 m wide and up to 10 m deep graben-like structures (Gravdal, 1999; Mienert et al.,
2010).Mienert et al. (2010)have studied a series of seabed cracks, trending from the northeastern tip of
the Storegga Slide scar approximately 60 km towards north, closely following the 500 m depth contour
(Fig. 6 inMienert et al., 2010). Radiocarbon dating the base of their infilling sediments yielded an age of
7350 14 C yrs (8180 cal. yrs) (Haflidason et al., 2004). Based on a close coincidence between the location
of the cracks and the present-day limit of the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ),Mienert et al.
(2010)suggest these features to have formed due to gas hydrate dissociation.

The presence of gas hydrates at Nyegga has been recognized by several studies, inferred from a
prominent bottom simulating reflector (BSR) (Mienert et al., 1998; Andreassen et al., 2000; Bünz et al.,
2003; Bünz and Mienert, 2004). Bünz et al. (2003)have shown that gas hydrate occurrence appears to be
geologically confined to stratified sediments of the Naust Fm. within the limit of the GHSZ. Beneath the
BSR, seismic investigations from the Nyegga area have recently detected a clearly pronounced low-
velocity zone, indicating the presence of freegas beneath the Nyegga pockmarkfield (Plaza-Faverola et
al., 2010a). Commonly, the pockmarks are connected to vertical zones of acoustic blanking (Hustoft et
al., 2007; Westbrook et al., 2008) which are frequently (ca. 60%) rooted in this free-gas layer (Hustoft et
al., 2010). Consequently, the acoustic wipe-out zones are suggested to represent focussed fluid flow
conduits, providing preferential pathways for upward migrating gaseousfluids (Hustoft et al., 2007,
2010). This is confirmed by the recovery of gas hydrates and authigenic carbonates from the Nyegga
pockmarks (Hovland et al., 2005; Mazzini et al., 2006; Ivanov et al., 2007; Paull et al., 2008).
Geochemical investigations of gas hydrates and pore waters point towards a microbial origin of verticall
migrating gaseousfluids (Chen et al., 2010; Ivanov et al., 2010; Vaular et al., 2010). Based on AMS 14 C
measurements on planktonic foraminifera, recovered from one of the pockmarks,Paull et al. (2008)
suggest that suchfluidflow activity has been active at Nyegga prior to 14 14 C ka BP (16.5 cal. ka).

The data set for the present study consists of a dense grid of 1400 km 2D seismic TOPAS profiles
and 600 km 2 EM1002 bathymetric data, collected by University of Bergen cruises in 2004 (GS138), 2007
(GS148) and 2008 (GS155) (Fig. 1b). The TOPAS system is a single, narrow beam, parametric sub-bottom
profiler, using a hull-mounted transducer array. The TOPAS data were acquired by applying a Ricker
pulse with dominant frequencies centred around 3.5 kHz (Haflidason et al., 2007, 2008). Vertical and
lateral resolution is estimated to be as high as 32 cm and 16.5 m, respectively (Reiche, 2010). The
penetration capacity of the TOPAS system was limited to the uppermost 80 m of the subsurface in the
central and western part of the study area, whereas in the very eastern part of Nyegga only the upper
30 m are resolved (Fig. 2).

The Kongsberg Simrad Mulibeam EM1002 echo sounder was operated with a frequency of 95
kHz and most of the study area was surveyed with a ping interval of 2.0 ms (Haflidason et al., 2007). The
EM1002 data were processed using a cell size of 15×15 m, providing detailed information about the
seabed topography. By applying a low passfilter to the EM1002 data, a smoothed version of the original
EM1002 surface was created. The smoothed surface was subtracted from the original data, creating a
residual surface which visualizes the Nyegga seabed features more clearly.

The outlines of the Nyegga seabed features were mapped within the EM1002 residual data,
using the ESRI software ArcMap version 9.3. Subsequently, the long and short axis of the Nyegga
pockmarks and mounds were automatically measured by calculating their corresponding minimum
bounding rectangles (Patterson, 2010). We note that this procedure can only be regarded as an
approximation, strongly decreasing in accuracy the more the outlines of the surveyed features deviate
from rectangular shape. For the significantly larger seabed furrows such measurements were performed
manually. The reported widths of the interpreted seabed furrows represent the average of several
measuring intervals performed in 200 m—steps along their entire length. The orientation of the furrows
was automatically detected by using the function“Linear Directional Mean”in ArcMap. The relief of the
Nyegga seabed features (pockmarks, mounds and furrows) was manually quantified based on the
original EM1002 data.

Seismic interpretation was performed using Schlumberger's Petrel software, version 2007 1.2.
Seismic sequence boundaries were picked by delineating clearly traceable high-amplitude reflections or
changes in seismic facies, i.e. from acoustically structureless to acoustically laminated units. In order to
gain chronological control on the established seismic stratigraphy, seismic reflectors have been
correlated to radiocarbon dated intervals of IMAGES cores MD99-2291 and MD99-2289 (Fig. 3)(Knorr,
2000; Berstad, 2003; Haflidason et al., 2003; Hjelstuen et al., 2004; Lekens et al., 2005). The published
radiocarbon dates from these cores, with radiocarbon laboratory corrections, are corrected for a marine
reservoir age of 400 years (Tables 1 and 2). Conversion to calendar age was done by using the Calib
v.6.0.1 program (based onStuiver and Reimer, 1993) and the integrated marine reservoir correction
curve marine09. The same delta R value of 25 ±81, as applied on core MD992291 byLekens et al.(2005),
has also been adopted on core MD992289 (Tables 1 and 2). In accordance with the MD99-2289 Multi-
Sensor Core Logger data (Images V cruise,Labeyrie et al., 2003), the tie between TOPAS data and
IMAGES cores is based on using a sound velocity of 1500 m/s for depth converting seismic reflectors.
Isopach maps were created in Petrel and subsequently exported to ArcMap for visualization.
Sedimentation rates were calculated based on the depth-converted maximum thickness of each
identified seismic sequence using an acoustic velocity of 1500 m/s.

4.1. Seismic stratigraphy, seismic facies and chronology

Besides the seabed reflector, seven seismic sequence boundaries, defined as Ny1–Ny7,
subdivide the Upper Naust T (UNT) unit into seven seismic sequences (UNT1–UNT7) (Figs. 2aand3). The
base of the lowermost sequence, UNT1, is defined by sequence boundary Ny1—a low-amplitude
reflection event, correlating to a depth of MD99-2289 which has previously been related to Marine
Isotope Stage 5e (Figs. 2a and3)(Hjelstuen et al., 2004). Sequence boundary Ny2, defining the top of
UNT1, represents a medium-amplitude reflection event. Whereas Ny2 appears to be continuously
traceable in the central and western part of Nyegga, strong acoustic attenuation inhibits detection of
Ny2 further east (Fig. 2a). At the MD99-2289 site, Ny2 coincides with a core depth of 12.2 m, suggesting
a minimum age of 25 14 C ka BP (29.9 cal. ka) for this sequence boundary (Fig. 3). The internal structure
of sequence UNT1 is poorly resolved in the TOPAS data, presumably due to acoustic attenuation with
depth (Fig. 2a). Sequence UNT1 reaches a thickness of up to 27 m, corresponding to sedimentation rates
of 0.2 m/ka. Sequence boundary Ny3 is represented by a high-amplitude reflection event which could
only be traced in the central and western part of the study area (Fig. 2a). At MD99-2289, Ny3 correlates
to a core depth of 9.7 m, exactly coinciding with the 21 14 C ka BP (25 cal. ka) dating point (Fig. 3).
Together, Ny2 and Ny3 delineate seismic sequence UNT2, characterized by an acoustically laminated
reflection pattern (Fig. 2a). UNT2 reaches a maximum thickness of 14 m in the eastern part of the study
area, with a general thinning trend towards the west (Fig. 4c). During deposition of UNT2, sedimentation
rates have been up to 2.8 m/ka. In the eastern part of Nyegga, sequence boundary Ny4 defines a shift
from acoustically structureless to laminated facies. Further west, Ny4 can be followed as a continuously
traceable high-amplitude reflection event (Fig. 2). Tying sequence boundary Ny4 to MD99-2289 shows a
close coincidence to the 18.2 14 C ka BP (21.7 cal. ka) dating point (Fig. 3). However, at the location of
MD99-2291, sequence boundary Ny4 correlates to a depth which lies approximately 2 m below the
penetration range of this core. As the lowermost radiocarbon dated core interval of MD99-2291
similarly corresponds to an age of 18.2 14 C ka BP (21.8 cal. ka), this may be regarded as a minimum age
for Ny4 (Fig. 3). Internally, sequence UNT3 is characterized by parallel reflections in the western part of
the study area. Further east, UNT3 comprises an acoustically structureless unit of wedge-shaped
geometry (W1), presumably exceeding a thickness of 40 m (Fig. 2). With Ny4 delineating the upper
boundary of W1, a minimum age of 18.2 14 CkaBP (21.8 cal. ka) is suggested for this unit. Acoustically
laminated sediments of UNT3 reach a maximum thickness of 13.5 m in the eastern part of the study
area, corresponding to sedimentation rates of up to 4.8 m/ka.

