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Peng Geng Et Al, 2016
Peng Geng Et Al, 2016
A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T
Keywords: Diesel engines are the main source of rapidly-growing energy consumption worldwide. Diesel consumption is
Alternative fuel responsible for serious air pollution, which includes nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbon (HC), carbon
Diesel engine monoxide (CO) emissions and some particulate matter (PM) discharged from the combustion chamber. In
Alcohol the past few decades, alternative fuels, such as alcohol, biodiesel, natural gas, and Di Methyl Ether (DME), have
Biodiesel
been used in diesel engines to reduce energy costs and environmental pollution. As a result of alternative fuels
Natural gas
Di Methyl Ether (DME)
directives, an increasing number of diesel engines have adapted dual fuel blends, and an enormous amount of
Performance research is focused on new and inadequately studied combustion and emission profiles. Compared to
Combustion & emission conventional diesel fuel, the application of dual fuels would add new parameters to combustion and emission
profiles for diesel vehicles worldwide. This review aims to reveal (1) Known and anticipated combustion
characteristics and emissions products from dual fuels. (2) Toxic properties and the expected influence on
engine performance. (3) Identifying promising alternative fuels for emissions control in compression
combustion engines. The results presented herein will show a significant reduction of regular gas and PM
emissions by the use of alcohol/diesel dual fuel, while unregulated emissions such as methanol, ethanol,
acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, ketone, have increased compared to those from diesel fuel. PM emissions
decreased significantly with the increase of alternative fuels, such as alcohols, natural gas, biodiesel and
DME, while regular gaseous emissions varied depending on the type alternative fuel and the engine conditions.
As one new and cleaner substitute for diesel engines, DME operation has a longer injection delay, lower
maximum cylinder pressure, a lower ratio of pressure rise, and shorter ignition delay in comparison with diesel
operation–the opposite of alcohol/diesel and dual fuels. This review evaluates the effects of some alternative
fuels (alcohol, biodiesel, natural gas and Di Methyl Ether (DME)) on combustion characteristics and emission
products from diesel engines to meet future emission regulations using alternative fuel.
1. Introduction vehicles, creating a ground level ozone layer, acid rain and smog
[18,19]. Thus, Environmental protection focuses on reducing the PM
Diesel engines have been widely used in the world transportation and NOx emissions from diesel vehicles [20]. To achieve the standard
sector for commercial and public transportation due to their improved emission reduction requirements, some vehicles manufacturing com-
durability and efficiency. However, nearly 30% of the world's green- munities have already devoted resources to decrease emissions from
house gas emissions are produced from the transportation sector, their diesel-engine vehicles. In this regard, the use of sustainable and
leading to global warming [1,2]. Meanwhile, diesel engines are the alternative fuels such as alcohols, natural gas, biodiesel and dimethyl
major sources of inhaled air-suspended particulate matters [3,4]. There ether (DME) are considered as effective methods to reduce the NOx,
are various types of hazardous substances in these inhaled suspended greenhouse gas and PM emissions [21–23]. In recent studies, re-
particles, such as organic carbon, trace elements, elemental carbon and searchers suggested that alcohols, natural gas, biodiesel and DME
inorganic ions [5–7]. These chemical components threaten human could be the key alternative fuel technologies to reduce the harmful
health and the ecosystem [8–11]. Numerous studies have provided pollutant and greenhouse gases released from diesel-powered engines
evidence that these particulate matter (PM) emissions result in [24–27].
degenerative disorders [12,13] and diseases [14–17]. Urban environ- On the other hand, fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel are
ments receive more than half of the NOx emissions from the diesel dwindling [28]; studies indicate that the known reservoirs will suffi-
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: penggeng@shmtu.edu.cn (P. Geng).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.080
Received 12 October 2015; Received in revised form 22 November 2016; Accepted 12 December 2016
Available online 30 December 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Geng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 71 (2017) 523–534
ciently meet the worldwide demand for another 39 years for oil, 61 Biodiesel is produced from renewable energy materials such as
years for natural gas and 216 years for coal [29–31]. The increasing vegetable seeds and wheat, corn and sugar beet [56–58]. The main
global motorization and industrialization is leading to the energy difference between fossil fuels and biodiesel is the oxygen content
dearth. Petroleum oil usage is a considerable challenge and the demand [59,60]. Biodiesel fuels can provide renewable and clean energy; thus,
for alternative fuels is increasing as societies are struggling to ensure they are promising renewable and eco-friendly fuels [61,62].
