INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE oa supérieure du pétrole et des moteurs Oil and Gas Field Development Techniques BASICS OF RESERVOIR ENGINEERING René COSSE 1993 t EDITIONS TECHNIP 27 ave cinoux 75737 PARIS ceoex 15FOREWORD Oil and gas field development and production involve a range of techniques that may be grouped together under the following four headings: (a) Reservoir engineering. (b) Drilling. (©) Downhole production. (d) Surface production. ‘These four disciplines are interrelated, and the studies and operations involved call for a number of different specialists from operating and service companies and from equip- ment suppliers who may often require general information relating to the techniques as a whole, These disciplines are covered in four volumes, under the general title: OIL AND GAS FIELD DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES ‘The aim is to provide an understanding of the techniques and constraints related to each of these four disciplines and thereby facilitate communication between the different professions involved. This information should also be of use to those with more specialized skills, such as computer and legal experts, economists, research workers, equipment manufacturers, etc It should help them to relate their work to development techniques as a whole and to integrate them into the overall professional context. ‘These four volumes partly reproduce the content of introductory courses designed by ENSPM-Formation ndustric 0 meet specific needs and course miaterial inciuded in the curriculum of the Fvole Nationale Supérieure du Pétrote et des Moteurs. A. Leblond Director Drilling - Production - Reservoir Engincering ENSPM-Formation Industrie R. COSSE vFOREWORD. Main Symbols and Industry Units Used. Equivalent of Principal British/US Units in Metric Units. 1 1.2 13 La 1.2 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION What is a Reservoir?. .. What is Reservoir Engineering? 1.2.1 Reservoir Image. 1.2.2. Well Characteristics 1.2.3. Recovery Mechanisms. 1.2.4 Uncertainties nnn 1.2.5. Simulation of Reservoir Development 1.2.6 Development Project, Optimization The Place of Reservoi Studies in Development. Chapter 1 RESERVOIR GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS Goals: Image of the Reservoir (Geological Model) Hydrocarbon Generation and Migration. 1.2.1 Generation . 1.2.2. Migration 1.2.2.1 Primary Migration 1.2.2.2. Secondary Migration... R. COSSE XXI XXVIL 1s 18 18 19 19 20 VIIVABLE OF CONTENTS 1.3. Reservoir: ws 24 1.3.1 Definitions a 1.3.20 Reservoir ROCKS ume a 13.2.1 Sandstone Reservoits wnu:vmnnemnnnimininnnn 21 1.3.2.2 Carbonate Reservoits siemens = 22 1.4. Traps. _— 23 14.1 Classification of Traps. : . 23 14.2. Characteristics 24 1.5 Seismic Development Survey. 25 1S. Principles us : 4 25 1.5.2. 3D Seismic Prospecting rc 26 1.5.3. Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) and Offset Vertical Seismic Profile (OSP)... 2 198)4 DETWEBH BE (RIBERB x ceeanarssanreisgiitemtmgmatn 27 1.6 Examples of Reservoirs... 30 Chapter 2 CHARACTERIZATION OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 2A POPOSIEY. coon ; 33 2.1.1 Definition 7 33 2.1.2 Determination of Porosity .ewumnnnennnnnisininnnnn 35 2A2A Core Analysis wn. ere ee 35 DAB Effect OF Pressure oursinnnsinnnnannnteneenn 38 2.2 Permeability. 