B

I ical rcaeo o
A Publicationof the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch Volume48 Number 2
st
June1985
 AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH
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 Biblical
Archaeolo
A Publication of the American Schools of Oriental Research Volume 48 Number 2 June 1985

WhoHid the Dead SeaScrolls? 68

NormanGolb
This paperoffers a thought-provokingchallenge to the
scholarlyconsensusthatthe scrollswerewrittenat
Qumran by the Jewish sect of the Essenes.
AncientScribesandScriptsandthe CluesTheyLeave 83
Richard Simon Hanson
The paleographerwho worked on the just-published
paleo-HebrewLeviticus Scroll presents the basic
proceduresfor determining the date of ancient writing.
Page 68 The Book of Daniel and the Origin of the Qumran
Community 89
John C. Trever
One of the pioneers in the study of the Dead Sea Scrolls
points out the numerous parallels between the Right
Teacherof the Qumran Community and the author of
the book of Daniel. Werethey the same person?
P ,e.
BA Portrait
i1C MaxLeopoldMargolis:A Scholar'sScholar 103
Leonard Greenspoon
Admiredby W.E Albright, he was the teacher of such
scholars as Cyrus Gordonand HarryM. Orlinsky.Max
Margolisdedicated his life to the study of the
Page89 Septuagintalbook of Joshua.
Ancient JewishCoins in the Correspondence
BetweenJohnLockeandNicolasToinard 108
Henryk Minc
This paperoffers a translation of and notes on selected
parts of letters exchangedby the seventeenth-century
English philosopher and the French scholar.

Departments
Introducingthe Authors 66
Fromthe Editor'sDesk 67
BookReviews 122
Page108
Biblical Archaeologist is published with the financial assistance of
the Endowment for Biblical Research,Boston,
a nonsectarian foundation for the study of the Bible and the history of the Christian Church.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 65
 RichardSimon Hanson

Norman Golb
John C. Trever

Introducing the Authors

NormanGolb is Professorof HebrewandJudaeo-ArabicStudies
at the University of Chicago. He is best known for his
paleographicaldetective work leading to the identification of
numerous historical documents from the Cairo Genizah and
for his books and articles on the Jewsof the Near East,medieval
France, and Khazaria.A student in the Oriental Seminary at
JohnsHopkins University duringthe heydayof Qumranscroll
discoveries,he receivedhis Ph.D. from that university in 1954.
Since then, he has regularly held graduate seminars on the
scrolls and has published several studies examining their
historic importance. Richard Simon Hanson is Professor of
Religion at LutherCollege. He has published numerous books HenrykMinc
and articles and has recently contributed to the publications
The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll (11QpaleoLev) (by D. N.
Freedman and K. A. Mathews, Winona Lake, IN: American
Schools of Oriental Research, 1985)and The Coins of Ancient LeonardGreenspoon
Meiron, volume 4 of the Meiron ExcavationProject Series (by
JoyceRaynorand YacakovMeshorer,Winona Lake,IN: Eisen-
brauns, 1985).JohnC. 'Iever was a young Ph.D. from Yaleand University. While a graduate student at Harvard,he first be-
one of the three fellows at the American school in Jerusalem came interested in Max L. Margolis, the subject of his BA
(now the W. E Albright Institute of Archaeological Research) Portraitin this issue, as a result of a seminar on the book of
when the first four Dead Sea Scrolls were brought there for Joshuaconducted by G. Ernest Wright. Over the years Green-
evaluationin February1948by a SyrianOrthodoxmonk. Acting spoon has published severalstudies on Joshuaand on Margolis,
as Director pro tem in the absence of Miller Burrows,he was and at present he is working on a full-length biographyof him.
thus the first American to be consulted about them. Imme- Henryk Mine was born in Poland and he has a Ph.D. in
diately recognizing their antiquity he sought, and received, mathematics from Edinburgh (1959). Presently Professor of
permission to repairand photographthe three scrolls that had Mathematics at the University of California,SantaBarbara,he
already been opened, thus providing an invaluable service to also serves on the AdvisoryBoardof the Institute for Antiquity
future scholarship.During the interveningyears,as a professor and Christianity at Claremont Graduate School. Professor
of Bible, he has been absorbedin the analysis of publication of Minc has spent a great deal of time in Israel, and his annual
the scrolls. He is now retiredbut serves as volunteer Directorof visits havetaken him to most of its archaeologicalsites. Fluent
the Dead Sea Scrolls Projectat the School of Theology at Clare- in Hebrew, he reads all kinds of Hebrew scripts, as well as
mont in Southern California. LeonardGreenspoon teaches a Aramaic and Phoenician. He has a special study collection of
wide variety of courses in religion and history at Clemson 560 Hasmonean coins.

66 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
 the American Schools of Oriental Researchand Biblical
From the Editor' Desk Archaeologist. We are proud of the part that BA has
playedin what is one of the most importantareasof study
in biblical archaeology.
Because BA is committed to coveringthe full range
of current ideas about the scrolls-as these ideas are
subjected to the best scholarly analysis-we present in
this issue articles written from a variety of perspectives.
Our two feature articles, for example, take very different
BIBLICAL approachesto the material. Norman Golb challenges the
prevailing scholarly opinion about the origin of the
ARCAAEOLOIST scrolls and the nature of the community at Qumran,
offeringan alternativeview, while JohnC. Trever,one of
published By the pioneers of scroll study,works within this consensus
The American (Jerusalem
of Oriental Research
andBaghdad)Co.
in an attempt to define more fully its view of the com-
munity's leader,the Teacherof Righteousness. Even our
Schools
New Haven i
409 Conn. cNo.
ProspectSt.,
194S section of book reviews, which focusses on the work on
V'Vol.
XI VoAN,
the Temple Scroll done by the late Yigael Yadin, is
A A DISCOVERY indicative of multiple perspectives. Yadin's work-as
Lcc 11e in Old \ Tcstfann"'t manu-
Te
po Et
pH1ENOMENAL
td announced o April
by Dr ilar
of
contained in his Hebrew edition of the scroll and in the
sllv
subsequent Spanish, French, and German translations
n the C
year Directorurroof the
entire
\scrits wa•shmoct I. during .... d on
spast r ase"beenThe
eserved scroll of amazing,
sea rch ofOietlrowsi This is pachmen;
Boo- -is the source of numerous ideas that have generated
o.whoa of
in llebredvwas
much agreement and disagreement among scholars. In
Yame
of rcnaes
Isaiah Oie t
found says of any
forI aal t cbrswt century B.. says•h, or for that matter the
and the ate
wv
manuscriptsulO
.,sa -to ,,,ken
unknon
luknownbefore the course of an evaluation of the recently published
of the eeltre
partOhitherto
itscatiny fragot A.D.
Tsetamet ye know asbeen
t of DeuterOnOTmy the Nash
the
apvrus (Fig.
date of the
1);
thewly English translation and commentary, Lawrence H.
isa tiny rag
and it was this fragment.to which gave the clue
t.newly Schiffman surveys these reactions. Among these reac-
tions is the book The Dawn of Qumran, by Ben Zion
of the and from what may
'thanasius
According to th the news release Dr.7, urrows
new wmy 'Metropolitan
f eouangdtanus a uhis New etter s of
Dl
aofMarch
r.ch
S
the rian Orthoaox Wacholder, which has many ideas in common with
,f the Sy-rican
Yadin'swork but which also diverges radically from
Acordi f lnan them four School
ancient
be hue
Yhe ieSame Sntte l and Father Butros Se m Y with
in
thete of
them. This book is considered by Dr. Schiffman and is
o end and two
" of
t in carehment the two Fellows
urro of
metie twardn thschto1 . but Flthe Ire Felows
also reviewed separately by James C. VanderKam.The
soonastey S man rom Februairy, leathr,
e them, tha
subject of our concluding review by Stephen Goransonis
more excitement, at leastia in
School, D ardm r the Isaiah
asnt ientie
*aeverridnt that of the
What they found aused far
the in as
scrollthe the book on the Temple Scroll that Yadin wrote for a
the i of its scriptsecon
cclt... ''a similarity entified a hird
Jerusalem-Dr.. to eappeas of
m aom
manuscri
tmhboring
Nash
ci ptngsn
Papyrust
anu Dr. Brownilee
refaizedg on the Book.,hile
metarY
meanwhie
of 1abakkuk kkukAA t.n little sect or to
general audience. Finally, we offer a paper by Richard
acol .d of a comparatively ukow
parteo macomnu Simon Hanson that, at the same time it is introducingthe
of a

o f ("sPlile
be the nual of dtscipline
. general readerto the concepts and techniques of dating
ancient manuscripts, gives our specialist readersa sum-
mary of the evidence used in dating the paleo-Hebrew
Leviticus Scroll-which, by the way, David Noel Freed-
man, a former editor of BA, and Kenneth A. Mathews
have just published with the American Schools of Orien-
tal Research.
The cause of scholarship on the Dead Sea Scrolls and
Church in a public awareness of its accomplishments can only
Metropolitan of the Syrian Orthodox
be furtheredby an open discussion of ideas, and we offer
Jerusalem sent four scrolls he had recently ac- this range of papers, which are informative, thought-
quired from the Tacamirehbedouin to the Jeru- in the spirit of
salem school for evaluation, the American Schools of provoking,and sometimes controversial,
Oriental Researchhas been closely associated with the such a discussion.
Dead Sea Scrolls.ASOR scholars,of course,photographed
three of those first scrolls, verified their authenticity and
antiquity, announced their discovery to the world, and
published them. Subsequently ASOR has also partici-
pated in the search for and publication of additional
scrolls, as well as disseminating much of the best scholar- Eric M. Meyers
ly evaluation of them through the pages of the Bulletin of Editor

1985
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/IJUNE 67
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L ? ? ,11"11W

One of the first scrolls discoveredat Qumran was the Manual of Discipline (also
known as the Rule of the Community),shown here opened to columns 4 and 5.
This text engenderedthe idea that the scrolls belonged to Essenes who inhabited
the settlement at Qumran.It is typical of the scribal copies of literary texts
found at Qumran.

Who Hid the

Dead Sea Scrolls?

that the main home of the Essenes

at some length in the first century
BYNORMAN GOLB the site known as Khirbet
by the religious philosopher Philo
was
Qumran (lying below the caves),that
and the historian Josephus,who
members of the sect had written the
place their number at approximately
N o more than several Dead Sea Scrolls, and that in approx-
four thousand souls spreadthrough-
months after the first imately A.D. 69, duringthe period of
out Palestine. On the basis of a state-
Hebrew scrolls from the ment of Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23- 79) the First JewishRevolt against the
Qumran caves were to the effect that a groupof Essenes Romans,they had hidden them in
discoveredin 1947, a theory of great dwelling "amongthe palm trees"was the caves where they were later
importance was formulated to located somewhere along the western found.
account for them. Accordingto it, shore of the Dead Sea to the north of Over the subsequent decades,
these scrolls belonged to the Jewish En-gedi,it was theorized, after study however,certain remarkabledevel-
sect of the Essenes, a groupdescribed of one of the seven original scrolls, opments occurredwith respect to

68 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
this theory. In the English-speaking
world, the eminent literary critic
EdmundWilson supportedit in a
series of articles, first published in
the New Yorkerand later in book
form, whose effect was to transmute
this theory into an object of popular
belief. This was accomplished also
in the French milieu, particularlyby
Andre Dupont-Sommer of the In-
stitut de France.Numerous articles
in which the theory was stated as a
fact thereaftermade their way into
referenceworks. The study of early
Christian relations to Judaismtook
a new turn, with historians now
indicating that the relationship of
the younger religion was much
closer to Essenic sectarianism than
to rabbinicor normative Judaism.
Throughout this period, many new
manuscript and archaeologicaldis-
coveries were made in the Judean
desert, and it graduallybecame a
contention of scholarly interpreters,
encouragedby the public's over-
whelmingly positive reception of
the original theory, that some of
these new discoveries in fact sup-
ported and vindicated it.
It is in this crucial arenaof
present interpretationthat I find
myself compelled to differwith the
consensus of opinion. The discov-
eries of the 1950s and 1960s now
make evident that the theory's for-
mulation resulted primarily from
the sequence in which the finds
were made, and that there is, in fact,
a more reasonableexplanation of the
origin of the scrolls. It is necessary
to follow the finds in more or less
chronological orderto see why this
is so.
ThefirstQumran
weremade
discoveries
by bedouinduringthe
springof 1947in what
is nowknownas
QumranCave1.
of Habakkuk;the so-called Genesis
Apocryphon, an embellished re-
telling of Genesis stories; an
imaginative description of a war to
take place in apocalyptic times be-
tween the good and evil forces of
mankind; and a work of eleven sur-
viving columns that in part portray
an initiation ceremony to be under-
gone by individuals endowedwith
the power to choose and follow a life
of virtue.
This latter text is known as the
Manual (or Scroll)of Discipline
because in several columns of the
text following the description of the
initiation ceremony the procedure
for gaining admission to the group is
given and the mode of behavior for
full-fledgedmembers is described.
The members are said to eschew
personal wealth, to lead a communal
life of radical spiritual and physical
purity in which ceremonial meals
are taken together, and to participate
both in study sessions on the "secrets"
of the Pentateuch and in meetings
where the laws of the group and
behavior of members are discussed.
Severalmonths after the dis-
covery of the scrolls they were
examined in Jerusalemby the late
archaeologist Eliezer Sukenik. In his
first publication dealing with these
texts he stated:
The question,to whom this cache
of manuscriptsoriginallybelonged,
still requirespreciseinvestigation.
However,I havefoundone indica-
tion which has encouragedme to
offer an hypothesisregardingthis
matter.WhenI examinedthescrolls
... I foundin one of thema kindof
bookof regulationsforthe conduct
of membersof a brotherhoodor
sect. I incline to hypothesizethat
this cacheof manuscriptsbelonged
originallyto the sectofthe Essenes,
for,asis knownfromdifferentliter-
arysources,the placeof settlement
of this sectariangroupwas on the
westernsideof the DeadSea,in the

From Discovery to Hypothesis

The first Qumran discoveries were
made by bedouin during the spring
of 1947 in what is now known
as Qumran Cave 1, located ap-
proximately one kilometer north of
Khirbet Qumran. These scrolls
included two texts of Isaiah; a work
of religious hymns in eighteen
Aerial view of KhirbetQumran.
columns; a commentary on the book

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 69
 vicinity of En-gedi.(Sukenik1948:
16)(translatedbyGolb)
The book of regulations that Sukenik
referredto was the Manual of Dis-
cipline. With his statement was born
the idea that has become so notable
in the history of modern scholar-
ship, that this work, and the other
scrolls, all came from a community
of Essenes living- as Pliny had said
-near the western shore of the
Dead Sea north of En-gedi.
Sukenik'sview was soon echoed
by Europeanand American scholars,
but all who wrote about the scrolls
in those early days of discovery
thought only in terms of seven texts
emanating from a small groupof
pious believers.It was a fair suppo-
sition- indeed supportedby a state-
ment of Josephus-that the ancient
Essenes had had books, even secret
writings, of their own. Since a
number of ideas akin to Essenism
could be discerned in the Manual of
Discipline, there was little reason to
refrainfrom concluding that this
was indeed an Essene work which
had emanated, along with some
biblical texts and a few other pre-
viously unknown writings, from the
community referredto by Pliny.1
New Texts and an Ancient Site
In orderto locate the cave where the
bedouin had made their discovery,
an expedition was mounted in late
Januaryof 1949. After a few days the
unexcavatedcave was found to the
north of the Qumran site. When the
cave was explored (duringFebruary
and early March of 1949),it was
found to contain over seventy
fragments of many more ancient
Hebrew manuscripts. Some of these
were remnants of biblical texts; a
few fragments of Leviticus were even
preservedin paleo-Hebrewscript,
attesting to the great age of these
texts. Among the nonbiblical texts
were fragments of commentaries on
Micah, Zephaniah, and the Psalms.
In general style they are similar to
the commentary on Habakkukfound
earlier. Fragmentsof apocryphal
70 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
writings, including two from Jubi-
lees and one from the Testament of
Levi, were identified. Some were
pieces of apocryphaland apocalyptic
writings previously unknown. 0
Among the discoveries made in this
cave were additional columns both
of the WarScroll and the Manual of
Discipline.
Archaeological soundings began
there in 1951,and the excavation of
the site continued in four seasons
from 1953 to 1956. What was re-
vealed- somewhat in contrast with
the statement of Pliny that the
Essenes lived among the palm trees
-was a ratherfully developed site
with many interesting architectural
features. There were storageareas
for grain and provisions as well as
stables. A considerablenumber of
well-built water cisterns were dis- p'JD
persed throughout the settlement.
The remains of elegant stonework
from the original buildings lay
scattered about. Remnants of a forti- '.1
??
fication system could be observed.
At the perimeter of the northern 4.4
E --
quadrantof the settlement was a
well-constructed watchtower that
commanded an excellent view of the
Dead Sea in the distance and the
roadbelow.
 It..
7-77

,...,

' Plan of the period-Ibruins at Qumran.Note the tower(1),

Ithe so-called scriptorium(2), the kitchen (3), the assembly
and dining hall (4), the potter'sworkshop(5), the water
cisterns (6), the aqueduct (7),and the stable (8). Courtesyof
Revue Biblique 63 (1956), plateI.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 71
 Longbeforethe excavationswere of 1952. Over two hundred caves in the Bible, apocalyptic visions, li-
undertaken, the site was considered the vicinity of Qumran were ex- turgical works, both known and
a fortress of the Judeanwilderness. plored that month and pottery was previously unknown apocryphal
Rejectingthis identification, and discoveredin a score of them. On writings, "wisdom"texts, inter-
stating instead that it was the March 14 the cave now known as 3Q pretations of Pentateuchal laws,
Essenes ratherthan a military gar- was entered and a search of it messianic speculations, and even
rison which occupied the site in the brought to light fifteen parchment horoscopes and puzzles. They in-
decades before the First Revolt, the fragments plus two sections of a clude every type and genre of litera-
archaeologists adducedas evidence copper scroll. ture that one would have expected to
the discovery of a rectangularroom The bedouin then began to ex- be in the hands of the Palestinian
where three inkwells and two tables plore the marl caves just to the south Jewsduring the periodbefore the
that had fallen from a now destroyed of Qumran and in the summer of First Revolt- and much more, of
second floor were found. Although 1952 penetratedinto what became course, that was unexpected.
no manuscripts or parchment were known as Cave 4. Here they made a Archaeologists working at the
discoveredin the ruins, the archae- sensational discovery:Approximate- site of Cave 4 in Septemberof 1952
ologists claimed that the second ly one meter beneath the surface soon found another manuscript cave
story had housed a type of "scrip- close by (Cave5), and yet another
torium"where the monks of Qumran one (Cave6) nearbywas also identi-
wrote the manuscripts that were fied at approximatelythat time.
later deposited in haste in the caves Later,in the spring of 1955, four
abovethe settlement. The cisterns Approximately one more caves were discoveredin the
were claimed to be, at least in part,
ritual baths.
meterbeneaththe area (Caves7, 8, 9, and 10).In Feb-
ruaryof 1956 the bedouin located
The older identification of the
settlement as a fortress of the Judean
surfaceof Cave 4 were another manuscript cache north of
KhirbetQumran. This cave (11Q)
wilderness was rejecteddespite the numerous fragments held some of the most important
discoverythat treasures discoveredat Qumran in-
the community buildings of fromseveralhundred cluding complete scrolls like those
Qumran were destroyed under found in Qumran Cave 1.
armed attack during the Jewish manuscripts. The Temple Scroll, one of the
Revolt.The walls ... are mined latest of the Qumran texts to be
through;the building ruins are found and published, may originally
sealedin layersof ash froma great have come from this cave, but its
conflagration;andin the blackened
debrisof the mainfortificationare were numerous fragments from true provenience continues to be
the telltalearrowheads usedbythe what had been severalhundred cloaked in secrecy.The longest of
Romanlegionnaires.(Cross1961: manuscripts. When word of this find the scrolls so far discovered,it is
61) reachedJerusalem,another expedi- sixty-six columns in length and
tion was mounted and in September contains a description of a future
A Hoardof Ancient Manuscripts of 1952 archaeologists were able to Temple in Jerusalemwhose anony-
This entire period of archaeological find fragments of at least a hundred mous author has the Lordrenderthe
activity was characterizedby additional manuscripts in that cave. imaginative descriptions in the first
startling new manuscript discoveries The finds of Cave 4 remain the person. The work is the product of
in other caves in the vicinity of high-watermark of manuscript dis- the fertile mind of an apocalypticist
Qumran.In 1952 the bedouin re- covery in the Judeanwilderness. The who attempted to give a description
turned to the site, and in Februaryof thousands of fragments were sorted of ritual and group conduct in
that year they found additional He- and classified in Jerusalemand por- Jerusalemduring the days of the
brew manuscript fragments in a cave tions of the material were assigned envisioned Temple. [Editor'snote:
less than two hundred meters to the to a team of scholars for eventual A review of the English version of
south of Qumran Cave 1. It then publication. Three volumes contain- the Temple Scroll, edited by the late
began to dawn upon scholars in Jeru- ing fragments of Cave-4manuscripts Yigael Yadin,can be found in the
salem that the Qumran areamight have so far been published. From book review section of this issue of
contain many more manuscript- them it is possible to gain an impres- BA.]
laden caves, so an expedition of sion of the dizzying variety of texts It is remarkablethat when the
severalteams was immediately found in this cave:commentaries contents of Caves 4 through 11 be-
organizedand set to work in March and paraphraseson many books of came known, the theory of Essene

72 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
origin did not suffer.Instead scholars
used the new texts - containing frag-
ments from approximatelyeight
hundred scrolls, not just seven-to
claim that Essenism had been a
much more comprehensive move-
ment than had been supposed before
and just after the discovery of the
first Qumran cave. If there were con-
flicts in the ideas representedin the
texts, these were the result of in-
ternal developments in Essenism
over a long span of time. At the end
of the process of discovery,Andr6
Dupont-Sommer (whose fame came
.*
WadiFarah
Jerusalem
. .
0 0
,0Dead
S$Sea
* 0* ..
* N
0.0
0 *00
*
o*
00
to be based primarily on his Qumran The remains of a scriptorium
writings and who became, after their have been discovered,and of a very
publication, Perpetual Secretary of long narrowtable ..., and pieces of
the Academie des Inscriptions et one or two shorter tables. These
Belles Lettres) summed up the prev- were doubtless writing tables, since
two inkpots were found in the same
alent opinion. "All of the discovered
place .... It therefore seems that
manuscripts," he said, this was the place in which the
proceed from an Essene communi- scrolls from the caves were copied.
ty settled in the Qumranarea,from The copyists who bent over these
the Essene community mentioned tables and dipped their pens in
by Pliny... ; the community which these inkpots were not . . . just
he [the Teacher of Righteousness]
ordinarysecular scribes .... No, the
founded hid its books in the neigh-
copyingof the Essene books, which
bouring caves and left Qumran at were holy and secret, required
the time of the great Jewish War.
(Dupont-Sommer1961:18)
Wadi
Nlueimah
* Jericho
aiasO-Co
* *The
complex wadi system in the north-
Wadial-Qelt * western area of the Dead Sea is shown in this
SiWa6iSu
eit map first published in Golb 1980,page 4.
Caves,some of which contained manuscripts,
are indicated by the dots.
* 3
..
S , Qumran
* Qumran Jericho*
0* * Jerusalem Qumran "
Wadia/-Nar
WadiMurabbacat
. ..4l Masada
*
8
kilometers
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 73
 scribesrecruitedfrom amongthe
membersofthe sectitself.(Dupont-
Sommer1961:63)
Andin the solemnquietnessof
the bareandtorriddesertit is pos-
sibleto imaginethe people... who
led such a hard and exceedingly
austerelife there.(Dupont-Sommer
1961:66)
"Itwas my privilege,"wrote another
scholar,
to visit Qumranseveraltimes dur-
ing this period [of excavationsin
1953and1954]andto be conducted
aroundthe excavationsby Perede
Vaux[theexcavationdirector]him-
self. So vivid was his description
thatI couldalmostseethemembers
of the communityeatingtogether
in the largediningroom,orcopying
manuscriptsin the scriptorium,or
scurryingto the caves with their
preciouslibraryastheRomanTenth
LegionmarcheddownfromJericho
to destroythe community.(Fritsch
1956:5)
One of the narrow,plastered tables from a room in the southwest quadrantof Khirbet
Qumran. These tables, along with two inkwells found in the same room, have generated
much debate because some scholars have interpretedthem as remnants of an ancient
scriptorium.
74 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
These excerpts reflect the present Furtherfinds, primarily of coins and
views and sentiments of the great artifacts,were made by archaeolo-
preponderanceof scholars which, gists who were led to the four caves
not surprisingly,have metastasized of Murabbacatin Januaryof 1952.
into an article of faith among the Forthe most part the manuscripts
were not of the same period as those
general public.
found at Qumran,but dated from
The First Seeds of Doubt the Second Revolt against Rome (A.D.
While the Qumran discoveries were 132-135). They included personal
being made other manuscript finds and administrative letters -that is,
in progressin the Judeandesert genuine autographtexts - of the
should have given exponents of the leaders of that revolt, including
Qumran-Essenetheory serious pause Simeon ben Koziba (BarKokhba)
and grounds for a radicalrevision of himself, and cast important new
their view. The first of these finds light on the conduct of the war,par-
was located in a gorge called Wadi ticularly in the areaof the Judean
Murabbacat,located approximately wilderness.
18 kilometers south of Qumran These texts were hailed for the
From October 1951 further testimony they offeredof the
(Benoit 1961).
through January 1952 both papyrus hitherto unsuspected literary fertil-
and parchment texts were brought ity of the Judeandesert but, because
in small lots from this site to Jeru-
they had little to do with first-
salem, where they were purchased century Judaismand the Essenes,
on behalf of the RockefellerMuseum. they failed to arouse the same uni-
versal enthusiasm that the Qumran
discoveries had. The bearing of the
Murabbacatfinds on the question of
the physical nature of the Qumran
texts was hardly ever publicly dis-
cussed and apparentlydid not dis-
turb the investigatorsseeking the
lost history of the Essenes of the
Dead Sea coast.
Then in 1960 and 1961 Israeli
archaeologists conducted a search of
the caves in the wadis lying between
Masadaand En-gedi.In caves of the
Nahal Hever they discoveredstill
more autographdocuments of the
BarKokhbaperiod as well as other
manuscripts-both legal documents
and literary texts - of the late first
and early second centuries A.D.(Yadin
1971).
As at Murabbacat - and in con-
trast to Qumran-one finds genuine
place-names of the Judeandesert in
the Nahal Hever texts, as well as a
considerablevariety of personal
names. The discoveryof these
manuscripts provedthat the Jewshad
taken care to preservetheir personal
documents in antiquity and that
these were capable of survival in the
Judeanwilderness. Once again, how-
 composed, as the theory holds, dur-
";i ing at least severalgenerations-was
utterly destroyedbefore or during
the process of hiding the texts.
Another problem posed by the
characterof the Qumran finds may
be illustrated by arrangingvarious
genres of manuscripts in a list based
Drawing of a on their relative value and impor-
manuscriptfrag- tance for historical investigation.
IN ment from Wadi
Murabbacat.Taken Under the rubricof historical texts
from Yadin1971, one finds: (1)autographdocuments
7courtesy ofWeiden- (personaland business correspon-
feld and Nicolson.
dence, court records,legal instru-
ments, official charters,epigraphic

ever,no connection was made be-

tween this fact and the nature of the
vast preponderanceof Qumran texts.
None of the parchment or papyrus
Qumran scrolls -with one possible
exception (Golb 1980: 18, note 39)-
are documentary autographs;they
are all scribal copies of literary
writings.
Severalquestions relative to the
Qumran-Essenetheory should have
been raised at this time. First, if the
scrolls were originally located at the
Qumran settlement, and if they were
all gatheredup in haste from the so- Above:Manuscriptfragmentfrom Nahal Hever.Below: Letterswritten by
called scriptorium and elsewhere at Simeon ben Koziba(orBarKokhba- the leader of the second Jewish revolt
the site when the Essenes learned of against the Romansin A.D.132-135) were discoveredin a cave at
the Romans'approach,how could Nahal HIever.These texts, as opposed to those dis-
coveredat Qumran,are original autographs
original documents such as letters that contain documentarymaterial. Both
and legal deeds have been so meticu- drawings are taken from Yadin1971,
courtesy of Weidenfeldand Nicolson.
lously excluded from storage in the
caves?Is it reasonableto believe that
those leading the "motherhouse"of
the Essenes (as Qumran has been
called by responsible scholars)would
have left the deeds and recordsof the
sect, accumulated overperhaps a
hundredyears or more, to perish
totally in the ruins while taking care
to hide hundreds of literary scrolls?
Second, accordingto the theory the
scrolls were completely or partially
composed at Qumran;they were not
merely copied there. Where, then,
are any of the authors'originals of
these texts? It is hardly conceivable
that every single literary autograph
of the claimed Qumran authors-