global energy security. Thus, the alternative fuels have been widely DME is a liquefied gas with similar characteristics to liquefied
used in the internal combustion engine to solve the shortage of fossil petroleum gas (LPG) [63]. DME appears to be an efficient and excellent
fuels, such as the rise of natural gas via shale and fracking. alternative fuel for use in diesel engines, producing fewer smoke
Among these substitute fuels, alcohols, natural gas, biodiesel and emissions, due to its high oxygen content and non C-C bonds in its
DME are considered to be the four most promising and attractive molecular structure [64]. Moreover, the NOx emissions can also be
alternatives, because they may be easily acquired, handled and stored reduced with the proper DME injection design and combustion system
[32–35]. Alcohols can be used in internal combustion engines with [65].
both the blended and the dual-fumigation fuel operational mode The main purpose of this study is to provide a comprehensiveness
[36,37]. In the blended mode, alcohols are mixed with diesel before on the effect of the above four most promising alternative fuels,
being injected into the in-cylinder [38,39]. Fuel additives are required regarding their performance, combustion and emission characteristics
to stabilize the blend. The co-solvents and emulsifier is the fatty alcohol in diesel engines.
with long carbon chains and its normal HLB (HydrophileLipophile
Balance) is from 1.6 to 6. In the dual-fumigation mode, the diesel
engine requires only minor modifications by adding a separate fuel
tank, lines, a low-pressure fuel injector and the necessary controls
[40,41]. However, fuel additives are not required in this case. 2. The physicochemical properties of alternative fuels
Consequently, a large amount of alcohol can be used under every
engine condition [42,43]. 2.1. Alcohols
Natural gas is another potential alternative to fossil fuels for use in
the diesel-fueled vehicles [44–48]. It is the mixture of various hydro- Alcohols such as methanol and ethanol have been widely studied as
carbon molecules such as methane, ethane, butane, propane and inert alternative fuels for blending with conventional diesel fuels because of
diluents like carbon dioxide and molecular nitrogen. However, its their renewable resource base and oxygenated properties, which can
availability varies geographically and throughout the year. In addition, significantly reduce the PM emissions from diesel engines [66].
specific treatment is required during transportation and production According to Table 1, compared to diesel, the alcohols’ vaporization
[49–53]. It can be mixed thoroughly with air to form the homogenous latent heat and self-ignition temperature are much higher and decrease
fuel/air mixture for combustion in the cylinder and significantly with increasing number of carbons whereas their octane number is
reduces the emissions from the engine exhaust [54,55]. much lower and increases with the number of carbons molecules. As an
important parameter for combustion, the higher carbons alcohols with
lower vaporization latent heat were not considered. Compared with
Table 1
other alcohols, methanol and ethanol are much more desirable for
Comparison of properties of diesel fuel, methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and
pentanol [70–72]. partly replacing diesel because of their lower price and emissions [67].
In recent studies, when the diesel engine operated at the high/full load,
Properties Diesel Methanol Ethanol Propanol Pentanol the soot emission can be significantly reduced by switching to
methanol/ethanol consumption due to their low carbon number [68].
Chemical formula CnH2n or CH3OH C2H5OH C3H7OH C5H11OH
CnH2n+2 Moreover, by the use of methanol/ethanol, the NOx emissions also
(n=13~17) decrease significantly because alcohols tolerate high exhaust-gas re-
Density (kg/m3) 837 791.3 789.4 803.7 814.8 circulation ratios (EGRs) [69].