38 2.2.1 Definition, Darcy's Law seeorcra eee 38 2.2.2 Laws of Horizontal Flow in Steady-State Conditions... 40 2.2.2.1 Liquids... 5 at BABE Biya nrnuisipnacinggerin pontaseeeiyeomngaee 2 az VunT R. COSSE2.2.3 224 205 22.6 22.7 2.3 Saturations. 231 2.32 233 234 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.4 Well Logging. .. 2.4.1 2.4.2 R. COSSE ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Associations of Formations of Different Permeabilities Specific Permeability, Effective and Relative Permeabilitics ... Measurement of Specific Permeability... 2.2.5.1 Measurement Using the Variable Pressure Feed Permeameter (Fig 2,9), Initial Apparatus, Measurement Principle.. 2.2.5.2 Constant Pressure Feed Air Permeameter jonnsn Porosity/Permeability Relationship ... Porosity/Permeability EXereiCe wn Definition . Distrib Capitlary Mechanisms m of the Different Fluids in a Virgin Field, 2.3.2.1 Capillary Properties of Rocks 2.3.2.2 Equilibrium of a Virgin Field 2.3.2.3. Capillary Migration Capillary Pressure Curves, Curves Representing the Average lary Properties of a Reservoir vonnnennnnnn 2.3.3.1 Capillary Pressure Curve of a Sample sennnnnnenne 2.3.3.2 Passage from a (P.-S)g, Curve to a (P.-S) Curve se nnnsnsnnnnnnen reservoir 2.3.3.3 Curves Showing the Average Capillary Properties of a Reservoir Determination of in Situ Saturation... 2.3.4.1 Direet Method (Core Analysis) 2.3.4.2 Indirect Method by Analysis of Capillary Mechanisms ... z 2.3.4.3 Well Log Method... Typical Section of Saturations in a Reservoir with a Seanner: Porosity, Pore Morphology. g by Another Fluid .. General........ Electric Log: 2.4.2.1 Spontaneous Potential SP 42 43 44 45 45 46 4 49 49 30 50 34 56 57 87 38 59 60 60 60 61 61 61 62 62 65 65 Ix3. TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.4.2.2 Resistivity Logs ; 7 65 24.2.3 Microresistivity Logs wecsmmnmnnenn 66 24,3 Radioactivity Logs... 66 2.4.3.1 Gamma Ray Logs (GR) smn 66 2A.3.2 Neutron Logs Newrnnennennnnse 68 2.4.3.3 Density Logs (gamma/gamma) D 68. 24,34 Neutron Relaxation TDT. . 68. 2.4.4 Sonic (or Acoustic) Logs 68 2.4.5 Auxiliary Logs = 69 2.4.5.1 Caliper Log. 69 2.4.5.2 Dipmeter Log. ania 69 2.4.5.3 Cement Bond Log (CBL) snmmnuseseen r 69 24.6 Determination of Lithology, Porosity and Saturations 70 2.4.6.1 LithOlogy soon so 70 2.4.6.2 Porosity 70 Saturations n Composite Log n 2.4.6.5 Overall Interpretation n 246.6 COStoinenrnnne 3 24.7 Production Logs .. eee 74 Chapter 3 FLUIDS AND PVT STUDIES General Behavior... n 3.11 Pure Substances er 78 3.1.1.1 Pressure/Specific Volume Diss (Cipesrn Diagram) (Fig. 3.1). “ 78 418.2 Pressureftemperstare Diagram (ig. 4.2) 19 3.1.2 Mixtures. 80 3.1.2.1 Pressure/Specific Volume Diagram (Fig. 3.3) . 80 3.1.2.2 Pressure/Temperature Diagram (Fig. 3.4) 81 3.1.2.3 Different Types of Reservoir un. 82 R. COSSE313 314 TABLE OF CONTENTS Behavior of Oils and Gases between the Reservoir and the SUrEaCe senna Physical Components of Hydrocarbons and Other Components SE Maewral Gasttlsnsanimannimmimcrnunnunsnsarannsisncenscsmsmnaten 3.21 322 3.2.3 3.24 3.25 3.2.6 3.3. Oils. 3.3.1 33.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.4 Formation Water. 3.4.1 34.2 34.3 344 3.5 Charts, 3.6 Liquid/Vapor Equilibria, Equation of State. . R. COSSE, Practical Equations of State.. Volume Factor of a Gas By. Determination of Z.. 3.2.3.1 Experimental. 