Sequence boundaries Ny4 and Ny5 delineate seismic sequence UNT4. Similar to Ny4, Ny5
defines the top of acoustically structureless facies in the eastern part of the study area, while being
associated with a laterally continuous high to medium-amplitude reflection event further west (Fig. 2).
Sequence boundary Ny5 correlates to MD99-2289 approximately 1 m below the 16.9 14 C ka BP (20 cal.
ka) dating point. This age is supported by MD99-2291, where Ny5 corresponds to a core depth exactly
coinciding with an age of 16.7 14 C ka BP (19.8 cal. ka) (Fig. 3). Internally, UNT4 displays parallel
reflections in the central and western part of the study area. Further east, UNT4 comprises two
acoustically structureless units of wedge-shaped geometry, defined as W2 and W3 (Fig. 2b). Being
delineated by sequence boundary Ny5, the (minimum) age of W3 may be estimated to 16.9 14 C ka BP
(20 cal. ka). In contrast, wedge-shaped unit W2 does not coincide with any of the defined sequence
boundaries (Fig. 2b). However, tracing the upper boundary of unit W2 to IMAGES core MD99-2291
coincides with a core depth of 21 m, centrally located between the 16.7 14 C ka BP (19.8 cal. ka) and
18.2 14 C ka BP (21.7 cal. ka) dating point (Fig. 3). Therefore, the age of W2 may be approximated by the
mean of these to ages, i.e. by 17.5 14 C ka BP (20.8 cal. ka). Acoustically laminated sediments of UNT4
reach a maximum thickness of 13 m, corresponding to sedimentation rates of up to 9.3 m/ka.

Defining the top of UNT5, sequence boundary Ny6 represents a laterally continuous high-
amplitude reflection event (Fig. 2). Correlating Ny6 to MD99-2291 suggests an age of 15.7 14 C ka BP (19
cal. ka). At MD99-2289, sequence boundary Ny6 coincides with a core depth approximately 1.5 m below
the 15.8 14 C ka BP (19 cal. ka) dating point (Fig. 3). However, as MD99-2291 is of far higher resolution
and the reflector depth at MD99-2289 does not exclude an age of 15.8 14 C ka BP (19 cal. ka) for Ny6,
this age is assumed to be sufficiently accurate. Acoustically, sequence UNT5 displays a laminated
reflection pattern (Fig. 2). With a maximum thickness of 8 m, sedimentation rates have been up to 7.2
m/ka during deposition of sequence UNT5. Sequence boundary Ny7 defines a pronounced change from
acoustically laminated (below) to acoustically transparent (above) seismic facies (Fig. 2a). At MD99-
2291, Ny7 precisely coincides with a dating point corresponding to 15.0 14 C ka BP (18.2 cal. ka) (Fig. 3).
Acoustically, UNT6 displays a similar reflection pattern as sequence UNT5 (Fig. 2). With a maximum
thickness of 21 m, sedimentation rates have been as high as 30 m/ka in the eastern part of the study
area. Towards the west, UNT6 decreases in thickness (Fig. 4b). Delineated by the seabed reflector and
sequence boundary Ny7, the uppermost sequence, UNT7, covers the time span from 15.0 14 Cka BP
(18.2 cal. ka) to the present (Fig. 3). This sequence is composed of acoustically transparent facies,
reaching a maximum thickness of 14 m in the northwestern part of the study area (Figs. 2a and4a).
Sequence UNT7 progressively thins towards the east until completely pinching out in the eastern part of
the study area (Fig. 4a). During deposition of UNT7, sedimentation rates have been around 1 m/ka. 4.2.
Seabed features

The seabed (EM1002) and shallow subsurface (TOPAS) data from the Nyegga area reveal the
presence of several different features with various acoustic characteristics and morphological
expressions at the seabed (Figs. 5–8). Besides 230 circular to elongated pockmarks (Figs. 5, 6a, c and d),
19 topographically positive, mound-like structures have been mapped in this study (Figs. 5 and 6b). The
great majority of the identified pockmarks and mound-like structures
 appear to be connected to vertical zones of acoustic blanking which extent to depths beyond
the penetration capacity of the TOPAS system (Figs. 6 and 7a). Additionally, the seabed in the
southwestern part of the study area is crossed by more than 25 elongated, rectilinear to slightly curved
seabed furrows (Figs. 5 and 8). For reasons of comprehensibility we have subdivided the study area into
four different areas (Area 1–Area 4), with each area being treated in more detail below (Fig. 5). Area 1is
located in the eastern part of the EM1002 data extent (Fig. 5). The Late Weichselian sedimentary
succession in this area is dominated by thick (up to 40 m), acoustically structureless units of wedge
shaped geometry, distinctly contrasting from the remaining study area (Figs. 2 and 5b). With sequence
UNT7 pinching out east of

Area 1 (Fig. 4a), the acoustically structureless units are covered by approximately 15 m thick
laminated sediments of sequence UNT6. These deposits host 52 pockmarks, depressing the seabed by
averagely 3.1 m (Figs. 2 and 5b). The diameter (long axis) of the pockmarks ranges from 95 m to 580 m
with a mean of 173 m. Whereas all identified pockmarks and mound-like structures in the remaining
part of the study area are associated with vertical zones of acoustic blanking at depth, 90% of the
pockmarks in Area 1 do not show any significant sign of acoustic wipe-out. Instead, these features occur
on top of acoustically resolvable strata, displaying downwardbending reflections in 80% of all
investigated cases (Fig. 6a).

Area 2is located directly west of the buried wedge-shaped units (Figs. 2 and 5b). The acoustically
laminated succession of Area 2 hosts 120 pockmarks and 3 mound-like structures which are connected
to clearly pronounced acoustically blank zones in the subsurface (Figs. 5b, c and7). The pockmarks in this
area are characterized by a diameter of averagely 226 m, with a range from 80 m to 1013 m. Their depth
below the seabed ranges from 0.9 m to 15 m with a mean of 4.5 m. With one 9 m high topographically
positive structure (Tobic,Fig. 7)and10 pockmarks exceeding a depth of 10 m below the seabed, Area 2
hosts the largest and most spectacular seabed features of the study area (Fig. 5c). As acoustic blanking
generally masks the reflection pattern beneath the pockmarks/mounds in Area 2 (Fig. 7a), no certain
conclusions can be made whether reflections are bent upwards, downwards or appear to be straight.
For ten percent of all investigated pockmarks in this part of the study area, reflectorsflanking the
acoustic wipe-out zones appear to be slightly displaced (Fig. 7a). However, no evidence of faulting could
be observed at the seafloor. Instead of being perforated by numerous pockmarks, the EM1002 residual
data reveal the presence of 21, up to 6.4 km long furrowstructures which cross the seabed inArea 3(Fig.
5). Whereas these features appear as elongated, relatively straight seabed depressions in the EM1002
data (Figs. 5c and8c), TOPAS profiles display the furrows as graben-like structures with their central
parts being vertically displaced by two normal fault-like offsets (Fig. 8b). The reflector displacement
ranges from less than 1 m to more than 5 m and can be followed to depths below the penetration
distance of the TOPAS data (ca. 80 m). Consequently, no conclusions can be made at which stratigraphic
level the reflector offsets may terminate (Fig. 8b). In contrast to most of the pockmarks at Nyegga, the
furrows are rarely associated with acoustic blanking at depth (Fig. 8b). The width of the seabed furrows
varies between 123 m and 248 m with a mean of 171 m. Their depth rarely exceeds 2 m with respect to
the seabed. We note that those features, terminating at the northern Storegga Slide scar, reach
considerably larger depths of up to 9 m, displaying a general shallowing trend with increasing distance
from the Storegga Slide scar (Fig. 8c). Most of the Nyegga seabed furrows show a similar directional
trend from southeast to northwest (Fig. 8d). In the western part of the EM1002 data extent, the graben-
like fault pattern changes to multiple normal fault-like displacements (Fig. 8a). Similar to the seabed
furrows, the throw of these multiple faults does generally not exceed a few meters. As also true for
most of the seabed furrows, these normal fault-like offsets do not terminate within the presently
resolved sedimentary succession, i.e. they reach beyond the Ny1 sequence boundary (Fig. 8a). In
contrast to the remaining part of the Nyegga area, Area 3 is characterized by a complete absence of
pockmarks (except 3 features close to the boundary to Area 2) (Fig. 5b). However, 11 topographically
positive, mound-like structures are evident at the seabed of Area 3(Figs. 5 and 6b). These features occur
frequently (100% of those which are crossed by TOPAS lines) on top of small-scale faults, associated with
theflanks of the seabed furrows (Fig. 6b). Unlike most of the Nyegga-pockmarks, their relief does
averagely not exceed 1.8 m with respect to the seabed. Area 4is located in the northwestern part of the
study area (Fig. 5b). This area is characterized by the presence of numerous pockmarks (58), several
mounds (5), and 7 elongated seabed furrows (Fig. 5b). With the diameter of the pockmarks being on
average similar in size to those in Area 2, none of these structures is associated with a depression
deeper than 10 m. All pockmarks and mound-structures in Area 4 are associated with clearly
pronounced vertical zones of acoustic blanking at depth, flanked by either horizontally oriented,
upward- or downward bending reflections. Additionally, 48% of the pockmarks and mounds in this area
are located on top of a small-scale fault, coinciding with theflanks or the center of one of the seabed
furrows (Figs. 5d,6candd).Witha displacement rarely exceeding 1 m, theses furrows are clearly less
pronounced than those detected in Area 3.