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 75
texts); (2)scribal copies of autograph
documents; (3)autographchronicles
by eyewitness authors; (4) scribal
copies of eyewitness authors'chron-
icles; (5)autographretrospective
chronicles; (6) scribal copies of retro-
spective chronicles; (7) scribal copies
of scribal copies of retrospective
chronicles; and finally (8)printed
books containing such texts, often
with many errors.Then under
literary texts (forexample, philos-
ophy,poetry,and imaginative or in-
spirational literature)may be listed:
(9)autographliterarytexts;
(10)scribal copies of literary texts;
(11)scribal copies with marginal
annotations (glosses);(12)scribal
copies with glosses blended into the
texts; and (13)printed books. For
purposes of historical reconstruc-
tion, autographhistorical documents
are the most precious and usually
the raresttype of manuscript source,
while scribal copies of literarytexts
are generally the least important and
the most abundanttype of such
sources.
The BarKokhbatexts fall into
the first category,and the Qumran
parchment scrolls into the last few.
Is it legitimate to reconstruct, as has
been done for more than thirty
years, a specific history of Essenes at
Qumran on the basis of such literary
texts, without the benefit of a single
documentary source?
The Questions Multiply
The difficulties with the Qumran-
Essene hypothesis do not end with
questions relating to the physical
nature or literary genres of the
scrolls. For instance absolutely none
of the Qumran scrolls either es-
pouses or mentions celibacy, yet
Pliny states that the Essenes inhabit-
ing the western shore of the Dead
Sea were celibate. The solution to
this difficulty offered by various
writers - either that the group living
at Qumran were not Essenes but
rather another sect, or else that
there were two kinds of Essenes at
Qumran, the marrying kind and the
76 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
nonmarryingkind, living separately
but near one another-only makes
this problem more confusing.
Furthermore,the conflicts in the
doctrines and beliefs found in the
Qumran scrolls are so severe that the
explanation offeredby writers-to
the effect that the hypothesized
sect's ideas merely developedand
changed slowly through the years-
readsvery much like a panacea.
In the so-called Damascus
Covenant (orZadokite Fragments),
first discoveredin the Cairo Genizah
and now representedas well by sev-
eral fragments found at Qumran, the
heterodox groupdescribed in its
pages is said to have once migrated
to the "landof Damascus"(for
example, folio 3 verso, lines 2-5).
Troubledby the discovery of frag-
ments of this work at Qumran,
some scholars have felt obliged to
propose that Damascus here con-
notes nothing else than the Qumran
area itself- although Damascus lies
well over200 kilometers to the north-
east of Jerusalemand Qumran less
than 25 kilometers to its east.
The problem of the Khirbet
Qumran site is in a class by itself.
When the Romansstormedthe settle-
ment of Qumranthey clearly had to
contend with an armed camp in a
heavily fortified location. During
the past decade Israeli archaeologists
have detected in the now-ruinedfor-
tresses and encampments of Judeaa
system of concentric defenses of
Jerusalem,as shown, for example, in
a quite recent map on the cover of
Biblical Archaeologist (Winter1981,
volume 44 number 1).Khirbet
Qumran is designated there as a for-
tress of the fifth concentric circle.
Moreover,a good Roman roadhas
recently been discoveredleading
directly towardthe capital from the
plateau just north of Qumran (Har-
El 1978).The site was thus not an
isolated locale of desert monks. On
the contrary,it emerges as a fortress
of strategic importance in the Judean
wilderness and, judgingby the in-
dications of military attack on it in
approximately A.D.69 or 70, it was
still a fortress at that time. The
cisterns discoveredwithin the site
providedthe water essential to with-
standing a prolongedsiege.
Philo, by contrast, states of the
Essenes in his excursus "EveryMan
Should be Free"that "asfor darts,
javelins,daggersor the helmet,
breastplateor shield, you could not
find a single manufacturerof them,
nor, in general, any person making
weapons or engines or plying any
industry concerned with war"
(Colson 1967: 55). Even duringthe
revolt against Rome, when all the
stirringevents involving Qumran-
Essenes were supposed to have taken
place, Josephusknows of only one
warrior-a certain general named
Johnthe Essene -who was of that
sect, and he was a commander in a
region far awayfrom the Judean
desert.
Masada,the Enigmatic Scroll, and
some Ancient Discoveries
These emerging problems do not
appearto have deeply concerned
investigatorsearlier on; instead, they
began searching elsewhere in the
Judeanwilderness for more evidence
of salient events in the history of
first-centuryPalestine. In this way
archaeologists turned their attention
in 1965 to Masada,the great rock-
fortress in the desert south of En-
gedi and 50 kilometers from Qumran.
In two seasons of digging, Yigael
Yadinand his team uncoveredthe
entire areaof Masada,including the
part used by the zealots and other
refugees from Jerusalemduringthe
final years of resistance against the
Romans (A.D. 70- 73). Fragments of
fourteen more scrolls were found in
the ruins, including biblical texts,
part of Ecclesiasticus, a fragment of
Jubilees and, most remarkably, a
fragment of the Songs of the Sabbath
Day (known also as the Angelic Lit-
urgy, a work of a somewhat mystical
nature) that overlaps portions of the
same composition that were found
in Qumran Cave 4 a decade earlier.
 Jericho. Jericho :
-:
e Jerusalem
Jerusalem. Qumran N

WadiMurabbacat Wa urabbacat AD
DEAD
jSEA SEA y *

Masada / Masada*

)/

On the left the Qumran-Essenehypothesis is illustrated. This theoryholds that the discoveries of manuscripts at Masada and in
the caves at Qumran,as well as the reporteddiscoveries of manuscriptsnear Jerichoin the third and eighth centuries A.D.,Canall
be traced back to KhirbetQumran where the manuscripts were written or copied. On the right the hypothesis that the scrolls
originatedin Jerusalemis shown. In this case the manuscriptsfrom Qumran,Masada, and near Jericho,were hidden by defenders
of the capital beforeand during the Roman siege (A.D.68/70) or were taken southward during the flight from Jerusalemupon the
conquest of the city.

Thus manuscripts of the same char-
acter as those found at Qumran were
now known elsewhere, in this case
at Masada.
Beforerelating how writers
explained the presence of such texts
at Masada,I must focus on two
much earlier discoveries of Hebrew
manuscripts in the Judeandesert. In
the middle of the third century the
Christian author Origen put to-
gether his Hexapla (orsix-columned
Old Testament Bible containing the
Hebrew text, its transcription into
Greek, and four Greek translations).
He wrote that the Greek Bible trans-
lation that he used for the sixth
column "wasfound together with
other Hebrew and Greek books in a
jarnear Jericho"(Englishtranslation
in Kahle 1959: 242). Later,just after
A.D. 800, the Nestorianpatriarch
Timotheus I stated that a few years
earlier Hebrew manuscripts had
been found by a huntsman in a cave
"nearJericho."The huntsman "found
a dwelling within the rocks, in which
were many books. The huntsman
went to Jerusalemand informed the
Jews.They came in throngs and
found books of the Bible and others
in Hebrew script."(Seethe English
translation of a letter by Timotheus
in Driver 1951:25).
As far as I can determine, these
ancient statements were always
understood to mean that ancient
Hebrew manuscripts had on at least
two occasions been found near
Jericho,evidently in nearbycaves.
When these notices were broughtto
the attention of scholars working on
the Qumrantexts, however,they
proposedthat the statements in fact
referredto antecedent discoveries of
Hebrew manuscripts made nowhere
else than in the caves aboveKhirbet
Qumran- some fifteen kilometers
distant from Jericho.
The Theory Burgeons
With this explanation we observe
how the Qumran-Essenetheory,
alreadyexpandedin the wake of the
discovery of many additional scrolls
after 1948 and their assimilation
into its structure,had begun to reach
out in still new directions by the
early 1950s. One need only consider
the many caves in the immediate
vicinity of Jerichoitself, let alone
throughout the surroundingregion,
to see how arbitrarythe offered
explanation was. And yet, as might
have been expected, in 1966 an
explanation along similar lines was
propoundedto account for the pres-
ence of Hebrew texts at Masada.As
Yigael Yadinput it at the time, "It
seems to me that the [Masadadis-
covery]serves as proof indeed that
the Essenes also participatedin the
great revolt against the Romans"
(Yadin1966: 174). Or,as Edmund
Wilson wrote: "[TheMasadascrolls]

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 77
 must have been broughtthere by
someone from the Sect, who ...
wanted to keep to his [sectarian]
schedule.... Is it not possible that
Abbreviations for Scrolls some of the Essenes, still clinging to
the schedule of their dissident cal-
abbreviationsused to designate the manuscripts found at Qumran endar,had come up from the vul-
Thefollow a system utilized in the series Discoveries in the JudaeanDesert nerable Qumran on the shore to the
(see the first volume of that series-number 4 below-for a full listing of
formidableheights of Masadah"
these). Briefly,the system identifies the following elements: (A) where the (Wilson 1969:210 and following).
document was found, indicated by 1Q-11Q (Caves 1 through 11);(B)when Here we have, beginning in
appropriate,the nature of the work, indicated for instance by p (meaning a 1966, the fullest efflorescence of the
pesher-or commentary-on a biblical book) or t (meaning a targum-or Qumran-Essenetheory, which in
Aramaic translation-of a biblical book); (C)the title of the work, indicated effect became what can only be
forbiblical or apocryphalbooks by the customaryabbreviations,andfor other termed a pan-Qumrantheory. (For
works by the first letter of the Hebrewtitle (knownor supposed),such as S for the most recent book defendingthe
Serek, indicating the Rule of the Community (also known as the Manual of standardview, see Vermesand
Discipline); and (D)when appropriate,the specific manuscript if more than Vermes 1978.)Accordingto it, all
one copy of the same work has been found in the same cave, indicated by a
lowercase,superscripta forthe first manuscriptfound, b forthe second, and so the scrolls found at Qumranwere
on. written by Essenes living there,
Worksreferredto in this issue: 1QS-the sectarian Rule of the Community, while those discoveredin earlier
exemplar from Cave 1;published in 6 and 7. 1QSaand 1QSb- an adjunctto periods "nearJericho"and the
1Qs;published in 4 as 1Q28aand 1Q28b.1QM-the WarScroll;published in Masadatexts as well were nothing
11. 1QIsaa-the Great Isaiah Scroll, exemplar a; published in 5 and 7. other than Qumran scrolls.
1QpHab.-the HabakkukCommentary;published in 5 and 7. 1QApoc.-the This, it must be emphasized,
Genesis Apocryphon;publishedin 2. 4Q Testimonia-the sheet of testimonia accounts for virtually all finds of
from Cave 4; published in 1. 4Q T. Levi-the Testament of Levi; partially
first-centuryHebrew texts in Pales-
publishedin 9. 11QpaleoLev-the paleo-HebrewLeviticusScroll;publishedin tine. By this theory the manuscripts
8. 11QT--theTempleScroll;published in 12. CD-the Damascus Document
foundin the genizahof a temple in Cairo,Egypt;published in 10. 6QD- a copy underlying Hebrew literature of all
of the Damascus Document found in Cave 6 at Qumran;published in 3. other first-centuryPalestinian Jews
Scroll publication: (1) Allegro, J. M., "FurtherMessianic References in (who could not have numbered less
Qumran Literature,"Journal of Biblical Literature 75: 174-87, 1956. (2) than approximatelytwo million
Avigad,N., and Yadin,Y.,A Genesis Apocryphon.A Scroll from the Wilder- individuals),have virtually dis-
ness of Judaea, Jerusalem:Hebrew University, 1956. (3) Baillet, M., "Frag- appeared,while those of the claimed
ments du document de Damas:Qumran,grotte6,"RevueBiblique 63: 513-23, Qumran-Essenes(partof a group
1956. (4)Barthelemy,D., and Milik, J.T., Qumran Cave I. Discoveries in the that accordingto both Philo and
Judaean Desert, volume 1, Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1955. (5) Burrows,M., Josephusnumbered only around
Trever,J. C., and Brownlee, W. H., The Dead Sea Scrolls of St. Mark's four thousand souls) are represented
Monastery,volume 1, New Haven, CT: American Schools of Oriental Re-
search, 1950. (6)Burrows,M., Trever,J.C., and Brownlee,W.H., The Dead Sea through the centuries by at least
Scrolls of St. Mark's Monastery, volume 2, fascicle 2, New Haven, CT: four discoveries of at least one
American Schools of Oriental Research, 1951. (7) Cross, E M., Freedman, thousand manuscripts.
D. N., andSanders,J.A., Scrollsfrom Qumran CaveI, Jerusalem:The Albright We also observe in this theory
Institute of Archaeological Researchand The Shrine of the Book, 1974. (8) that Jerusalem,the spiritual and
Freedman,D. N., and Mathews, K. A., The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll political capital of the Jewsin the
(llQpaleoLev), Winona Lake, IN: American Schools of Oriental Research, first century and the main center
1985. (9)Milik, J.T., "LeTestamentde Levi en arameen.Fragmentde la grotte where the refugees who fled to
4 de Qumran,"Revue Biblique 62: 398-406, 1955. (10) Rabin, C., The Masadaoriginated,plays no part
Zadokite Documents, Oxford:ClarendonPress, 1954. (11)Sukenik,E. L., and whatsoever. It is as though it were
Avigad,N., Otsar ham-Megill6t hag-Geniizzbt("Treasuryof Stored-upDocu- not there.
ments"),Jerusalem:HebrewUniversity, 1954 (in Hebrew).(12)Yadin,Y., The The theory does not take into
TempleScroll, Jerusalem:IsraelExplorationSociety, the Institute of Archae-
ology of the HebrewUniversity, and The Shrine of the Book, 1983. account the majorhistorical events
of the period of the First Revolt,but
instead bases itself almost exclu-
sively on scribal copies of literary
texts. There is no sign that any

78 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
writer during the 1950s and 1960s
saw that the reports of Origen and
Timotheus, when taken with the
actual discoveries at Qumran and
Masada,pointed to a much wider
of
phenomenon manuscript conceal- eluctably leads one back to Jerusalem
ment in the JudeanDesert during
the period of the war with Rome.
This phenomenon, moreover,is
explicitly described in the Copper
Scroll found in Qumran Cave 3.
The CopperScroll:
An AutographRejected
The Copper Scroll contains descrip-
tions of treasures and artifactshid-
den throughout the Judeandesert.
Variousplaces in the desert are
named in the text; for example it is
said that an item was buried at a cer-
tain place "onthe way from Jerichoto
Sekhakha"(column 5, lines 12-14).
At the end it is said that at a certain
locale "acopy of this writing"may be
found (column 12, lines 9-12). The
scroll is made up of twelve columns
of text and is inscribed in (possibly)
severalnonliterary hands. The hand-
writing characteristics,the reference
to a copy of the text, and the fre-
quent occurrence of place-names all
point to the fact that the Copper
Scroll is a genuine autographdocu-
ment that was considered important
enough to be recopied and then con-
cealed. It is thus in a prime category
of manuscripts.
Perhapsthe most notable fact
about the contents of the Copper
Scroll is that in at least eight pas-
sages referenceis made to the con-
cealment of written texts along with
artifacts and sums of silver. (The
scroll uses either the term sefer or
ketab for the texts in question.) The
treasures are described as being
hidden in cisterns, aqueducts, and
many places in wadis. We find, for
example, referenceto a deposit "in
Harobah,in the valley of Achor"
(column 1, line 1),and to another "in
the dam [yeger]in the canyon of
Qidron"(column 8, line 8). Both of
these areas were part of a complex
system of wadis that led out from
the area of Jerusalem.The size and
complexity of the treasures,and
their location in areas readily ac-
cessible through the wadi-system
reaching out from the capital, in-
in seeking the source of these great
deposits. Moreover,once seen in the
light of the statements in the Copper
Scroll, the discoveries of manu-
scripts reportedby Origen and
TheCopperScroll,
foundin Qumran
Cave3, contains
descriptions
of
treasures
andartifacts
hiddenthroughout the
Judeandesert.
Timotheus, as well as the actual
manuscript finds of the Qumran
caves, point to a large-scalephe-
nomenon whose cause must be
sought in significant events of the
war with Rome.
As one may imagine, the discov-
ery of the Copper Scroll was greeted
with mixed feelings by writers
prominently connected with the
Qumran-Essenetheory, for the
dangerto that theory posed by the
discoverywas manifest. Thus the
genuineness of the Copper Scroll
was simply rejectedby the fraternity
of scholars working on the scrolls in
Jerusalem.Andr6Dupont-Sommer
succinctly describedthe event that
then took place:
An officialannouncement[of the
discoveryof the CopperScroll]was
madeby G. LankesterHardingand
Fr. de Vaux on June 1st, 1956,
simultaneouslyin Jordan,France,
GreatBritainandtheUnitedStates;
it was readon the samedaybefore
the Academiedes Inscriptionset
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
Belles-Lettres. (Dupont-Sommer
1961:381)
[The extracts from it] certainly
give the impression that we are
facedwith real deposits,carefully
described and scrupulously in-
dicated.But the reportof June1st
expressly dismisses this inter-
pretation:the inscription, it says, is
nothingbut a collection of tradi-
tions relating to places where
ancient treasure was supposed to
havebeen hidden.It continuesas
follows:"Itis difficultto understand
why the Essenes of Qumranwere so
muchconcernedwith thesestories
of hiddentreasure,and especially
whytheysawfit to engravethemon
copper, which at that time was a
costlymetal.... At all events,this
guideto hiddentreasureis the most
ancient documentof its kind to
havebeenfound,andis ofinterestto
the historianof folk-lore."
(Dupont-
Sommer 1961:382-83)
Dupont-Sommeralso quotes de
Vauxas having stated that the
CopperScroll was the "whimsical
productof a derangedmind."3
The actions and statements
describedby Dupont-Sommer show
a concerted effort on the part of the
groupprimarily involved in the
discoveryof the Copper Scroll, even
prior to its publication, to convince
the public that its revelation did not
disturb the Qumran-Essenetheory
with its emphasis on the sectarian
origin of the texts and the singular-
ity of the finds in the Qumran caves.
The spring of 1956 thus marks a
turning point in the history of that
theory. It was at this juncture that
what may in retrospectbe termed a
notable blunder of scholarship was
transmuted into an article of faith to
be defended at all costs against the
rising tide of contradictory evidence.
JerusalemFaces its Downfall
The discovery of the Copper Scroll,"
as well as of numerous Hebrew texts
at Masada, Qumran, and elsewhere
in the Judean desert, is in effect
striking testimony to events that
occurred in Jerusalem after the fall
of Galilee to the Romans in the late
79
autumn of A.D. 67.
Josephusdescribes these events
at some length: "Galileewas now
wholly subdued, after affordingthe
Romans a strenuous training for the
impending Jerusalemcampaign"
(Thackeray1961:37). He then tells
of the entrance of the fugitives from
Galilee, led by Johnof Gischala, into
the capital:
Thewholepopulationpouredforth
and each of the fugitiveswas sur-
roundedby a vast crowd,eagerly
askingwhathadbefallenoutside....
Theycasuallymentionedthe fallof
Gischala.... When, however,the
story of the prisonerscame out,
profoundconsternationtook pos-
session of the people, who drew
thereuponplainindicationsoftheir
ownimpendingcapture.ButJohn...
went roundthe severalgroups,in-
stigatingthem to warby the hopes
he raised,makingout the Romans
to be weak, extolling their own
power,andridiculingthe ignorance Reconstructedceramic jarsfrom Cave 1. The scrolls discoveredin the caves at Qumranwere
of the inexperienced;evenhadthey sometimes found in or near such vessels while others were apparentlyplaced in the caves
wings, remarked,the Romans
he without containers.
wouldneversurmountthe wallsof
Jerusalem....By these harangues
mostoftheyouthwereseducedinto
his serviceandincitedto war;butof siege proceeded. (SeeThackeray existed between it and the manu-
the soberandeldermen therewas 1961:355 and 567.) scripts stored in the caves abovethe
not one who did not foreseethe Once the manuscript finds of fortress.The most that may be ven-
futureandmournforthe city asif it Qumran are seen in this light, there tured is that the Jewishinhabitants
had alreadymet its doom.(Thack- is no longer any need to question the of the site and surroundingarea
eray1961:37-39) absence of documentary materials, might well have contributed to the
Under these circumstances the such as letters and legal texts, at the sequestration by supplying storage
inhabitants of Jerusalemwould have Qumran caves: One would not nor- vessels to those who, in an evidently
had little choice but to hide their ob- mally expect to find such documents well-organizedeffort, had brought
jects of wealth and precious scrolls. among collections of literary scrolls the bundles or sackfuls of texts from
This process may have started - that is, libraries- removedfarfrom the capital to the desert caves for
shortly after the fall of Galilee and their original home. Furthermore,as hiding.
the entrance of the refugees into the Josephusinforms us, the archives of
city, but it probablycontinued for a Jerusalemwere burnedby a faction FromEnd to Beginning:
number of months after the siege of Jewishzealots in August of A.D.66 Retracingthe Route to the Capital
had begun in the summer of A.D.68. (see Thackeray 1967:491). Since no In retrospectit is not difficult to see
Some of the objects were hidden, as indication exists of either original that the chronological sequence in
Josephus tells us, beneath the city literaryworks among the cave which the discoveries were made
itself. As conditions within the city deposits or of intense scribal activity contributed decisively to the for-
worsened many deposits were at the Qumran fortressitself, and mulation and development of the
evidently made outside the walls. since neither letters nor documents standardQumran-Essenetheory.
Josephus explicitly states that the have ever been identified as coming What might reasonablyhave hap-
Jews knew of many secret passages from the latter, it is unwarrantedto pened had the orderof discoveries
leading out of Jerusalem and into the continue believing either that it was been reversed?
Judean wilderness-the one remain- a "motherhouse"of Essenes or that In this hypothetical process, the
ing area under their control as the an organic,bona fide connection first manuscript finds would have

80 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
occurredat Masada,a site known to
have been the last stronghold of the
Jewishrevolutionaries,many of
whom had fled the capital after its
fall. The interesting literary frag-
ments discoveredwould quite ob-
viously have been attributedto those
Jews,and before long writers would
have justifiably claimed that the
new fragments,howevermeager,
cast new light on Jewishthought and
literary creativity in Jerusalemin
the years before the First Revolt. If
the Masadadiscoveries had come
before the others, there would have
been no reason to say anything at
the time about the Essenes.
In this reverseorder,the next
discovery would have been of non-
literary,documentary texts in the
wadis near En-gediand then at
Murabbacat.Fromthese texts inter-
preterswould have perceived that
genuine Hebrew autographletters
and legal deeds of the period of the
Second Revolt had miraculously
survived and could help to elucidate
significant aspects of this period of
history. Some scholars would then
very likely have asked whether auto-
graphsof the First Revolt as well
were hidden away somewhere in the
Judeanwilderness.
A search of the caves to the
north of WadiMurabbacatmight
then have resulted in the revelation
of Qumran Cave 4 with its thou-
sands of literary fragments. Scholars
would obviously have called to mind
the testimony of ancient writers
regardingthe discovery of still other
Hebrew manuscripts in caves near
Jerichoduring the third and eighth
or early ninth centuries. They would
Thecontentsof manuscripts foundin theJudean
desertsuggestdoctrinaldiversityinJewishsocietyat
the beginningof thefirstcenturyA.D.
have begun to see that a large-scale
phenomenon of sequestration of
hundreds and perhapsthousands of
Hebrew scrolls had taken place at
approximatelythe time of the First
Revolt. Any disappointment in not
finding letters or other autographs
among the literary texts would have
been assuagedby the words of
Josephusabout the burning of the
archives of Jerusalemin A.D.66. They
would have arrivedat the conclusion
that the literary texts revealedmany
new aspects of thought, including
heterodox ideas, that could be at-
tributed, along with views already
known from the apocryphaland
apocalyptic literature, to the Pales-
tinian Jewsof that time.
The subsequent discovery of the
Copper Scroll, with its referencesto
the burial of precious metals and
artifacts as well as texts, and its
strong geographicalhints, would
have at once supplied investigators
with the final clue needed to solve
the mystery of the massive conceal-
ment of Hebrew scrolls.
Finally, arrivingat what is now
called QumranCave 1,those continu-
ing the search would have discovered
a number of additional scrolls -a
few biblical texts, others showing
affinities with the apocryphallitera-
ture, and at least one that appeared
to contain some ideas similar to cer-
tain ones held by the Essenes. These
would have confirmed the earlier
finding, based on the Cave-4discov-
eries, that a wide spectrum of doc-
trines and ideas were representedby
the discoveries of the Judeandesert.
It is only because the discoveries
did not occur in this hypothetical
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
orderthat a theory of entirely differ-
ent characterwas formulated and
then developedinto the colossal
structure that now imprisons its
builders through countless articles,
books, and theses.
What can be fairly inferred
about the scrolls from facts now
available-but, I emphasize, not
known in 1948- is that these
manuscripts stem not merely from
sectarians but from first-century
Palestinian Jewsin general, and are
remnants of a literature showing a
largevariety of practices and beliefs.
These manuscripts, and no doubt
many more that have since perished,
were removedfrom Jerusalemby
inhabitants of the city before and
during the siege on the city, were
brought down to the Judeanwilder-
ness and adjacentareas,and there,
with the aid of inhabitants of the
region, were hidden awayfor long
periods of time. To judgeby their
contents, they show that much of
the Jewishsociety alreadyat the
beginning of the first century was in
spiritual turmoil and doctrinally
divided among itself. Furtherdeter-
mination of the individual concepts
and practices describedin the scrolls
can be best achieved not by forcing
them to fit into the single sectarian
bed of Essenism but by separating
them out from one another,through
internal analysis of their contents,
into the various spiritual currents
that characterizedPalestinian
Judaismof the intertestamental
period.
Much of this investigation lies
in the future. What is now under-
stood of the contents of the scrolls,
81
however, is more than sufficient to
show the mentality and religious
outlook of various groups within
Palestinian Judaism prior to A.D.70.
This has already and will no doubt
in the future cast important new
light on aspects of that period's
history, particularly on the question
of the influence of the beliefs and
practices then current in Palestine
on both the nascent rabbinic Judaism
and the earliest forms of Palestinian
Christianity.
Notes
The text of this article is based on two
lectures delivered,respectively,on
March2, 1983, at the Oriental Institute
in Chicago,and on November 25, 1984,
at the RockefellerMuseum in Jerusalem. interpretationwhich he suggests ... is
See also my earlier study of the subject
(Golb 1980).
'During the interveningdecades,
some writers have observedanti-Essenic Sommer 1961:383).
traits in the Manual of Discipline. In my
opinion, this work is the composite
productof writings by two or more
mystical apocalypticistswhose ideas,
although somewhat influenced by
Essenism, do not reflect actual practices Wilson
so much as those of a future-envisioned
society. The "thousands"and "hundreds" CopperScroll completed in 1985 aftera
of initiates describedas participantsin
the sacerdotalceremonies of columns 1 David Wilmot of the University of
through 3 of this scroll could hardly
have fit into, let alone be sustained by,
the Qumranareawhich is where, ac-
cordingto the standardview, these
ceremonies were actually supposed to be such archivalrecordsof Near Eastern
taking place year by year. It is only by a provenience,
forcedinterpretationof two other
Manualpassages (column 8, lines
lines
12-15; column 9, 18-20) that
contemporarywriters can claim that
this work espoused actual living in a
wilderness. (See Golb 1980: 16, last
paragraphof note 26.)
2This classification could actually
have been workedout by students of any
branchof manuscript investigationin
whateverlanguage;if I am perhapsthe
first to express it this way,that is only
because the multitude of texts in the
Cairo Genizah-that other famous
hoardof manuscripts from the Near
East, albeit of later date-has examples
of all of these genres of texts, forcing,as
it were, the genizah researcherto deal
with their differences.I must emphasize Cross, F.M., Jr.
that it was only through the study of
these various types of texts in the Cairo
Genizah duringthe 1960s and 1970s that
I slowly became awareof the problems
posed by the particularnature of the
Qumrantexts.
3SeeDupont-Sommer1961:385. He
never explicitly acknowledgesin his
writings that he was disturbedby the
evidence of the CopperScroll. That he
sensed the possible new implications of
the find is shown, however,by his de-
of some he had Fritsch, C. T
scription correspondence
with JohnAllegro, who at the time was a
Manchesterscholar prominently asso-
ciated with the discoveryand decipher-
ment of the text. Allegro,he wrote, "has
kindly let me know that he resolutely
maintains ... the theory of a genuine
inventory,and also that the particular
in no way opposed to the general thesis
of an Essene origin of the ... writings
from Qumran"(italics added)(Dupont-
What happenedto Allegro for not
adheringto the official view of the
scroll'scharacterformulatedby PRrede
Vauxand his colleagues in Jerusalemis
describedat painful length by Edmund
(1969: 170- 75).
4In a doctoraldissertation on the
decade of painstakinginvestigation,
Chicago brilliantly demonstratesthe
documentary,bookkeepingcharacterof
this text. The thesis includes a com-
parison of this document with other
as well as a new edition and
translation of the text that renders
intelligible many of its hitherto obscure
passages.
Bibliography
Allegro,J.
1960 The Treasureof the CopperScrolls.
GardenCity, NY: Doubleday&
Company,Inc.
Benoit, P.,and others
1961 Les Grottesde Murabbacat.Series:
Discoveries in the JudaeanDesert 2.
Oxford:The ClarendonPress.
Colson, E H., translator
1967 Philo IX. Series:LoebClassical
Library.Cambridge,MA, and
London:HarvardUniversity Press
and Heinemann.
1961 TheAncient Libraryof Qumranand
ModernBiblical Studies, revised
edition. GardenCity, NY:Doubleday
& Company,Inc.
Driver, G. R.
1951 The Hebrew Scrollsfrom the Neigh-
bourhoodof Jerichoand the Dead
Sea. London:OxfordUniversity
Press.
Dupont-Sommer,A.
1961 The Essene Writingsfrom Qumran.
Translatedby G. Vermes.Oxford:
Basil Blackwell.
1956 The QumranCommunity,Its
History and Scrolls. New York:
Macmillan.
Golb, N.
1980 The Problemof OriginandIdentifica-
tion of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Pp. 1-
24 in Proceedingsof the American
Philosophical Society 124,February
1980. Philadelphia:The American
Philosophical Society.
Har-El,M.
1978 The Routeof Salt, Sugarand Balsam
Caravansin the JudeanDesert.
GeoJournal2.6: 549- 56.
Kahle,P.
1959 The CairoGenizah, second edition.
Oxford:Basil Blackwell.
Milik, J.T
1962 Lerouleau de cuivre provenantde la
grotte3Q (3Q15).Pp.201-99 in Les
'PetitesGrottes'de Qumran,by
M. Baillet, J.T Milik, andR. de
Vaux.Series:Discoveries in the
JudaeanDesert of Jordan3. Oxford:
ClarendonPress.
Sukenik,E.
1948 Megilloth Genuzoth (Hebrew).Jeru-
salem: MosadBialik.
Thackeray,H. St. J.,translator
1967 JosephusII: The Jewish War,Books
I-III. Series:LoebClassical Library.
Cambridge,MA, and London:
HarvardUniversity Press and
Heinemann.
de Vaux,R.
1973 Archaeologyand the Dead Sea
Scrolls. London:Publishedfor the
British Academyby the Oxford
University Press.
Vermbs,G., and Vermbs,P
1978 The Dead Sea Scrolls:Qumranin
Perspective.Cleveland:Collins.
Wilson, E.
1969 The Dead Sea Scrolls: 1947-1969.
New York:OxfordUniversity Press.
Yadin,Y
1966 Masada:Herod'sFortressand the
Zealot'sLast Stand. London:Weiden-
feld and Nicolson.
1971 Bar-Kokhba.Londonand Jerusalem:
Weidenfeldand Nicolson.