3.2.3.2 Calculations and Charts Condensables Content of a Gas (GPM). Viscosity of a Ga Effluent Compos Behavior in the One-Phase Liquid State and the Two-Phase State (Oil and Gas)... Formation Volume Factor and Gas/Oil Ratio 3.3.2.1 Variation between Reservoir and Stock Tank Oil at a Given Reservoir Pressure. 3.3.2.2 Variation in FVFB, and Solution GOR R, with Reservoir Pressure, Production GOR R.. Viscosity came Effluent Compositions of Oil Reservoir Wells. Exercice ‘Composition Compressibility Viscosity Water and Hydrocarbons 84 86 86 86 88 89 89 a9 a9 90 90 91 91 91 91 94 99 100 100 101 101 102 102 102 102 104 XITABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 4 VOLUMETRIC EVALUATION OF OIL AND GAS IN PLACE 4.1 General. 4.2 The Different Categories of Oil and Gas in Place. 4.3 Volumetric Calculation of Oil and Gas in Place. 4.3.1 Principle of Volumetric Methods wu. 4.3.2. Calculation of Impregnated Rock V, 4.3.2.1 Calculation of the Volume of Rocks from Isobaths. Area/Depth Method 4.3.2.2 Rapid Calculation Method 4.3.3. Calculation of the Volume of Oil from Isovol Maps. 4.4 Choice of Average Characteristics, Uncertainties..... 4.4.1 Choice of Average Characteristics secu 44.2 Uncertainties and Probabilistic Methods . 4.4.3 Example of Area/Depth Calculation Chapter 5 ONE-PHASE FLUID MECHANICS AND WELL TEST INTERPRETATION 5.1 General. .... 5.2 Oil Flow around Wells. ..... 5.2.1 Diffusivity Equation..... 5.2.2. Solutions of the Diffusivity Equation 5.2.3 Flow Equations... 5.2.3.1 Constant Flow Rate 5 2 Variable Flow Rate srusnnnnes 5.2.4 Equations of Pressure Build-Up after Shutting in the Well 5.2.5 Skin Effect or Damage 11s 116 11g 118 ng 122 123 123 125 125 128 130 133 134 134 136 138 138 141 142 144 XII R. CossTABLE OF CONTENTS 5.2.6 Productivity Index .. 5.2.1 Various Problems of Fluid 1 Flow 5.2.8 Two-Phase Flows 5.2.9 Non-Flowing Wells .... 5.3 Gas Flow around Wells.......... 5.4 Different Well Tests. 5.4.1 Initial Tests son 5.2 Teste Specific to Gas Wells 5.4.3, Periodical Tests. 5.44 Interference Tests .. 5.4.5 Water Injection Wells. 5.5 Tests during Drilling (Drill Stem Tests - DST)....... 5.6 Main Equations Used with Practical Dri 5.6.1 Equations for Oil 5.6.2 Equations for Gas 5.7 Principle of Type Curves 5.7.1 Presentation... 5.1.2 Use. 5.7.3 Semi-Automatic Test Analysis Programs: Well Models. 5.8 Typical Test Interpretation, Chapter 6 MULTIPHASE FLOW 6.1 General. ........ 6.2 Review of Cai Permeability. 6.2.1 Capillary Doublet, Genesis of Drops and Jamin Effect. 6.2.2 Concept of Relative Permeability .. 6.2.3. Variation in Relative Permeability as a Function of Saturation 6.2.3.1 Oil/Water (or Gas/Water) Pair. R.COSSE 148, 148 149 150 151 154 134 156 157 157 158 159 161 161 162 163 163 164 167 168 7 179 179 182 183, 183 xu6.3 6.4 6.5 mW XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 6.2.3.2 O1GAS PRET ccnnne 6.2.4 Comments on Relative Permeabilities..... 6.2.5 Determination of Relative Permeabilities 6.2.5.1 Laboratory Measurements susuunne A 6.2.5.2 Empirical Equations... 6.2.6 Capillary Imbibition Theory of Frontal Displacement. ...... 6.3.1 Front Concept... 69. Usiaiveotonn Dicgievonione (apittarny Igsoreds Buckley-Leverett Theory ssniminnunen 6.3.2.1 Water-Cut f,, 63.2.2 Caleutation of the Displacement Speed of a Section S,. 6.3.3. Effect of Capillarity Forces and Influence of Flow Rate vou 6.3.4. Practical Application Two- and Three-Dimensional Two-Phase Flow. 6.4.1 Encroachment, Instability Mecha the Mobility Ratio. 