5.1. Depositional environment

As shown by the TOPAS data, the sedimentary succession in the eastern part of the study area is
dominated by acoustically structureless units of wedge-shaped geometry (W1–W3) (Fig. 2). In
accordance with previous studies from the Vøring Plateau (King et al., 1987; Dahlgren and Vorren, 2003;
Hjelstuen et al., 2004; Sejrup et al., 2004, Rise et al., 2005), these units (W1–W3) are interpreted as
glacigenic debrisflows (GDFs), deposited during shelf edge advances of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet.
Their homogeneous acoustic character together with a complete absence of rotational blocks or slump-
like structures suggests a nondisintegrating plug-flow-like deposition mode, generally preserving
underlying strata (Fig. 2). Due to significant glacigenic sediment supply to the study area, these units
clearly contribute to a westward extension of the shelf edge (Fig. 2). Consequently, the observed shift in
seabed gradient in the eastern part of Nyegga appears to be primarily a result of repetitive, Late
Weichselian GDF deposition, with the main depositional phases having occurred at 18.2 14 C ka BP (21.8
cal. ka), 17.5 14 CkaBP (20.8 cal. ka) and 16.9 14 C ka BP (20 cal. ka)(Fig. 3). In contrast to the eastern
part of Nyegga, acoustically laminated sediments occupy the central and western part of the study area,
indicating glacimarine sedimentation (Fig. 2). Such assumptions are confirmed by core studies from the
MD99-2291 and MD99-2289 sites, reporting Late Weichselian sediments to predominantly consist
offinegrained, dropstone-rich glacimarine deposits (Berstad, 2003; Hjelstuen et al., 2004; Lekens et al.,
2005). Based on the established stratigraphy, sedimentation rates have experience a gradual increase
since 25 14 Cka

BP (29.9 cal. ka). This period corresponds to elevated ice rafting and drop stone supply to the
Vøring Plateau, presumably reflecting glacial expansion at mid-Norway (Dokken and Jansen, 1999;
Dahlgren and Vorren, 2003). Based on a seismic stratigraphy by Hjelstuen et al. (2004), glaciers are
thought to have reached the shelf edge at the southern Vøring Plateau at 21 14 C ka BP (25 cal. ka).
Subsequently, our results suggest repetitive ice front advances to the shelf edge Cka BP [20 cal. ka])
supplying the study area with both thick GDF units (W1– W3) and suspended, glacimarine material. The
laminated glacimarine deposits show a general thinning trend with increasing distance from the
terrestrial sediment source (Fig. 4c). Peak sedimentation rates of 30 m/ka have been reached during
deposition of sequence UNT6 (Fig. 4b). Similarly high sedimentation rates during this period have
previously been identified at the southern Vøring Plateau and where commonly interpreted to reflect
rapid deposition of meltwater plume sediments during early deglaciation of the mid-Norwegian
continental margin (Berstad, 2003; Hjelstuen et al., 2004; Lekens et al., 2005). In contrast to the other
identified sequences at Nyegga, seismic sequence UNT7 is associated with a pronounced change from
previously laminated to acoustically transparent seismic facies (Fig. 2a). This is most likely related to
changes in depositional environment from vigorous ice rafting and rapid sedimentation during
deglaciation (e.g. Lekens et al., 2005), towards slow, post-glacial hemipelagic deposition. Such changes
are accompanied by strongly decreasing sedimentation rates to 1 m/ka. The observed eastward thinning
trend of sequence UNT7 is interpreted to indicate the onset of relatively strong post-glacial bottom
current circulation, causing non-deposition and/or erosion at the upper slope (Fig. 4a). Such
assumptions are confirmed byLekens et al. (2005)relating a distinct lithological change within MD99-
2291 to increased current activity, dated to 12. As seen in the TOPAS profiles, sequence UNT7 pinches
out towards the area which shows a shift in seabed gradient (Fig. 2). Thus, the present-day seafloor
morphology may exert a topographical control on the bottom currents at Nyegga, causing an increase in
current strength towards the area where the seafloor gradient distinctly increases (Fig. 2). 5.2. Furrows
at Nyegga—seabed cracking due to large-scale sliding? This study has shown the presence of numerous
seabed furrows and normal fault-like offsets at Nyegga (Fig. 5). Their graben-like fault pattern together
with their general lack of sediment infill indicates that these furrows have formed quite recently,
presumably due to extension within the uppermost sediment column (Fig. 8). Favourable conditions for
extensional features to develop may have been provided by the Storegga Slide event. This slide has
removed huge quantities of sediments (Haflidason et al., 2004), thereby reducing horizontal stresses in
the sediments adjacent to the headwall (Færseth and Sætersmoen, 2008). These assumptions are
supported by the observation that those furrows terminating at the slide scar are both deepest and
oriented parallel to sub-parallel to the slide scar, suggesting that horizontal stress reduction has been
greatest directly adjacent to the slide (Figs. 5 and 8c). These suggestions are in agreement with results
byGravdal (1999), interpreting the graben-like cracks along the northern flank of the Storegga Slide scar
as extensional features which are related to the sliding event. Additionally, continental shelf and slope
cracks have previously been detected in close vicinity to submarine slides on the Canadian Beaufort Sea
continental slope (Hill et al., 1982) and on the slope of the Santa Barbara Basin (Blum et al., 2010).
However, having studied shelf-edge parallel seabed furrows at the northern headwall of the Storegga
Slide, results by Mienert et al. (2010)contradict such assumptions. These authors suggest the origin of
the seabed cracks to be caused by gas hydrate dissociation instead of slide-related changes in horizontal
stresses. However, the presently studied seabed furrows are located in water depths of up to 900 m,
such that a formation mechanism due to gas hydrate melting appears to be rather unlikely. Still, similar
morphological characteristics and spatial proximity between the Nyegga furrows and those located at
the upper slope lead to the suggestion that these features have formed time synchronously, i.e. around
7350 14 C yrs BP (8180 cal. yrs), closely related to the Storegga Slide event.

5.3. The origin of the Nyegga pockmarkfield

In accordance with several previous investigations at Nyegga (e.g. Hustoft et al., 2007;
Westbrook et al., 2008), our results indicate that pockmarks and mound-like structures at the seabed
generally coincide with vertical zones of acoustic blanking at depth. This connection is observed for the
entire study area, except for Area 1 where acoustic blanking beneath pockmarks appears to be less
pronounced or absent. Based on 3D seismic tomography,Plaza-Faverola et al. (2010c)interpret these
vertical wipe-out zones to represent gas-hydrate filled fluid conduits, connecting the majority of the
pockmarks to gas-charged sediments at approximately 300 m below sea level (Hustoft et al., 2010;
Plaza-Faverola et al., 2010a). Appearing as a highly reflective lowvelocity zone in seismic data, the spatial
extent of this gas-charged layer largely coincides with the present-day distribution of pockmarks at the
seabed (Hustoft et al., 2010; Plaza-Faverola et al., 2010a). It seems thus reasonable to assume that the
extent of this layer exerts afirst order control on the overall distribution of pockmarks at Nyegga.
However, despite convincing evidence linking pockmarks to deeper structures, a suitable triggering
mechanism for initiatingfluid expulsion is needed. Our results indicate that 75% of the identified seabed
depressions are located in the eastern part of the study area (Areas 1 and 2). This part of the Nyegga
area has experienced repeated GDF deposition and maximum glacimarine sedimentation rates (Fig. 5).
Rapid sediment loading at the southern Vøring Plateau has previously been associated with subsurface
overpressure generation and was thus considered a contribution to large-scale failure of the Storegga
Slide event (Bryn et al., 2005; Leynaud et al., 2007). Moreover, sedimentation-fluid flow modelling
byHustoft et al. (2009)has quantitatively shown that rapid sedimentation rates correspond to peak
values in vertical fluid migration. We therefore suggest that repeated and rapid sediment loading
represents a suitable mechanism for triggering periodic fluid expulsion events and the origin of
numerous pockmarks at Nyegga. According to the established stratigraphy, suchfluid expulsion events
may correspond to periods of rapid GDF deposition around 18.214 Cka BP (21.8 cal. ka), 17.5 14 C ka BP
(20.8 cal. ka) and 16.9 a), and, as also suggested byHustoft et al. (2009),tomaximum glacimarine
sedimentation rates in the period between 15.8 14 Support for the suggested formation mechanism
comes from a study byPlaza-Faverola et al. (2010b). High-resolution 3D seismic data from the Nyegga
area show several horizons which are truncated against theflanks of vertical wipe-out zones. These
truncations are interpreted to provide evidence forfluid expulsion at the paleo-seafloor, making these
particular horizons suitable time markers of paleo-fluidflow activity.Plaza-Faverola et al.
(2010b)conclude that these horizons correspond to thefinal stages of the last glacial cycles (i.e. Elsterian,
Saalian and Weichselian), suggesting rapid deposition of glacigenic sediments as the main triggering
mechanism for verticalfluid expulsion during several glacial episodes. An alternative formation
mechanism is provided byWeibull et al. (2010). These authors relate the distribution and age of the
Nyegga pockmarks to temporal depth variations of the base of the GHSZ. Even though such a formation
mechanism cannot be ruled out, we note a discrepancy between the suggested timing of climate-driven
changes of the base of the GHSZ and previously suggested ages of the Nyegga pockmarks. Whereas the
base of the GHSZ was modeled to have become shallower after 12 cal. ka (Mienert et al., 2005), AMS 14
measurements on planktonic foraminifera, recovered from one of the pockmarks, suggestfluidflow
activity to have taken place prior to ca.