Oxygen (%) (wt.) 0 49.93 34.73 26.62 18.15
Molecular weight 197.21 32.04 46.07 60.10 88.15
(g/mol)
Table 2
Lower heating 42.65 20.08 26.83 29.82 32.16
Composition and properties of natural gas [128].
value (MJ/kg)
Octane number 45–50 2 11 12 20
Component v/v (%) Component v/v (%)
Boiling point (°C) 210–235 65 79 97 138
Self-ignition 254 385 363 350 300
CH4 91.72 ± 1.7 C5H12 0.03 ± 0.03
temperature
C2H6 5.5 ± 1.6 N2 0.322 ± 0.3
(°C)
C3H8 1.98 ± 0.8 CO2 0.03 ± 0.03
Vaporization 375 1162.64 918.42 727.88 308.05
C4H10 0.44 ± 0.5
latent heat
Density(kg/m3) 0.788 Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 49.5 ± 0.2
(kJ/kg)
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 17.20
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P. Geng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 71 (2017) 523–534
2.2. Natural gas biodiesel, LPG, palm methyl ester and other fuels [83]. As shown in
Table 4, the DME's cetane number is higher than that of other specific
Among the alternative fuels, natural gas is considered to be an hydrocarbon fuels. Consequently, DME is a good alternative fuel for
essential energy source for internal combustion engines [73]. auto-ignition. Compared with diesel, DME can achieve ultra-low
Compared with other alternative fuels, there are some distinct and emissions and has better energy combustion efficiency than diesel
desirable advantages of natural gas including relatively reduced capital [84]. Due to Sulphur constituents and properties of diesel fuels, there is
costs and low green-house gas emissions. The properties of natural gas a presence of trade-off between NOx and PM emissions, while there is
are shown in Table 2. Natural gas can be used in diesel engines with a no such concern in the DME combustion due to its no PM emissions
high compression ratio, due to its high octane number. In recent years, [85]. Moreover, DME evaporation and atomization are improves which
energy shortage and environmental pollution have drawn increasing leads to reduced emissions and lower costs.
attention from governments worldwide towards natural gas as the
alternative fuel for heavy-duty diesel engines, as well as stationary 3. Application mode
engines [74]. It is because that the natural gas is induced into the
intake manifold or the cylinder directly and mixed with fresh air to There are two main alternative fuel application modes in compres-
form a homogeneous mixtures, which is then ignited by pilot diesel fuel sion-ignition engines: dual fuel combustion mode and blended fuel
or the spark plug [75]. Therefore, efficient combustion is achieved and combustion mode.
emissions from the exhaust gas and substantially reduced. Moreover,
natural gas can be applied on the in-use vehicles without significant
modifications, offering important economic and environmental benefits 3.1. Dual fuels
[76].
Dual fuel combustion offers several advantages and has been
extensively studied [90,91]. The Schematic diagram of dual fuel mode
2.3. Biodiesel system is shown in Fig. 1. The pressurized alternative fuels are induced
into the manifold and then mixed with fresh air to form homogeneous
As a prominent alternative fuel candidate, biodiesel is refined from mixtures [92]. These mixtures are ignited by pilot diesel or spark plugs,
various vegetable oils: palm, sunflower, rapeseed, cottonseed, peanut when the piston is placed around the top dead center. The amount of
and soybean. It has been widely used in heavy-duty diesel vehicles and injected alternative fuel varies according to the engine power output,
marine engines [77]. Its properties are presented in Table 3. Biodiesel while the amount of diesel fuel remains constant under the different
can be obtained by reacting vegetable oils with alcohol, and the alkali operational conditions [93]. Alternative fuels used with the dual fuel
catalysts like KOH and NaOH are added through the transesterification combustion mode include alcohols, natural gas and DME. In previous
process. The purpose of this process is to reduce the oxygen content studies [94–96], the dual fuel mode performed reasonably well, with
and viscosity of the vegetable oil. Biodiesel contains organic matter alternative fuels such as natural gas as the primary fuel and diesel as
with high molecular weight, such as ether, aldehyde, ketone, phenol the pilot fuel. Compared with the conventional diesel engine, the dual
and alcohol [78]. The density of biodiesel is lower than that of water, fuel engine produces significantly reduced NOx and PM emissions.
and it can be stored for a long duration due to its stability [79]. Its However, there are some difficulties associated with the dual-fuel mode
Sulphur content is far below that of diesel, and there are no aromatic combination. When the diesel engine operates at low and medium
hydrocarbons included in biodiesel; thus, the emissions from biodiesel loads, the fuel combustion efficiency is low. Consequently, the un-
combustion are far less harmful to people's health. Moreover, the burned HC and CO emissions are significantly increased with the dual
cetane number of biodiesel is higher than that of diesel, improving its fuel combustion mode [97,98]. Therefore, further research into the
combustion performance [80]. dual-fuel combustion mode is required.