82 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

Ancient Scribes and
and the Clues They
by RichardSimonHanson
egular readersof this magazine are well aware
that the pottersof old quiteunintentionally no other dating clues are available.
produced a set of most valuable clues to the
I dating of the various levels of ancient ruins we
now excavate."Potteryreading"is one of the most impor-
tant daily features of a modern dig. Even small sherds,
particularlyfrom certain partsof vessels, can serveas key
resources for the dating of a crucial layer,while a survey
of unexcavatedsites relies heavily on what one discovers
from the pieces of pottery that are found on the surface
and on the slopes.
What is less well known among lay circles is that an-
cient handwriting providesus with a similar set of clues.
Materials that feature any amount of script-be it a
message on a potsherd, an inscription on a stone monu-
ment, a missive on a piece of papyrus,an epitaph on an
ossuary, or a literary work done on a scroll-leave their
own evidence of dating. Handwriting, like the shape or
ware of a pot, evolves over time, and this evolution helps
A first-centuryinkwell
from a tomb at Meirop.
Courtesyof EricM.
Meyers.
Scripts
Leave
us to determine when it was produced,especially when
The scholar most responsible for establishing the
proceduresthat became a paleographicalmethod was the
renownedWilliam E Albright. The leader in that field of
study today is Albright'sstudent, FrankMoore Cross of
Harvard.Others who have done important work in it
include Solomon A. Birnbaum, Yigael Yadin, Nahman
Avigad,andYohananAharoni;currentlythe second most
prolific scholar in the field is Yoseph Naveh. My bibli-
ography lists some of the important works of these
scholars.
The dating technique that has developed out of the
work of the people mentioned above consists of the
following steps:
1.Tracingout the letterformsfroma givencorpusof
material,payingheednot only to the shapeof each
letterbutalsoto relativesizeandtotheangleatwhich
eachone is "hung" fromthe line. (Thealphabetused
BIBLICAL 1985
ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE 83
 44" r
44
O 4:":
.4,

*44A

3 Compositealphabet
L v )
Tracedfrom ~,
rachish,• % r•~ o
ii,. :?Q,,.r
.•
VI
?"';Ostracon
:.•
?P. .

Tracedfrom Leviticus M
Leiius2:7-6J

Leitcu 2:1-1, -1 j
7' t'
4. Leviticus 22:21-25:36 I
7.A •
reconstructedmodel q,4
t•,,~t,••$4- ?,,S,, ,.,.

7':.....

58.
Tacd
basemon frmth w if
i'••7e base on eamp
Lieviticus26:17-26 7"• 7?',' • ib q Ju/,J=, 0 •
", ~i
Hasmonean strcoinsIcorpus
SLeviticus .@

/' q
8, 6.evt from -.
us cs27:11-19
LevTraced
he: ,

I occur In the
....that
Lev

............

Hasmoneancoins I

by the Judeansand Israelites and some of their neigh-
bors was typically written beneath a line ratherthan
atop it.)
2. The laying out of similar lines of script from other
materials-of known date if possible-from both
prior to and after the time of the script concerned in
order to see where that script best fits in the evolu-
tionary scheme.
3. Payingmost careful attention to letter forms that
were obviously in transition at the time of the mate-
rial concerned in order to calculate as precisely as
possible where it is to be placed chronologically.
To illustrate the process, I reproduce here a table of
scripts I drew up to use in determining the date of the
paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll and its fragments from

84 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
 aa
OLt7I i16I u
$

mem lamedI kap yod let b

het zayin I waw he dalet gimel bet 'alep

r ~ 3 ~2 ~dI ft I ~C 4 -1 -0

4~~/ 5Y Z ct LV I a~s
-~ 4 ~~ y ~r]

4:i
00

~y ct cro cEl

Qumran Cave 11 (see Freedman and Mathews 1985).

Ancienthandwritingevolvedover Referringto the table, the readerwill note that the two
lines of script at the top (lines 1 and 2) are taken from
timeand,therefore,
canbe usedas materials that were executed just before the Exile, from
late in the seventh century B.C.At the bottom of the table
a datingdevice. (line 8) we see script from other materials of a known
date, namely, the Hasmonean coins of the first century

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 85

4# ,uK~j 'j~-
jwv~?7 yW 0rf4]
IV-
404
7Wopieces of the paleo-HebrewLeviticus Scrollfrom Qumran Cave 11 containing a portion of Leviticus
Thesefragmentsarewrittenon tannedleather.
18:27-19:4.
B.C. In between arefive lines from the Leviticus Scrolland
its fragments. Four of them (lines 3-6) are traced from
letter specimens that actually occur;the fourth (line 7) is
a reconstruction drawn to represent what was in the
mind of the scribe as he did his work with a somewhat
less than consistent hand.
Certain letters appear to be crucial. The letter he
(fifth from the right) is especially so. One can readily see
that the older form, that in the preexilic scripts, is made
as a nearly vertical shaft with three roughly horizontal
lines parallel to each other at the left. The same letter
takes on a somewhat different shape in the coin scripts
that are illustrated at the bottom. It is a shape in which
the three parallel lines at the left have become a zigzag
stroke that can be describedas a "z-shape." The letter has
evolved. How? The script on the scrolls gives us the
answer.
The scribe who producedthe Leviticus script seems
to have been trying to make the older form- the form (in
line 7)that I haveproposedwas in his mind- but his hand
was more often inclined to make the newer form because
of a natural, cursive tendency on his part-that is, his
hand quite unconsciously sought the "lazierway"to do it.
This tells us that the Leviticus script comes well
after the late preexilic forms but sometime before the
coins, whose engraverswere generallycopyingthe newer,
cursive form. The date of our material is, therefore,
earlier than the time of the coins.
Other letters give us similar clues to help us deter-
mine the date of our material. Each letter is examined in
this way and the total evidence is considered in orderto
calculate a fitting date.A numberof factorscome into the
86 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
t -o
r*F
" ".iJ
O-Z• ?d~
d #.,4r• ? ?.
-ip. .
.A
process:the relative formality of the script versus cursive
tendencies, the effect of the material itself on the result-
ing inscription (for example, engraved work was done
more slowly than script on sherds), and the idiosyn-
crasies of a particular scribe. One can even observe, as
Yoseph Naveh has done, how a certain scribe produced
older forms than those of the current style because he
was older than other scribes. In the case of the Leviticus
materials, the author has set the latest date of around 100
B.C. on the hunch that only a few scribes were still using
the paleo-Hebrewforms while the majoritywere turning
to the use of Aramaic letters.
An interesting development in the history of the
Jewishpeople is their adoption of the Aramaic script and
the gradual loss of the paleo-Hebrew; this happened,
accordingto Naveh, in the Hellenistic periodfor the most
part. It occurred in conjunction with their switch to
speaking Aramaic,which servedas a lingua francain the
Middle Eastduringthe PersianPeriodandeven after.This
illustrates the fact that the script itself, as well as lan-
guage, can tell us something about general cultural
changes.
The scribes,as a class, were of unusual importancein
Judeanculture. When Solomon set up an administrative
bureaucracy,based partly on Egyptian models, they be-
came important as governmentservants. The work they
did has been largelylost, though portions of it arecited in
the Books of Kings,where we arereferredto "theannals of
the kings of Judah/Israel." The Book of Proverbsactually
contains two collections that are attributed to them
(10:1-22:16 and 25:1-29:27). Their greatest age of im-
portance was the age in which the Scriptures were as-
 S4 _. " v

*0l.

7- .4jt0 -

iiit

01,. .rj2cjY.4'~r~ 45~t~ ~ ~

~t'l'
t3.?lpljL~ ?~~rr^~
$~)?q71IIIIJ3
4
I
l
lip.
l

7 4k
r..

A portion of Leviticus 26:17-26, from column 5 of the paleo-HebrewLeviticus Scroll. Strikingfeatures of the
scroll are its uniform spacing of words and its straighthorizontal lines, created with the help of rules on which
the scribe "hung"his letters.

sembled, and the founding figure of that movement was, Selected Bibliography
of course, Ezrathe Scribe. Albright,W F.E
By no means all the inscriptional materials un- 1926 Notes on EarlyHebrewandAramaicEpigraphy.Journalof the
earthed are the work of professional scribes. While such Palestine Oriental Society 6: 91-102.
recordsas the SamaritanOstracawere likely the work of Avigad,N.
1957 ThePaleographyoftheDeadSeaScrolls.
Scripta
Hierosolymi-
governmental accountants, many graffiti found here and tana4:56-87.
there areclearly the work of untrainedhands.Akin to the 1979 Baruchthe ScribeandJerahmeel the King'sSon.Biblical
scribes, however,were the engraverswho often produced Archeologist42:114-21.
Birnbaum,S.
elegant forms on signet seals. 1950 The LeviticusFragments fromthe Cave.Bulletinof the
At what stagescrolls came into use is hardto say.The
American SchoolsofOriental
Research
118:20- 27.
bulk of these perished in time and weather. Only those 1952 TheDateoftheHymnsScroll. Palestine Quarter-
Exploration
that were protectedby unusual conditions have survived ly 84:94-103.
at all. The Hebrew term for scroll (megillah) only begins 1954- TheHebrew London:
Scripts. Palaeographia.
to occur in sources that arelate preexilic (seeJeremiah36) 1957
and continue into the exilic andpostexilic periods (Ezra2 Charlesworth,J.H.
1980 TheManuscripts ofSt.Catherine's
Monastery.Biblical
Arche-
and 3, Zechariah 5). Yet in the latter sources we already ologist43:26-34.
see the scroll serving as a significant symbol that is at Cross, E M.
once cultural and religious. With the loss of political 1954a The Evolution of the Proto-CanaaniteAlphabet. Bulletin of
the American Schools of Oriental Research 134: 15-24.
independence and the temporaryloss of the Temple,the 1954b The Manuscriptsof the Dead Sea Caves.The Biblical Archae-
sacred scrolls took on enormous importance. So also did
ologist 17:2-21.
the profession of the scribe. In a culture that did not 1960 The Development of the Jewish Scripts.Pp. 133-202 in The
tolerate the presence of artifactsin a human burial, we do Bible and the Ancient Near East:Essaysin Honor of William
find notable exceptions in the case of scribes, for their Foxwell Albright, edited by G. E. Wright.New York:Double-
writing tools could be buried with them. Examples of day.
1961a The Ancient Libraryof Qumran. GardenCity, NY: Double-
this have been found at Meiron and at Qumran.
day.
Such scrolls as those found in the Dead SeaCaves are 1961b EpigraphicNotes on HebrewDocuments of the Eighth-Sixth
artifactsof extreme religious and cultural importance, of Centuries B.C.:I. A New Reading of a Place Name in the
course - so much importance that they gavestatus to the SamariaOstraca.Bulletin of the American Schools of Orien-
tal Research 163: 12-14.
very workmen who producedthem. These workmen, in 1962a EpigraphicNotes on HebrewDocuments of the Eighth-Sixth
turn, left us more clues than they intended when their Centuries B.C.:II. The MurabbacatPapyrusand the Letter
handwriting provedto be our most helpful clue for the FoundNear Yabneh-yam.Bulletin of the American Schools of
dating of those materials. Oriental Research 165:34-46.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 87
 1962b EpigraphicalNotes on Hebrew Documents of the Eighth-
Sixth Centuries B.C.: III. The Inscribed Jar Handles from
Gibeon. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Re-
search 168: 18- 23.
1967 The OriginandEarlyEvolutionof the Alphabet.Eretz-Israel8:
8*- 27*.
1970 The Dead Sea Scrolls. Pp. 117-19 in EncyclopaediaBritan-
nica. Chicago:Benton.
1972 Scrolls from Qumran Cave I, edited with J. C. Trever,D. N.
Freedman,and J.A. Sanders.Jerusalem:AlbrightInstitute of
ArchaeologicalResearchand Shrine of the Book.
1975 Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text,edited with S.
Talmon. Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversity Press. (In the
same volume see his own contribution on pages 147-76,
entitled The Oldest Manuscriptsfrom Qumran.)
Freedman,D. N., and Mathews,K. A., editors
1985 The Paleo-HebrewLeviticus Scroll (11QpaleoLev).Winona
Lake,IN: American Schools of OrientalResearch.
Goshen-Gottstein,M.
1979 The Aleppo Codex and the Rise of the MassoreticBible Text.
Biblical Archeologist 42: 145- 64.
Hanson, R. S.
1964 Paleo-HebrewScriptsin the Hasmonean Age. Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research 175:26 - 42.
1976 Jewish Paleographyand its Bearingon Critical Studies.
Text
Pp. 561- 76 in Magnalia Dei: TheMightyActs of God:Essays
on the Bible and Archaeologyin Memoryof G. ErnestWright,
edited by F.M. Cross,W.E. Lemke,and P.D. Miller, Jr.Garden
City, NY:Doubleday.
Kaufman,I. T.
1982 The SamariaOstraca:An EarlyWitness to Hebrew Writing.
Biblical Archeologist 45: 229-39.
Meyers,E. M., Strange,J.E, and Meyers,C. L.
1981 Excavationsat Ancient Meiron, UpperGalilee, Israel, 1971-
2, 1974- 5, 1977.Cambridge,MA:AmericanSchoolsof Orien-
tal Research.(Seeespecially pages 118and 119.)
Milgrom,J.
1978 The TempleScroll.Biblical Archeologist 41: 105- 20.
Naveh, J.
1965 CanaaniteandHebrewInscriptions(1960- 1964).Leshonenu
30: 65-80.
1970 The Scripts in Palestine and Transjordanin the Iron Age. In
Near EasternArchaeologyin the Iwentieth Century:Essays
in Honor of Nelson Glueck. GardenCity, NY:Doubleday.
1971 HebrewTexts in Aramaic Scriptin the PersianPeriod?Bulle-
tin of the American Schools of OrientalResearch203:27 - 32.
1975 Origins of the Alphabet. London:Cassell's IntroducingAr-
chaeology Series 6.
1980 The GreekAlphabet:New Evidence.BiblicalArcheologist43:
22- 24.
Porten,B.
1979 AramaicPapyriandParchments:A New Look.Biblical Arche-
ologist 42: 74-104.
Vaux,R. de
1954 Fouilles au KherbetQumran.Revue Biblique 61: 206 -36.
Yadin,Y.
1961- The Expeditionto the JudeanDesert, 1960-1. IsraelExplora-
1962 tion Journal11and 12.
1963 The Finds from the Bar-KokhbaPeriod in the Cave of the
Letters.Jerusalem:JudeanStudies I.
1965 The Excavationsat Masada 1963-4. Israel ExplorationJour-
nal 15: 1-120.

New from the American Schools of Oriental Research

The Paleo-Hebrew Excavations and Surveys
LeviticusScroll (11QpaleoLev) in Israel
OF
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K. A. Mathews Archaeological Newsletter of the Israel
Department of Antiquities and Museums.

This volume is the definitive pub- Each issue provides an overview of

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88 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
 C. TREVER
BYJOHN

T he book of Daniel-that
masterpiece of Old
Testament apocalyptic
literature-hassparked
a
multitude of commentaries and
occasionally some intense con-
troversies.Not the least of these has
been the debate overwhen the book
was written and by whom. I believe
that the Qumran documents shed
some light on the identity of the
author, as well as on the period of
his work-leaving aside for the
moment the question of whether
there were multiple authors. This
article has been written to illustrate Eight scrolls of Daniel have been found at
how the Qumran scrolls do this, and Qumran.The earliest, which has not yet
to
investigate what I take to be the been published, is believed to have been
to investigatewhat I take to be the copied during the last quarterof the second
relation between the book of Daniel centuryB.c.The latest-probably one of the
and the origin of the Qumran last scrollscopiedthere-is preservedonly
in the fragments(lQDana) shown here, V
Community. which coverDaniel 1:10-2:6.Line 4 71
of the left column (Daniel 2:4b) - ~-
Identifying the Author of Daniel begins the Aramaic portion of
In a sidebaraccompanyingthis the book.
article I point out that most scholars
now put the date of the composition -
0
of Danielat about168B.C.,around g r
the time of the terriblepersecutions 3M T i
of Antiochus IV.But what happened
to the author of Daniel? Nothing has , T
been written about that in ancient
timesormodem.Washe a mar- . PbVi.
tyr under Antiochus? He cer-
tainly was not one of the
thousand devout Jews(Hasi-
,
byAntiochus'
dim)asphyxiated
menin theirdesertrefugecaves
ofJerusalem,
east asrecounted
in
1 Maccabees2:29- 42 and 2 Macca-
bees 6:11 (see book 12 of Jewish y
jy. "
Antiquities by Josephus;Marcus .4-
1966);it is certain that the book of
Daniel was not yet completed when
that tragedyoccurredabout 168 B.c.
In fact, that event may have been an
important stimulus for its author's
literary andspiritual
efforts odyssey,
If he had been a later martyr under and
and
the O
the O rigin
o
ofthe
the
Antiochus, it seems likely that his
true identity would have been re-
vealed by his admirersin memory of
m C OMMit
his noble effort.

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 89
 My own study has brought me
to believe that the author of Daniel
was precisely the person who went
beyond his faith-savingbook to
become the founder of the Qumran
di4
Y iVi j i3x '
Community of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
His followers retainedhis anonymity
under the title "Teacherof Righ-
teousness"(or,preferably,"Right
Teacher'-see Gaster 1956: 5 and MIbMIJAP4yltl AiV3?? tt
note 2), whose prophetic writing had
served the exact purpose for which
he wrote Daniel about two decades
before;its hero tales and visions had Ali
inspired at least a small coterie of
faithful Jewsto put their faith in him
and follow him (1QpHab8:1-3, on
LoY l lip-AV I 4-* v ml vviA ion
Habakkuk 2:4b):
Its propheticmeaningconcernsall
1~ I IYd
vk
the doersof the Lawin the houseof
Judahwhom/Godwill deliverfrom
the houseof damnation,becauseof
their patient sufferingand their
steadfastfaith/in the Teacherof L
Right.(Brownlee1979:125)
He provedalso to be one who was
IPA\ 146 A4 W,?ivl ~ n'
able to resolve the twenty-year
j* w" 14 b.
confusion of some faithful Hasidic
Jewswho were "likeblind men
gropingfor the way"(CD 1:10;see
note 3 below), and he led them into
the wilderness to fulfill Isaiah 40:3:
Column 8 of the commentary on Habakkuk (1QpHab)found in Qumran Cave 1. The fragment,
A voicecries: commenting on Habakkuk 2:4b,includes in its top line a mention of the "doersof the Law."
"Inthe wildernesspreparethe way
of the Lord,/makestraightin the
deserta highwayforourGod."' authority.The Teacherwas indeed a I will not grapplewith the men of
The men of Qumran apparently special person. perdition
believed him to be (at least at first) I would like to suggest that it until the Dayof Revenge.
the prophet like Moses for whom was the author of the book of Daniel (1QS 10:17-19; Vermes1975:90 and91)
the Jewshad longed for over four who was that special person who These pacifist Jews,believing that
centuries (Deuteronomy 18:15-20; became the leader of a pacifist divine powerwould solve the
see 4Q 5-88) Again in faction of the Hasidim who refused dilemma, fled into the safety of the
'Testimonia
1QpHab7:3-5 we read: to follow Mattathias and the other wilderness of Judeaaway from the
This is what it says," ... in order
thathe who readsin it mayrun"[or militant Jewsto carryout the wrath of the Greeks. Ben Koseba(Bar
MaccabeanRevoltbeginning in 167 Kokhba)and his followers fled in the
perhaps,"readit quickly"-a por-
tion of Habakkuk2:2]. B.C.The Teacher'shymn that con- same way 250 years later to escape
this concernsthe Right cludes the Community Rule clearly the wrath of the Romans.
Interpreted
reveals the Qumran position against Since most recent scholarship
Teacherto whomGodmadeknown
all the mysteriesof the wordsof his violence: has emphasized a plurality of
servantsthe prophets. I will payno manthe rewardof evil; authors for Daniel, it is important at
From this passage it is clear that the I will pursue him with this point to discuss the matter in
men of Qumran who were writing goodness. relation to our thesis. (Fora good
this in the late first century B.C. For judgement of all the living is summary of this problem of multiple
believed that the founder of the with God authors for Daniel see Di Lella in
andit is Hewhowill renderto Hartman and Di Lella 1978:9-18
community had been inspired by manhis reward.
God to handle Scripturewith and 238 - 54.) My own study opts for

90 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
no more than three sources for the
book of Daniel. The position taken
here could be supported even if
Daniel 7:25, 8:14, 9:1-3 and 20-27
(the prayer in verses 4- 20 is con-
sidered by many scholars to be a
later insertion), and 12:5-10 were
the only pieces of original composi-
tion by "this final editor of the book
of Daniel," as some hold. Perhaps the
better approach would be to speak of
the "author-compiler of Daniel." It is
logical to assume that several of the
Hasidim were involved in the
attempt to preserve the Torah-faith
during those crucial years of
struggle. If the visions of Daniel 2
and 7 through 12, therefore, were
written by several devout Jews, one
of them pulled all these writings
together, thus producing our book,
and later became the founder and
the teacher of the Qumran Com-
munity. It would be preferable, it
seems to me, to include also
10:1-12:4, 11, and 12 as original
with the "final editor."
Transition to a New Vision
A careful scrutiny of the book of
Daniel in the light of both the
Qumran Scrolls and the historical
context of that terrifying period
when Antiochus IV attempted to
Hellenize the Jews by destroying all
their religious faith and customs
(175-166 B.C.)produces many points
of contact. These give persuasive
support to the conclusion that it was
the author-compiler of Daniel who,
during that period of struggle within
Judaism after the early Maccabean
successes against the Greeks, sus-
tained the purity of the Torah-
focused faith of that portion of the
Hasidim who refused to join in the
guerrilla warfare practiced by the
Maccabees.
The "twenty years" referred to in
the Damascus Document (CD 1:10)
as a period when theywere like
"blind men groping for the way"3
may be construed to include the
spiritual dilemma through which
the author-compiler of Daniel
Prophecy
and
Book of
A s earlyas the thirdcenturyA.D.,the
Neoplatonist author Porphyry
challenged the traditionalChristian
interpretationof Daniel as a prophetic
book that was written by an otherwise
unknown author named Daniel in the
sixth century B.C.(see Casey 1976).
Porphyrypresented strong evidence that
it was written pseudonymously shortly
after 168 B.c.The early Christian scholar
Jerome(A.D.347-420) rigorouslydis-
agreedwith this in his Commentary on
Daniel (see Archer 1958).Jerome's
defense of the traditionalview, however,
has graduallycrumbled in the face of the
accumulated evidence - although some
modern scholars continue to defend it
(see Young 1949 and the cautious sum-
mary of LaSor;see also Hartman and Di
Lella 1978:46 - 54, and Braverman1978).
The controversyhas primarily
concentratedon the historical and the
literary implications behind the cryptic
recounting of the various dreamsand
visions found in Daniel 2, 7, 8, 9, and 10
through 12, and their significance for the
date of their composition. The impor-
tant question is: Do all five of those
passagesreferto events during the period
of the Diadochi (the "successors"to
Alexander,301-163 B.c.),especially that
tragic three-yearperiodfrom 168-165
B.c.-or 167-164 B.c.-when Antiochus
IV,"Epiphanes," and his cohorts were
persecuting the Jews?Or do some of the
passages,especially 9:24-27 and 11:36-
45, referto imperial Rome or the
"Antichrist"at an indefinite time in the
future?
When the literary and historical
facts are carefully examined, they
strongly supportthe view that most of
the visions of the author of the book of
BIBLICAL
ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE
the
Daniel
Daniel reflect the period of Antiochus
IV,when the Jewswere sufferingwhat
must have appearedto them as the worst
persecutions in their history (see 1
Maccabees,with its grim account of
those months of struggle,and 2
Maccabees,which may be somewhat
exaggeratedbut which punctuates the
horrorsof the tragedy;see also Josephus
in book 1 of The Jewish War-Thackeray
1967:31-37-and book 12 of Jewish
Antiquities-Marcus 1966:246-56;
272-77).
The author of Daniel, therefore,to
offer compassion and hope to his suffer-
ing compatriots,employed the literary
device of a pseudonym (afamous name
from earlier history), and he set his
urgent message in the Babylonianand
Persianperiods four centuries earlier.
Thus he producedwhat is called proph-
etia ex eventu-that is, prophecyfrom
(or after) the event.
Although traditional scholars have
over the past 100 yearsgraduallycome to
accept that at least some of the visions
in Daniel show the influence of the
persecutions of Antiochus IV (see, for
example, Gaebelein 1911and Young
1949),they have often viewed the use of
such literarydevices as "aforgery"that
must thereforediscredit the "revelation"
(see Young 1949:5). Gaebelein (1911:
209) calls it "willfully confirming and
sanctioning an unpardonablefraud."
The use of pseudonyms, however,
was a common practice in the Greco-
Romantimes, to lend authority to a
writing and thus to help it reach a wider
audience, and the device of prophetia ex
eventu was not without precedent in
Scripture.Genesis 49:1- 27 (where
Jacob,from his deathbed,speaks to his
1985
91
sons about the future)reveals a similar periods.It is thereforeapparentthat would addweight to his message and
literary device used in much earlier duringthe postexilic period the meaning obscure his identity from the Hellenistic
biblical times. of nbbi' graduallyshifted from "forth- persecutors.But he knew he would be
In addition, the use of these devices teller"to "foreteller"-or "proclaimer"to understoodby those whose faith he was
does not in my view preclude the "predictor." seeking to sustain in the presence of
author'sbeing a prophetlike Amos, The author of Daniel must have such dire odds. This is precisely what
Micah, or Isaiah, writing in the true been acutely awareof this change as he was done by the early prophetsbefore
sense of the early meaning of ndbil felt his propheticcall about 168 B.c. when him through their use of poetry and
"prophet," with a specific and con- his literary strategywas developed. other literary devices. One might say,in
temporarypurpose. Clearly our author consideredhimself to fact, that in 168 B.C.to be a prophetto
be a prophet,perhapsinspiredby Amos his people, the author of Daniel was
"Forthtelling and Foretelling" 3:7: forcedto use a new literary idiom to
A semantic change occurredin the use Surelythe LordGoddoesnothing, communicate his urgent message. Amos
of the word for "prophet"some time after withoutrevealinghis secret(swdw) needed only to say,"Thussays the
the Exile. This change was especially to his servantsthe prophets. LORD,"in the eighth century B.C.;but
stimulated by the severalcenturies of Since he lived in a time when most Jews our author had to have a different
Judea'sbeing dominatedby foreignpo- believed propheticvoices no longer approachin the second century.
litical powers.Forthe present, Jewish existed (see 1 Maccabees4:46, 9:27, and Fromthe aboveit should be clear
hopes for the fulfillment of God's 14:41), he chose, therefore, apocalyptic that it is very importantthat the book of
promises to their forefathers was clouded literary devices (like Ezekiel 38-48, or Daniel be understoodin terms of the
by the disillusioning vicissitudes of Isaiah 24- 27) to supporthis efforts to historical-literaryethos of the second
history,and it became the custom to look save the faith of his brethren.He care- century B.C.ratherthan in the usual
to the literary past for guidance, even for fully gatheredand composed two kinds eschatological ("end-time") sense.
clues to the future. By the time of Ezra of resources,hero tales (chapters1-6) JohnC. Trever
and Nehemiah (orby 400 B.c.), the Jews and visions (chapters7-12), which
had come to believe that revelation had
ceased. In the midst of the Hellenistic
pressures,especially in the late third
century B.C.,the messages of the early
prophetswere lifted almost to the level
of Torah(which had been canonized
about 400 B.C.)and finally became
canonical Scripture.
In this context the meaning of the
word "prophet"changed.In the unique Column 27 of the Psalms
passage of the Psalms Scroll twa YIMit W"* Scroll (ll QPsa).In lines
prose ?Obws.
9;9~ twJV!I
2-11, a prosepassage tells
(27:2-11) from QumranCave 11 the YIU
change is graphicallyportrayed.There 319499W1 tt Yit4st
IW.rw4 Alu that David composed
4,050 psalms for various
David's4,050 poetic compositions (!)are yn3V.J4) 49 liturgical purposes.Line
A 6MA i9,'% blipi~\3 btti Ovi WyViOVAW?V
rmb flW it
said to have been composed bannebi~ah, 11reveals that "allof
which might be translated means of these David composed by
"by 1 means of prophecywhich
prophetic revelation" (line 11).This is Vv pmv0itsv1A 'vuWi' itmlr Iwo4 $4AJ
was given to him from
the oldest extant manuscript evidence of movL, \rv
V105 w Wo 1A mpil "W1 0
the presence of the One
the semantic change of that key Old on High."Alsoin this
It is column the first manu-
Testamentword, ndbi' ("prophet"). script recordof the word
often forcefully translatedby scholars as
nebu'ah(shown high-
"forthteller"(see Knopf 1938: 19)-mean- pvil"4!r iutns wAsrv tl SIHV
eb lighted) appears.The word
ing one who proclaims, or speaksfor, occursin a prose passage
God-to emphasize its sense from the V%?VA'g referringto David. Photo-
tenth to the sixth centuries s.c. The
t*4tlWYW'%I?
Na WV4W
' StSbi
9-u51 ys3ts
'1"' Vt '% t5II"JA $ 1 3 '31 it 4 3 t
graphis from The Psalms
Scrollof QumranCave11
oldest known occurrences of nebti'h, 14p ym~p~ u i t l $1'tif
i; n '
~L~Y1'5t Ti Nyps by J.A. Sanders(Series:
with the new meaning of "prophecy" in 4ttL $4u 1 Discoveriesin the
the sense of predictingthe future ~~~~u 44 U1 q
4,4gtfy JudaeanDesert 4, Oxford,
are those in 2 ClarendonPress, 1965).
(throughrevelation),
Chronicles 9:29 (whereboth ndbi' and
nebi'dihareused) and 15:8 (whereboth
forms may have been used, although the
Hebrew is uncertain)and in Nehemiah
6:12;most scholars date these books in
the late Persianor early Hellenistic