5.4. Fluid expulsion in response to ice sheetfluctuations and large-scale sliding?

On geological time scales, the deposition of glacigenic wedges (GDFs) may be regarded to occur
instantaneously (Nygård et al., 2007). During the Late Weichselian glaciation, Area 1 has experienced
repeated phases of glacigenic deposition and has therefore been subject to significant sediment loading
(Fig. 5b). Geotechnical borings from the Vøring Plateau have shown that lithological properties of
glacigenic sediments are characterized by permeabilities up to one order in magnitude lower compared
to glacimarine/hemipelagic deposits (NGI, [1997]in Hustoft et al., 2009). Thus, we suggest that GDF
deposits in Area 1 have to some extent impeded verticalfluid migration, which is presently manifested in
relatively few, smaller and less spectacular seabed features compared to Area 2. This is confirmed by
previous studies, suggesting GDF deposits to behave as permeability barriers which favour
lateralfluidmigrationandcontributetoexcesspore pressure in their vicinity (Gay and Berndt, 2007;
Hjelstuen et al., 2010; Plaza-Faverola et al., 2010a). The TOPAS profiles further reveal distinctly different
reflection characteristics of pockmarks in Area 1 compared to the remaining Nyegga pockmarkfield. The
most striking differences are given by a general absence of acoustic wipe-out zones beneath pockmarks
in Area 1 and the observation that sediments of sequence UNT6 show generally downward bending
reflections beneath the centre of the pockmarks (Fig. 6a). Based on the observed reflection pattern, we
suggest that pockmarks in Area 1 have remained largely inactive since deposition of sequence UNT 6,
with their seabed depressions having been preserved by glacimarine sedimentation. The preservation of
pockmarks by suspension settling of muddy sediments has previously been reported from the Landes
Plateau, Bay of Biscay, where present-day seabed depressions are thought to have been inactive since
Late Miocenetimes (Iglesias et al., 2010). In contrast, the deposition mode associated with glacigenic
sediments does not allow for preserving small-scale relief on the seafloor (e.g.King et al., 1998),
suggesting pockmark formation in Area 1 to have occurred shortly after the most recent event of GDF
deposition, i.e. 16.9 14 C ka BP (20 cal. ka). In contrast to pockmarks in Area 1, those features hosted by
relatively permeable glacimarine sediments in Area 2 and Area 4 show clearly pronounced vertical zones
of acoustic blanking which penetrate sequence UNT6 and extent to the seafloor (Figs. 6cand7a). The
observed reflection pattern suggests thatfluid expulsion in this part of the study area post-dates
deposition of sequence UNT6, i.e. 15 14 CkaBP (18.2 cal. ka). This is further supported by the spectacular
present-day seabed relief of pockmarks and mounds in Area 2 (Fig. 7). We further note that these
pockmarks are located directly west of the glacigenic wedges and may thus have experienced a
significant pressure contribution from Area 1 (Fig. 5b). Together with rapid deposition of sequence UNT6
this may have provided most favourable conditions for triggering the formation/reactivation of densely
spaced, relatively large seabed depressions in Area 2 (Fig. 5c). The spatial proximity of Area 2 to thick
GDF units may also have contributed to density inversion and mud diapirism. However, besides
detecting few clearly pronounced mound-structures in Area 2 (Fig. 7), the present data does not allow
further conclusions about the origin of these topographically positive structures. Still, the recover of
Eocene to Oligocene fossils close to the seabed (Bouriak et al., 2000) and the fact that similar geological
settings have been related to mud diapirism elsewhere (e.g. in the Vema diapirfield [Hjelstuen et al.,
1997; Hovland et al., 1998]), may suggest that similar processes have also been active at Nyegga. Based
on the TOPAS data, topographically positive, mound-like features in Area 3 are frequently connected to
theflanks of the furrowstructures (Figs. 5cand6b). Similarly, Area 4 hosts several pockmarks situated
either in the centre or along theflanks of the seabed furrows (Figs. 5d,6c and d). Almost 50% of the Area
4—pockmarks are associated with some sort of small-scale faulting, leading to the suggestion that these
faults (e.g. theflanks of the furrows) provide favourable conditions for vertical fluid migration and the
formation of either pockmark- or mound-like features at the seabed. A link between small-scale faulting
and pockmark formation has previously been reported from the Lower Congo Basin and from Lake
Superior (Cartwright et al., 2004; Gay et al., 2004). Such faults may thus represent low-resistance
pathways, allowing previously trapped gaseousfluids to reach the seabed. By relating the formation of
the Nyegga seabed cracks to the Storegga Slide event and by observing several pockmarks situated at
theflanks of the seabed furrows, we suggest that some of these features have formed around 7250 14
Cyrs BP (8100 cal. yrs). Even though it cannot be excluded that the seabed furrows are not of the same
age as the Storegga Slide event, or that they have occasionally formed along pre-existing pockmark-
depressions, extensional movement and horizontal stress reduction provide a suitable mechanism for
triggering renewed expulsion of gaseousfluids at the seabed (Judd and Hovland, 2007).

The above discussion is summarized in a conceptual model, illustrating how pockmarks at

Nyegga might have developed in response to repeated shelf-edge glaciations and rapid glacimarine
sedimentation (Fig. 9). During maximum glaciation, repeated and“instantaneous”GDF deposition may
have acted as a pump on underlying gas reservoirs, causingfluids to be periodically expulsed at the
seabed (Fig. 9e). With pockmarks in Area 1 being situated on top of a 16.9 CkaBP(20cal.ka) old glacigenic
unit, we suggest their most recent activity to have occurred shortly after this time (Fig. 9d). During
deglaciation of the midNorwegian margin, rapid deposition of sequence UNT6, between C ka BP (18.2
cal. ka), has led to a new stage of loading and overpressure generation at Nyegga (Fig. 9c). This may have
caused renewed (or initial) pockmark activity in Area 2 and potentially also in Area 4 (Fig. 9b). In
contrast, pockmarks hosted by impermeable glacigenic wedges in the eastern part of the study area are
thought to have been gradually draped by glacimarine sediments of sequence UNT6 (Fig. 9b). The
seabed in the western part of the study area is dominated by the presence of more than 25 seabed
furrows which we interpret as tension cracks, formed simultaneously with the Storegga Slide event (Fig.
9a). Some pockmarks in the central part of the study area appear to be located along theflanks of the
furrow-structures. Even though the formation of the Nyegga pockmarkfield is generally thought to pre-
date the Storegga Slide event, seabed cracking in the central part of Nyegga (Area 4 inFig. 5b) may have
been accompanied by renewedfluid expulsion and afinal stage of pockmark formation (Fig. 9a).

6. Conclusions

High-resolution bathymetric and TOPAS seismic data allowed for detailed insight into Late
Weichselian depositional processes and numerousfluid-flow related seabed features at the Nyegga area,
located on the mid-Norwegian continental margin. A new seismic stratigraphy has been established,
subdividing the sedimentary succession at Nyegga into seven seismic sequences. Correlating each
sequence boundary to radiocarbon dated core intervals of IMAGES cores MD99-2289 and MD99-2291
provides chronological control on the seismic sequences.

The seabed at Nyegga is perforated by 230 pockmarks, 19 moundlike structures and more than
25 elongated seabed furrows. Pockmarks, situated on top of thick glacigenic sediments in the eastern
part of the study area, show little evidence of acoustic blanking underneath and appear to be covered by
a 15 14 C ka BP (18.2 cal. ka) old, well-stratified sediment unit. With a seabed relief of more than 10 m,
and clearly pronounced zones of acoustic blanking underneath, the most spectacular pockmarks and
mound-like features at Nyegga are located slightly west of the glacigenic sediment units. The seabed
directly north of the Storegga Slide scar is crossed by more than 25, up to 7 km long, elongated, slope
parallel furrows. These features are imaged as grabenlike structures in the TOPAS data, with their
central parts being vertically displaced with respect to the grabenflanks.

Based on the results of this study, the following conceptual model is suggested, addressing the
formation and age of the Nyegga seabed features:

1. Rapid glacigenic sediment deposition at 18.2 repeatedfluid expulsion at the seabed.

Suchfluidflow activity was presumably influenced by lithological properties of the host sediments,
causing pockmarks situated on top of impermeable glacigenic deposits to remain largely inactive after
16.9 14 CkaBP (20 cal. ka).

2. Maximum glacimarine sedimentation rates (30 m/ka) between 15.8 14 C ka BP (19 cal. ka) and
15.0 14 C ka BP (18.2 cal. ka) triggered renewedfluid expulsion in the area west of the glacigenic
sediment units, forming spectacular pockmarks and mound-like features at the seabed.