Dimethyl ether (DME) is a promising diesel alternative, which is The blend-fuel combustion mode is suitable for alternative liquid
mainly developed from natural gas and coal [81]. It can be applied to fuels such as biodiesel and some alcohols, which can be dissolved in
the compression ignition engine with minor modifications to the diesel [101,102]. Meanwhile, some alternative fuels such as methanol
engine's configuration. Table 4 shows the key physical properties of and ethanol can also be blended with diesel using co-solvents and
DME and its hydrocarbon components. Limitations in pure DME in emulsifiers [103,104]. The Schematic diagram of blending fuel mode
diesel engines include its low density, certain after-effects and its poor system is shown in Fig. 2. For the blending fuel combustion mode, the
viscosity. Consequently, it is widely used blended with diesel. The high problems encountered in the use of alternative fuels are phase
cylinder pressure in conjunction with the DME-diesel blends’ proper- separation. This, however, can be solved by adding the solvent into
ties can sustain the fuel in the liquid state within the engine's supply the blended fuels. Moreover, some ignition improver such as methanol
system [82]. Moreover, DME can blend with not only diesel, but also and diethyl ether can also be added into the fuel mixture to compensate
for the fuels’ cetane number. This application can be realized without
Table 3 major modifications of the diesel engine design and the fuel supply
Properties of biodiesel and diesel fuel [128].
system, if the concentrations of the alternative fuels in the blended
Property Diesel Biodiesel fuels are low. The use of alternative fuel-diesel blends in compression
combustion engines and their effects on the engine performance,
Oxygen content (wt%) 0 10.32 combustion characteristics and exhaust emissions have been investi-
Carbon content (wt%) 86 77.0
Hydrogen content (wt%) 14 12.18
gated in previous studies. [105–108] In these studies, different
Specific gravity at 15 °C 852 896 percentages of blended fuels were selected. By adding alternative fuel
Gross heating value (MJ/kg) 45.76 40 into the diesel, soot and NOx emissions are significant reduced.
Flash point (°C) 67 105 However, due to the different properties of the alternative fuels, the
Viscosity at 40 °C (cSt) 1.57 2.99
CO and HC emissions exhibit no regular variations. Moreover, the
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 14.60 12.33
Cetane number 49 53 engine performance and the exhaust emissions are affected by the
engine speed and load in the blended-fuel combustion mode.
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P. Geng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 71 (2017) 523–534
Table 4 ratios. Some researchers also found that there is no significant impact
Properties of specific hydrocarbon fuels and DME [86–89]. on BSFC if alcohol fuels are used, while the diesel engine's behavior
improves with EGR, when blends with alcohol content up to 15% are
Property DME Propane Methanol Diesel oil
used [114–116]. For natural gas, the total BSFC variation with BMEP
Cetane number 55–60 5 5 40–55 is calculated directly from the ratios between the diesel engine power
Boiling point (°C) −25.1 −42 64.6 180–360 output and the sum of the fuel mass flow rates. When the engine
Liquid density @ 20 °C, gm/cm3 0.67 0.509 0.79 0.84
operates on the low and medium engine conditions, the total BSFC in
Vapor pressure @20 °C, bar 5.1 8.4 – –
Wobbe index, kJ/m3 46,198 69,560 – – the natural gas-diesel mode is higher than that of the conventional
Sp/ Gravity of gas (vs. Air) 1.69 1.52 – – combustion mode. This is because the fuel/air ratio in the combustion
Calorific value, lower heating value, 6900 11,100 4800 10,200 chamber and the combustion temperature are lower, which leads to a
Kcal/kg reduction in the combustion rate. However, on the high-load engine
Calorific value, lower heating value, 14,200 21,800 – –
condition, the total BSFC for the natural gas-diesel mode becomes
Kcal/nm3
Flammability limits in Air, vol% 3.4–17 2.1–0.4 5.5–36 0.6–7.5 lower than that of the diesel mode. The richer mixture and the high
combustion temperature are the two major factors increasing the
conversion of natural gas to work and the total BSFC decreases
4. Engine performance [117]. For biodiesel, the total BSFC is greater than that of diesel
because of its lower calorific value and higher density. In previous
4.1. Engine brake torque studies, the average of the total BSFC for BD10 (10% biodiesel to 90%
diesel) and BD20 (20% biodiesel to 80% diesel) were about 8% and
To estimate the performance of the diesel engine, it is important to 13% higher than those of diesel fuel. Because of its lower calorific value,
investigate the main performance parameters, i.e. the engine brake more biodiesel was needed to produce the same amount of engine