92 BIBLICAL 1985
ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE
struggledalong with some other men of God before him, and thou- when he says:
Hasidim. The figure of "twenty sands since, the author-compilerof Interpreted,this means that the
years"may be a round number but it Daniel no doubt turned to the writ- final age shall be prolonged,and
is sufficient to include the necessary ings of the canonical Hebrew Proph- shall exceedall that the Prophets
time-adjustment to the delay re- ets for answers.His own literary havesaid;forthe mysteriesof God
efforts were set aside, apparently,as are astounding.(1QpHab7:5-8;
quiredby our author for his ex- Vermes 1975:234)
pectation that the Kingdomwould he gropedfor help for his own faith.
The well-known passage in On the other hand, the interpretation
appearin the midst of Antiochus' of the last two lines of Habakkuk 2:3
persecutions or at his death, as is Habakkuk(2:1and 2) about that
seems to reflect the Teacher'sin-
perfectly clear from Daniel late-seventh-century-B.C, prophet's structions to his followers:
11:40-45 when seen in relation to similar dilemma may very well have
Daniel 11:21-39. Antiochus died, Interpreted,this concernsthe men
promptedour author'ssearch for a of truthwho keepthe Law,whose
however,under circumstances quite new vision, as the well-preserved hands shall not slacken in the
differentfrom those our author had commentary on Habakkuk serviceoftruthwhenthefinalageis
predicted.His own faith in his (1QpHab)from Qumran implies on prolonged.Forall the ages of God
prophetic mission must have been column 7. Note the words of reach their appointedend as He
severely shaken as a result; and he Habakkuk2:3: determinesfor them in the mys-
too needed some time to recover, Forstill the visionawaitsits time; teries of His wisdom. (lQpHab
while he sought to sustain those it hastensto the end-it will 7:10-14; Verms 1975:239)
whose faith had been held steady not lie. Perhapsmore important, it
If it seems slow, wait for it; seems to me, was the book of Isaiah,
through his pseudonymous book. In
it will surelycome,it will not which providedour author the chal-
fact, the extensions in time in
Daniel 12:11and 12 might even be delay. lenge and inspiration to modify and
If, indeed, the Qumran commentary enlarge the visions of the Kingdom
interpretedas his own first attempts on Habakkukrepresentsthe Qumran he had written in his own book. The
to cope with the problem of the delay
of God'sinvasion of human history. Teacher'sinterpretation,which he fact that 18 copies of Isaiah have
The death of Antiochus taught his followers, as many schol- been found in the eleven Qumran
ars have concluded, his comments caves (only Psalms and Deuteronomy
Epiphanesin Persia,far awayfrom about the first two lines of this verse have been found more
"theglorious holy mountain"(Daniel frequently-
providea clear indication of his 30 and 23 copies respectively) is an
11:45),as well as other events, had altered concept about end-time,
surely convinced our author that indication of the prime importance
"thetime of the end"(Daniel 11:40 of Isaiah to the Teacherand the men
and 12:1)was not to be as soon as he of Qumran.Isaiah 40:1-11 may well
had anticipated. Like many devout owidt have providedthe answer for the
delay of Divine action and thus
restoredour author'sfaith as he
experienced a new vision that was a
The PrayerScrollfrom Cave 1. This scroll contains call to go into the wilderness to
the used
prayers for special holy days.The
part
preservedhere probably comes from the prayerfor
4k -MOW
the Day ofAtonement. Thehighlighted wordsread: 0Uit 31
"ForThou hast renewed Thy Covenant with them
in a glorious vision." S . b

i vi NI
Tr
-AIX
4Y~~9'1
?~?~~*U ?) %r4Y

r~
"~,ul-lr )1n E
~ f)r'\NVal7

'I
V v" Voil

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 93
"preparethe way of the Lord."It is doubt;for sometime later their thewayof .... [fourdotsusedforthe
easy to imagine our author fleeing Community Rule quoted the passage Name],makestraightin the desert
with a scroll of Isaiah into that as though it were a part of the in- a pathforourGod."(1QS8: 10-13;
ruggedwilderness of Judeaeast of structions given to everyonewho Vermes1975:85 and86, with some
minorchanges)
Jerusalemduring the tumultuous sought to join their fellowship:
Andwhen these becomemembers Then that rule book adds the very
days in 168-167 B.C.There the words
of Isaiah preparedhim for another of the Communityin Israelaccord- purpose for going into the wilder-
ing to all these rules, they shall ness -that is, to study Torah:
"gloriousvision,"as the Qumran
separate from the habitation of This (path)is the studyof the Law
Prayer scroll (1Q34bis) implies: "and whichHe commandedbythe hand
thou didst renew thy covenant for ungodly men and shall go into the
wilderness to preparethere the way of Moses,that theymaydo accord-
them in a glorious vision."4
of the LORD[acryptogram is used ing to all that has been revealed
That Isaiah 40:3 played an for the Sacred Name]; as it is fromageto age,andas the Prophets
important part in the founding of the written,"Prepare in the wilderness have revealedby His Holy Spirit.
Qumran Community, there is little (1QS8:14and15;Vermes1975:86)
On column 6 of the same manu-
script we learn that this intense
A 1 study continued daily, round the
clock:
v's*-s?:IV; can say~~b su r9e son AYls**N bO "'al b9ri spy as
Andwherethe ten are,thereshall
.,~~~~~~~~y
I~ t;Y \I - lo mfn95 .. neverlacka manamongthemwho
Y Y ?I shallstudytheLawcontinually,day
massVW ort ateSt4147~-( n14was~ LYasJr#*
~?l andnight,concerningtherightcon-
ev;~unynvno sen?~m wayne di # 8 ?*7~I~ ductof a manwith his companion.
>crF',lwr y543
ju?I*ur~h ss W 5 Man qq (lines 6 and 7;Vermes 1975:81)
wm 959 To keep Torahperfectly was their
fty'jeYW7 way scrany3 a a
Nnrmt obligation, if they were to fulfill the
Tyot 4 - purposefor which God was preparing
Ws
AA them.
?A,4ss Avgm
.Mla vo
wwlrcr ??ta \moss(~3irsnaSrIssy !010 jlYlears~ Itr t. Eventhe location of the Qumran
Community supports this point of
focus of the community. It seems
mys~ltr ni w lq^,C dW sillyto J omu likely that the Teacherchose the
S.n1 41
place he did in the wilderness (that
is, KhirbetQumran, the ruins of the
outpost built by Uzziah there on the
sys*,sanLn*u ntr~ '1as)t, 7()Y?. t .Lrl tCfn(
plateau overlookingthe Dead Sea,
and destroyedby Nebuchadnezzar's
v~p usIL .rrmies9h n was qupnassstrand ws
army in 586 B.c.) not just for con-
venience but also because it was
an<*'LSf Us )rn')ns r(m swassY1vesse*;rs 9 e
within clear view of Mount Nebo,
r S 1J w ri va * tistw" -10-L^( wa X 4 where tradition had placed the site
of Moses' composition of the Torah.
Each morning as the men of Qumran
.ren rsaw 7nrss70 W stm
wour~ dn9, uwep stat entered the community center,
whether it was from one of the
hermit caves up in the cliffs to the
Use -A, Asn'l
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
)V4a reur
nl t Wn -.~arr
u , ww lZ Yo , Hy : west, or from the barren plateau to
the south where many of them
probably spent the night, their eyes
could not help but see that mountain
that was symbolic of Torah, their
Column 8 of the Rule of the Community (1QS).The quotation from Isaiah 40:3 is
primary objective.
highlighted. It appearsin the section which gives instruction to the Qumraninitiates, The visions of the book of
who are called to join the community in the wilderness in perfectlykeeping the Tbrah
as revealed to Moses and the Prophets"byHis (God's)Holy Spirit"(lines 12-15). The four Daniel were given a new dimension
dots in the center of the line indicate the divine name.
by the book of Isaiah, which could

94 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
have enabled the author-compiler
himself to overcome the spiritual
crisis through which he was strug-
gling. As faith conquereddoubt did
he "hear"God calling him to larger
responsibilities as a prophet?He
must have come to feel God needed
him to prepareothers for a very
special part in the final dramaof
human history for which God'splans
were not yet complete.
Another indication of the
importance of Isaiah 40:3 for the
Teacherand his followers is the
special markings and spacing on
columns 32 and 33 of the Great
Isaiah Scroll. That the passage was
very frequently read in the com-
munity is also apparentfrom the
degree of darkeningof the back of
the sheepskins, which is especially
prominent aroundthese columns,
from the oil of the hands of the
many who readfrom the scroll over
almost a century. In columns 32 and
33 of the Isaiah "'A"Scroll the darken-
ing had penetratedto the front sur-
face. That scroll must have been
copied around 125-100 B.c.,not
long before the death of the Teacher;
and it is not difficult to imagine that
An aerial photo of KhirbetQumran.This photographappearscourtesy of PictorialArchive.
some of the oil was from the hands
of the author of Daniel himself, as
he readfrom the scroll many times by the paleographicevidence alone, The following twelve points are
before he died. before it was considered too worn for presented here briefly but will be
Without a doubt this special further use. Then it was rolled up in elaboratedand documented in an
passage in the scroll helped to keep its cover and placed in a tall jarin article in a festschrift volume in
alive the vision of the community's the back of the community geniza, honor of Dr. William H. Brownlee,
raison d'etrefor its members. After which is now called Qumran Cave 1. whose untimely death on July 16,
the death of their beloved Teacher, This probablyoccurredwhen the 1983, has silenced one of the most
that same scroll must have played an men of Qumran left the areaafter articulate scholars of the Dead Sea
important part in maintaining the the Parthianinvasion of about 40 Scrolls?
spiritual vision of the men of B.C.or the earthquake in 31 B.C. Origins among the Hasidim. In the
Qumran throughout the prime There it awaited discoveryfor almost first place, both the author of Daniel
period of the life of the community 2,000 years. and the Qumran Community had
(period Ib-around 100-31 B.c.). It their origins among the Hasidim,
was obviously a favoritescroll at Gathering the Evidence that early-second-century-B.c. pi-
Qumran. The abundantuse of vowel Almost all scholars studying the etistic movement of Judaismthat
letters, the wide paleographicspan scrolls have pointed to the impor- arose from the pressure of Greek
of time indicated by the corrections tance of the book of Daniel for Hellenization. Both revealfrom their
made on it, and other unique fea- Qumran studies; not one, however, literature that they were pacifist in
tures of its "localPalestinian"text, has suggested its direct link with the point of view; they firmly believed
add further evidence to this thesis. Right Teacher.Ample evidence now that the solution to evil in the world
This scroll must have been used indicates such an approachshould was a matter not for human military
for almost a hundredyears, to judge be seriously considered. prowessbut for God'sactions in His

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 95
 riprt kv*% Pro
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f 7r

16r

AW"
7n).*r~uVKSb M
'IM .
- "A
tLf.. I ir)"5
54 ,%X ,%:
~t~' 771'~
37 W
AnP; I *II
(4JY
- ,
IJA
W.71

Columns 32 and 33 of the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa).The breakin line 2 of column 33 suggests a pause in reading to emphasize
the sacredpassage that follows (verse3). The darkeningof the leather across the middle and on the rolls indicates the importance
of Isaiah 40:1-3 for the Qumrancommunity; the scroll has absorbed the oil from the many hands that held it. The markings at
the lower right and the three scripts used indicate that correctionswere made at a later date.

own time. The Hasidim apparently massacre of one thousand pious Jews peshar, meaning "interpretation"(of
became divided over this issue when early in the Maccabeanrevolt, the dreams, and so on), appearsthirty-
the problem of defendingthemselves number of Hasidim would hardly two times. As early as March 1948,
on the Sabbathbecame acute at the have been large;and the number of Dr. William Brownlee noticed the
time of Antiochus IV'sdesecration those whose dedication would be frequent occurrences of the Hebrew
of the Temple and the persecutions sufficient to practice pacifism in the term pesher in one of the scrolls we
that followed, even before they face of such odds must have been were working on at the Jerusalem
reachedan intolerable peak in indeed very small. If the Right school. Each time the word intro-
December of 167 B.C. (see Maccabees Teacherwas from the Hasidim, duced the interpretationof a passage
1:57-2:43, especially 2:42 and 43). therefore,he seems most likely to from Habakkuk. Soon the document
It would haverequireda personof have been one of their leaders who came to be called the Habakkuk
tremendous spiritual qualities and was most committed, even in the Commentary (see Brownlee 1979).
vision - a giant of faith and loyalty face of martyrdom,to strict obser- With more discoveries from other
to Torah,such as was exhibited by vance of the Torah- or none other caves almost fifteen such similar
the author-compilerof Daniel -to than the author-compilerof Daniel, manuscripts were identified (partsof
lead such a split among the Hasidim. who fitted precisely these qualities. Genesis, Isaiah, Hosea, Psalms,
Thus he is a natural candidate for Similarity of method. Second, in the Micah, Zephaniah, a long one of
the Right Teacherat the right time Aramaic portions of Daniel Nahum, and so on), and they soon
in history. Furthermore,after the (2:4b- 7:28),the Aramaic word became known as the peshafrim

96 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
manuscripts from Qumran.
All of these pesharim manu-
scripts exhibited the same method
of interpretationwhich showed the
meaning of each passagefor the
"end-time"in which the men of
Qumran believed that they were
living. In other words, all the inter-
pretations were eschatological in
nature. It is believed that this
method representedthe instruction
of the Right Teacher,copied down
some time after his death.
The close parallels between
Daniel and these Qumran docu-
ments, therefore,suggest a possible
direct relation. When we read in
lines 4 and 5 of column 7 of the
pesher to (orcommentary on)
Habakkuk that the meaning of
Habakkuk 2:2 refersto "theRight
Teacherto whom God made known
all the secrets of the words of His
servants the prophets,"it seems
logical to assume that it was the
author-compilerof Daniel who, as
the Right Teacher,communicated
his eschatological method directly
to the men of Qumran.It was
consistently used throughout the
community's 200 years of history.
Since that same method was used by
the first-century-A.D. Christians, it
may assumed, therefore,that
be
both Daniel and the Essenes were
the source of that influence upon
Christians, as revealedin the New
Testament.
Use of word maskilim. Third, many
scholars have noted the word
maskilim, translated "wise men,"in
Daniel 11:33-35 and 12:3as a title
for a class of leaders among the
Hasidim. In the Qumran Rule of the
Community ma~kil appearsthree
times (1QS3:13;9:12 and 21; see
1QSb 1:1and 3:23) as a title for a
community leader,perhapsother
than the Hasidic founder of the
community. Could it be that mdreh
in later Qumran manuscripts refer-
ring to the founderwas an honorific
title for a specific madkil, or the
Right Teacher,who clearly fits the
title magkil? Given the nature of the
Chronological Chart
JewishHistory QumranPeriods Qumran
History
781-740 B.C. Israelite Enclosure, rooms, cistern
Uzziah, king of Judah, and boundary wall built
"built towers in the at the same time as simi-
wilderness and hewed out lar installations on the
many cisterns" Buqeica?
(2 Chronicles 26:10).
175-164 B.C. The "ageof wrath"in
Antiochus IV (Epiphanes). which a "shoot"emerges
He sells the High Priest- to "inherit the Land"
hood, makes Jerusalem a (CD 1:4-5).
Greekpolis, desecrates
the Temple, and proscribes
Judaism.
167 B.C.
Outbreak of the Jewish
revolt led by the family of
Mattathias or Mattatiya
(Maccabees).
Twenty years of "groping
164 B.C. for the way"by the early
JudasMaccabaeus restores Essenes (orHasidim)
the Jewish cult to the (CD 1:10).
Tbmple. The proscription
decree is revoked.
160-142 B.C. Period Ia Around 150-142 B.C.(?)
Jonathan, successor to his the "Teacherof Righ-
brother Judas.He assumes teousness" sets up at
the office of High Priest Qumran a community.
in 152 B.C.
143-134 B.C.
Simon, brother of Jona-
than, is High Priest and
Ethnarch of the Jews.
134-104 B.C.
John Hyrcanus I. He quar-
rels with the Pharisees.
104-103 B.C.
Aristobulus I. He appar-
ently was the first Has-
monean ruler to assume
the title "king."
103-76 B.C. Period Ib About 100 B.c. Qumran is
Alexander Jannaeus. enlarged. Many new
members join the com-
munity and the site is
expanded.
76-67 B.c.
Alexandra,Alexander's
widow, reigns. Hyrcanus
II isHigh Priest.
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 97