3. At 7250 14 C yrs BP (8100 cal. yrs), large-scale sediment removal associated with the Storegga
Slide reduced horizontal stresses in the sediments adjacent to the slide scar, leading to the development
of tension cracks at the seabed. The observation that pockmarks are frequently located at theflanks of
these furrow structures may indicate that the Storegga Slide event also triggered afinal stage offluid
expulsion within the Nyegga pockmarkfield.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the Norwegian Deepwater Programme – SEABED III consortium

(http://www.ndwp.org) and the Norwegian Research Council forfinancial support through the
Petromaks project“Gas hydrates on the Norwegian–Barents Sea–Svalbard margin”(GANS, NRC project
no. 175969/S39). The captains and crews onboard R/V G.O. Sars are thanked for help and support
during the cruises to the Nyegga area in 2007 and 2008. This study has benefited from discussions with
Nicolas Waldmann and Christine Zühlsdorff. We appreciated the constructive comments and reviews of
the Editor, Bill Ussler and one anonymous reviewer.
 Padat spasi resolusi tinggi TOPAS profil seismik dan EM1002 data batimetri mengungkapkan
adanya berbagai bopeng, struktur gundukan-seperti dan retak memanjang di dasar laut Nyegga, lepas
pantai mid-Norwegia. Celah-celah dasar laut yang terletak berdekatan dengan lereng utara Storegga
Slide, muncul sebagai struktur graben seperti dalam data TOPAS. Berbeda dengan retak, bopeng dan
gundukan-struktur yang sebagian besar terkait dengan zona vertikal blanking akustik di kedalaman,
ditafsirkan sebagai jalur untuk vertikal bermigrasi gaseousfluids. Berdasarkan data TOPAS, kerangka
seismostratigraphic baru telah dibentuk dan berkorelasi dengan model usia diterbitkan sebelumnya
GAMBAR core MD99-2291 dan MD99-2289. Interpretasi seismik menyarankan diulang dan deposisi
cepat hingga 40 m tebal wedges glacigenic di bagian timur daerah penelitian sekitar 18,2 14 C ka BP
(21,8 kal. Ka), 17,5 14 C ka BP (20,8 kal. Ka) dan 16,9 14 C ka BP (20 kal. ka). Arah barat, deposisi
glacimarine telah berlaku, ditandai dengan semakin meningkatnya tingkat sedimentasi dengan nilai-nilai
puncak 30 m / ka selama periode dari 15,0 14 C ka BP (18,2 kal. Ka) ke 15,814 C ka BP (19 kal. Ka).
Sebagai distribusi bopeng Nyegga erat bertepatan dengan Akhir depocenters sedimen Weichselian
utama, kami menyarankan hubungan antara sedimentasi yang cepat dan berulang-ulang dan generasi
overpressure berkala di kedalaman, pada akhirnya menyebabkan pengusiran tofluid di dasar laut dan
pembentukan pockmarkfield Nyegga. Sebaliknya, retak dasar laut di Nyegga tampaknya telah terbentuk
karena ekstensi lokal yang kita berhubungan dengan pengurangan stres horisontal sebagai konsekuensi
dari peristiwa Slide Storegga. Berpotensi, acara ini telah disertai dengan diperbarui migrasi verticalfluid
dan tahap terbaru dari perkembangan bopeng-bopeng.

Selama dekade terakhir, kemajuan teknologi survei kelautan dan meningkatkan cakupan data
yang semakin menunjukkan bahwa benua rak dan kemiringan deposito sering tunduk pada proses skala
kecil seperti migrasi verticalfluid, lumpur diapirism atau dasar laut retak (egDriscoll et al, 2000;. Perez .
-Garcia et al, 2009; jane et al, 2010).. Umumnya, proses tersebut mempengaruhi morfologi dasar laut,
dengan membentuk fitur seperti bopeng, moundstructures topografi positif atau retak dasar laut
memanjang (Hustoft et al, 2007;.. Talukder et al, 2007;. Mienert et al, 2010).

Penelitian sebelumnya telah menunjukkan bahwa proses ini sering membutuhkan geologi pra-
kondisi tertentu. Misalnya, pembentukan bopeng telah terkait dengan kehadiran hidrat gas / gas bebas,
jalur yang cukup permeabel gas-richfluids untuk mencapai dasar laut dan, seperti yang diamati selama
bertahun-provinsi bopeng-bopeng, mekanisme memicu eksternal, seperti cepat pemuatan sedimen ,
faulting atau aktivitas seismik (Hasiotis et al, 1996;. Naik et al, 1999;. Gay dan Berndt, 2007;. Hustoft et
al, 2007, 2009; Pilcher dan Argent, 2007;. Sultan et al, 2010). Sebaliknya, retak dasar laut telah dikaitkan
dengan masa lalu atau masa kini ketidakstabilan lereng atau dengan kehadiran suksesi sedimen tebal
yang mengalami pemadatan didorong dewatering dan patahan poligonal (Wattrus et al, 2003;. Blum et
al, 2010.).

The Nyegga area, lepas pantai mid-Norwegia, merupakan terkenal dan intensif mempelajari
bopeng-bopeng-provinsi, dikaitkan dengan banyak parameter geologi ini seperti adanya gas hidrat
(Andreassen et al, 2000;.. Bunz et al, 2003) , reservoir gas dangkal (Plaza-Faverola et al., 2010a), skala
besar berulang geser (Solheim et al., 2005) dan cepat pemuatan sedimen akhir-glasial (Hjelstuen et al.,
2004). Akibatnya, daerah ini telah ditargetkan oleh sejumlah studi, sering menggunakan data seismik
multichannel untuk menghubungkan bopeng dasar laut untuk hidrat yang mendasari gas, akumulasi gas
bebas, poligonal kesalahan dan bekas luka geser dikuburkan (Berndt et al, 2003;. Hovland et al. 2005;
Solheim et al, 2005;.. Hustoft et al, 2007, 2010;. Hjelstuen et al, 2010;. Plaza-Faverola et al, 2010a).
Namun, sedikit pengetahuan ada tentang hubungan antara lebih baru, Akhir proses sedimentasi
Weichselian dan pembentukan bopeng di Nyegga (Hustoft et al, 2009;.. Hjelstuen et al, 2010). Selain itu,
penulis sebelumnya sebagian besar terfokus pada pembentukan pockmarkfield Nyegga, sedangkan
beberapa studi telah mengakui adanya beberapa retakan dasar laut di Nyegga (Evans et al, 1996;.
Gravdal et al, 2003;.. Hjelstuen et al, 2010) .

Untuk studi ini, kami menggunakan TOPAS profil seismik resolusi tinggi dan data batimetri
EM1002, memberikan wawasan terutama rinci ke dalam lanskap dasar laut dan bawah permukaan
dangkal di Nyegga. Kami terutama bertujuan (1) untuk membangun stratigrafi seismik baru, (2) untuk
membatasi usia sedimen suksesi diselesaikan di Nyegga, (3) untuk mendapatkan wawasan rinci ke dalam
distribusi, morfologi dan karakteristik akustik dari fitur dasar laut Nyegga dan ( 4) kita mencoba untuk
menyajikan sebuah model konseptual baru untuk berkontribusi pada diskusi yang sedang berlangsung
tentang usia dan asal fitur dasar laut Nyegga.

Sejak Pliosen kali, lingkungan pengendapan dari pertengahan Norwegia telah didominasi
dipengaruhi oleh cyclicity iklim glasial-interglasial, yang berpuncak pada berulang kemajuan rak tepi
Lapisan Es Fennoscandian sejak 0,5 Ma (Dahlgren et al, 2002;.. Hjelstuen et al, 2005). Sedangkan selama
periode ekspansi glasial, es sungai berarus disampaikan sejumlah besar sedimen glacigenic ke tepian
benua midNorwegian, hemipelagic dan deposisi contouritic menang selama masa interglasial (Dahlgren
et al, 2002;. Hjelstuen et al, 2004;. Naik et al ., 2005). Pada Nyegga, Formasi Plio-Pleistosen Akhir Naust
(Fm.) Mencapai ketebalan maksimum 1500 ms (TWT), yang terutama terdiri dari ditumpuk, prograding
arus puing-puing yang dipisahkan oleh lapisan tipis sedimen hemipelagic (Hjelstuen et al., 2004, 2005;.
Naik et al, 2005, 2010). Berdasarkan terakhir menyarankan stratigrafi byRise et al. (2006), Naust Fm.
dapat dibagi unit yang berbeda intofive, didefinisikan sebagai N, A, U, S dan T (di mana Naust T adalah
yang termuda).

Berulang mengubah proses pengendapan telah mempengaruhi stabilitas lereng off pertengahan
Norwegia. Dengan Nyegga yang terletak di lereng utara Storegga Slide (Gambar. 1), berulang kegagalan
skala besar telah mempengaruhi daerah penelitian sejak sekitar 0,5 Ma (Solheim et al., 2005). Masa kini
terkena Storegga Slide merupakan event terbaru dalam serangkaian beberapa pra-Holosen kapal selam
mega-slide (Haflidason et al, 2005;. Solheim et al, 2005.). Kencan beberapa core dari daerah Slide
Storegga byHaflidason et al. (2004, 2005) mengungkapkan usia 7 250 ± 250 14 C thn BP (8100 kal. Thn)
untuk acara geser.

Survei geofisika, menargetkan northernflank dari Storegga Slide, telah melaporkan adanya
kesalahan kecil, sedikit mengimbangi reflektor dalam sedimen paling atas bertingkat dari Naust Fm.
(Evans et al, 1996;.. Gravdal et al, 2003;. Hjelstuen et al, 2010; Mienert et al, 2010.). Retak seperti yang
terlihat dari rak istirahat untuk kedalaman air 1300 m dan telah sering digambarkan sebagai 150 m
hingga 250 m dan lebar hingga 10 m dalam graben-seperti struktur (Gravdal, 1999;. Mienert et al,
2010) .Mienert et al. (2010) telah mempelajari serangkaian retak dasar laut, tren dari ujung timur laut
bekas luka Slide Storegga sekitar 60 km ke arah utara, erat mengikuti kontur kedalaman 500 m (Gbr. 6
inMienert et al., 2010). Radiokarbon kencan dasar sedimen infilling mereka menghasilkan usia 7350 14 C
thn (8180 kal. Thn) (Haflidason et al., 2004). Berdasarkan kebetulan erat antara lokasi retak dan batas
masa kini dari zona stabil hidrat gas (GHSZ), Mienert et al. (2010) menyarankan fitur ini telah terbentuk
karena gas hidrat disosiasi.

