জীবনের জন্য পদার্থবিজ্ঞান

এক্স-রে টিউব
X-ray tube
The parts of an x-ray tube

 The Pyrex glass enclosure

 The cathode
 The anode

The cathode and its parts

 The filament
 The connecting wires
 The metallic focusing cup
The filament is made of W. A wire 0.2 mm in diameter in the form of a vertical spiral 0.2 cm in
diameter & 1 cm in length. The filament is heated to 2200°C and the electrons are emitted from
surface of the filament by thermionic emission.
It is made of Ni and keeps the emitted electron beam concentrated and focused. It remains in a
negative potential just as the cathode, when tube is conducting.
The anode
The anode is made of a plate of W embedded in a block of Cu.

https://books.google.com.bd/books?id=1pV35-
skfkwC&pg=PA147&dq=radiology+physics+b.sc&hl=bn&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijyN63wprsAhXg6XMBHS6
MCR0Q6AEwAHoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=radiology%20physics%20b.sc&f=false
https://books.google.com.bd/books?
id=Tx_zzK1OyR8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=x+ray+physics&hl=bn&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiC_5i1sK7sAhW
cILcAHek_A0gQ6AEwBHoECAMQAg#v=onepage&q=x%20ray%20physics&f=true
Ultrasonography
Measure the reflectivity of tissue to sound waves.
Can also measure velocity of moving objects e.g. blood flow. (Doppler imaging)
Transducer
It is a device which generates ultrasound waves.

Transducers are used to convert an electric signal into ultrasonic energy that can be transmitted into
tissue & to convert ultrasonic energy reflected back from the tissue into an electric signal.

Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity (also called the piezoelectric effect) is the appearance of an
electrical potential (a voltage, in other words) across the sides of a crystal
when you subject it to mechanical stress (by squeezing it).

In practice, the crystal becomes a kind of tiny battery with a positive charge on

one face and a negative charge on the opposite face; current flows if we
connect the two faces together to make a circuit. In the reverse piezoelectric
effect, a crystal becomes mechanically stressed (deformed in shape) when a
voltage is applied across its opposite faces.

Advantages

 No radiation exposure, completely non-invasive and safe

 Fast
 Inexpensive
 Low resolution

The speed of sound is determined by the properties of the medium: adiabatic bulk modulus
• Describes how resistant a substance is to compressibility; the pressure required to produce
a fractional change in volume
The quantitative relationship to the speed of sound is given by their ratio

Ka
c=
√ ρ
Tissues generally differ more in stiffness than in density, so although bone is much denser than
muscle, it has a higher speed of sound because it is much stiffer

https://www.slideshare.net/gargnavni/ultrasound-physics-54638868
https://www.slideshare.net/vsrbhupal/echo-meet-final
NMR
Spin of Nuclei
Fermions
Odd mass nuclei with an odd number of nucleons have fractional spins.
Bosons
Even mass nuclei with odd numbers of protons and neutrons have integral spins.
Even mass nuclei composed of even numbers of protons and neutrons have zero spin
Nu প clear Magnetic Resonance
Moving charged particles generate a magnetic field
When placed between the poles of a powerful magnet, spinning nuclei will align with or against the
applied field creating an energy difference. Using a fixed radio frequency, the magnetic field is
changed until the Δ E=E EM When the energies match, the nuclei can change spin states (resonate)
and give off a magnetic signal.
The emitted radio frequency is directly proportional to the strength of the of the applied field.

γ B0
v=
2π
Bo = External magnetic field experienced by proton