JewishHistory
67-63 B.C.
Aristobulus,brotherof
HyrcanusII,usurpsthe
kingship.
63 B.C.
StrugglebetweenHyr-
canus IIandAristobulus
II.RomangeneralPompey
intervenesandenters
Jerusalem.
63-40 B.C.
HyrcanusIIis appointed
High Priestonly at first.
He is appointedEthnarch
later.
40-37 B.C.
Antigonusis HighPriest
andking. Parthianinva-
sion 40-38 B.C.Both are
opposedbyHerodandthe
Romans.
37-4 B.C.
Herod,with Romansup-
port,reigns.Commences
rebuildingthe Temple.
4 B.C.-A.D.6
Archelausis made
Ethnarchof Judeaand
Samariaonly.
A.D.6-41
Judeais ruledby Roman
prefects/procurators.
A.D.41-44
HerodAgrippaI is king.
(seeActs 12).
A.D.44-66
Judeais againruledby
Romanprocurators.From
A.D.50 onwards Agrippa II
is king of the areasto the
north andeast.
A.D.67-74
The firstJewishwar
againstthe Romans.
Jerusalemis capturedin
A.D.70, Masada (probably)
in A.D.74.
A.D. 132-135
SecondJewishwaragainst
the Romans,led byBar
Kokhba/Koseba.
98 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
method of interpretation used at
QumranPeriods QumranHistory Qumran perhaps this title mbreh
was drawn from the community's
PeriodIb
familiarity with Isaiah 30:20:
And though the Lordgive you the
breadof adversity and the water of
affliction, yet your Teacher [mbr-
tka] will not hide himself anymore,
but your eyes shall see yourTeacher
[m6reka].
This could thereforebe another
indication of the continuing impor-
tance of Isaiah to the men of Qumran
late in periods Ib and II of the com-
munity. It also gives evidence of
their great respect for their
founder-teacher.
One might go a step further,at
this point, to suggest that it may
have been a devout leader of the
some-
(umran Community who,
time after the death of their beloved
Teacher, added a final tribute to his
Around 31 B.C.Qumran is with the words of Daniel
destroyedby fire,caused memory
by militaryaction or 12:13:
earthquake. Butgoyourwaytill the end;andyou
shall rest, and shall standin your
PeriodII Essenesreturnto Qumran
andrebuildbut on a more allotted place at the end of the days.
modestscale. Paleographicevidence affirmsall
but one of the eight Daniel scrolls
from Qumran Caves 1, 4, and 6 date
from period II of the community (see
Cross 1961:43). This indicates that
interestin that book was revivedthere
at that time as the covenanters'apoc-
alyptic hopes became intensified.
The use of Kitti'im. The name
Kitti'im occurs fifteen times in the
pishiirim manuscripts, nine of
which occur in the first nine col-
umns of the pesher to Habakkuk,
plus eighteen times in the WarScroll
Qumranis capturedby (1QM).It occurs but once in Daniel
Roman soldiers in A.D.68. (11:30),but that once is very impor-
tant to the thesis presented here.
PeriodmI Until shortlyafter There is now no doubt that for
A.D. 74 (?)Qumran is used
as a Romanfort. the men of Qumran the meaning of
Kitti'im in all occurrences in their
scrolls was clearly concerned with
SomeJewishfighters
the Romans during the imperial
brieflyoccupyQumranas
a fortor shelter. period about the time of Pompey's
capture of Jerusalem in 63 B.c. In
Daniel 11:30 also there is no doubt
that "ships of Kittim" (the abbrevi-
ated spelling is usually used in the
Old Testament)refersto the
Romans,but in this case it was long
before the Romans controlled the
eastern Mediterranean.Most schol-
ars are agreedthat this referenceis
to a minor event that occurredin
168 B.C.when the Roman consul,
Gaius Popilius Laenas,interfered
with Antiochus Epiphanes'inten-
tions to conquer Egypt. Sent out in
"shipsof Kittim,"with the authority
of the Roman Senate, Popilius forced
Antiochus to turn back and give up
his plan of conquest. It should be
noted that Rome playedno ad-
versarialrole in this event from the
perspective of the Jewsof Jerusalem.
Instead it was the wrath of Antio-
chus in response to that rebuffthat
was a majorfactor in the Greek
persecutions of the Jewsin that ill-
fated year that producedthe
"abominationof desolation"(Daniel
8:13, 9:27, 11:31,and 12:11;see
Matthew 24:15)and promptedthe
final compilation of Daniel.
It is clear that our author's
predictions about end-time in
11:40-12:3 were to be related to the
Jewish struggle with Greek domina-
tion of Palestine, not Roman. But it
was the devotedfollowers of the
Right Teacherat Qumran perhapsa
century after his death, using the
same methods they had learned
from him, who interpretedDaniel
to referto the Romans,
11:40-.12:3
who in the meantime had gained
suzerainty over Palestine.
That interpretation,having
once been made in the first century
B.C. by orthodox Judaism, followed in
the next century by orthodox Chris-
tianity, has been maintained by
many interpreters for 2,000 years
(see Archer 1958: 133 and 134). It
might be said, therefore, that the
proper interpretation of Daniel 11:30
could be the key for unraveling a
sound approach to eschatology. It
was probably that particular misin-
terpretation of Scripture, which may
have been first introduced by the
Essenes, that did more to affect the
growth of apocalyptic literature in
Visionsplayedan importantpart in thebookof
Danielas wellas in theoriginof theQumran
community.
the particulardirection it took than
any other that might be pointed out.
Similarity in wording.From a
broaderlinguistic perspective,
scholars have been pointing for
many years to parallels between the
wording of Daniel and various
Qumran documents. More recently
Alexander Di Lella suggests that
certainlinguisticaffinitiesbetween
some of the Qumranliteratureon
the one hand and Daniel and 1
Maccabeeson the other are not
accidentalbut point to a certain
continuity between the Hasidim
duringthe ageof AntiochusIVand
the laterEssenes.(HartmanandDi
Lella1978:45)
Here he comes very close to my
thesis. He and several other scholars
have illustrated this point from a
number of Qumran documents.
Such linguistic evidence placed
beside the historical and ideological
implications adds significantly to
the overallimpression of the validity
of the thesis.
Historical sequence. The last article
written by Yigael Yadinjust before
his untimely death on June 28, 1984,
provides a fine summary for lay
readersof his work on the Temple
Scroll (Yadin1984).In it he makes a
statement that relates directly to our
thesis: "Moreover,I believe the scroll
was composed by the founder of the
sect, the veneratedTeacherof Righ-
teousness."He bases this conclusion
on the fact that fragments of two
other copies of the same manuscript
have been discoveredin Qumran
Cave 4, both of which he dates
paleographicallyto around 125-100
B.C.But he adds:"Ibelieve I can
detect historical allusions in the text
that would confirm a dating of
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
150-125 B.C." for its composition
(see also Yadin 1983:volume 1).
Since he also believed that "this
scroll contains nothing less than the
basic torah or law of the Essenes
who lived at Qumran on the north-
western shore of the Dead Sea"
(Yadin1984),it fits perfectly into the
historical sequence that would
imply the Teacheras its author.
If all this is true, then it would
appearfrom the thesis presented
here that the "Essenetorah"was the
magnum opus of none other than
the author-compiler of Daniel. We
might addby way of a parallel that
the "sectarianTorah"(as some schol-
ars call the Temple Scroll)of the
Teacherwas to the Essenes what the
"New Torah"(or"New Covenant")of
the author of the Gospel of Matthew
was to the early Christians.
Apocalyptic chronology.The dating
of events in the structure of Daniel
is immediately apparentto any
reader.It is similar to the practice of
many of the Old Testament Proph-
ets7 In the visions of Daniel 2 and 7
through 12, however,the introduc-
tion of a long-rangeapocalyptic
chronology appearsas a feature that
is not so common to the early proph-
ets.8In Daniel it serves the special
literaryfunction of predicting the
distant future from the perspective
of the Babylonianand Persian
periods- such as, for example, in
8:14 and 9:2 and 24-27. Forthis
largerpurpose, our author drew
upon Scripture,especially Jeremiah
25:11 and 12 and 29:10 ("seventy
years"of exile), mingling them in
such a way as to fulfill his literary
purpose (see Daniel 9:24, "seventy
weeks of years").
99
 This latter method of apoca-
lyptic chronology is exactly what is
also found at Qumran (see, for
example, the Damascus Document
1:3-10; 1QM 1 and 15;and 1QpHab
2 through 4). In fact, it is so clearly
carriedover into the community's
writings that it seems almost neces-
sary to assume that it was the author-
compiler of Daniel himself who
providedthis kind of literary leader-
ship for the community.
Use of visions. It has alreadybeen
pointed out that visions played an
importantpart in the book of Daniel,
as well as in the origin of the
Qumran Community. The author-
compiler of Daniel, therefore,and
the Right Teachershow an affinity
in this regardthat suggests another
piece of support for my thesis. That
they were both spiritually oriented
persons suggests that they may well
have been the same person.
Use of angelology. Some scholars
have shown that Daniel was a major
source of developingangelology in
the Judaismof the second century
B.C., and the Qumran documents
reflect a similar influence. Again
The cemetery of the Qumran Community,looking south overseveralof the 1,200 identical
graves.All photos, unless otherwise noted, are by JohnRTever.
100 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
this point of view may suggest one
and the same person.
Belief that the end-time was at hand.
The author-compilerof Daniel be-
lieved he was living in end-time, as
did the teacher who foundedthe
Qumran Community. This belief is
another ideological parallel that
brings the two together, even though
the later men of Qumran, who wrote
most of the scrolls, would shift the
timing of that end-time to the Roman
period after Pompey'sconquest of
Jerusalem in 63 B.C.It has been
shown that this shift was made
possible by the casual referenceto
the Kittim in Daniel 11:30.
A devotion to Scripture.The author- having something special and reveal-
compiler of Daniel was devotedto
Scriptureand had an intimate
knowledge of its contents, as many
scholars have pointed out. The
founder of the community at
Qumranwas also a master of Scrip- physical link with a biblical figure
ture and trained his followers to
devote their attention to it con-
stantly. Again this ideological paral- and perhapspursuing at Khirbet
lel suggests that the author-compiler Qumran.
of Daniel was, in fact, the Right
Teacher.
Archaeology.Finally,it is possible
that archaeologycould add even
more evidence to the proposalmade
here. Since it is probablethat the
Teacherwas buried in the Qumran
cemetery to the east of the com-
munity center duringperiod Ia
(around140-100 B.C.),one of the
1,200 austere gravesjust might yield
evidence to identify it as the graveof
the beloved founder-teacher.Ad-
mittedly the Qumran practice of the
simplest form of burial has been
repeatedwithout exception in all
the more than forty gravesexcavated
so far,and the chances carrybut a
thread of hope for the Teacher'sgrave
ing; but the men of Qumran might
have made that one exception. If,
indeed, the Teacherwas the author-
compiler of Daniel, such a discovery
would providethe first direct
that would be more than just tradi-
tion- a thought worth considering
Conclusion
In summary, it should now be clear
beyond any question of doubt that
the name "Daniel"was a pseudonym
deliberately chosen by the authors of
the book to place the stories in an
earlier century and thereby obscure
the writers'identities, which was a
common practice in the second
century B.C.Furthermore,it was
done to lend more authority and a
wider circulation to the writings.
From the earliest treatments of
the Qumran documents, it has been
noticed that those writings were
done anonymously. It is possible,
therefore,to assume that the influ-
ence on the community came not
through the book of Daniel as a
literary source but directly from its
author-compilerwho was the
Teacher,who chose to retain his
anonymity. In this case, perhaps,it
was a testimony of his dedication
and humility that motivated his
literaryprocedure.
 From the historical, literary,
linguistic, and ideological parallels
between Daniel and the Qumran
documents that I give above,it
seems to me that the evidence
reaches a significant level of prob-
ability that the author-compilerof
Daniel was indeed the founder and
Right Teacherof the Qumran-Essene
community.
Notes
I am gratefulto my student assistant,
Puthuvail T. Philip, for reminding me
about the passage from Amos (3:7)
quoted in my sidebarand its link with
1QpHab7:4 and 5, where the Aramaic
rzy, "secretsof,"appearsin the Hebrew.
See Daniel 2:18 and 19, 27-30, and 47,
and 4:6 where the Aramaicrz ("secret,"
"mystery")occurs.
'This and all other Bible quotations
used in this article are from the Revised
StandardVersion.
2From1QS9:11 it is apparentthat
that association became shifted to the
future later in the history of the men of
Qumran. Could it be that they expected
the return of the Teacher?
3This document was discoveredin
the old synagogueof Cairo in 1897 and is
now identified among the Qumranfrag-
ments, which reveal its ancient source.
4See 1Q Prayers2:6 (1Q34bis).The
parallel to the recordsabout the baptism
of Jesusis immediately apparent(Mark
1:3-13), where in verse 3, however,it is
the Greek text-"A voice crying in the
wilderness, 'Preparethe way'" that
underlies the story;but the Hebrew-"A
voice cries: 'In the wilderness prepare
the way'" is what promptedthe think-
ing of the QumranTeacher.
5Editedby CraigA. Evans,the vol-
ume, entitled EarlyJewish and Christian
Exegesis:Studies in Memory of William
Hugh Brownlee, will be published by
ScholarsPress, probablyin the latter
part of 1985.
6Sincethe men of Qumranbelieved
that the Teacher'smethods of inter-
pretationwere inspiredby God (1QpHab
7:4 and 5), they doubtless would have
believed the same about the "Essene
torah"scroll. Yadingives other reasons
from the 11QTemple Scroll itself.
7See,for example, Isaiah 1:1and 7:1,
Amos 1:1,Micah 1:1,Jeremiah1:1-3 and
24:1,and Ezekiel 1:1and 2. It was natural
Who is an Essene?
Thile many scholarshave concluded that some of the scrolls from
Qumran are Essene writings, because they parallel the descriptions of
Essene life given by Philo, Josephus,and others, a similar consensus has not
developedconcerning what the name "Essene"means. Morethan forty
differentexplanations of the name have been offeredin publications which
appearedboth before and after the initial Qumrandiscoveries.The majority
of scholars who have dealt with this issue fall into three groups.The first
group advocatesthe Aramaic root hs' as the source of the name. In this case
the name Essene would mean "thepious ones,"as does the Hebrewterm
Hasidim. The second groupprefersthe Aramaicroot 'sythat can be trans-
lated to mean "thehealers,"which resembles one interpretationof the name
"therapeutai"-agroupof Jewishcontemplatives in Egyptdescribedby Philo
of Alexandria (13B.C.-A.D. 45/50). Those who find none of the proposals
convincing comprise the third group.Neither of the Aramaicroots men-
tioned abovecan be found in the Qumranwritings - or in any ancient
writings - used in clear referenceto the Essenes. In my opinion, however,
we do have sufficient information- including several referencesin the
Qumran scrolls themselves-to clarify the origin of the name Essene.
Philo is the earliest writer known to have used the Greek form of the
name Essaioi. The other Greek form of the same name used by Josephus
and others, Essenoi, is the source of our English term. Another writer,
Epiphanius(A.D.315-403), used a spelling which begins with the letter
omicron- Ossaioi and Ossenoi. In his essay "EveryGood Man is Free,"
Philo introduces virtuous groupswho study but emphasize deeds rather
than words (section 74). Then (section 75) he writes of the Essenes'name:
"thisname, in my opinion, is a variation, though the form of the Greek is
not exact, of hosiotes (meaningdisposition to observe divine law) ...
because they have shown themselves especially devout servants of God
(therapeutaitheou)."Philo'saccount tells us- and this is confirmedby
many other ancient writers- that the Essenes were particularlydedicated
to observing divine law, namely their interpretationof Torah.There is a
Hebrew term used in some of the Qumranwritings as a self-descriptionof
their group,which, in my opinion, providesthe origin of the name Essene.
The phrase"doersof the Torah"(cwdyhtwrh) and variants such as "doersof
God'swill" are used severaltimes in the Qumranliterature.
ProfessorTreverhas quoted one of the relevantpassagesfrom a Qumran
scroll. In this interpretation(orpesher)on Habakkuk2:4b,"therighteous
shall live by faith,"the writer of this scroll, found in QumranCave 1,
considers the verse a referenceto this group,the "doers" of the Torah-the
Essenes.
Fora more detailed discussion of this topic, see my article "'Essenes':
Etymology from c h,"in Revue de Qumran 44: 483-98.
Stephen Goranson
for our author to do the same: for in- of the Old Testamentconsider several
stance, Daniel 1:1and 21, 2:1 and 7:1.It passagesas long-rangepredictions (for
is, in fact, one of many indications that instance, Isaiah 7, 9, and 11 and Ezekiel
he was writing as a prophet,even though 38), even though their authors did not
anonymously. intend their messages to be used that
8Butsee Genesis 49:1-27. I am way.
aware,of course, that many interpreters
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 101
 Bibliography
Archer,G. L., Jr.,translator
1958 Jerome'sCommentaryon Daniel.
GrandRapids,MI:BakerBook
House.
Beegle, D. M.
1978 Prophecyand Prediction.Ann
Arbor,MI:PryorPettengill.
Braverman,Jay
1978 Jerome'sCommentaryon Daniel, A
Study of ComparativeJewish and
Christian Interpretationsof the
Hebrew Bible. Series:Catholic
Biblical QuarterlyMonograph
Series 7.
Brownlee,W.H.
1979 The MidrashPesherof Habakkuk.
Baltimore,MD: ScholarsPress.
Bruce,E E
1969 The Book of Daniel and the Qumran
Community. In Neotestamentica et
Semitica: Studies in Honourof
Matthew Black, edited by E. E. Ellis
and M. Wilcox. Edinburgh:T. & T.
Clark.
Casey,P.M.
1976 Porphyryand the Origin of the Book
of Daniel. Journalof Theological
Studies n.s. 27: 25-33.
Collins,J.J.
1977 Apocalyptic Visions of the Book of
Daniel. Baltimore,MD: Scholars
Press.
Cross, E M.
1961 TheAncient Libraryof Qumran.
GardenCity, NY:Doubleday.
Gaebelein,A. C.
1911 The ProphetDaniel. New York:Our
Hope.
Gaster,T.
1956 The Dead Sea Scriptures.New York:
Doubleday.
Hartman,L. E, and Di Lella,A. A.
1978 The Book of Daniel. Series:Anchor
Bible 23. GardenCity, NY:
Doubleday.
Knopf,C. S.
1938 Ask the Prophets.A Bible Study
Manual. New York,Cincinnati,
Chicago:Abingdon.
LaSor,W.S.
1982 The TruthAbout Armageddon.San
Francisco:Harperand Row.
Marcus,R., translator
1966 JosephusVII:JewishAntiquities,
Books XII-XIV Cambridge,MA,
and London:HarvardUniversity
Press and Heinemann.
Montgomery,J.A.
1927 A Critical and Exegetical Com-
mentary on The Book of Daniel.
Series:The InternationalCritical
Commentary.New York:Scribner's
and Sons.
Thackeray,H. St. J.,translator
1967 JosephusII: TheJewish War,Books
I-Ill. Cambridge,MA, and London:
HarvardUniversity Press and
Heinemann.
Vermes,G.
1975 The Dead Sea Scrollsin English,
Baltimore,MD: PenguinBooksLtd.
1977 The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumranin
Perspective.London:Collins.
Yadin,Y
1983 The TempleScroll,three volumes.
Jerusalem:IsraelExplorationSociety,
The Institute of Archaeologyof the
HebrewUniversity,The Shrineof
the Book.
1984 The TempleScroll:The Longestand
Most Recently DiscoveredDead Sea
Scroll. Biblical ArchaeologyReview
10(5):32-49.
1985 The TempleScroll:The Hidden Law
of the Dead Sea Sect. New York:
RandomHouse.
Young,E. J.
1949 The Prophecyof Daniel, A
Commentary.GrandRapids,MI:
Eerdmans.

American Schools of Oriental Research

FELLOWSHIPSAT
CYPRUS AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGICALRESEARCH INSTITUTE

The AmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch(ASOR)is offeringover$170,000in researchfellowships,professorships, scholarships,andtravelgrantsfor the

academicyear1986-87. ASOR'sawardprogramis availableto studentsat alllevels,fromundergraduate to postdoctoralscholars,andqualifiedindividualsare
invitedto apply.The awardsare designedto offer opportunitiesfor studyin humanisticdisciplinessuch as anthropology,archaeology,biblicalstudies,
epigraphy,history,historyof artandarchitecture,
literature,philology,prehistory,andtopography.Theprogramencouragesstudyof the MiddleEast,from
prehistorictimesto the modernera.

The followingawardsarebeingofferedat CAARI:

FulbrightFellowships.Forthe1986-87 academicyear(beginningin eitherJulyorSeptember of 1986),threepositionsareavailable:(1)a research
fellowshipforpostdoctoralresearchrelatedto thegrantee'sdoctoraldissertation;(2) a seniorresearchfellowshipforresearchin anyfieldof the
fellow'schoosing;and(3) a studentfellowshipfordoctoralresearch.ItshouldbenotedthattheFulbrightpostdoctoralfellowships(1)and(2) may
be heldfor a minimumtermof six monthsto a maximumtermof ten months.Further,two six-monthfellowshipsmaybe awardedforeachof
the postdoctoralfellowshipsif two qualifiedcandidatesapplyfor six-monthterms.The applicationdeadlinefor (1)and (2) is September15,
1985. For (3) it is October31, 1985. Interestedpersonsshould contactthe FulbrightProgramAdvisorat their institutions.Additional
informationcanbehadfromtheCouncilforInternational Exchangeof Scholars,11DupontCircle,Suite300, Washington, D.C.20036 orphone
(202) 833-4968, with regardto the two postdoctoralawards.Informationaboutthe predoctoralawardcan be obtainedfromthe Institutefor
International Education,809 UnitedNationsPlaza,New York,N.Y. 10017,or phone(212)883-8200. Pleasenote thatthesefellowshipsare
intendedforthe purposesof genuinescholarlyexchange.Americannationalsworkingat foreignuniversities,for example,arenot eligible.
AnnualProfessorship. A nine-to twelve-month,postdoctoralprofessorshipis available.It providesfreeroomat CAARIfor the professorand
spouse,butCAARIcannotaccommodatedependentchildren.No stipendis included.Theseawardsareopento qualifiedstudentsandscholars
fromanycountry.To qualifyone musthavebeenan individualmemberof ASORfor at leasttwo yearspreviousto makingapplicationor be
affiliatedwith an institutionthatis a memberof ASOR.Primeconsiderationis givento applicationswhoseprojectsareaffiliatedwith ASOR.
Thedeadlineis November15, 1985;notificationwill be madebyJanuary15, 1986.Applicationis madedirectlyto ASORusingtheapplication
guidelinesavailablefromASOR.
HonoraryFellowships.Alsoavailablearesix-to twelve-month honoraryfellowshipsatCAARI.Theyprovideno stipendandno room-and-board
benefits.Theyarehonorarypositionsonly,in one of the followingcategories:SeniorFellow(forthose holdingthe Ph.D.fiveyearsor more);
PostdoctoralFellow(forthose holdingthe Ph.D.less than fiveyears);ResearchFellow(predoctoral); Scholar(undergraduate).Applicationis
madedirectlyto the Directorof CAARIat anytime.

102 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
 BA PORTRAIT

was surprised when I first read that Max Leopold

Margolishadbeen annualprofessorat the American
School in Jerusalem (today known as the Albright
Institute of Archaeological Research) for the year
1924-1925. Although I knew of his well-deservedrepu-
tation as a biblical translator,linguist, grammarian,and
textual critic, I did not at first see the connection between
these accomplishments andthe primarilyarchaeological
orientation of the Jerusalemschool. Upon further reflec-
tion I saw what is, in fact, a very natural connection:
Margolis'work on the book of Joshua,to which he had
initially been attracted by its large number of place-
names, gave him unsurpassed mastery over a mass of
topographical data relating to the land of Israel. Such
knowledge was bound to benefit practicing archaeolo-
gists like W.E Albrightwho spoke of becoming Margolis'
"enthusiasticdisciple"after "sittingat his feet."
Beforedawn on October21, 1924, Max Margolisrose
to begin an eight-day trek from Jerusalemto Gaza that
was to provide both archaeological and equestrian ad-
venture. As annual professor at the American School,
Margolis was to accompany Albright and eight other
individuals. What concerned the 58-year-oldMargolis
was not his lack of field experience in archaeology,but
the fact that, as he wrote in a letter, "thiswill be my first
experience in ridinga horse."Margolisrequestedthat the
recipient "pleasecommiserate with me."
As Margolisdescribes it, the first day out from Jeru-
salem providedseveralincidents overwhich commisera-
Courtesyof DropsieCollege forHebrewand CognateLearning
tion seems appropriate.No sooner had they set out on the
Jaffaroad than Margolis'horse shied at an approaching
motorcar,landing both Margolisand the horse in a ditch
on the side of the road.FortunatelyMargolismanagedto
Max
Leopold Margolis stick to the saddle, and soon a muleteer, the only Arab
who spoke enough Hebrewto guide Margolis,appearedto
A Scholar's Scholar lead him and his horse back onto the road.
Albright, so Margolisreasoned,had mappedout the
first day's itinerary on the basis of his own excellent
horsemanship. Twelve full hours in the saddle, covering
thirty miles across the mountains, was quite an initia-
by LeonardGreenspoon tion forMargolis.No wonderhe was allowedto spend the
first night in the sole field bed the expedition possessed.
Albright was "merciful"on the following dayswhen they
moved at a more leisurely pace. But Margolis may have
felt the need for a little good-naturedrevenge;at Tell el-
Hesi he hastily scratched"Lachish"inancient scriptupon

BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE 1985 103

a piece of pottery, which he later slipped in front of
Albright. (The identification of Tell el-Hesi as ancient
Lachish was only then going out of favor.)Forabout two
seconds he had Albright stumped and then, of course,
Albright recognized it for the hoax it was.
Jerusalemin the 1920s was a fascinating place, and
Margolis chronicled its atmosphere with the same keen
observation of details that characterized his scholarly
work. Among the fellow scholars he mentions are
Herbert Danby, Joseph Klausner, Binyamin Kosovski,
Eliezer Sukenik, Gershom Scholem, Albrecht Alt, John
Garstang, Edouard Dhorme, and Pbre Louis Vincent.
Margolis'decision to acceptAlbright'sinvitation to spend
the 1924-1925 academicyearin Jerusalem,however,was
motivated by more than strictly academic consider-
ations. An active and ardent Zionist for two decades,
Margolismust have jumped at the opportunity to come,
along with his family, for an extended stay in the Holy
Land.He was equally eager to accept another invitation
he received for that year: Margolis was among the first
scholars appointed to Hebrew University where he
taught even before that institution's official opening in
April 1925.
Among other honors that came to Margolis during
this period was his election to the presidency of the
Palestine Oriental Society. He presidedover severalof its
meetings beforehis returnto America. In his presidential
addressto that groupin January1925 he came up with a
characteristicallyingenious, if uncharacteristicallybold,
solution to a textual problem in Joshua15:9and 18:15by
proposingthat the original text in both verses spoke of a
hitherto unknown locality-Ai of Mount Ephron, lo-
cated on the borderbetween Benjamin and Judah.
theatmosphere
MaxMargolischronicled offerusalem
in the1920swiththesamekeenobservation of
detailsthatmarkedhisscholarlywork.
Unfortunately the year in Israel was tragic for Mar-
golis: Early in 1925 one of his twin sons, Max Jr.,devel-
oped a mastoid condition from which he did not recover.
Mrs. Margolis and their other two children returned
immediately to America, andMargoliscut his stay short.
Those who knew him best observedthat Margolis,who
visited his son'sgravein Philadelphiaalmost every Shab-
bat evening, never fully recoveredfrom the grief of losing
a son.
Max Margolisis not as well known today as some of
his contemporaries,for example JamesA. Montgomery,
George E Moore, Charles C. Torrey, and William E
104 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
Albright.This is partly a result of his teaching at Dropsie
College (from 1909 to his death in 1932),where many of
his students wererabbisratherthan individuals predomi-
nantly interested in pursuing academic careers.And yet
his scholarly legacy lives on in such eminent former
students as Robert Gordis, Cyrus Gordon, Simon
Greenberg,Louis Kaplan,and HarryOrlinsky.
For the last twenty or so years of his life Margolis
immersed himself in his work on the Greek textual
traditions of the book of Joshua.His publications in this
field are of unsurpassed quality. Unfortunately they are
also technical and tend to be difficult for the uninitiated
to penetrate. Many of his former students bemoan the
fact that he concentratedso single-mindedlyon this task
that he did not bringto completion more generalworks of
the sort he continually planned. Margolis revealed his
own ambivalence towardsthis concentration of effort by
speaking somewhat bitterly of "mydamned Joshua"and
yet referringto his daughter lightheartedly as "the con-
temporaryof my work on Joshua."
In assessing Margolis'enormous contribution to the
field of textual and Septuagintalstudies, one notices how
clearly he grasped the importance of grouping manu-
scripts as the indispensable means of cutting through
masses of variants to arrive at the original reading. His
magnum opus, The Book of Joshuain Greek (Paris:Paul
Geuthner, 1931), in which he reconstructed the Old
Greek of that biblical book, has never been equalled for
industry and insight. The principles that guided him,
which he describedin a number of articles on particular
passagesandproblemsin Joshuaand other portions of the
Bible, revealedboth the orderly,fertile mind of Margolis
and the path successful textual studies would take in the
future.In only one respect has Margolis'work in this area
been rightly criticized: He insisted that the Old Greek
translatorof Joshuahad beforehim a Hebrewtext almost
identical to our Masoretic text, which this translator
frequentlymodified, generallyin the direction of curtail-
ment. In contrast, most scholars today judge that in
generalthe Greek translatordid accurately representhis
Hebrew Vorlage(theunderlyingtextual tradition),which
in the case of Joshuawas shorterthan our Masoretictext.
Significantly, the first scholar in recent times to make
this case was one of Margolis'own disciples, Harry M.
Orlinsky.
 A2 a
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While Margolis'fame in the scholarly world rests on lations aloud to each other and to Margolis'students to
his contributions to the field of textual criticism, the gen- make sure that the nuance of the Hebrew was precisely
eral renown he achievedis for two projectsin other fields. and artfully capturedin English. Margolishoped that the
From 1908- 1917he was editor in chief of the JewishPub- JewishPublication Society translation, the result of years
lication Society's translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is a of laboron the part of himself and others, would not only
sign of the high esteem in which he was held that Mar- serve as a theologically secure basis for Jewishreadersof
golis, an immigrant from eastern Europe,was entrusted the Bible but would also provideexamples of the type of
with the primaryresponsibility for choosing appropriate elevated, dignified English that the largely immigrant
English idioms to express the Hebrew text. In matters of Jewish population of America should be exposed to as
interpretationMargolisnaturally drewheavily on Jewish they strove to educate themselves and their children in
exegetical traditions of which he had thorough firsthand their newly adoptedland.
knowledge. (His earliest scholarly works, including his Margolis'other well-known project is A History of
Columbia University doctoral dissertation written in the Jewish People which he coauthored with Alexander
Latin, dealt with the Talmud.)When it came to decisions Marx of the JewishTheological Seminary (Philadelphia,
on English equivalents, however,his chief source was the 1927). In fact, Margolis did all of the writing, primarily
King James Version, especially in the form of the 1885 during his year in Jerusalem. It is a masterpiece of
Revised Version. So impressed was Margolis with the compression, erudition, and synthesis, and it is still
cadence and style of King Jamesthat prior to beginning serviceable in spite of the more than fifty years that has
this project he and his wife Evelyn, who acted as his elapsed since its publication.
secretary,steeped themselves in Shakespeareand other Prominent among those aspects of Margolis'profes-
Elizabethanwriters.Frequentlythey readproposedtrans- sional life that stand out in the minds of all of his former

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 105
students is his manner in the classroom. Cyrus Gordon
has described Margolis as a martinet; there is no doubt
that Margolis did expect a great deal from his students,
but he worked them no harderthan he worked himself.
For example, Margolis disdained reliance on secondary
sources where primaryones were available.At the end of
a typical seminar class dozens of heavy volumes in a half
dozen or more languageslay on the table where they had
been consulted by teacher and students alike. It is not
surprising that in his teaching Margolis put a premium
on the in-depth study of a few passages rather than
surveysof vast amounts of material. His formerstudents
describe as typical a yearlong seminar on the book of
Nahum in which Margolistook the class no furtherthan
the first two chapters- twenty-eight verses in all.
Anecdotes abound regarding Margolis. When one
student was assignedmaterial in Syriac,a languagehe did
not know, Margolis'response was blunt: "Wheredo you
think you are? In a kindergarten?Go home and learn
Syriac."And when a student queriedMargolison the best
way to familiarize himself with the Hebrew Bible, the
reply was equally to the point-begin with Genesis and
read it through. Upon completion the student was in-
structed to begin the process all over again.
Wearetold Margoliswas so familiarwith the biblical
text that he could identify any passage in the Old Testa-
ment simply by knowing its vowels. Such expertise did
not come easily for student or professor. On occasion
Margolis made fun of poorly preparedand unmotivated
students. He had little patience for pretense and lost no
opportunityto expose it. Nevertheless, for those relative-
ly few students who could take the heat, study with
Margolis was a memorable experience, and those who
penetrated his shell of aloofness found Margolis to be
supportivein academic and personal matters.
Disinterested scholarship, meticulous research,
clarity of thought and expression, and absolute personal
and professional integrity are the hallmarks of Max L.
Margolis. For his Jewish students he was also a role
model, for he was one of the first individuals to combine
the rigorous traditional Jewish education of eastern
Europe with the critical techniques that dominated in
In the Next BA
Dan Barag Discusses
P
A Silver Coin ofJohanan
106 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
western Europeand the United States.Margolisregretted
that he was not able to bring to fruition many of the
important scholarly projectshe initiated. And yet, in his
chosen areas of research,he was deservedlypreeminent.
It is said that we all stand on the shoulders of the scholars
who precedeus. In the case of Margolismany of us should
avail ourselves of that opportunity,for more sturdy and
solid support will rarelybe found.
Author's Note
I am presently writing a biography of Margolis for the
Society of Biblical Literature's"Biblical Scholarship in
North America"series. In preparationforthat book I have
had the privilege of conducting oral interviews with
several illustrious scholars who were students of Mar-
golis. I have also made use of unpublished documents,
primarily from Dropsie College in Philadelphia and the
American Jewish Archives in Cincinnati. The material
contained in this profile comes from those sources in
addition to published articles by and about Margolis. I
like to think that the publication of my biography of
Margolis,probablyin 1986,will allow the public to know
him and his work better than was previously possible. In
the meantime we are well served by a volume edited by
Robert Gordis, Max Leopold Margolis: Scholar and
Teacher (Philadelphia:Dropsie College for Hebrew and
Cognate Learning, 1952), which assesses Margolis' ac-
complishments in several fields. That volume also con-
tains a full bibliographyof Margolis'work with helpful
annotations by JosephReider. Severalof Margolis'most
significant works were never published. Included in this
group are Andreas Masius and his Commentary on the
Book of Joshua,the last portion of The Book of Joshuain
Greek, and his introduction to The Book of Joshua in
Greek. An Israeli scholar, Emanuel Tov,is in the process
of publishing the last chapters of The Book of Joshuain
Greek and upon completion of the MargolisbiographyI
will edit and publish the other material.
I thought it appropriate to begin this article on
October 21, 1984, exactly sixty years to the day after the
start of the school's fall trip describedin the beginning of
this essay.
the High Priest
 ncient Jewish Coins

in the
Between John Locke
108 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
 by HenrykMinc