Kehadiran hidrat gas di Nyegga telah diakui oleh beberapa penelitian, disimpulkan dari reflektor
bawah menonjol simulasi (BSR) (Mienert et al, 1998;. Andreassen et al, 2000;.. Bunz et al, 2003; Bunz
dan Mienert, 2004). Bunz et al. (2003) telah menunjukkan bahwa terjadinya gas hidrat tampaknya
geologis terbatas pada sedimen berlapis dari Naust Fm. dalam batas GHSZ. Di bawah BSR, penyelidikan
seismik dari daerah Nyegga baru-baru ini mendeteksi jelas diucapkan zona kecepatan rendah, yang
mengindikasikan keberadaan freegas bawah pockmarkfield Nyegga (Plaza-Faverola et al., 2010a).
Umumnya, para bopeng yang terhubung ke zona vertikal blanking akustik (Hustoft et al, 2007;.
Westbrook et al, 2008.) Yang sering (sekitar 60%) berakar dalam lapisan-gas bebas (Hustoft et al, 2010. ).
Akibatnya, zona menghapus-out akustik disarankan untuk mewakili difokuskan saluran aliran fluida,
menyediakan jalur khusus bagi gaseousfluids migrasi ke atas (Hustoft et al., 2007, 2010). Hal ini
dikonfirmasi oleh pemulihan hidrat gas dan karbonat autigenik dari bopeng Nyegga (Hovland et al,
2005;.. Mazzini et al, 2006;. Ivanov et al, 2007;. Paull et al, 2008). Penyelidikan geokimia hidrat gas dan
air pori menunjuk ke arah asal mikroba vertikal juga bermigrasi gaseousfluids (Chen et al, 2010;.. Ivanov
et al, 2010;. Vaular et al, 2010). Berdasarkan AMS 14 pengukuran C pada foraminifera planktonik, pulih
dari salah satu bopeng, Paull et al. (2008) menunjukkan bahwa aktivitas suchfluidflow telah aktif di
Nyegga sebelum 14 14 C ka BP (16,5 kal. Ka).

Kumpulan data untuk penelitian ini terdiri dari grid padat 1400 km 2D profil TOPAS seismik dan
600 km 2 EM1002 data batimetri, yang dikumpulkan oleh University of Bergen kapal pesiar pada tahun
2004 (GS138), 2007 (GS148) dan 2008 (GS155) (Gambar . 1b). Sistem TOPAS adalah satu, balok sempit,
parametrik profiler sub-bottom, menggunakan lambung-mount transducer array yang. Data TOPAS
diperoleh dengan menerapkan pulsa Ricker dengan frekuensi dominan berpusat di sekitar 3,5 kHz
(Haflidason et al., 2007, 2008). Resolusi vertikal dan lateral diperkirakan setinggi 32 cm dan 16,5 m,
masing-masing (Reiche, 2010). Kapasitas penetrasi sistem TOPAS terbatas teratas 80 m dari permukaan
di bagian tengah dan barat daerah penelitian, sedangkan di bagian timur sangat Nyegga hanya atas 30 m
diselesaikan (Gambar. 2).

The Kongsberg Simrad Mulibeam EM1002 gema sounder dioperasikan dengan frekuensi 95 kHz
dan sebagian besar daerah penelitian disurvei dengan interval ping dari 2,0 ms (Haflidason et al., 2007).
Data EM1002 diolah dengan menggunakan ukuran sel 15 × 15 m, memberikan informasi rinci tentang
topografi dasar laut. Dengan menerapkan passfilter rendah untuk data EM1002, versi merapikan
permukaan EM1002 asli dibuat. Permukaan merapikan dikurangkan dari data asli, menciptakan
permukaan sisa yang visualisasi fitur dasar laut Nyegga lebih jelas.

Garis fitur dasar laut Nyegga dipetakan dalam data residual EM1002, menggunakan perangkat
lunak ESRI ArcMap versi 9.3. Selanjutnya, sumbu panjang dan pendek dari bopeng Nyegga dan
gundukan secara otomatis diukur dengan menghitung sesuai minimum empat persegi panjang loncat
mereka (Patterson, 2010). Kami mencatat bahwa prosedur ini hanya dapat dianggap sebagai sebuah
pendekatan, yang sangat menurun dalam akurasi yang lebih garis-garis besar fitur yang disurvei
menyimpang dari bentuk persegi panjang. Untuk alur-alur dasar laut secara signifikan lebih besar
pengukuran tersebut dilakukan secara manual. Lebar yang dilaporkan alur-alur dasar laut ditafsirkan
mewakili rata-rata interval pengukuran dilakukan pada 200 m-langkah di sepanjang jalurnya. Orientasi
alur-alur secara otomatis terdeteksi dengan menggunakan fungsi "Linear Directional Berarti" di ArcMap.
Relief fitur Nyegga dasar laut (bopeng, gundukan dan alur-alur) yang dihitung secara manual
berdasarkan data EM1002 asli.

Interpretasi seismik dilakukan dengan menggunakan software Petrel Schlumberger, 2007 versi
1.2. Batas urut seismik dijemput oleh menggambarkan dengan jelas refleksi tinggi amplitudo dilacak
atau perubahan seismik, yaitu dari akustik structureless unit akustik dilaminasi. Dalam rangka untuk
mendapatkan kontrol kronologis pada stratigrafi seismik didirikan, reflektor seismik telah berkorelasi
dengan interval radiokarbon tanggal dari GAMBAR core MD99-2291 dan MD99-2289 (Gambar 3). (Knorr,
2000; Berstad, 2003;. Haflidason et al, 2003;. Hjelstuen et al, 2004;. Lekens et al, 2005). Tanggal
radiokarbon yang diterbitkan dari core ini, dengan koreksi laboratorium radiokarbon, yang dikoreksi
untuk usia waduk laut dari 400 tahun (Tabel 1 dan 2). Konversi ke kalender usia dilakukan dengan
menggunakan program Calib v.6.0.1 (onStuiver berbasis dan Reimer, 1993) dan terintegrasi kelautan
koreksi waduk kurva marine09. Nilai yang sama delta R dari 25 ± 81, seperti yang diterapkan pada inti
MD992291 byLekens et al. (2005), juga telah diadopsi pada inti MD992289 (Tabel 1 dan 2). Sesuai
dengan data MD99-2289 Multi-Sensor Inti Logger (Gambar V cruise, Labeyrie et al., 2003), pertandingan
antara TOPAS data dan GAMBAR core didasarkan pada menggunakan kecepatan suara 1500 m / s untuk
kedalaman mengkonversi seismik reflektor. Peta isopach diciptakan di Petrel dan kemudian diekspor ke
ArcMap untuk visualisasi. Tingkat sedimentasi dihitung berdasarkan ketebalan maksimum kedalaman-
dikonversi dari setiap urutan seismik diidentifikasi menggunakan kecepatan akustik dari 1500 m / s.

4.1. Stratigrafi seismik, seismik dan kronologi

Selain reflektor dasar laut, tujuh batas urutan seismik, didefinisikan sebagai NY1-Ny7, membagi
Atas Naust T (UNT) Unit menjadi tujuh urutan seismik (UNT1-UNT7) (Gambar. 2aand3). Dasar urutan
terbawah, UNT1, didefinisikan oleh urutan batas NY1-acara refleksi rendah amplitudo, berhubungan
dengan kedalaman MD99-2289 yang sebelumnya telah berhubungan dengan laut Isotop Tahap 5e
(Gambar. 2a and3) (Hjelstuen et al., 2004). Batas urutan Ny2, mendefinisikan puncak UNT1, merupakan
acara refleksi menengah-amplitudo. Sedangkan Ny2 tampaknya terus dilacak di bagian tengah dan barat
Nyegga, redaman akustik yang kuat menghambat deteksi Ny2 lanjut timur (Gambar. 2a). Di lokasi MD99-
2289, Ny2 bertepatan dengan kedalaman inti 12,2 m, menunjukkan usia minimal 25 14 C ka BP (29,9 kal.
Ka) untuk urutan ini batas (Gbr. 3). Struktur internal urutan UNT1 buruk diselesaikan dalam data TOPAS,
mungkin karena redaman akustik dengan kedalaman (Gambar. 2a). Urutan UNT1 mencapai ketebalan
hingga 27 m, sesuai dengan sedimentasi tingkat 0,2 m / ka.

Urutan batas Ny3 diwakili oleh acara refleksi tinggi amplitudo yang hanya bisa ditelusuri di
bagian tengah dan barat wilayah studi (2a Gambar.). Pada MD99-2289, Ny3 berkorelasi dengan
kedalaman inti dari 9,7 m, persis bertepatan dengan 21 14 C ka BP (25 kal. Ka) titik kencan (Gbr. 3).
Bersama-sama, Ny2 dan Ny3 menggambarkan urutan seismik UNT2, ditandai dengan pola refleksi
akustik dilaminasi (Gambar. 2a). UNT2 mencapai ketebalan maksimum 14 m di bagian timur daerah
penelitian, dengan kecenderungan penipisan umum menuju barat (Gambar. 4c). Selama deposisi UNT2,
tingkat sedimentasi telah sampai 2,8 m / ka. Di bagian timur Nyegga, urutan batas Ny4 mendefinisikan
pergeseran dari akustik structureless ke fasies dilaminasi. Selanjutnya barat, Ny4 dapat diikuti sebagai
ajang tinggi amplitudo refleksi terus dilacak (Gbr. 2). Mengikat urutan batas Ny4 ke MD99-2289
menunjukkan kebetulan dekat dengan 18,2 14 C ka BP (21,7 kal. Ka) titik kencan (Gbr. 3). Namun, di
lokasi MD99-2291, urutan batas Ny4 berkorelasi dengan kedalaman yang terletak sekitar 2 m di bawah
kisaran penetrasi inti ini. Sebagai terbawah radiokarbon tanggal selang inti MD99-2291 sama sesuai
dengan usia 18,2 14 C ka BP (21,8 kal. Ka), ini dapat dianggap sebagai usia minimum untuk Ny4 (Gbr. 3).
Secara internal, urutan UNT3 ditandai dengan refleksi sejajar di bagian barat dari wilayah studi. Timur
jauh, UNT3 terdiri unit akustik structureless geometri berbentuk baji (W1), mungkin melebihi ketebalan
40 m (Gambar. 2). Dengan Ny4 menggambarkan batas atas dari W1, usia minimal 18,2 14 CkaBP (21,8
kal. Ka) disarankan untuk unit ini. Akustik sedimen berlapis UNT3 mencapai ketebalan maksimum 13,5 m
di bagian timur wilayah studi, sesuai dengan sedimentasi tingkat hingga 4,8 m / ka.