torque, the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and the brake specific fuel power compared with diesel fuel [118]. For DME, the total BSFC
consumption (BSFC). The engine brake torque is the turning force increased with the DME increase, when the injection time is fixed. The
produced by the cylinder pressure from the piston's crankshaft. The diesel diffusion-combustion decrease and the DME HCCI combustion
engine's charge, the average effective cylinder pressure and the stroke increase improved the fuel combustion efficiency and enhanced the fuel
length have an effect on the engine torque. When the engine operates conversion efficiency. Moreover, the total BSFC decreased with the
constantly, the engine torque varies according to the alternative fuel, increase of injection time, within certain limits due to the better
due to the generated effective pressure and the fuel's properties. The mixture preparation before ignition combustion. However, a much
BSFC and the BTE are calculated by the following equations: longer injection time leads to a BSFC increase because of the high-
pressure rate and in-cylinder pressure [119].
Fuel consumption
BSFC =
Output power (1)
4.2. Brake thermal efficiency
3600*Brake power
BTE = The effects of the alternative fuels on the diesel engine's perfor-
Fuel consumption*LHV (2)
mance are determined by the relation between the energy input and
In the present studies [110,111], the torque curves are similar for output [124–126]. To evaluate this, the BTE to the engine's speed
the same alternative fuels. The effects of the different types of surface (E) on the maximum-load engine condition is integrated
alternative fuels on the BSFC were shown in Fig. 3. For alcohols, the [127,128]. The diesel engine is assumed to operate under common
engine power curves slightly towards the left and thus there is a slight working conditions.
increase in the maximum brake torque with the increase of alcohol nf
content in the testing fuels [112]. The engine's losses significantly E= ∫ni BTE (n ) dn
(3)
diminish with increasing number of carbons in the alcohols. The same
engine torque increases by approximately 1.5%, with 4% ethanol-diesel where Ei is the value of BTE to engine speed for all the tests and E0 is
fuel blends, for various engine compression ratios [113]. Moreover, the that of the diesel fuel. The effects of different types of alternative fuels
engine's behavior deteriorates at the highest and lowest alcohols/fuel on BTE were shown in Fig. 4. For alcohols, the BTE significantly
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P. Geng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 71 (2017) 523–534
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of blending fuel mode system [109] 1. Test engine, 2. Test platform, 3. DC dynamometer, 4. Laminar air flow element, 5. Balance, 6. Diesel fuel line, 7. Inlet
air heat, 8. In-cylinder pressure sensor, 9. Combustion analyzer, 10. Needle-lift sensor, 11. Needle-lift sensor amplifier, 12. Diesel fuel line sensor, 13. Diesel fuel line pressure sensor
amplifier, 14. Encoder, 15. Data acquisition system, 16. Smoke meter, 17. Heated emission sampling line, 18. Emissions sampling system, 19. Emission analyzers rack cabin, 20.
Function gases (O2, H/He, NO).
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P. Geng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 71 (2017) 523–534
increases with the increase of alcohol content in the test fuels. The BSFC reduction. The chemical energy of the biodiesel-diesel mixture is
combustion improves due to the presence of oxygen, which leads to a converted to brake mechanical energy with the same efficiency.
decrease of heat losses and an increase in combustion efficiency However, differences in the brake thermal efficiency between the
because of the lower boiling point of alcohols compared to that of biodiesel blends and the diesel fuel at low and medium engine loads
diesel. Moreover, the ignition delay increase leads to an increase in the are less than those at high engine loads, because the biodiesel content
release energy rate, and thus the heat losses from the combustion are increases significantly with the engine load. For DME, the DME HCCI
reduced, as less time is required for this heat to be transferred from the combustion increase and the diffusion combustion decrease improved
cylinder to the coolant. Furthermore, the premixed combustion part the fuel conversion efficiency and the combustion efficiency. In
becomes higher by the use of alcohol fuels due to their lower carbon previous studies, kinetically-controlled HCCI combustion improved
number, consequently, the percentage of constant volume combustion the BTE which reduced the fuel consumption compared with the
increases and the leaner combustion occurs with low heat losses. For conventional diffusion combustion.