This is an accountof a remarkable

exchange
of letters between John Locke, the great
seventeenth-century English philosopher, and
Nicolas Toinard,a contemporaryFrenchschol-
ar. In their correspondence the two scholars discuss at
length, inter alia, ancient Jewish coins, especially the
legends on the coins and the ancient Hebrew (paleo-
Hebrew) script in which the legends were written. My
account here concerns the parts of their extensive cor-
respondence dealing with this topic.
John Locke was born in 1632. After attending the
Westminster school, where he studied the classics,
Hebrew, and Arabic, he obtained a B.A. and M.A. from
OxfordUniversity (in 1656 and 1658 respectively). Later
he also studied medicine, in 1667 becoming a physician
and an advisor to the English statesman LordAshley. An
expert in many fields including epistemology, politics,
education, medicine, and linguistics, Locke'sinfluence
was wide and profound. Of his publications, the best
known is his masterpiece An Essay ConcerningHuman
Understanding, originally published in 1689 (see Locke
1979).Lockewas deeply interested in science and in 1668
joined the RoyalSociety of Londonfor the Improvement
of Natural Knowledge.In addition, Lockehad diplomatic
experience in 1668 and spent a great deal of time living
outside of England. He resided in France from 1675 to
1678, and from 1683 to 1689 he was forced by political
circumstances to live in Holland. On his return to
England he spent most of his time preparinghis main
works for publication. Locke retired in Essex and died
there in 1704.
His varied interests and many friendships with
prominent people in Englandand abroadare reflected in
his extensive correspondence. The monumental work,
The Correspondence of John Locke (edited by E. S. De
Beer and published by the Oxford University Press),
projectedfor eight volumes, seven of which have already
Courtesy Pictorial Archive appeared,is to contain over 1,000letters written by Locke
and over 2,600 letters written to him. The correspon-
dence covers half a century of his life.
One of Locke's 350 correspondents was Nicolas
Toinard(orThoynard).Bornin 1628, he was a scholar, an
antiquarian, and an expert numismatist. Toinard was
proficient in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and his varied
interests included the Gospels, the Old Testament, the
Apocrypha, the writings of Flavius Josephus, and the
Talmud. Apart from articles on coins, Toinardleft very
few publications.His magnum opus, on which he worked
Correspondence most of his life, was his "harmony"of the four Gospels.
(An evangelical harmony is a collection of passages from
the four Gospels showing their correspondencesand the
and Nicolas Toinard chronology of the events recordedin them.) In 1678 he

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 109
 Left:A silver coin of the provinceof Judea,struck in Jerusalem
during the fourth century It imitates Athenian coins by
B.C•.E.
birdof the goddess Athena. The
depicting an owl, the sacred
Hebrewinscription reads "Yehezqiyahthe satrap[governor]."
Courtesyof PictorialArchive.Above:A silver Yehudcoin with
the head of Athena depicted on the obverseand the owl and
paleo-Hebrewinscription "YHD"on the reverse.The coin is 7
millimeters in diameter and weighs 0.50 grams.

printeda preliminaryversionof EvangeliorumHarmonia proximately 14 millimeters in diameter and weighing

which was eventually published posthumously in 1707
under the title EvangeliorumHarmonia Graeco-Latina.
The correspondence between Locke and Toinard
dates to the last quarterof the seventeenth century. The
first seven volumes of The Correspondenceof JohnLocke
contain 70 letters from Locke to Toinardand 129 letters
written by Toinard;most of these are in French, but
several letters and parts of others are written in Latin.
They deal with a variety of topics: personal and financial
items, news and comments about prominent people, and
much scholarly discussion about science and inventions,
the Gospels, translations of the Talmud, and ancient
Jewishcoins.
Although Toinard'sinterpretation of legends and
dates on ancient Jewish coins and his attributions of
these coins are mostly wrong, they show a remarkable
level of knowledge for his time, centuries before archae-
ological discoveries produced evidence that invalidated
many plausible conjectures of early numismatists. In-
deed Toinard'snumismatic theories are virtually the
same as those propounded by F61icien de Saulcy, the
celebratedFrenchnumismatist of the middle of the last
century, and some of his wrong assertions were still
believed to be true as recently as fifty years ago.
Ancient Jewishcoins consist of five groups of coins.
The first are the so-called Yehud coins, the tiny silver
coins struck in the fourth and the third centuries B.C.E.
under the Persian rule, during the Macedonian occupa-
tion, and under the Ptolemaic rule. It is not known
whether these coins were issued by occupation author-
ities in Judeaor by some appointedJewishofficial or body
(see Rappaport 1981; Meshorer 1982a: chapter 1). The
second group is the Hasmonean coinage struck between
the last part of the second century and 37 B.C.E. Most
of these coins are small bronze prutot, measuring ap-
about 2 grams.Nearly all of them areinscribed in ancient
Hebrew and bear the name of the ruler who issued them
-the high priests Yehohanan, Yehuda, Yehonatan (or
Yonatan),and Mattitya. In addition the latter two struck
coins with Greek legends with the designation of king.
The Herodian coinage comprises the third group and
includes those issued by Herod the Great (40/37 to 4
B.C.E.), Herod Archelaus (4 B.C.E.to 6 C.E.), Herod Antipas
(4 B.C.E.to 39 C.E.),Herod Philip(4 B.C.E.to34 C.E.),Herod
AgrippaI (37 to 44 C.E.),and AgrippaII (56 to 96 C.E.).All
of these coins were struck in bronze and inscribed with
Greek legends. The fourth groupof Jewishcoins is made
of those dating to the first revolt against the Romans (66
to 70 C.E.).The coins are beautiful silver shekels, half-
shekels, and quarter-shekels,as well as numerous bronze
coins. And the last groupis comprised of coins of the Bar
Kokhbawaragainstthe Romans(132to 135C.E.);these are
silver tetradrachms and denarii, and bronze coins in
various denominations. Most of them bear the name
Shimcon (Simon).
It is customary to include in the ancient Jewish
coinage also coins issued by Roman procurators(6 to 62
C.E.),and the JudeaCapta coins struck by Vespasianand
Titus, although these coins most certainly were not
issued by Jewishauthorities.
Toinard was not aware of the existence of Yehud
coins, since they were not discovereduntil this century.
In his letters to Locke he discusses coins of Mattitya
Antigonus (the last Hasmonean ruler), Herodian coins,
coins of the first Jewish-Romanwar (which he attributes
to JudasMaccabeus), and coins of the Bar Kokhbawar
(most of which he attributesto Simon, a brotherof Judas).
Undoubtedly Toinard,like many of his successors,
based his attributions of Jewish coins on an assumption
that Simon (who was grantedby Antiochus VIIthe priv-

110 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985

ilege of coining money--1 Maccabees 14:6)was the first
Hasmonean to strike coins. This was generally believed
to be true until the beginning of the twentieth century,
and even later some numismatists continued to ascribe
all coins bearing the name Shimcon to Simon the Has-
monean. Only recently has it been definitely established
that the Shimcon coins were issued in the years 132 to
The namesinscribedonHasmoneancoinsreferto the
following rulers: YehohananHyrcanus I (134-104
B.C.E.), Yehonatan
YehudaAristobulus I (104-103 B.C.E.),
Alexander (or Alexander Yannai; 103-76 B.C.E.),and
MattityaAntigonus (40-37 B.C.E.).Some scholarsbelieve
that partof the coinagebearingthe names Yehohananand
Yehuda was issued by the sons of Alexander Yannai,
Hyrcanus II (63-40 B.C.E.),and Aristobulus II (67-64
B.C.E.),whose Hebrew names are not known. Meshorer
(1982) asserts that all Hasmonean coins bearing the
names YehohananandYehudawere struck byHyrcanusII
and AristobulusII.Forpoints of view contraryto Meshor-
er's see Ben-David(1972),Rappaport(1976),Minc (1977),
and Baragand Qedar (1980).
According to Josephus (in Jewish Antiquities, book
13, chapter 11,paragraph1, and The Jewish War,book 1,
chapter 3, paragraph1), Aristobulus was the first Has-
monean ruler to proclaim himself king, whereas Strabo
(in The Geographyof Strabo, book 16, chapter 2, para-
graph40) states that Yehuda'syoungerbrotherAlexander
Yannai,who succeeded him, was the first Hasmonean to
be a king. The fact that no Yehudacoin bears the kingly
title seems to support Strabo'sversion.
FourbronzeHasmonean coins. The threeprutot, each
measuring approximately14 millimeters in diameter and
weighing 2 grams, were struck by the high priests Yehohanan
(top),Yehuda(second from the top), and Yehonatan(thirdfrom
the top).Each coin carries the design of a double cornucopia
with a pomegranatebetween. Accordingto YacakovMeshorer,
the differentstyles of the cornucopiasrepresentedon the
variousHasmonean coins are the result of the personal touch
of each die cutter.A trainednumismatist can distinguish
between the coins of Yehohananand Yehonatanjust by
examining the cornucopiadesigns. The coin on the top is used
courtesy of PictorialArchive. The fourth coin (on the bottom)
was struck by Mattitya Antigonus, and is possibly the type of
coin discussed by Lockeand Toinardin letters 2497, 2550, and
2571. It is approximately24 millimeters in diameter and
weighs 14.25 grams. (Note:Coins are not shown
proportionatelysized.)
135 C.E. by Shimcon Bar Kokhba. In fact, today it is
generally agreed that Antiochus VII withdrew the priv-
ileges granted to Simon after his victory over Tryphon.
Nevertheless, since Toinardbelieved that the Shimcon
coins were struck by Simon the Hasmonean, it was
naturalfor him to ascribe other coins to Simon'sbrother,
the legendary Judas Maccabeus. Toinard attributed all
BIBLICAL 1985
ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE 111
shekels, half-shekels, and all other coins struck during
the first Jewish-Romanwar to Judas.Although most of
Toinard'sattributions arewrong, his knowledge of Jewish
coins and paleo-Hebrew inscriptions, his familiarity
with the Hebrew language and Jewish history, and his
general scholarship arevery impressive, especially if it is
remembered that his letters were written nearly three
centuries ago.
Toinard'sletters show that he had a good knowledge
of Hebrew and of the paleo-Hebrewand square Hebrew
scripts. Neither he nor Locke, however, seem to have
understood the principles underlying Hebrew scripts, in
particularthe use of matres lectionis (that is, the use of
additionalletters to expressthe vocalization of the word).
They were also unawarethat the Hebrew letters ayin and
aleph are actually consonants (see note 24 below). They
may have been influenced by the pronunciation of con-
temporary EuropeanJews who did not pronounce ayin
and aleph at all, treating them as silent letters or apostro-
phes (diaereticsigns). We also note Toinard'sanachronis-
tic use of paleo-Hebrewcharactersof the first and second
centuries C.E. (which he dated to the second century
B.C.E.)for his conjecturedderivationsof Greek characters
from the Phoenician script.
The Correspondence
Letter 1782
Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke,
September 7/17, 1694
I had a large number of Jewish medals1engraved,which
are improperlycalled Samaritanbecause their characters
are the same as those used by the Samaritans.I arranged
them on differentplates accordingto the date of striking.
I used the same system for all of the Herodian coins that
I could find in various collections in Europe.Some of the
plates, for example those with shekels and half-shekels,

Six bronzecoins of the Herodianperiod. Upper right:

Coin of Herod the Great depicting two ceremonial cult
objects. On one side is a tripod with a basin used for
ritual bathing (lebes).A thymiaterion (ortype of incense
shovel)is representedon the other side. The coin measures
23 millimeters in diameter and weighs 6.59 grams.Middle
right: Coin struck by HerodArchelaus measuring 18
millimeters in diameter and weighing 3.1 grams.Meshorer
notes that the most striking feature of the Archelaus coins
is the emphasi' on maritime imagery.In this case the
galley depicted on one side of the coin representsthe
voyageArchelausmade to Rome at the beginning of his
reign.Below right: HerodAntipas issued this coin which
is 24 millimeters in diameter and weighs 17.76 grams.
Upper far right: Coin of Philip depictinghis portraiton
one side and on the other side, as Meshorersuggests, the
temple to Augustus built in CaesareaPaneas by Herod the
Great. The coin has a diameter of 18 millimeters and
weighs 3.82 grams. Middle far right: Coin of AgrippaI
struck in Caesareain 43 c.E.portrayingthe bust of
Agrippaand, on the other side, the city goddess of
Caesarea.Around the portraitis the Greekinscription
"TheGreatKingAgrippa,Loverof Caesar,"and circling the
image of the city goddess are the following words:
"Caesareanear the harbornamed afterAugustus:year 7."
Below far right: Coin struck byAgrippaII measuring 24
millimeters in diameter and weighing 11.72grams. It
carriesthe date LIA.The two coins shown in the middle
are used courtesy of PictorialArchive. (Note: Coins arenot
shown proportionatelysized.)

112 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
will be included in the notes of the harmony,because the
didrachma and the stater [are mentioned] in Matthew
17:24-27? I will send you sample pieces, if you wish.
'Both Toinardand Locke referredto Jewish coins as
medals (medailles), even though exact equivalents of the
word "coin"exist in French as well as in Latin. The
probablereason for using the term medal is that in Latin
(andItalian)a small copperor bronze coin is referredto as
a medal.
2"Whenthey came to Caper'na-um, the collectors of
the half-shekel tax went up to Peter .... Jesus spoke to
[Peter]..., saying, ... 'go to the sea and cast a hook, and
take the first fish that comes up, and when you open its
mouth you will find a shekel; take that andgive it to them
for me and for yourself'" (Matthew 17:24-27; Revised
StandardVersion).This story refersto the half-shekeltax
that every adult male Jew had to pay each year to the
Temple in Jerusalem.
. ". . ...
".•
.
.
fi-
A* ..
h?4L
Aw v
Letter 1828
Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke,
December 19/24, 1694
I can send you some specimens of my Samaritanmedals
when our communications are established. I have some
that are very rare, well engraved, and have never been
published. I shall include in the notes a plate of shekels
with a reference to Matthew 17:24-27; page 64 of
harmony. In my opinion, these were struck by Judas
Maccabeus, and all others, both silver and bronze, by
Simon Maccabeus, his brother and successor? I have
indicated the date of each of them. With respect to the
characterson these medals, a view was imputed to me in
a journal or in the Biblioteque d'Hollandewith which I
completely disagree,for I am convinced that they are the
same as those with which Moses wrote the Law.4
3Todayit is generally accepted that neither Judas
Maccabeus nor his brother Simon issued any coins.
4Toinardmay have just meant that the characterson
the coins are ancient Hebrew letters. If Moses had
written the Law,it is likely that he would have written it
in an Egyptianscript.
Letter2355
Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke,
November 26/December 6, 1697
Youshall also have all the engravingsthat I have made of
medals improperly called Samaritan and of those of the
Herodians with their chronology.
Letter2412
Writtenin Latin by Locke to Toinard,March 25, 1698
Unless I am mistaken, I have received all of the so-called
Samaritanand Herodian coins that you have published,
and I am indebted to you for them.
Letter 2497
.
. Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke,
October 16/26, 1698
Mr. Du Bos brought me three very raremedals with so-
called Samaritan characters. On one of them there
appears the legible inscription BACIAEOCANTIPON,
who could only be the last king of the Jews of the
Hasmonean dynastyPThe only reason that I can give for
Samaritancharactersstill being used in such a late period
is that it is an archaism, similar to our coins that bear
Latin legends. I will have them accurately engraved.He
also brought me two other small [medals]struck in the
time of Simon Maccabeus of which I have clearer [speci-
mens]. These were together with another [medal] of
HPQGAON BALIAEUE6on which Mr. Du Bos read LPI
which would indicate "year13."This would greatlyupset
the chronology of the Herodians7I made him see, how-
ever,that the "I"is the monogramof Tyre8slightly effaced,
and I showed him a similar medal on which it is very
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 113
clear, so that this [date]comes to "year3"on this medal
which is of Agrippathe Great?
5Thelast Hasmonean ruler was Mattitya Antigonus
(40-37 B.C.E.). The complete Greek inscription on coins
of Antigonus readsBACIAEOC ANTIFONOY.
6Inscriptions on coins dating to the period of Herod
the Great readHPQAOYBALIAEU2E.
7Infact, no known coins of Herodbear the date "year
13."It is, nevertheless, unclear why Toinardbelieved that
this date would "greatlyupset the chronology of the
Herodians."
8Thereis absolutely no reasonwhy the monogramof
Tyreshould appearon coins of Herodthe Greator those of
AgrippaI.
9The coin was undoubtedly struck by Herod the
Great in year 3, that is, either in 38 B.C.E.(see Rappaport
1968) or in 37 B.C.E.
Letter2550
Predominantly written in French with some Latin , !.
by Locke to Toinard,January14, 1699
With regard to the medal with [the inscription]
BACIAEVCANTIFON, I am surprised as much by the
language as by the characters used in this inscription.
Isaac Vossius maintained that the common language of
the Jewsin the time of our Lordwas Greek. I could never SI
agree. If, however, Antigonus inscribed his coins with 2_'
r

.
Samaritan characters in order to give them an archaic
appearance,he could not have used the Greek language !

for [the purpose of generating]goodwill or [forpersonal]

ambition, since the Jewswere made to suffer so much by
the Seleucids, and both [peoples]were already ruled by
the powerful Romans. [The letters] LPI on the medal of
Herodcould not indicate "year13"because in that case, it
seems to me, it should have been LIP.
Letter2571
Predominantly written in Frenchand partly in Latin
by Toinardto Locke,April 18/28, 1699
•,•'W '•••
Yourobjection concerning the Greek inscription on the •:''d,!•ili~
medal of Antigonus is very legitimate. Nevertheless it is
there, andthat is what constitutes the rarityof the medal
which also bears the Samaritan letters. It is not for
goodwill or ambition, as you say, that Antigonus used
this Greek legend, since the Jews were made to suffer so
much by the Seleucids. This was all over with, and the
Seleucids did not matter anymore;but it was because the
Jewswere bound by commerce with their neighborswho
spoke Greek.'oThe Jewseven had names similar to those
of the Greeks, such as Antigonus, Alexandra,Alexander,
and Aristobulus.
As to what you said that LPIcould not indicate "year
13"on the medal of Herodbecause it seems to you that it
should havebeen LIP,you will forgiveme if I tell you that
you have not taken into consideration that in Syria and

114 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
elsewhere numeral letters are put in reverse order.11I
know only of the towns Sebaste and Nablus in Samaria
that put dates in the natural order.
1OIt is not likely that bronze coins issued by Mattitya
Antigonus and his grandfatherAlexander Yannai were
inscribed in Greek for the purposeof facilitating external
commerce.
"1Asa matter of fact, dates on coins struck by the
Herodians, namely, Herod Antipas, Herod Philip, and
Agrippa II (coins of other Herodian rulers are either
undated or bear a one-digit date), are nearly always writ-
ten left to right. Forexample, the date "year14"(or74 c.E.)
on a coin issued by AgrippaII (B.M.C.16)is indicated by
LIA,and not by LAI.
Letter2580
Written in French by Locke to Toinard,May 1, 1699
Yoursof April taught me about the medals of which
28
you spoke in your preceding [letter].You clearly see my
ignorance in this kind of study from the questions that I
ask you, but as we have lighted upon this matter permit
me to ask you:Whydid the Jewsandthe Syriansretainthe
Syrianorderin the arrangementof numeral letters when
they used Greek inscriptions and Greek characters to
indicate time?
Letter 2727
Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke,
May 25/June5, 1700
A French gentleman born in Aleppo entrusted me with
three or four beautiful so-called Samaritan medals,
which I had carefully engraved. You will see with
pleasure all of the collection that I have made of them.
Letter 2732
Writtenin French by Locke to Toinard,June 5, 1700
Youneverwork uselessly on medals, and the community
of letters benefits greatly from your knowledge. ...
With respect to Hebrew medals I would be very glad
to know your opinion concerning Hebrew shekels,
whether there exist any genuinely ancient ones where
ancient Hebrew characterscan be determined.
Letter2736
written in Frenchand partly in Latin
Predominantly
Toinard to Locke,June30, 1700
by
Since you have not received the last edition of "The
Education of Children,"I shall instruct Mr. Halma to
Five silver shekels minted during the first Jewishrevolt against the
Romans. Each bears the images of a chalice used in the services of
the Templeand a stem with threepomegranates.The averagesize of
a shekel is 14.17grams and its diameter is approximately22
millimeters. Fromtop to bottom: Coin from year I or 66 c.E.; year II
or 67 C.E.;year III or 68 c.E.; year IV or 69 c.E.; year V or 70 .E.
Shekels from years I throughIV are described in letter number 2736.
The shekel issued in year V was unknown in Toinard'stime. (Note:
Coins arenot proportionatelysized.)
send it to me with a certain new book by Otho Sperlingius
entitled Dissertation on Unstruck Coins, or Unstamped
Money (Sperling 1700), in which he denies that the
Samaritansand the Jewsever used stamped money [and
asserts that] all coins of either people are fake. These are
the expressions used by Mr. Graevius12in one of his
letters, of the tenth inst., that he honored me by writing
me, where it can be seen that this Sperlingius does not
understandthe nature of the question, or else he is very
ignorant in understandingantiquity as regardsmedals.
With respect to the nature of the question, the query
whether the Samaritanshad stamped money or not had
never been raised because they were a wretched people
who neverhad the right to strike coins, let alone to put a
legend on them. As for the Jews,however,I have seen and
carefully inspected more than a hundred of their
medals-both in silver and in bronze, of various sizes,
types, and legends. No antiquarian would fail to recog-
nize them as ancient, at least without losing his reputa-
tion and showing his ignorance.This makes me say with
confidence that either the author has never seen any
[Jewishmedals] or he has not the least discernment of
antiquities.
But to come to the point and to answer accurately
[the question] that you honoredme in asking me, what is
my opinion regarding Hebrew shekels, and whether
ancient Hebrew characterscan be determined, I can tell
you that I think that all silver shekels and half-shekels
with Aaron'srod as a symbol13and the legend Jerusalem
the Holy in Hebrew,in so-called Samaritancharacters,on
one side and with the Shekel of Israel or Half a Shekel of
Israel with an urn as a symbol on the reversewere struck
in the time of JudasMaccabeus,14and that the letters that
are abovethe urn indicate the years from the cleansing of
the Templeby Judas.15Fourof these [dates]appearon the
shekels and half-shekels, the first of which is simply
indicated by an aleph, which means "I,"that is, the first,
and correspondsto year 165 preceding the Common Era
of J.Ch.[JesusChrist];andthe second has abovethe urn an
additional letter with a bet (that is, shin and bet): this
signifies year II, since shin is the initial letter of shenat,
which means "year."The last is AW,namely, shin dalet,
year IV because dalet being the fourth [letter] of the
alphabet denotes "IV," and consequently the year of this
medal correspondsto 162 before the Eraof J.Ch.
With respect to all other Jewish medals, whether
large,medium, or small bronzes,as well as the silver ones
that weigh only one drachma,which is a quarterof the
weight of a shekel, they all belong to the period of
Simon,16the brother and successor of JudasMaccabeus.
Most of them bear his name very distinctly, and the rest
must also be his because they all are of similar types and
they date back to the same period. I have also four
[medals]on which there appearsSimon Prince of Israel,
and these are the rarest.
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 115