Batas urut Ny4 dan Ny5 menggambarkan urutan UNT4 seismik. Mirip dengan Ny4, Ny5
mendefinisikan atas facies akustik structureless di bagian timur daerah penelitian, sementara dikaitkan
dengan lateral terus menerus tinggi untuk refleksi acara menengah-amplitudo lanjut barat (Gambar. 2).
Urutan batas Ny5 berkorelasi dengan MD99-2289 sekitar 1 m di bawah 16,9 14 C ka BP (20 kal. Ka) titik
kencan. Usia ini didukung oleh MD99-2291, di mana Ny5 sesuai dengan kedalaman inti persis
bertepatan dengan usia 16,7 14 C ka BP (19,8 kal. Ka) (Gambar. 3). Secara internal, UNT4 menampilkan
refleksi sejajar di bagian tengah dan barat daerah penelitian. Timur jauh, UNT4 terdiri dari dua unit
akustik structureless geometri berbentuk baji, yang didefinisikan sebagai W2 dan W3 (Gambar 2b.).
Sedang digambarkan oleh urutan batas Ny5, (minimal) usia W3 dapat diperkirakan 16,9 14 C ka BP (20
kal. Ka). Sebaliknya, Unit berbentuk baji W2 tidak bertepatan dengan salah satu urutan batas yang
ditetapkan (Gbr. 2b). Namun, menelusuri batas atas unit W2 ke GAMBAR inti MD99-2291 bertepatan
dengan kedalaman inti 21 m, terletak antara 16,7 C 14 ka BP (19,8 kal. Ka) dan 18,2 C 14 ka BP (21,7 kal.
Ka ) titik kencan (Gbr. 3). Oleh karena itu, usia W2 dapat didekati dengan rata-rata ini untuk usia, yaitu
17,5 14 C ka BP (20,8 kal. Ka). Akustik sedimen berlapis UNT4 mencapai ketebalan maksimum 13 m,
sesuai dengan tingkat sedimentasi hingga 9,3 m / ka.

Mendefinisikan bagian atas UNT5, urutan batas Ny6 merupakan tinggi amplitudo acara refleksi
lateral kontinyu (Gambar. 2). Korelasi antara Ny6 ke MD99-2291 menunjukkan usia 15,7 14 C ka BP (19
kal. Ka). Pada MD99-2289, urutan batas Ny6 bertepatan dengan kedalaman inti sekitar 1,5 m di bawah
15,8 14 C ka BP (19 kal. Ka) titik kencan (Gbr. 3). Namun, seperti MD99-2291 adalah resolusi yang jauh
lebih tinggi dan kedalaman reflektor di MD99-2289 tidak mengecualikan usia 15,8 14 C ka BP (19 kal. Ka)
untuk Ny6, usia ini dianggap cukup akurat. Akustik, urutan UNT5 menampilkan pola refleksi dilaminasi
(Gbr. 2). Dengan ketebalan maksimum 8 m, tingkat sedimentasi telah sampai 7,2 m / ka selama deposisi
urutan UNT5. Urutan batas Ny7 mendefinisikan perubahan diucapkan dari akustik laminasi (di bawah)
untuk akustik transparan (di atas) seismik (Gambar. 2a). Pada MD99-2291, Ny7 justru bertepatan
dengan titik kencan sesuai dengan 15.0 14 C ka BP (18,2 kal. Ka) (Gambar. 3). Akustik, UNT6
menampilkan pola refleksi yang sama seperti urutan UNT5 (Gbr. 2). Dengan ketebalan maksimum 21 m,
tingkat sedimentasi telah setinggi 30 m / ka di bagian timur daerah penelitian. Arah barat, UNT6
penurunan ketebalan (Gambar. 4b). Digambarkan oleh reflektor dasar laut dan urutan batas Ny7, urutan
paling atas, UNT7, meliputi rentang waktu dari 15,0 14 CKA BP (18,2 kal. Ka) hingga saat ini (Gambar. 3).
Urutan ini terdiri dari facies akustik transparan, mencapai ketebalan maksimum 14 m di bagian barat
laut daerah penelitian (Gambar. 2a and4a). Urutan UNT7 semakin menipis ke arah timur sampai benar-
benar mencubit di bagian timur daerah penelitian (4a Gambar.). Selama deposisi UNT7, tingkat
sedimentasi telah sekitar 1 m / ka. 4.2. Fitur Dasar Laut

Dasar laut (EM1002) dan bawah permukaan dangkal (TOPAS) data dari daerah Nyegga
mengungkapkan adanya beberapa fitur yang berbeda dengan berbagai karakteristik akustik dan ekspresi
morfologi di dasar laut (Gambar. 5-8). Selain 230 edaran kepada bopeng memanjang (Gambar. 5, 6a, c
dan d), 19 topografi positif, struktur gundukan-seperti telah dipetakan dalam penelitian ini (Gambar. 5
dan 6b). Sebagian besar dari bopeng diidentifikasi dan struktur gundukan-seperti

tampaknya terhubung ke zona vertikal blanking akustik yang sejauh kedalaman luar kapasitas
penetrasi sistem TOPAS (Gambar. 6 dan 7a). Selain itu, dasar laut di bagian barat daya dari daerah
penelitian dilintasi lebih dari 25 memanjang, bujursangkar untuk alur-alur dasar laut agak melengkung
(Gambar. 5 dan 8). Untuk alasan comprehensibility kami telah dibagi wilayah studi menjadi empat area
yang berbeda (Area 1-Area bintang 4), dengan masing-masing daerah yang dirawat lebih rinci di bawah
(Gbr. 5). 1is daerah yang terletak di bagian timur sejauh Data EM1002 (Gbr. 5). Akhir Weichselian
sedimen suksesi di daerah ini didominasi oleh tebal (sampai 40 m), unit akustik structureless dari
berbentuk baji geometri, jelas kontras dari daerah studi yang tersisa (Gambar. 2 dan 5b). Dengan urutan
UNT7 mencubit keluar timur dari

Area 1 (Gambar. 4a), unit akustik structureless ditutupi oleh sekitar 15 m sedimen laminasi tebal
urutan UNT6. Deposito tersebut menjadi tuan rumah 52 bopeng, menekan dasar laut dengan rata-rata
3,1 m (Gambar. 2 dan 5b). Diameter (sumbu panjang) dari bopeng berkisar antara 95 m sampai 580 m
dengan rata-rata 173 m. Sedangkan semua bopeng diidentifikasi dan struktur gundukan-seperti di
bagian yang tersisa dari wilayah studi yang terkait dengan zona vertikal blanking akustik di kedalaman,
90% dari bopeng di Area 1 tidak menunjukkan tanda-tanda signifikan akustik menghapus-out.
Sebaliknya, fitur ini terjadi di atas strata akustik diatasi, menampilkan downwardbending refleksi di 80%
dari semua kasus diselidiki (Gbr. 6a).