natural gas, the BTE decreases significantly by using dual fuel,
compared with the conventional combustion mode, when the diesel
engine operates on the low and medium load conditions. This is 5. Combustion characteristics
because the total test-fuel flow rate increases significantly during the
combustion process with the natural gas-diesel mode, reducing the Different types of alternative fuels have an effect on the combustion
flame propagation speed and the combustion temperature. However, characteristics, including the calculated heat release rate and the
on the high load engine condition, the BTE increases by the use of the cylinder pressure. The ignition delay is defined as the crank angle
dual fuel due to the elevated temperature. For biodiesel, the BTE variation between the injection start and ignition timing. Ignition
decreases with the biodiesel content. For each test fuel, the BTE timing is determined by locating the zeroing crank angle of cylinder
increases significantly with the increase of the engine load due to the pressure's second derivative. The accumulated heat release rate is
defined as the crank angle of 90% heat release (CA90), and the
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P. Geng et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 71 (2017) 523–534
Fig. 5. Effects of different types of alternative fuels on in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate [145–148].
combustion duration is defined as the crank angle variation between but improves later on. The premixed fuel/air mixture burns rapidly
the ignition timing and CA90. after the ignition delay. Moreover, the engine load leads to the
The alternative fuels’ effects on the in-cylinder pressure and the accumulation of much more gaseous fuel in the combustion chamber
heat release rate are presented in Fig. 5. For alcohols, there are many and the decrease of the ignition delay. For biodiesel, the addition of
differences in the in-cylinder pressure and the heat release rate biodiesel accelerates combustion at the beginning for all engine loads
between the diesel fuel mode and the alcohol-diesel mode. Compared due to the rapid cylinder pressure rise on the pressure traces at the end
with traditional diesel combustion, compression pressures decrease of the compression stroke [139–141]. Moreover, the biodiesel blends’
significantly with increasing alcohol content in the test fuels [133– combustion starts earlier than that of diesel fuel. The biodiesel-blended
135]. This is because the alcohols’ vaporization latent heat is higher fuels’ ignition values occur at slightly earlier crank angles because of
than that of diesel. Thus when alcohols such as methanol and ethanol their high viscosity, density and bulk modulus. By adding biodiesel, the
are injected into the intake port, they vaporize and absorb the heat of heat release rate in the premixed combustion phase is generally
the intake air, which leads to a decrease of the in-cylinder temperature reduced when the diesel engine operates under the low and high load
and pressure at the compression stroke. When the diesel engine conditions. This is because the amount of injected fuel was lower due to
operates at low speed and load conditions, the maximum cylinder the short ignition delay and the low heating value of the biodiesel fuel
pressure slightly changes to low and middle premixed alcohol ratios, blends. For DME, the PCCI combustion heat-release process is relative
decreasing from high premixed alcohol ratios. The alcohols’ high complex [142–144]. The earlier direct-injection accelerates combus-
vaporization latent heat decreases the in-cylinder temperature and tion in the cylinder. When DME is induced into the intake manifold,
slows the combustion phase excessively, at high premixed alcohol HCCI combustion occurs because of the superior auto-ignition ability
ratios, when the test engine operates at low speed and load. For natural and high cetane number of DME. A negative temperature coefficient,
gas, the dual fuel mode with natural gas-diesel generates the lower low temperature reaction and high temperature reaction are observed
combustion pressure peaks, compared to the conventional diesel fuel with the HCCI combustion mode. Therefore, the features of a staged
mode [136–138]. At low engine loads, the natural gas-diesel mode combustion event are demonstrated on the PCCI operation with DME
reduces the cylinder combustion pressure, due to the greater ignition used as the premixing fuel.
delay, the higher specific heat capacity and the leanness of the gas/air
mixture. Heat is not release efficiently in the beginning of the
combustion, due to the accumulated vapor during the ignition delay,
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