Coins dating to the BarKokhba War.Tbp:Silver tetradrachmstruck
in the year 135 c.E.depicting the facade of the Templeon one side
and four items used in the feast of Tabernacles(the lulav orpalm
branch,tied togetherwith the willow and myrtle branches,plus the
ethrog)on the other side. Accordingto Meshorerthe lulav came to
symbolize the Jewish desire to rebuild the Temple.Second from top:
Silverdenarius measuring 19 millimeters in diameter and weighing
3.4 grams. Second from bottom and bottom: Twolarge bronzecoins
illustrated in Toinard'sletter number 2736. One has a diameter of 30
millimeters and weighs 27.16 grams. The other (shown on the
bottom)has a 32-millimeter diameter and weighs 17.38 grams.
(Note: Coins are not proportionatelysized.)
116 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
The latest of these medals was struck 139 years
before the Era of J.Ch.and in the fifth [year]of Simon's
Pontificate. Somedaythey may find such medals bearing
a largernumber,because Simon did not die until the year
135 before the Eraof J.Ch.
Apartfrom that I have recently receivedthree medals
of Antigonus, the last king of the Jewsof the Hasmonean
dynasty,on which there arecharacterssimilar to those on
[medals]of Judasand Simon. They could not have been
struck earlier than in the year 40 before our Common
Era,at which time, afterthe Pentecost, Antigonus seized
Judea,having dismissed his paternal uncle Hyrcan. It is
an astonishing thing that Antigonus would use charac-
ters of this type, which were quite surprisingon medals of
Simon, the great-great-grandfather of this Antigonus.17I
have indicated to you on a previous occasion that this
must have been done in orderto preserve [an appearance
of] antiquity,in the same way that coin legends in Europe
are written in Latin, although the Latin language is no
longer in use in countries where coins are struck with
such legends.
After that you will understand that in my opinion
the so-called Samaritancharactersthat appearon Jewish
medals are the genuine ancient [characters]with which
the Lawof Moses was written,"8and which were changed
by Esdrasso that the Jewswould havenothing in common
with the Samaritans,'9who were using these ancient
charactersthat had been given to this people when they
were sent to inhabit Palestine and there to serve God of
the country through a cult that suited them.
I believe that I have discovered through a certain
passage in a strange place what the charactersare that
Esdras introduced and with which Hebrew Bibles of
today are written.2?
Herewith you have two prints of medals hitherto
unpublished-the same as several others in my collec-
tion which contains thirty-four.... I have markedfor you
with two small dashes the places from which one should
start reading the circular legends on the reverse .... The
dotted letters were inserted by me and they are no longer
visible on these two medals, although they appeardis-
tinctly on others.
On the medal on the left (sic),21below which there is
an abbreviatedexplanatory line, the field is inscribed in
three lines SiMOUN. NaSIA.ISRAeL.These three words
mean Simon Princeof Israel;...the i in SiMOUN, the a in
NaSIA, and the e in ISRAeLare addedto supplement the
pronunciation. On the reverse side, where the vase ap-
pears, there is: SeNAT. ECHaT. LeGALaT ISRAeL.
YEAR.ONE. OF THEFREEDOM.OFISRAEL.22 The rest
for another occasion.
I haveto tell you also that the wordECHaTin Hebrew
has only three letters although in Latin you would count
four capital [letters] in it. This is because the "CH"
correspondsto a single Hebrew letter.23
 2.2ma.
Ii~wi0
29
3 •
Tal, vv r~w
12Johann Georg Graevius, Grafe, or Greffe (1632-
1703) was one of the great classical scholars of the
seventeenth century.From 1662 he occupied the chair in
rhetoric andthen in history andpolitics at the University
of Utrecht. He published many critical editions of clas-
sical authors, and other important philological works.
Graevius also made significant contributions to histori-
cal studies through his scholarly research of antiquity.
His teaching attractedmany students from all partsof the
civilized world. He was honoredby Louis XIVand also by
other monarchs. Lockecorrespondedwith Graevius,and
Toinardexchangedletters with him as well.
13Thesymbol does not depict Aaron'srod but prob-
ably a stem with three half-ripepomegranates.
14Seenote 3 above.
1STheletters actually represent the years from the
beginning of the first Jewish-Romanwar (66 C.E.).
16See note 3 above.
17Theyare even more surprisingthan Toinardimag-
ined, since many of the coins that he ascribed to Simon
the Hasmonean were struck nearly three centuries later
during the BarKokhbawar.
18Seenote 4 above.
19Althoughthe Talmud ascribes the adoption of the
Aramaic script to Ezra (Esdras),Toinard'sscenario is not
very likely. The Aramaic languageand script had already
been introduced in the eighth century B.C.E.by the
Assyrians;it became a lingua francain their empire, as it
did later in the Babylonianand Persian empires, both of
which included Judea. The spread of Aramaic is evi-
denced by a papyrusletter found in Saqqara(around600
B.C.E.) that was sent from Palestine,possibly by the king of
Ascalon, to the pharaoh of Egypt appealing for his aid.
The letter was not written in Egyptianor in Hebrewor in
some Canaanite dialect but in Aramaic. In Judea the
ancient Hebrew script was gradually superseded by the
Aramaicscript. Bythe fifth century,Aramaicbecame the
official language of the Persian empire. Undoubtedly it
was widely used in Judeaand the neighboring countries
by the time Ezra arrived there. Indeed a large hoard of
Aramaicpapyriof the Jewishcolony at Elephantinedates
to the fifth century B.C.E. A distinct Hebrewsquarescript
1.
0OU Prints
fiLJ
referredtoin
letter2736.
*quuICourtesy
,
R••• iOxfordUniversity
Press.
I.Lin'at ls'rtvm w 7b6.J1I.
(the Jewish script) developed from the Aramaic script
only in the third and second centuries. (See Naveh 1970
and Cross 1961.)
20Toinardwrites in Latin-in loco peregrino. He
probably refers to the Talmud (Sanhedrin 21b; see
Shachterand Freedman 1935).
21Toinardclearly refersto the coin on the right not on
the left.
22Theinscriptions can be transliterated as SMcWN
NSY' YSRL and SNT 'HT LGIT YSRL, where c and'
denote the letters ayin and aleph, respectively (see note
24 below), and H denotes the letter het. The latter in-
scription should be vocalized SeNaT 'aHaT LiG'uLaT
YiSRa'eL,and not as stated by Toinard. Also, G'uLaH
(G'uLaTis in the construct state) means redemption or
deliverance or liberation, not freedom.
23This paragraphwas added in the margin of the
letter.
Letter2737
Writtenin French by Toinardto Locke,
June 22/July3, 1700
In view of what I had the honor to write you by the last
mail, you would be quite amazed to see SiMOUN denot-
ing the name of Simon, and NaSIA indicating his title of
Prince. The short time that I had before the departureof
the courier did not allow me to tell you that the letter "O"
which appearsin the name of Simon is not a properletter
but an aspirate corresponding to the character called
ayin,24which precedes the pe in the Hebrew alphabet,
same as the O called precedes the II in the
tK[pov
Hebrew (sic) alphabet.5 Now there is no doubt that the
ancients renderedthis ayin by the omicron, and because
of that and for other reasons it should be acknowledged
that the Ionic alphabetcomes from the Phoenicians who
[also]createdthe so-called Samaritanletters that areseen
on ancient Jewish medals. If we were to dwell upon the
meaning of the name given to this letter ayin, we would
discover that it is [so named] because of its resemblance
to an eye, since the "0"on medals is oval, the same as the
apertureof an eye, which in Hebrew is called ayin. The
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 117
 Glossary of
Terms
Numismatic
bullion: Precious metal, usually gold, in an unalloyed
state and ordinarilyin the form of ingots. Bullion is the
basis for most of the world'scurrencies.
decadrachm:A large Greek silver coin equal in value to
ten drachms and issued sparinglyin the fifth and fourth
centuries B.C.E.
denarius:The basic Romansilver coin from the late third
century B.C.E.until the early third century C.E.The first
denarii weighed some 4.5 grams and were 18-19 milli-
meters in diameter.The denarius decreasedin size over
time.
didrachm:A Greek, and later Roman,silver coin equal to
two drachms.The Greek version is commonly known as
a stater and its weight and size varied with its place of
mintage.
die:A piece of hardmetal with a design in reverse,used for
coining metal. Two dies are needed to strike a coin-an
upper die that is driven into the piece of metal to be
turned into money, and a lower die into which that piece
of metal is driven.In ancient times, the lower die was the
more important of the two. Originally adaptedfrom an
official seal, this lower or pile die was fixed in an anvil,
hence it is sometimes referredto as an anvil die. Metal
was driven into it by hand with a sledgehammer,but the
hammer did not strike the metal directly. A punch was
placed between them, ensuring greater accuracy and
clarity of striking. This punch was the ancestor of the
second die, also called a trussell die. Its initial function
was merely to help produce one clear image, but even-
tually it became obvious that the punch could simul-
taneously impress two images, one on the disk's upper
side and another on the lower. This practicewas adopted
in time but, in contrastto modern coinage,when we refer
to an obverse on an ancient coin we mean that image
createdby the lower die.
drachm:A small silver coin which circulated widely in
the Greek world and the areas adjacentto it. It was the
basic unit of much Greek coinage. The coin's weight
averagedfour grams or slightly above, and the coin was
approximately16 millimeters in diameter.
flan: A blank metallic disk preparedfor the coin die. It is
also such a disk afterminting.
obol: A small Greek silver coin valued at one-sixth of a
drachm.
obverse:The side of the coin bearingthe more important
legends or types. Its opposite side is the reverse.
118 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
octadrachm: A large Greek silver coin equal to eight
drachms.
prutah (pluralprutot):A Hebrew weight or coin equiva-
lent to one one-thousandthof a pound.
punch:A tool, usually a cylindricalrodof steel, shapedat
one end to impart designs on dies or coins.
reverse: The opposite side of a coin from the obverse.
Generally,the reverseholds a coin's subordinatedesigns
-that is, the designs deemed subordinateby the people
who struck the coin. ForGreek and Roman coins, seated
or standingfigures are common on the reversesides.
sestertius: A small silver coin of the Roman Republic;
later, a largeorichalcum coin of the early Roman empire.
The sestertius is one of the most impressive coins in the
Roman series. It is also the one most laden with propa-
ganda.
shekel: An ancient measure of weight subsequentlyused
as a coin designation.The weight variedwith the coins of
Tyreand Sidon based on a shekel weighing some 7 grams,
and the Hebrew issue, struck at a much later date,
weighing about twice that. The Jewishshekel was a late
development and was struck for only a short period of
time duringboth of the Jewishrevolts against Rome. The
shekels were struck over earlier silver coins, indicating
the emergency conditions under which they were cre-
ated. Dated examples areknown from the first two years
of the Second Revolt.
stater: The principal denomination of a coinage in the
eastern Greek world, first struck in electrum, later in
silver or gold.
tetradrachm:The most famous ancient Greeksilver coin,
equal in value to four drachms. Different cities used
different weight standards.The tetradrachmwas large
enough to permit experimentingwith new concepts and
types, and artists, vying with one another to create ex-
quisite designs reached heights equalled only on the
commemorative decadrachm. Portraits in astounding
relief were particularlyfancied for obverses.
type: The dominant design on each side of a coin or
related object. The term also refersto a class or groupof
coins united or relatedto one another by their design.
Many of the terms in this glossary were based on those in RichardG.
Doty's The Macmillan Encyclopedic Dictionary of Numismatics
(New York:Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1982).
letter U, the vowel that follows the "0" in this name of
Simon, correspondsto Y &tA'v,which is the U in Latin,
placed in both [Latin and Greek alphabets] after the T,
although it ought to be afterthe E since it correspondsto
the Hebrew vav.If you invert the figure * that you see on
the medals,26 it becomes *; that is, not a *I but an T
without the small inside stroke that was discarded by
those who adoptedthe letter so that it would be quicker
to write. Now, since the Greek T and the Latin U are the
same thing, we see on many Greek medals a well-shaped
V instead of T, because it would appearto be easier to
drawtwo straightlines than two [lines]curving at the top.
Forthe same reason the figuretz, which forms the letter
M in the name SiMON, becomes Mwhen inverted,from
which, having removed the tail at the top, you will have
the letter M of the Greeks and the Latins?7On the other
hand, without leaving anything of the lamed, both [al-
phabets]adoptedits shape L,as it appearson inscriptions
that I have seen, which are about two thousand years old,
and on ancient Roman money. In later generations the
shape Lwas consideredeasier to form, andbecause of that
it was preferredto that of L.I would wanderawayfrommy
subject if I were to tell you more about it at present. There
remains the word NaSIA, about which I should observe
that the last letter A is aleph, which is silent after a yod:
[Theword]is readsimply NaSI, as if the aleph were an H,
the eighth letter of the Latinalphabet,which would make
NaSIH.In orderthat you can readthese two words,Simon
and Nasi, in Samaritan characters, here they are in Portraitof JohnLockemade in 1698 by Sir GodfreyKneller.Taken
Hebrew NHIM71117. from Maurice Cranston'sJohnLocke:A Biography(New York:
I shall addhere that 71•i7 can be renderedletter by Macmillan, 1957).
letter in Latin as SiMHON, using the H for the ayin.
24The letter ayin is not an aspirate but a fricative
Letter2741
pharyngeal consonant, transliterated as c. Similarly,
aleph is a plosive laryngealconsonant, transliteratedas '. Writtenin Frenchand Latin by Locke to Toinard,
Although in modern Hebrew Ashkenazi pronunciation July 8, 1700
(originating in eastern and central Europe)both conso- Since you honored me by writing to me about the
nants are either silent or used as diaeretic signs, they are ayin and the other letters that appearon the medals in
very distinctive sounds (particularly the ayin) in the question, I find myself strongly inclined to draw a con-
Sephardipronunciation of Hebrew (which was spoken in clusion in support of what I surmised for a long time;
Spain, Turkey,and the Near East). namely, that in the past the silent letters of the Hebrew
25Clearlythis is a slip: Toinardmeant here the Greek alphabetwere vowels.8 I would like very much to know
alphabet.Lockeunderlinedthe word"Hebrew"andwrote your opinion on this since you are the teacher in Israel.'
"Greek"above it. In truth I know absolutely nothing of Samaritanletters,
26This form of the letter vav appearson coins of the and with regard to reading Hebrew I entertain doubts
BarKokhbawar.One of the two forms of this letter in the whether the use of the vowel points before the [time of
early Phoenician script is Y (or possibly ?) from which the] Masoretes is to be accepted or rejected0o
the Greek T has directly evolved,without any inversions 28Theywere consonants.
or deletions. 29"Esenim Magister [in]Israele."
27TheGreek and Latin M is probably derived from 30TheMasoretes were scholars who worked during
the Proto-Canaanitepictograph " rather than from the Middle Ages on the preservationof the vocalization
the eighth century Phoenician "Ymem (SeeNaveh 1982: and literal text of the Bible. The ancient biblical text
175-86). Toinard's form t resembles the Samaritan omits vowels, and during the ninth century C.E. the
mem, from which the Greek M could not possibly have Masoretes in Tiberias perfected a system of points to
evolved. indicate vowels and thus the propervocalization of the

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 119

Ancient
Minting
Coins
Jewish
methods of striking coins in ancient Judeahave
The
changed remarkablylittle, except, of course, those
methods influenced by metallurgical and technological
improvements.The blanks,or flans,for the Judeanbronze
coins were made by casting metal in molds consisting of
shallow,roundsockets connectedby channels.Afterpour-
ing molten metal into the molds and letting it cool, strips
of coins connected by short metal ribbonswere removed.
These arecalledflan strips.An assistantwould reheateach
strip and then place the first blank flan between two
striking dies on a sturdy base, perhapsa tree trunk. The
moneyerhit the top die with a hammer,thus striking the
coin, and then the assistant pulled the strip one coin
further,and the procedurewas repeated.
This processwas obviously carriedout fairlyquickly,
and the resultant coins were frequentlystruck off-center.
After striking, the flan strip was cut apartinto coins and
the remainingmetal scrapswere melted down once again.
Sometimesthe man in chargeof cutting the coins apartdid
not do a very good job,resulting in coins with long projec-
tions from one or both sides.
Occasionally the flan strip broke when one flan be-
came stuck in the lower die (orvice versa)after striking.
Whenthe next flanwas insertedandstruck,it receivedthe
full strike from the top die, but instead of receiving the
impression from the bottom die, it receivedthe face of a
coin that had already been struck by the top die. This
caused the design of the top die to be impressed on the
reverseof the coin.
Other minting errorscommon in antiquity include
doublestrikinga coin andstrikinga coin with a crackedor
broken die. Since many errors are apparent in ancient
Jewishbronze coins, the original methods for producing
the coins can easily be reconstructed.
David Hendin
text. This system has been in use ever since in texts in
which vowels are indicated. Vowel points do not appear in
any ancient inscriptions.
Notes and Acknowledgments
I am grateful to Mr. Garry J. Tee of the University of
Auckland for drawing my attention to letters in which
Toinard and Locke discuss these coins. I would like to
thank the Oxford University Press for their kind permis-
sion to use the material in The Correspondence of John
Locke and to reproduce the figure in letter number 2736
(volume 7, page 95). The numeration of the letters is
taken from the Correspondence. In all cases the transla-
tions are not of complete letters but of the parts which
relate to ancient Jewish coins. Unless otherwise indi-
cated the photographs of coins are reproduced from
120 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
Ancient Jewish Coins by YacakovMeshorer with the
kind permission of the publishers, AmphoraBooks.
I am also indebted to my colleagues ProfessorsWil-
liam J. Ashby and Robert E Renehan for their expert
advice with respect to some obscure passages in the
correspondence.
Editor's Note
The transcriptions and transliterations used in this
article are in some cases those used in the original corre-
spondence and in others were supplied by the author.
They do not in either case express the system preferred by
BA.
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1975 The WorldHistory of the JewishPeople,first series, volume 7.
Jerusalem:MassadaPress Ltd.
Barag,D., and Qedar,S.
1980 The Beginning of Hasmonean Coinage. Israel Numismatic
Journal4: 8-21.
Ben-David,A.
1972 When Did The MaccabeesBegin to StrikeTheir FirstCoins?
Palestine ExplorationQuarterly104:93-103.
Cranston,M.
1957 JohnLocke:A Biography.New York:Macmillan.
Cross,E.M. Jr.
1961 The Development of the Jewish Scripts.Pp. 133-202 in The
Bible and the Ancient Near East:Essaysin Honorof William
Foxwell Albright, edited by G. Ernest Wright.GardenCity,
NY: Doubleday& Company,Inc.
Josephus,Flavius
1966 JosephusVII:JewishAntiquities, BooksXII-XIV Translated
by R. Marcus.Series:LoebClassical Library.Cambridge,MA,
andLondon:HarvardUniversity PressandHeinemann.P.379.
1967 JosephusII: TheJewish War,Books I- III.Translatedby H. St.
J.Thackeray.Series:LoebClassical Library.Cambridge,MA,
and London:HarvardUniversity Press and Heinemann. P.35.
Kadman,L.
1958a The Coins of the Jewish-RomanWar.Pp.42-61 in TheDating
and Meaningof Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols, editedby
L. Kadman and others. Jerusalem: Schocken Publishing
House.
1958b The Development of Jewish Coinage. Pp. 98-104 in The
Dating and Meaning of Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols,
editedby L.Kadmanandothers.Jerusalem:SchockenPublish-
ing House.
Kindler,A.
1958a The Coinage of the HasmonaeanDynasty.Pp. 10-28 in The
Dating and Meaning of Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols,
editedby L.Kadmanandothers.Jerusalem:SchockenPublish-
ing House.
1958b The Coinageof the Bar-Kokhba War.Pp.62- 80 in TheDating
and Meaningof Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols,editedby
L. Kadman and others. Jerusalem: Schocken Publishing
House.
1974 Coins of the Land of Israel: Collection of the Bank of Israel.
Translatedby R. Grafman.Jerusalem:KeterPublishingHouse.
Klimowsky,E. W.
1958 Symbols on Ancient JewishCoins. Pp. 81-97 in The Dating
and Meaningof Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols,editedby
L. Kadman and others. Jerusalem: Schocken Publishing
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Locke,J.
1976- The Correspondenceof JohnLockevolumes I-VII, edited by
1982 E. S. De Beer.Oxford:ClarendonPress.
1979 An Essay ConcerningHuman Understanding,edited by P.H.
Nidditch. Originallypublishedin 1689by G. Routledge.New
York:OxfordUniversity Press.
McLean,M. D.
1981 The InitialCoinageof AlexanderJannaeus.MuseumNotes 26:
153-61.
Meshorer,Y.
1967 Jewish Coins of the Second TemplePeriod.Translatedby I. H.
Levine.TIl Aviv:Am Hassefer.
1982a Ancient Jewish Coinage. Volume I: Persian Period through
Hasmonaeans. New York:AmphoraBooks.
1982b Ancient Jewish Coinage. VolumeII:Herodthe Great through
Bar Cochba. New York:AmphoraBooks.
Meyshan,J.
1958 The Coins of the HerodianDynasty.Pp.29-41 in The Dating
and Meaningof Ancient Jewish Coins and Symbols, editedby
L. Kadman and others. Jerusalem: Schocken Publishing
House.
1968 The Periods of JerusalemCoining. Pp. 45-47 in Essays in
Jewish Numismatics, edited by A. Kindler and others. Jeru-
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Minc, H.
1977 Yehohananthe High Priest. SAN, Journalof the Society for
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1984 Hasmonaean Coinage. SAN, Journalof the Society for An-
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Naveh, J.
1970 The Development of the Aramaic Script. Jerusalem:Israel
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Raphael,C.
1968 The Walls of Jerusalem:An Excursion into Jewish History.
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Rappaport,U.
1968 Note sur la chronologie des monnaieq Herodiennes. Revue
Numismatique 10:64- 75.
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1981 The FirstJudaeanCoinage.Journalof JewishStudies 32: 1-17.
Schalit, A., editor
1972 The WorldHistoryof the JewishPeople,first series, volume 6.
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Shachter,J.,and Freedman,H., translators
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Sperling,O.
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cum Halmam.
Strabo
1966 The Geographyof StraboVIIBooksXVand XVI.Translatedby
H. L. Jones.Series: Loeb Classical Library.Cambridge,MA,
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Toinard,N.
1707 EvangeliorumHarmonia Graeco-Latina.Paris:Typographica
AndreaCramoisy.

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BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 121
 English edition contains a small number at the same time bringingin the relevant
-oo Rev,, of corrections,especially in light of the materials from the rest of the biblical
paleographicstudy of the manuscript by corpus,and so creatinghis composition
E. Qimron (1978aand 1978c),as well as (see Milgrom 1978d).
"Addendaet Corrigenda"(volume 3, Yadindevotes considerableatten-
The Temple Scroll, by Yigael Yadin. pages 403-19) in which Yadintakes note tion to the all-importantquestion of the
Volume 1, 408 pp.; volume 2, 468 pp.; of some of the contributions of others manner in which the scroll was com-
volume 3, 220 pp.; supplementary and answershis critics. In view of the six posed and edited in antiquity.He states
plates. Jerusalem:Israel Exploration years that elapsed between the Hebrew that the editing took severalforms:draft-
Society, The Institute of Archaeology of and English editions, it is regrettable ing the text in the first person to indicate
the Hebrew University,The Shrine of that the English edition was not substan- that God himself gives these commands,
the Book, 1983; $240 (Hardcover, tially revised. Indeed,it appearsthat unifying duplicate commands including
boxed). very little was actually changed in the those that are contradictory,modifying
body of the work. and addingto commands to indicate
The recent publication of the English Yadinmaintains that the author and halakhic rulings, and addingentirely
translation and commentary on the the members of the sect regardedthe new sections. Yadinnotes the author's
Temple Scroll will no doubt sparka great Temple Scroll as "averitableTorahof the modification of Pentateuchalverses to
deal of new researchby scholars of the Lord"(volume 1, page 392). He finds dispel any doubt that it was God who is
Dead Sea Scrolls, early Judaism,and supportfor this assertion in the fact that speaking. On the other hand, entire sec-
Christianity. ForProfessor Yadin, who the divine name is written in the same tions retain the Torah'sphrasingwith no
passed away soon afterwards, it was his square script in which the rest of the such adaptations.Yadinmaintains that
last great scholarly achievement, one for scroll is written, something character- the author sought to claim that the law
which he will long be remembered. istic of the "canonical"books at Qumran. had been handed down directly by God
The Hebrew edition of the Temple The text of the Temple Scroll certainly without the intermediacy of Moses.
Scroll was alreadypublished under the representsan attempt to write a new Hence, the author of the Temple Scroll
title Megillat Ha-Miqdashin 1977. Even Torah,as Yadinsuggested.It must be modified the commands of Deuteron-
beforepublication of the scroll, Professor stated at the outset that this is not a omy, while preservingthe languageof
Yadin'slectures and articles had whetted Messianic Torah.The author tells us Exodus,Leviticus, and Numbers in
the appetites of scholars and students explicitly that the scroll describes the which God is mentioned explicitly in
(Yadin 1967, 1968, 1969, 1971, 1972, Temple in which Israelwill worship the Pentateuchaltext.
1976, and 1978).After all, this scroll, at beforethe end of days (TempleScroll The author gatheredtogether all
sixty-six columns long, was the longest 29:2-10). It is an ideal Temple,built material on each subject from the Five
nonbiblical scroll to emerge from the upon the principles of Scripturalexe- Books of Moses, and merged them into a
Qumrancaves.We alreadyknew that it gesis and the beliefs of the author or unitary text. Wheneverthe various Pen-
held treasuresfor our researchand we authors. tateuchal texts on one subjectpresented
awaitedits publication with great The author of the scroll beganwith apparentcontradictions,the author har-
eagerness. Exodus,where the command to build a monized these in accordancewith his
When the Hebrew edition was pub- sanctuaryappears,and ended with Deu- own brandof halakhic interpretation
lished, scholars greetedwith joy a work teronomy.In so doing, he followed the and draftedhis version of the law of the
of scholarshipthat indeed set the stan- orderof the Torahitself. The scroll Pentateuchto indicate his ruling. Often
dardfor the editing of Qumrantexts. In basically discusses the structure,fur- words are inserted or passagesare other-
the three-volumeset, Yadinhad provided nishings, and equipment of the Temple wise modified to clarify matters ambigu-
a detailed introduction to the text, an accordingto the orderof the Torahbut ous in the Torah,in accordwith the
edition with scholarly commentary as constantly digresses to discuss the views of the author of our scroll. The
well as notes on the readings,diplomatic relevantofferingsthat utilized these author'suse of the first person, according
transcriptionand concordance,indexes, structuresor equipment, only to return to Yadin,also marks the additional
and a volume of plates (andsupplemen- to the Scripturalorder.In the process, material not based on the Pentateuchas
tary plates) to make possible verification the architectureof the Temple and its the word of God.
of all readings.The technical achieve- precincts, laws of sacrifice, priestly dues Yadinnotes that the existence of a
ment in unrolling and readingthe badly and tithes, the ritual calendar,festival Templeplan is referredto in 1 Chron-
damagedportions of the scroll was offerings,ritual purity and impurity, icles 28:11and following, and that this
unparalleled. sanctity of the Temple,laws of the king servedthe author as the "startingpoint
The Hebrew edition servedas the and the army,prophecy,foreignworship, for his composition of the scroll."This
basis for Spanish, French,and German witnesses, laws of war,and various mar- passageprovidedthe basis for the supple-
translations which appearedeven before riage and sex laws are treated.The cult mentary sections, putting the "authority
Yadin'sEnglish edition (Garcia1977, and ritual are dealt with first, and only for their existence in the biblical text
Caquot 1978, Maier 1978).Many other then are the various prescriptionsculled itself."Forthe Statutes of the King
important studies, some of which will from Deuteronomy 18- 22 discussed. In (TempleScroll 56- 59), the author based
be discussed below, were published writing the scroll, the author apparently himself on an exegesis of Deuteronomy
before the English edition. The new workedthrough the Pentateuchin order, 17:18and 1 Samuel 10:25,from which he

