2.

1 Octavian Comes to Rome, 44–42 BC

Romans to use his own portrait on coins. By following his example, Octavian high-
lighted the similarities between Julius Caesar and himself.
The text on the coin cleverly highlights similarity and also difference between
Octavian and Julius Caesar. Each side follows this model: name, highest government
position held, highest religious position held. This parallel encourages the viewer to see
Octavian as a new Julius Caesar. The positions on Julius Caesar’s side, Dictator in
Perpetuity and Pontifex Maximus, were both positions that were held for life. Octavian’s
side, however, references the consulship – a fairly elected position that lasted for a set
amount of time. This difference is crucial. Julius Caesar’s assassins viewed Julius
Caesar’s power as unconstitutional and they saw him as a tyrant. Octavian needed to
avoid this image lest he too meet a violent end. This coin stresses the link between Julius
Caesar and Octavian, but also suggests differences in their policy and approach to polit-
ics that would make Octavian seem less threatening to those in power.
The laurel wreath on Julius Caesar’s head is a reference to his military victories.
When a Roman general led a particularly successful campaign, they could be awarded a
triumph. On the day of the triumph, the general would be allowed to wear a laurel triumph granted by a
wreath as a sign of honour. The Senate voted Julius Caesar the privilege of wearing a Senate vote, a special
celebration of a successful
wreath at any time, making it a particularly evocative symbol for him.
military campaign in which
the conquering general
EXAM TIP: SOURCE SKILLS would ride through the
streets of Rome on a
Roman Coins chariot with his spoils of
war paraded behind
All classes of Romans used coins to buy and sell goods and services. This means
that they were an excellent tool for sending messages to the populace, as a great
many people would see them. Scholars believe that the Romans paid closer
attention to what was on their money than we do today. Whereas we are
bombarded with thousands of new images a day, new pictures were rare in
ancient Rome. If a new coin came into circulation, it is likely that people paid
attention to it simply because it was something new.
Coins commonly included a mix of writing and images. Not all Romans could
read, so the writing would have been understood by the educated. Images were
more likely to be understood by the majority of the people. However, without
being able to read the accompanying text, illiterate people were more likely to
misinterpret the symbols.

THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE

Still resentful of the Senate’s attempts to stand in his way, Octavian formed an alliance
with Mark Antony and another politician named Lepidus in 43 BC . This alliance became
known as the Second Triumvirate. Unlike the First Triumvirate, which had been an
informal alliance, the Second Triumvirate was ratified by a law which gave the three men
extraordinary powers for a five-year period.

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 Part Two Imperial Image
FIGURE 2.3
Aureus of Octavian.
mos maiorum ‘The ways
of our ancestors’: an
unwritten code of
behaviour and values,
looking to the ancestors as
role models
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The Second Triumvirate solidified their power by setting out proscriptions, which
named individual senators as public enemies. Once proscribed, a person’s property
was confiscated and they could be legally killed. This allowed the Second Triumvirate
to eliminate their political opponents and also to fill their own pockets with the
proceeds of the sale of confiscated goods. They used these funds to pay their personal
armies. The proscriptions were public and everyone knew that Octavian was in
part responsible. Historians disagree on how many were proscribed in this period,
but a conservative estimate suggests at least 100, but perhaps as many as 300, senators
were killed out of a total of 900. Octavian must have seemed to be ruthless and power
hungry – at least to the politically savvy upper classes. It is unclear how much the poorer
classes knew about the proscriptions and thus what they might have thought about
Octavian.
DIVI FILIUS: THE SON OF A GOD
From 42 BC Octavian’s self-presentation took on a new and important dimension. In this
year, the Senate declared Julius Caesar a god, a move which allowed Octavian to call himself
‘divi filius’. This title, which literally translates as ‘son of a god’ was used as part of his
official name and Octavian began to incorporate ‘divi filius’ into his coins as a way of
communicating his semi-divine status to the people of Rome. Figure 2.3 is an example of
Octavian’s coinage, which identifies Julius Caesar as a god (‘DIVOS IULIUS ’ meaning
‘the divine Julius’) and Octavian himself as divi filius.
Many Romans liked to claim that they were distant descendants of the gods, but
Octavian’s claim to be the son of a god gave him an aura of importance and authority that
few mortals could rival. Indeed, now he was on a par with such legendary heroes as
Aeneas and Hercules, who were themselves demigods.
OCTAVIAN AVENGES HIS FATHER
The Romans had an unwritten code of ‘proper behaviour’ referred to as the mos maiorum,
which put great importance on duty. As both Octavian and Antony were presenting them-
selves as heirs to Julius Caesar, it was important that they be seen to avenge his murder,
otherwise, they could be accused of failing in their duty to the dead man (now a god). And
so in 42 BC the triumvirs launched a military campaign against Julius Caesar’s assassins,
who were led by Brutus and Cassius. Later that year, the triumvirs won a decisive victory
at the Battle of Philippi, forcing Brutus and Cassius to commit suicide. Octavian prom-
ised to dedicate a temple to Mars Ultor in thanks for the victory (the god of war – ‘ultor’
means ‘the avenger’). He fulfilled this promise in 2 BC when the Forum of Augustus was
unveiled (see pp. 175–6).
Octavian and Antony had fulfilled their duty to Julius Caesar and removed any polit-
ical opposition in one fell swoop. The men of the Second Triumvirate were now the most
powerful men in Rome.
 2.1 Octavian Comes to Rome, 44–42 BC

ACTIVITY
The unwritten code of the mos maiorum influenced the behaviour of upper
class Roman men. Research the following concepts which, for many
Romans, formed the basis of the mos Maiorum. For each, give a
one-sentence definition: pietas, fides, gravitas and constantia.

Design a ‘Mr Men’ character who personifies each concept, then write a
short story where the ‘Mos Maiorum Men’ work together to try to solve a
problem.

TOPIC REVIEW

These questions should draw on your knowledge of the whole topic, so think carefully about the different
things you have learned (check the Topic Overview on p. 115).

1. What were the political obstacles facing Octavian when he first came to Rome following Julius Caesar’s
assassination?
2. Why was Octavian’s association with Julius Caesar so important to his early public image?
3. What was a triumph and why was it important?
4. How did the proscriptions help Octavian to solidify his power?
5. How would you characterise Octavian’s relationship with Mark Antony throughout this period?

Further Reading
Bradley, P., Ancient Rome Using Evidence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 394–405
Clark, D.H., Augustus, First Roman Emperor: Power, Propaganda and the Politics of Survival (Liverpool: Bristol
Phoenix Press, 2010), Chapter 3.
Galinsky, K., Augustan Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), Chapter. 2.

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