Area 2is terletak tepat sebelah barat dari unit berbentuk baji yang terkubur (Gambar. 2 dan 5b).
Suksesi akustik berlapis Area 2 host 120 bopeng dan 3 gundukan-seperti struktur yang terhubung
dengan jelas diucapkan zona akustik kosong di bawah permukaan (Gambar 5b., C and7). Para bopeng di
daerah ini ditandai dengan diameter rata-rata 226 m, dengan kisaran dari 80 m sampai 1013 m.
Kedalaman di bawah dasar laut berkisar antara 0,9 m sampai 15 m dengan rata-rata 4,5 m. Dengan
tinggi struktur satu 9 m topografi positif (Tobic, Gambar. 7) and10 bopeng melebihi kedalaman 10 m di
bawah dasar laut, Area 2 host yang terbesar dan paling spektakuler fitur dasar laut daerah penelitian (5c
Gambar.). Sebagai blanking akustik umumnya masker pola refleksi di bawah bopeng / gundukan di Area
2 (Gbr. 7a), tidak ada kesimpulan tertentu dapat dibuat apakah refleksi yang bengkok ke atas, ke bawah
atau tampak lurus. Selama sepuluh persen dari semua bopeng diselidiki di bagian wilayah studi,
reflectorsflanking zona menghapus-out akustik tampaknya sedikit pengungsi (Gbr. 7a). Namun, tidak ada
bukti patahan dapat diamati di dasar laut. Bukannya berlubang oleh banyak bopeng, data residual
EM1002 mengungkapkan adanya 21, hingga 6,4 km furrowstructures panjang yang melintasi dasar laut
inArea 3 (Gbr. 5). Sedangkan fitur ini muncul sebagai memanjang, depresi relatif lurus dasar laut dalam
data EM1002 (Gambar. 5c and8c), profil TOPAS menampilkan alur sebagai struktur graben seperti
dengan bagian tengah mereka yang vertikal mengungsi oleh dua yang normal kesalahan seperti offset
(Gbr. 8b ). Reflektor perpindahan berkisar dari kurang dari 1 m sampai lebih dari 5 m dan dapat diikuti
untuk kedalaman di bawah jarak penetrasi data TOPAS (ca. 80 m). Akibatnya, tidak ada kesimpulan
dapat dibuat di mana tingkat stratigrafi reflektor offset dapat mengakhiri (Gambar. 8b). Berbeda dengan
sebagian besar bopeng di Nyegga, alur-alur yang jarang berhubungan dengan blanking akustik di
kedalaman (Gambar. 8b). Lebar alur-alur dasar laut bervariasi antara 123 m dan 248 m dengan rata-rata
171 m. Kedalaman jarang melebihi 2 m sehubungan dengan dasar laut. Kami mencatat bahwa fitur
tersebut, berakhir pada bekas luka Slide utara Storegga, mencapai kedalaman jauh lebih besar hingga 9
m, menampilkan tren pendangkalan umum dengan meningkatnya jarak dari bekas luka Slide Storegga
(8c Gambar.). Sebagian besar dasar laut alur Nyegga menunjukkan tren arah yang sama dari tenggara ke
barat laut (Gambar. 8d). Di bagian barat data sejauh EM1002, pola kesalahan graben seperti perubahan
ke beberapa kesalahan seperti perpindahan normal (Gambar. 8a). Serupa dengan alur-alur dasar laut,
lemparan ini beberapa kesalahan yang umumnya tidak melebihi beberapa meter. Seperti juga berlaku
untuk sebagian besar alur-alur dasar laut, kesalahan-seperti biasa ini offset tidak mengakhiri dalam
sedimen suksesi saat diselesaikan, yaitu mereka melampaui urutan batas NY1 (Gambar. 8a). Berbeda
dengan bagian yang tersisa dari wilayah Nyegga, Area 3 ditandai dengan tidak adanya lengkap bopeng
(kecuali 3 fitur dekat dengan perbatasan untuk Area 2) (Gambar. 5b). Namun, 11 topografi positif,
struktur gundukan-seperti yang jelas di dasar laut di Area 3 (Gambar. 5 dan 6b). Fitur-fitur ini sering
terjadi (100% dari mereka yang dilintasi garis TOPAS) di atas kesalahan-skala kecil, terkait dengan
theflanks dari alur-alur dasar laut (Gambar. 6b). Tidak seperti kebanyakan Nyegga-bopeng, bantuan
mereka tidak rata-rata tidak melebihi 1,8 m sehubungan dengan dasar laut. 4is daerah yang terletak di
bagian barat laut daerah penelitian (Gambar. 5b). Daerah ini ditandai dengan adanya berbagai bopeng
(58), beberapa gundukan (5), dan 7 alur-alur dasar laut memanjang (Gambar. 5b). Dengan diameter
bopeng yang rata-rata ukurannya sama dengan yang ada di Area 2, tidak ada struktur ini dikaitkan
dengan depresi yang lebih dalam dari 10 m. Semua bopeng dan gundukan-struktur di daerah 4
berhubungan dengan jelas diucapkan zona vertikal blanking akustik di kedalaman, diapit oleh salah
berorientasi horizontal, upward- atau ke bawah lipatan refleksi. Selain itu, 48% dari bopeng dan
gundukan di daerah ini terletak di atas sebuah kesalahan kecil, bertepatan dengan theflanks atau pusat
salah satu alur-alur dasar laut (Gambar 5d, 6candd.) .Witha Perpindahan jarang melebihi 1 m, tesis alur
yang jelas kurang diucapkan daripada yang terdeteksi di Area 3.

5.1. Lingkungan pengendapan

Seperti yang ditunjukkan oleh data TOPAS, suksesi sedimen di bagian timur daerah penelitian
didominasi oleh unit akustik structureless dari berbentuk baji geometri (W1-W3) (Gambar. 2). Sesuai
dengan penelitian sebelumnya dari Vøring Plateau (King et al, 1987;. Dahlgren dan Vorren, 2003;
Hjelstuen et al, 2004;.. Sejrup et al, 2004, Naik et al, 2005.), Unit-unit ini (W1- W3) ditafsirkan sebagai
debrisflows glacigenic (GDFS), diendapkan selama kemajuan rak tepi Lapisan Es Fennoscandian.
Homogen karakter akustik mereka bersama-sama dengan tidak lengkap blok rotasi atau struktur
kemerosotan seperti menunjukkan mode deposisi plug-aliran seperti nondisintegrating, umumnya
melestarikan strata mendasari (Gambar. 2). Karena pasokan sedimen glacigenic signifikan terhadap
wilayah studi, unit-unit ini jelas memberikan kontribusi untuk perpanjangan ke arah barat dari pinggir
paparan (Gbr. 2). Akibatnya, pergeseran diamati pada dasar laut gradien di bagian timur Nyegga
tampaknya terutama hasil dari berulang, Akhir Weichselian GDF deposisi, dengan fase pengendapan
utama telah terjadi pada 18,2 14 C ka BP (21,8 kal. Ka), 17,5 14 CkaBP (20,8 kal. ka) dan 16,9 C 14 ka BP
(20 kal. ka) (Gambar. 3). Berbeda dengan bagian timur Nyegga, sedimen akustik dilaminasi menempati
bagian tengah dan barat daerah penelitian, menunjukkan sedimentasi glacimarine (Gbr. 2). Asumsi
tersebut dikonfirmasi oleh penelitian inti dari MD99-2291 dan MD99-2289 situs, melaporkan sedimen
Weichselian Akhir untuk sebagian besar terdiri offinegrained, kaya dropstone deposito glacimarine
(Berstad, 2003; Hjelstuen et al, 2004;.. Lekens et al, 2005 ). Berdasarkan stratigrafi didirikan, tingkat
sedimentasi memiliki pengalaman meningkat secara bertahap sejak 25 14 CKA

BP (29,9 kal. Ka). Periode ini sesuai dengan peningkatan es arung jeram dan drop pasokan batu
ke Vøring Plateau, mungkin mencerminkan ekspansi glasial di pertengahan Norwegia (Dokken dan
Jansen, 1999; Dahlgren dan Vorren, 2003). Berdasarkan stratigrafi seismik oleh Hjelstuen et al. (2004),
gletser diperkirakan telah mencapai tepi rak di selatan Vøring Plateau di 21 14 C ka BP (25 kal. Ka).
Selanjutnya, hasil kami menunjukkan berulang kemajuan es depan rak tepi CKA BP [20 kal. ka])
memasok daerah penelitian dengan kedua unit tebal GDF (W1- W3) dan ditangguhkan, bahan
glacimarine. Deposito glacimarine yang dilaminasi menunjukkan tren menipis umum dengan
meningkatnya jarak dari sumber sedimen terestrial (Gambar. 4c). Tingkat sedimentasi Puncak 30 m / ka
telah dicapai selama deposisi urutan UNT6 (Gambar. 4b). Tingkat sedimentasi sama tinggi selama
periode ini sebelumnya telah diidentifikasi di selatan Vøring Plateau dan di mana umumnya ditafsirkan
untuk mencerminkan deposisi cepat sedimen air lelehan membanggakan selama deglaciation awal
margin benua pertengahan Norwegia (Berstad, 2003;. Hjelstuen et al, 2004; Lekens et al., 2005).
Berbeda dengan urutan diidentifikasi lainnya di Nyegga, urutan seismik UNT7 dikaitkan dengan
perubahan diucapkan dari sebelumnya dilaminasi ke seismik akustik transparan (Gambar. 2a). Hal ini
kemungkinan besar terkait dengan perubahan lingkungan pengendapan dari arung jeram es kuat dan
sedimentasi yang cepat selama deglaciation (misalnya Lekens et al., 2005), menuju lambat, pasca-glasial
hemipelagic deposisi. Perubahan tersebut disertai dengan sangat mengurangi tingkat sedimentasi untuk
1 m / ka. Diamati tren ke arah timur menipis urutan UNT7 ditafsirkan untuk menunjukkan terjadinya
pasca-glasial sirkulasi arus bawah yang relatif kuat, menyebabkan non-deposisi dan / atau erosi pada
lereng bagian atas (Gambar. 4a). Asumsi tersebut dikonfirmasi byLekens et al. (2005) terkait perubahan
litologi yang berbeda dalam MD99-2291 meningkatnya aktivitas saat ini, tanggal 12. Seperti yang terlihat
pada profil TOPAS, urutan UNT7 mencubit keluar menuju daerah yang menunjukkan pergeseran dasar
laut gradien (Gambar. 2). Dengan demikian, masa kini dasar laut morfologi dapat mengerahkan kontrol
topografi pada arus bawah di Nyegga, menyebabkan peningkatan kekuatan arus menuju area di mana
gradien dasar laut jelas meningkat (Gambar. 2). 5.2. Alur di Nyegga-dasar laut retak karena skala besar
geser? Studi ini menunjukkan adanya berbagai alur-alur dasar laut dan normal kesalahan seperti offset
di Nyegga (Gbr. 5). Pola kesalahan graben seperti mereka bersama-sama dengan kurangnya mereka
sedimen pengisi menunjukkan bahwa alur tersebut telah terbentuk baru-baru ini, mungkin karena
ekstensi dalam sedimen kolom paling atas (Gbr. 8). Kondisi Favourable untuk fitur ekstensional untuk
mengembangkan mungkin telah diberikan oleh acara Slide Storegga.

5.3.

(2010b). (2010).

5.4.

6. Kesimpulan

Ucapan Terima Kasih