122 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
inferredthe existence of a compilation
of statutes relating to the king. The
detailed laws of festivals stem from the
allusions to such prescriptionsin the
incomplete codes of the Torah.The laws
of purity derive from the need to adapt
the Pentateuchallegislation written to
referto the desert Tabernacleto the cir-
cumstances of the Templein Jerusalem.
The first hints regardingthe dating
of the scroll came, of course, from the
paleography.The scroll itself is written
by two hands, both dated to the Herodian
period. Nonetheless, of two manuscripts
in the RockefellerMuseum that are
identified by Yadinas fragmentsof the
Temple Scroll, one is Herodianand one
is Hasmonean. This Hasmonean frag-
ment must be dated to the end of the
second century B.C.E. Yadinconcludes
that the text must be dated no later than
the reign of JohnHyrcanus (135/4-104
B.C.E.) or the beginningof thatof Alexan-
der Janneus(103-76 B.C.E.).
The languageof the scroll indicated
to Yadinthat the text could not have
been composed before the Hasmonean
period. ForYadin,"theblatantly
Qumran-sectariannature of severallaws"
(volume 1, page 387) was further
evidence for this dating. Indeed, in
Yadin'sview the contents of the scroll,
emphasizing the sacrificial Temple and
ritual, the laws of the king, and the
death penalty regulations,would call for
a Hasmonean dating. Basedon the law
describingthe use of rings for holding
sacrificial animals, Yadinconcludes that
"thescroll - or its doctrine-was already
known in the time of JohnHyrcanus"
(volume 1, page 388) and that this view
influenced him to install such rings, as
related in rabbinicsources. He further
arguesthat the Statutes of the King and
laws of conscription (TempleScroll
56- 59) are most appropriateto the reign
of JohnHyrcanus,against whose
practices the scroll polemicizes. Yadin
concludes that the scroll must have been
composed aroundthe time of John
Hyrcanus.This, he notes, accordswith
the archaeologicalfinds at Qumramthat
indicate that the sectarian settlement
there was founded in the second half of
the second century B.C.E.
The existence of multiple copies of
this text among the fragmentsfrom
Qumranconvinced Yadinof the impor-
tance of this scroll to the sect. He there-
fore attempted to find referenceto the
scroll in other Qumranwritings. He ten-
tatively suggestedthat this scroll may be
identical with the Book of Hagu (or
Hagi), which was mentioned in the sec-
tarian corpus and which was, apparently,
a source of law or interpretation.He also
examined the referenceto the Sealed
Book of the Law in the Damascus Docu-
ment (also known as the Zadokite Frag-
ments) 5:1-5 (see Schiffman 1975:30
and following), and ingeniously suggests
that this also might be a referenceto the
Temple Scroll. If so, he concludes, based
on the passage in question, that "thesect
ascribedthe 'discovery'of that scroll to
Zadok, who may be none other than its
founder"(volume 1, page 395). Further,it
is posdiblein his view to identify the
Temple Scroll with the "SecondLaw"
describedin a fragmentary"Chainof
Peshers"(4Q 177 Catena A) and the book
of the Lawthat the Teacherof Righteous-
ness sent to the Wicked Priest according
to the Pesher on Psalms 37:32-33 [4Q
171 Commentary on Psalms (A)].On the
other hand, he wisely concludes, "Areall
these names differenttitles for the same
book? Or,perhaps,is the TempleScroll
not to be identified with any of these
books at all? I do not doubt that this
puzzle will occupy scholars for some
time" (volume 1, page 397). Yadincalls
attention to passagesin rabbiniclitera-
ture that mention a scroll such as ours.
Yadinsaw evidence of the connec-
tion of the Temple Scroll to the other
sectariandocuments in the nature of the
laws contained in it and the use of ter-
minology characteristicof the sect. This
text, in his view, representsa stage in the
history of the sect beforeit had developed
its various substitutions for Temple
worship,from which it had withdrawn.
The members of the sect could not par-
ticipate in the sacrificial cult of the Jeru-
salem Temple since they had different
views from those of the established
priesthood regardingthe Templeplan,
laws of sacrifices, purity and impurity,
calendar,and so on.
Yadinsees the scroll's"inspiration"
in the Damascus Document and finds a
definite relationship between the pre-
scriptions of the Temple Scroll and the
laws of purity in the WarScroll. He also
takes note of the parallelsbetween the
Temple Scroll and the Book of Jubilees.
It is important to note his caveat that
"onecannot rule out the possibility that
the scroll also embodies- to a greateror
BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
lesser extent - the teachings of a wider
movement, which is not (strictly speak-
ing) a sect, one from which the Qumran
sect developedin the course of time"
(volume 1, page 398).
Yadinidentified the sect of this and
the other scrolls with the Essenes and
found evidence for this view in the scroll
itself. He saw the Temple Scroll as
representing"aformative stage"in the
development of the beliefs and practices
of the sect. Yadinalso exploredthe
relationship of the prescriptionsof the
Temple Scroll to early Pharisaiclaw. To
him the Temple Scroll is "acodex of laws
absolutely contraryto the rabbinicstat-
utes" (volume 1, page 400). While some
agreement exists with Sadduceanviews
(see Baumgarten1980),there is also
unquestionable contradiction.Yadin
suggests that some Talmudicdiscussions
evidence a polemic against the views of
this scroll, indicating that the sagesknew
the views of the scroll but preferrednot
to mention the dissidents by name.
Immediately upon publication of
the Hebrewedition, a vigorous debate
ensued regardingthe provenanceand
nature of the scroll. B. A. Levine,in a
review article (1978),maintained that
the scroll could not be provento be a
document originating in the same sect
that producedthe sectariantexts from
Qumran.In a careful study, Levine
arguedthat passagesabout the Temple
and the calendarthat Yadinhad taken to
conform with the views of the Dead Sea
sect as known from the other scrolls
were not, in fact, necessarily sectarian.
Levine disputed Yadin'sclaim that the
calendarunderlying the Temple Scroll
was that of solar years and solar months
generallyagreedto be that of the sect.
Further,he disagreedwith Yadin'sclaim
that the author of the scroll widened
laws of Temple sanctity to include the
entire city of Jerusalem.The Hebrew cir
ha-miqdash, taken by Yadinas "Temple-
city,"that is, Jerusalem,was understood
by Levine,following L. Ginzberg'sinter-
pretationof the Damascus Document,
to referonly to the Temple Mount and
its sacredprecincts. JacobMilgrom
(1978b),and later Yadinhimself (1980),
arguedvigorously against Levine'sposi-
tion. To them, there was no question of
the provenanceof this scroll and its
place in the sectariancorpus. Milgrom,
at the same time, contributeda number
of important studies on the sacrificial
123
laws in the scroll (1978a, 1978c, 1980,
and 1981).These studies have helped to
illumine numerous passages dealing
with technical matters pertainingto the
Temple,sacrifice, and ritual purity and
impurity.
A number of studies appearedafter
the publication of the Hebrew edition of
the TempleScroll which, as noted in
many cases in Yadin's'"Addenda et
Corrigenda" to the English edition, have
contributedsubstantially to our under-
standingof the scroll. Studies of the
languageof the scroll by Qimron (1978b,
1978c, 1980),Brin (1978),and Thorion
(1983)have confirmedYadin'sbasic con-
clusion that the languageof the scroll
has many affinities to the biblical
Hebrew of the SecondTempleperiod,
and that it has certain parallelswith
Mishnaic Hebrew.I have maintained
(Schiffman1980),however,that the
affinities to Mishnaic usage in legal
terminology are much more prominent
than are the similarities to Qumran
usage, and that even in the areasof
orthographyand morphology,important
differencesseparatethe Temple Scroll
from the texts authoredby the Qumran
sectarians themselves. These circum-
stances call into question the assump-
tion that the TempleScroll was authored
by the same group that authoredthe
sectarian scrolls.
My hesitation in accepting Yadin's
views on this subject is further strength-
ened by a comparison of the manner in
which law is understoodto be derivedin
the TempleScroll and in the texts of the
Qumransect.,Whereasthe author of the
TempleScroll sees the laws and inter-
pretations of his scroll as having been
part of the original revelation to Moses,
the previously known sectariandocu-
ments see the sect's law as resulting
from inspiredbiblical exegesis occurring
on an ongoing basis in the life of the
group (Schiffman1983: 13-17).
Severalscholars have probedthe
importance of the scroll for the study of
the HebrewBible. E. Tov (1982)com-
paredthe biblical readingsof the Temple
Scroll with those of the three text types
previously known from Qumran.He saw
this scroll as presenting a text type
differentfrom those that underlie the
Masoretictext, the Septuaginttransla-
tion, and the SamaritanPentateuch.We
should note, however,that the same
effect would be producedif the author of
124 BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985
the Temple Scroll had access to these Pentateuchalsection in the scroll. Yadin
three text types and used them eclec- listed the themes discussed in this sec-
tically or inconsistently. Brin (1980)has tion as the royalguard,the king's judicial
investigatedthe ways in which the council, the ban on the king's marrying
author of the scroll adaptedand com- more than one wife or divorcingher,
bined biblical texts to create his text. Itlaws of the "warof duty,"booty, "warof
was suggestedby S. Kaufman(1982)that choice,"blessing and curse, and invoca-
this process of editing and adaptation tion to follow the ways of the Lord(vol-
provideda model upon which the redac- ume 1, page 345). The subject matter of
tion of the Pentateuchitself might be this section indicated to Yadinthat it
understood.Indeed,Wilson and Mills had been composed in the Hasmonean
have arguedthat severalsources dealing period.
with the festival calendar,the collection M. Weinfeld(1978-1979, 1980)saw
of purity laws, and the "Torahof the the entire scroll as a "King'sLaw,"basing
King,"along with the book of Deuteron- his argumenton ancient Near Eastern
omy, were used in the "composition"of and Hellenistic parallels.He suggested
the final work (Wilsonand Mills 1982: that the scroll was equivalent to the
288). Mishnaic parashat ha-melekh, the king's
Yadindevotedconsiderablespace to portion, to be readon the Feastof
the analysis of the architecturalplan of Booths. I must agreewith Yadin'sevalua-
the Templedescribedin the scroll. tion that despite the many important
J.Maier (1978)took issue with Yadinon parallels cited by Weinfeld,this scroll,
many points in this regard,and this is a concentratingso much on priestly and
subject that awaits further researchby sacrificial matters, cannot be taken as a
experts. The impressive gold-platedstair- king's handbookor treaty (volume 1,
case leading to the roof of the Temple page417).The Statutes of the King served
was interpretedby M. Smith (1982)as a as the basis of the study of D. Mendels
structureintended to facilitate sun (1979)in which he comparedthe pattern
worship.Although the evidence Smith of kingship that emerges from the Letter
has marshalled shows that sun worship of Aristeas with that of our scroll and
did indeed exist in ancient Palestine, it concluded that the material in Aristeas
seems to run counter to the entire tone could be a Hellenistic renderingof Jewish
and content of the Temple Scroll for the ideas with which the author was only
author to have legislated to providefor generally familiar.
what he must have regardedas an offense The scroll'sprohibition of polygamy,
againstthe Torah'slaw (see Yadin, at least for the king, has given rise to
volume 1, pages 412 and following). some discussion. Yadinmaintained that
A question that has received con- the Temple Scroll, like the Damascus
siderableattention is that of crucifixion. Document, prohibitedpolygamy(1972;
Yadin(1971;see also volume 1, pages see volume 1, pages 355-57). J.Murphy-
373-79 and Halperin 1981)has main- O'Connor(1970)arguedthat the text of
tained that this scroll as well as Pesher the Zadokite Fragmentsmeant only to
Nahum describe a penalty of crucifixion prohibit a man from marryingmore
for certain offenses, understoodto derive than once, even if his wife died or he
from Deuteronomy 21:22.Although this divorcedher. Murphy-O'Connorad-
has been disputed by J.M. Baumgarten mitted, however,that the Temple Scroll
(1977and 1982),Yadinhas cited much contradictedhis view, but maintained
evidence to the effect that such a penalty that either we are dealing with historical
was known in Jewishcircles. Indeed,it development or differencesof opinion
does seem, as Yadinexplains, that our within the sect. J.R. Mueller (1980)has
scroll prescribesthis punishment for taken the Temple Scroll to prohibitboth
treason against the Jewishpeople. The polygamyand divorce,following J.A.
importance of this material for an under- Fitzmyer'sviews on the Zadokite Frag-
standingof the New Testamenthas been ments passage (1976and 1980).
discussed in detail by J.A. Fitzmyer In 1983B. Z. Wacholderpublished a
(1978). volume on the Temple Scroll entitled
The Statutes of the King found in The Dawn of Qumran:The Sectarian
the Temple Scroll were immediately Torahand the Teacherof Righteousness.
subjectedto considerablestudy because [Editor'snote: see the review following
they constitute the longest non- this one for another considerationof this
book.] WacholderadoptedYadin'sbasic
theory that the scroll was a second
Torah.Arguingthat the scroll ought to
be named 11QTorah,Wacholderpro-
pounded the extremely unlikely thesis
that this text was part of what was in-
tended to be a Messianic, second Torah
written by none other than the Teacher
of Righteousness. Wacholdertook the
view, in accord with Yadin's suggestion,
that the teacher was named Zadok as
describedin the Zadokite Fragments;he and it will continue for many years.
went further in claiming that this is the
same Zadok whose graveis mentioned
in the CopperScroll. Wacholderclaimed
that the Temple Scroll is the second part This review was almost completed when
of a two-parttext of which the first part
is the Book of Jubilees.This second
Torahis the Messianic Torahthat is to
replace the current Torahat the dawn of
the eschaton. He claimed that these are
the two Torahsgiven to Israel at Sinai,
and found allusions to this tradition in
other Jewishworks. Accordingto
Wacholder,the TempleScroll is to be
dated to approximately200 B.C.E.
Wacholder'sviews, where they
divergefrom those advancedearlierby
Yadin,are highly speculative. On most
the work of Yadin with- combines technical expertise, archae-
matters, easily
stands his challenge. Wacholder'sdate of ological scholarship,and textual exege-
196 B.C.E. is simply too early if the
Temple Scroll indeed emanates from the
Qumran sect. Both archaeologicaland
historical evidence arguefor the found-
ing of the sect in the mid-second century
B.C.E. The Temple Scroll explicitly states may his memory be for a blessing!
that it describes the laws of the sacri-
ficial ritual to be practiceduntil the
time of the Messianic era (cadyom ha-
berakhah,or, in the readingof Qimron,
cad yom ha-beri'ah).The scroll is
certainly not a description of an eschato-
and its ritual. It is
logical temple pre-
Messianic. Jubilees,while sharingcer-
tain motifs with the Qumran scrolls, as
observedby Yadin,and although manu-
scripts of it were found in the Dead Sea
caves, is not part of the same text. Its
style, its Hebrew orthography,and its
theme are completely differentfrom
that of the Temple Scroll. Zadok is most
a
probably symbolic name and not that
of the Teacherof Righteousness (even
Yadinwas very tentative on this point),
and I do not even know for sure if the
Copper Scroll is part of the sect's litera-
ture. In my view, it is unrealistic for any
scholar to expect to determine the name
of the teacher or his exact dates, or to
identify the author of any given scroll
definitively. Such precision is beyond
the limits of the evidence availableto us.
If so, Yadin'sdating and basic exe-
gesis of the text must stand. He correctly
understoodit as a Torahfor the imme-
diate pre-Messianicage. Whether it was
actually written by members of the sect
who authoredthe sectarianscrolls is a
matter still open to inquiry.Professor
Yadinhas set the stage for this debate,
Note
ProfessorYadinpassed away.His own
influence on my careeras a scholar
whose primaryresearchis devotedto the
Dead Sea Scrolls was immeasurable.
Both through his works and throughper-
sonal contact, he helped and encouraged
me, even while recognizingmy disagree-
ments with him. It was this spirit of
collegiality, coupled with his profound
scholarshipand organizationalability,
that makes his work so important. In
many ways, the work under review here
is his crowning achievement. In it he
sis of a level never beforefound in a first
edition of a Qumran scroll. The Temple
Scroll, especially in the revised English
edition, will remain a memorial to Pro-
fessor Yigael Yadin.YehiZikhro Barukh,
Bibliography
Baumgarten, J.M.
1972 Does TLHin the TempleScrollRefer
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Literature 91: 472-81
(reprinted
his Studiesin QumranLaw,Leiden:
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1980 ThePharisaic-Sadducean Controver-
sies aboutPurityandthe Qumran
Texts.Journalof Jewish Studies 31:
157-70.
1982 HangingandTreasonin Qumranand
RomanLaw.Eretz-Israel16:7-16.
Brin,G.
1978 LinguisticCommentson the Temple
Scroll. Leshonenu43: 20-28
(Hebrew).
1980 TheBibleas Reflectedin the Temple
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(Hebrew).
Caquot,A.
1978 LeRouleauduTemplede Qoumran.
Etudes Thdologiqueset Religieuses
53:443-500.
Fitzmyer,J.A.
1976 TheMattheanDivorceTextsand
SomeNew PalestinianEvidence.
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PalestinianJews.Eretz-Israel14:
103- 120.
Garcia,E
1977 Elrollodeltemple.Estudios
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Halperin,D. J.
1981 Crucifixion,the NahumPesher,and
the RabbinicPenaltyof Strangula-
tion. Journalof Jewish Studies 32:
32-46.
S.A.
Kaufman,
1982 TheTempleScrollandHigher
Criticism. Hebrew Union College
Annual 53: 29-43.
Levine,B.A.
1978 TheTempleScroll:Aspectsof Its
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andLiterary
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5-23.
Maier,J.
1978 Die Tempelrollevom TbtenMeer.
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Mendels,M.
1979 "OnKingship" in the "Temple Scroll"
andthe IdeologicalVorlageof the
SevenBanquetsin the"Letter of
Aristeasto Philocrates."
Aegyptus
59:127andfollowing.
Milgrom,J.
1978a CommentsconcerningtheTemple
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205-11 (Hebrew).
1978b "Sabbath" City"in the
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1978c Studies in the TempleScroll. Journal
of Biblical Literature97: 501-23.
1978d The Temple Scroll.Biblical
Archeologist 41: 105- 20.
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1981 TheParadox
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Mueller,J.R.
1980 TheTempleScrollandthe Gospel
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Murphy-O'Connor,
surl'exposeduProfessor
1972 Remarques
Y.Yadin.Revue Biblique 79:99 and
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1978a Frointhe Workon the Historical
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1975 The Halakhah at Qumran,Leiden:
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1980 TheTempleScrollin Literary and
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1982 Heliosin Palestine.Eretz-Israel 16:
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Thorion,Y.
1983 Die SprachederTempelrolle unddie The Dawnof Qumran:
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1982 The"Temple Scroll"andOld
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Society,Instituteof Archaeology
the HebrewUniversity,Shrineof the about the scroll, Qumranorigins, and
Book.
LawrenceH. Schiffman
New YorkUniversity
The Sectarian
andthe 'ITeacher of Righteousness been revealedto Moses at Sinai, was
ITorah
(Monographs of the Hebrew Union
College, 8), by Ben Zion Wacholder.
Union College, 1983; $25.
Perhapsmore than any other subjects
related to the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars
have been intriguedby the questions of
the origin of the community that wrote
them and the identity of the man who
founded the group. In the early years of writer was none other than the Righ-
Qumranresearchmany theories about
these issues were advanced,but experts
time now that the community began its
exile in the second half of the second
century B.C.as a an
protest against early
member of the Maccabeanhigh priestly
dynasty (called the WickedPriest in the
sectarian literature). Some scholars have would
of the group-the Teacherof Righteous- reconstruct the city in accordwith the
ness-was either an acting or full high
priest whom Jonathan,the first Has-
monean high priest, ousted from office.
Among the majorproblems that such
reconstructions have encounteredare
the facts that so little relevantevidence
has survivedand that the Teacher,who
seems to have been a forceful and gifted
personality, has left no other trace in
history.
Yigael Yadin'spublication of the
Temple Scroll in 1977 has introduceda
new era in researchon the scrolls. This
document- the longest of the scrolls- is
a legal text that treats many Penta-
teuchal laws, arrangesthem accordingto
subject, expands some and omits others.
Yadindatedthe scroll to the time of John
Hyrcanus (134-104 B.C.)or a little
earlier.The text was undoubtedlymeant
tative because the context is the Sinai
revelationand the deity speaks to Moses
in the first person.
In The Dawn of Qumran Ben Zion
Wacholderhas made the Temple Scroll
(which he names the QumranicTorah)
the basis for an impressivenew thesis
of
the identity of the Teacherof Righteous-
ness. He maintains that the Qumranic
Torahwas not merely an edited version
of the Mosaic law but a new Torahthat
was intended for the last days.It was
superiorto Moses'Torah,which had
evidently failed to achieve its purpose.
This eschatological Torah,though it had
being published in the author'sday
because the last times were at hand.
Wacholderconsiders it to be earlierthan
all other literaturefrom Qumranand
older than pre-Qumranbooks such as
Jubileesand the Zadokite Fragments
(DamascusDocument). His most sur-
prising assertions, however,are his pre-
cise date for the Temple Scroll and the
identity of the author.He holds that the
teous Teacherand that he composed his
Torahjust priorto 196 B.c.The dating is
where one readsabout the beginning of a
movement that occurred390 yearsafter
Nebuchadnezzar'sconquest of Jerusalem
(587/86 - 390 = 197/6).The Teacher
attractedfollowerswho believed that he
become high priest and, upon
scroll'sspecifications.
Who was the Teacher?Wacholder
arguesthat he is the Zadok who is men-
tioned severaltimes in the scrolls and
whose name providesconvenient word-
plays (sdwq/sdq).This Zadok figures in
rabbinicand Karaitetexts, accordingto
which he was a disciple of Antigonus of
Soko,had written a largebook, and was
the founderof a Zadokite sect. If he is
correct,Wacholderhas found non-
Qumranreferencesto the Teacherand
thus solved an old problem.
 Wacholder'sunderstandingof the the scroll in Bethlehem. He recounts the settlement. These attempts lack a vital
Temple Scroll and its relationship with rest of the story,including the long bit of information:the date Qumranwas
books such as Jubileesis a fascinating negotiations and the delicate job of un- settled. The distinguished scholar Roland
rolling the scroll, though even here some
one, and one that will, it is hoped, elicit de Vaux,excavatorof Qumran,was
more studies that will evaluate it and itsdetails are left out-for example, the unable to specify a clear beginning of
implications. The dating of the scroll name of the "Virginianclergyman"who period Ia. Unless his field notes and
and the identification of the Teacheras attempted to serve as middleman for the photographs,which he did not live to see
Zadok cannot, however,be sustained sale of the scroll. into a final excavationreport,would
because the textual foundation is insuffi- Yadinproceeds,assisted by attractive suffice for a decisive independent assess-
cient. CD 1:5-10 does assign the origin illustrations, to set forth the subjects of ment, perhapsa limited additional ex-
of a community to a time that was 390 this ancient writing found in a Qumran cavation of Qumran,with the purposeof
years after Nebuchadnezzartook Jeru- cave. These include: the design for a new determining the onset of occupation
salem, but the text places the teacher's temple to be built in Jerusalem(which (within second century B.C.E.),should be
rise 20 years later. It may be that the the text presents as a divine command) considered.Another approachfor finding
Teacherwrote the Temple Scroll, but it an orderlyannual cycle of festivals a context for Essene writings would
seems unlikely that he was the Zadok (includingsome previously unknown), consider a longer periodof development
whose memory survives in rabbinicand strict purity laws, and rules for the king. for this movement, including portions of
Karaiteliterature.The crucial passage Although it is understandablethat the Enochic literatureof the third century
for the identification is CD 5:2- 5, Hebrew text is not included in this B.C.E.,through the pesha-rim (commen-
which may relate a Zadok to "thesealed general-readershipvolume, perhapsa full taries), and including the CopperScroll
book of the Torah"that contained English translation of the scroll should (perhaps of the decade of the sixties C.E.).
marital regulations that resemble those have been included as an appendix.At ProfessorYadinhas had a remark-
in 11QT56 and 57. Nevertheless, a care- any rate Yadingives an excellent account ably productiverecordof intuitions in
ful readingof these lines revealsthat the of the content of the scroll. With his relating far-flungsources. This book in-
Zadok in question was the more famous remarkablywide-rangingmind, Yadin cludes many sidelights of such proposals.
Zadok who was David'spriest. illustrates severalof the issues that arise An advantageof this approachis that it
The Dawn of Qumran offersmuch in an attempt to answerthe questions: gives the readera good sense of the
more than can be summarized here, but Who would write such a book?When? detective work on this scroll, which is
perhapsenough has been said to show And for what audience?Yadin'sscenario really still in progress.It also means that
that Wacholder'stheses are extremely includes authorshipby the Essene severalof these possible connections
important and that to bolster his case he Teacherof Righteousness duringthe will eventually be abandoned,particu-
has fully exploited the wide rangeof period 150-125 B.C.E. While Yadin's larly some of the suggestedreferencesto
literaturethat he controls. It would description of the content of the scroll is this scroll and its author in other
come as no surprise if the book should quite reliable, his reconstructionof its Qumrantexts. The relevanceof the
proveto be one of the most important origin is necessarily speculative. Temple Scroll to a difficult passagein
and widely discussed publications on If there were some other scholar Mark (page80 and following) may also
the Dead Sea Scrolls. more appropriatethan ProfessorYadinto be questioned.
coordinatethe varioustasks of obtaining, Some readerswill find that Yadin
JamesC. VanderKam unrolling, translating, and presenting a overestimatesthe extent of Josephus'
North Carolina State University first edition of this text, the name does personalknowledge of the Essenes.
not readily come to mind. Yet it should However,Josephusmentions an "oracle"
be clear that no scholar,howeverbril- concerning a "four-square" temple -
liant, can expect to have the last word on characteristicof the temple description
TheT'Imple Scroll:The Hidden Law of any majorQumrantext for some time to in this scroll - as a concern to those
the Dead Sea Sect, by Yigael Yadin. come. Everymajor Qumrantext edition defendingJerusalemagainst the Romans
261 pp. New York:Random House, 1985; is improvedafter it becomes availablefor (page169);this is a very interesting
$24.95 (Hardcover). open scholarly discussion. Some of the connection, and the sort of insight for
not-yet-publishedQumran scroll frag- which Yadinis known.
The late ProfessorYadin,whose talent ments will directly relate to such un- Overall,this volume is very well
for presenting history in a lively and resolved issues as the context of the done. ProfessorYadindied beforehe
clear manner is well known, providesin Temple Scroll;let us hope that they will could proofreadthis manuscript, but
this popularbook the fullest account in all be made availablesoon. there are relatively few errorsin the
print of the acquisition of the Temple Formost scholars, including Yadin, book. (The names of ProfessorsFitzmyer
Scroll. Yadinservedas advisor to the the question is not whether the Qumran and Orlinsky are misspelled.) Students
Prime Minister of Israelduringthe 1967 ruins, the cave scrolls, and the Essenes of the history of this period will long be
war."Ihad just stretchedout for a nap," are related;ratherthe question is pre- turning to the works of Yigael Yadin
he writes, (page40), "whenI was struck cisely how they are related. Several with gratitude.
by the thought that dealerX ... might scholars assume there was only one
well now be within Israel'sjurisdiction." Teacherof Righteousness and attempt to Stephen Goranson
Yadinarrangedfor an officer to obtain place him at the founding of the Qumran Duke University

BIBLICALARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE1985 127
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 THEOLOGICAL
DICTIONARY OF THE
NEW TESTAMENT
Edited by Gerhard Kittel
and Gerhard Friedrich
Abridged in One Volume
by Geoffrey W. Bromiley
"ProfessorBromiley has succeeded
admirablyin the enormously
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simplifying the TDNT into a single
attractiveand eminently readable
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....The little Kittel" belongs on
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New Testament."
-David E. Aune
"Avaluablecompendium...that will
have a two-fold usefulness: as a
ready-referencetool it will provide
an overview of New Testament
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nary guide it will facilitate detailed
study of the lengthy articlesin the
unabridged volumes of Kittel-
Friedrich." -Bruce M. Metzger
"Now a much greater number of
readerswill profit by the unsur-
passed value of the Dictionary
as,
an aid to theological exposition."
-F.F. Bruce
"An epoch-making work of New
Testamentscholarship....An excel-
lent instrument of work for pro-
fessors, preachersand students."
-Hans King
Cloth, $44.95
CREATION REGAINED
Biblical Basics for a
Reformational Worldview
Albert M. Wolters
Wolters believes that
evil is not a necessary
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createdworld,
and that, there-
fore, the world
can be restoredto
a state of perfec-
tion. In this book he
examinesthe natureand
scope ofworldviews-in particular
Christianworldviews, and concludes
that the reformationalworldview is
uniquely suited to the task of
reformingthe world to biblically
prescribedpatterns.
Paper, $7.95
128 BIBLICAL
ARCHAEOLOGIST/JUNE
THE APOSTOLIC
CHURCH
Everett F. Harrison
A full-length college or seminary-
level textbook survey of the church
during the New
Testament
period fol-
lowing Pen-
tecost.
Harrison
includes a
brief descrip-
tion of the
church'ssocio-
political milieu, an assessmentof the
validityof the biblicalrecord, an
examinationof the majoraspectsof
churchdevelopment, and sketchesof
individualchurches.Extensively
documented;thorough bibliography.
Paper, $12.95t
C.S. LEWIS AND
THE SEARCH FOR
RATIONAL RELIGION
John Beversluis
"The first systematic and radical
critique of C.S. Lewis's theological
arguments."
-Antony Flew
"A landmarkbook in C.S. Lewis
studies. Certainlythere has been no
lack of books in which Lewis figures
as a saintly and all-wise thinker. But
reallyscholarly approacheshave
been rarelyapplied to Lewis's
theological and philosophical work.
This book takes up Lewis's chal-
lenge to present the evidence for
Christianityand it operates with full
rigour.... Henceforth the person
who wants to study Lewis's theol-
ogy and philosophy will be well ad-
vised to read Lewis first, then
Beversluis." ---Chad Walsh
Paper, $9.95
THE
CHRISTIAN
HOPE
Brian Hebblethwaite
Hebblethwaite examinesthe basis of
Christianhope in the Old and
New Testamentsand goes on to give
an account of the history of Chris-
tian attitudes toward the future,
focusing in particularon the mod-
ern period. Solid scholarshipmade
accessibleto a general audience.
Paper, $9.95
1985
"THE 'SON OF MAN' "
S
AS THE SON OF GOD
Seyoon Kim
A concise, clearlyorganized survey
of the much-debated Son of Man
problem. After an introductory re-
view of the relevantpassagesand the
pertinent scholarship, Kim focuses
on his main thesis: that with the
self-designation "the'Son of Man,'"
Jesus intended to revealhimself as
the Son of God who createsthe new
people of God at the eschaton, so
that they may call God the Creator
"Our Father and live in his love and
wealth.
Paper, $12.95s
THE RESPONSIBILITY
OF HERMENEUTICS
Clarence Walhbout,Roger Lundin
andAnthony C. Thiselton
A cooperative venture of literaryand
biblical scholars-fellows at the
Calvin (College)
Center for
Christian
Scholarshi
-this book
presents a
new approach
to hermeneuti-
cal theory based
on a philosophy
of action. Rather
than seeing language as the locus
of meaning, the authors argue that
textual meaning arisesout of the
diverse interrelatedactions per-
formed by authors and readersin
producing and using texts. The
book will be of interest to literary
and biblical scholars as well as
philosophers.
Paper, $Iz.95s
ENLIGHTENMENT
AND ALIENATION
Colin Gunton
Focusing on the concepts of truth,
freedom, and faith, Gunton argues
that in these areasthe effect of the
Enlightenment has been to alienate
man from reality, from himself, and
from God. But the trinitarianstruc-
ture of Christian belief, says Gun-
ton, contains within itself the re-
sources to overcome this alienation
and to achieve an integrated
perspective.
Paper, $9.95
 Outstand
Books-1985
SENTi
Ission andUnity
in the Perspective
of the Kingdom
Emilio Castro
The new General Secretaryof the
World Council of Churches argues
that the perspective of the kingdom
can foster unity in mission. "Mis-
sionary freedom," says Castro,
"meansasking what we shall do and
being perpetually preparedto
do w at God asks ofus."
Paper, $5.95
MISSION BETWEEN
THE TIMES
Essays by C. Rene Padilla
These nine essays by a prominent
Latin American evangelical address
the issues of evangelization and so-
cial justice. Padilla is critical of
evangelistic techniques of the West
and of North American con-
sumerism. Although he shares the
concerns of liberation theologians,
he rejectsliberation theology as a
secular ideology.
Paper, $10.95
JOY IN THE NEW
TESTAMENT
William G. Morrice
Foreword byA.M. Hunter
Morrice focuses on the various
words used in the New Testamentto
express the joy that comes from be-
lief in Jesus Christ. The first half of
the book consists of an examination
of the various groups of Greek
words for joy; the last part of the
book discusses the joy in the life and
teachings of Jesus and in New
Testamentwritings.
Paper, $8.95
THE PAULINE CIRCLE
F.F. Bruce
Bruce discusses the men and women
who surrounded Paul-including
Barnabas,Silas, Timothy, Luke,
Priscilla and Aquila, Onesimus and
Mark-minterms of both their rela-
tionship to Paul and their relation-
ship to the early church, looking at
the biblihcalevidence and placing it
against its first-centurybackground.
Paper, $4.95
RAISED IMMORTAL
MurrayJ. Harris
Arguing that western Christianity
has naturalizedthe Platonic rather
than the Pauline sense of the word
"immortality,"Murray Harris
examines the New Testamentdata
on resurrectionand immortality and
concludes that the two ideas are
complementary and inseparable.
Paper, $10.95
THE PERSON IN
PSYCHOLOGY
A Contemporary
Christian Appraisal
Studiesin a
ChristianWorldView
Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen
"A rich, challengingbook... one that,
in particular,every Christianwho is
a serious student
of psychology
should read
and reflecton.
The author
addressesvari-
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theory, researchmethods, etc., but
her most general concern is to show
the need or a majorparadigmshift,
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called 'scientific'psychology. The
exciting thing is that this book helps
bring about this very shift-one
that will provide a more humane,
realistic,and valid understandingof
the
person."-
Paper, $9.95t
THE SEEDS OF
SECULARIZATION
Calvinism, Culture, and
Pluralism in America, 1870-1915
Gary Scott Smith
Smith looks backto the late 19thand
early 20th centuries and traces the
developments during these years
which preparedthe way for the in-
creasing secularization of American
life. The contours of American cul-
ture might have been quite differ-
ent, says Smith, if the earlyAmeri-
can Calvinists had not overlooked
the approach that Smith argues
for-cultural pluralism.A Christian
UniversityPressbook.
Paper, 14.95s
THE HUMILIATION
OF THE WORD
Jacques Ellul
Translated byJoyce Hanks
"At last a book that penetrates the
glamor and confusion of the infor-
mation age....This is vintage Ellul,
intense, fresh, dramatic."
-Cliford Christians
"Anyone interested in promoting or
communicating the truth in our
frantic society will be challenged
and assisted by TheHumiliatzonof
the Word.Pastors, teachers, parents,
and thoughtful people in virtually
any vocation will find their work il-
luminated by an analysisthat is both
deep and broad-rangingin its scope.
The translation,preface, and index
by Joyce Main Ianks are a superb
contribution from one who is expert
in Ellul's thought and in the French
language." -David Gill
Paper, $I4.95
NAHUM, OBADIAH,
ESTHER
Israel Among the Nations
International Theological
6
Commentary
RichardJ. Cogqins and EIL
S. Paul Re'ems
This latest addition to the ITC series
of Old Testamentcommentaries fol-
lows the aim of the entire series in
developing the theological signifi-
cance of the books under considera-
tion, and emphasizing the relevance
of each book for the life of the
church. Moving beyond the paro-
chialism of Westerncivilization, the
authors are sensitive to issues that
are the special problems of those
who live outside the ChristianWest.
Paper $6.95
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