6.4.2 Concept of Critical Speed, Formation of a Tongue. 643 644 isms, Definiti 644.1 Infra-Critical Flow ou. 6.4.4.2 Supercritical FLOW seccnmennn 6.4.4.3 Value of the Critical Flow Rate 64.44 Production Aspect, Coning Parameters Conclusions. Chapter 7 PRIMARY RECOVERY, ESTIMATION OF RESERVES Production Mechanism: TAA General sce 184 185 185 185 187 187 189 189 190 191 193 196 197 200 201 203 204 205 206 207 207 208 210 at air R. COSSETABLE OF CONTENTS 7.1.2 Reserves aaa 7.1.3. Production and Recovery Mec! 7.1.4 Influence of the Production Rate... 7.1.4.1 Oil Reservoir without Aquifer.... 7.1.4.2 Oil Reservoir Associated with an Aquifer with Mediocre Petrophysical Characteristics .... 7.14.3 Fractured Oit Reservoir Associated with a Large Aquifer with Good Characteristics 7.1.5 Compressibility Factors, Fluid Expansion 7.1.6 Multiphase Flow, Reservoir Heterogeneities 7.1.7 Simplified Calculation Methods sunnn 7.2 Recovery Statisti 7.2.1 Recovery as a Function of the Type of Reservoir.. 7.2.2 World Reserves 7.3 Material Balance. 7.3.1 The Material Balance and its Use. 7.3.2. Undersaturated 7.3.3 Expansion of 1 Reservoir. olved Gases 7.3.4 Oil Reservoir Associated with an Aquifer 7.3.4.1 Aquifer Extension, Bottom Aquifer and Edge Aquifer... 734.2 Aquifer Functions..... : 7.3.4.3 Calculation of Water Inflows. 7.3.5 Generalized Material Balance for # Saturated Oil Reservoir with Gas-Cap and Aquifer.cco conn 7.3.5.1 Expansion of Gas-Cap.. 7.35.2 Generalized Material Balance...... 73,53. Efficiency of Various Production Mechanisms... 7.3.5.4 Segregation 7.3.5.5 Variation in Production Data According to Production Mechanisms .... 7.3.6 Specific Case of Volatile Oil 7.3.6.1 Jacoby and Berry Method “Volumetric” Method) ... 7.3.6.2 Compositional Material Balance Progeam . R.COSSE 212 212 214 214 214 24 25. 216 218 219 219 219 223 223 225 226 228 228 230 232 234 234 235 235 236 236 236 238 238 XVTABLE OF CONTENTS 7.3.7 Dry (or Wet) Gas Reservoir: not Giving Rise to Retrograde Condensation in the Reservoir.. 238 7.3.7.1 Material Balance (without Water Influx) 0-0 238 7.3.7.2. Calculation of Gas in Place 239 7.3.7.3. Recovery with Water Influx... Pies 239 7.3.7.4 Example of Dry Gas Material Balance (without Water Influx) oseuneunenen ere: 240 7.3.8 Gas Condensate Reservoir sic 241 7.3.9 General Remarks... se 242 7.4 Statistical Correlations and Decline Laws... 243 TAA Statistical Correlations .cseueesnenmnesnane 243 7.4.2 Decline Laws 244 7.4.2.1 Exponential Decline of Flow Rate... 244 742.2 Hyperbolic (and Harmonic) Decline sun a 244 7.8 Production in Fractured Formations. . 245 7.5.1 General # 245 7.5.2 Geological Aspect 247 7.5.2.1 Description of Cores 247 7.5.2.2 Observation of Outerops.... 249 7.5.2.3 Rock Mechanies Model 249 7.5.2.4 Visual Analysis in the Borehole. 249 7.5.2.5 Reservoir Seismic Prospecting ... 250 7.5.3 Data Obtained from Logs and Production Tests. 250 TS3.1 LORS su : 250 75.3.2 Well Testing .. 250 7.8.4 Production Mechanisms son — 251 7.5.4.1 One-Phase Flow, Expansion.. 251 TS42 Two-Phase FLOW occ nnncnne z 251 7.5.4.3 Transfer Function (Exudation) smn 254 7.6 A Specific Production Technique, the Horizontal Drain Hole j aa 254 7.6.1 What Are the Cascs for Application of the Horizontal Drain Hole? What Are their Advantages? “ 254 XVI R. COSSETABLE OF CONTENTS 7.6.2 Udeal SitUations sencesrnnnninnnnsn 7.6.2.1 Fractured Reservoirs 7.6.2.2 Karst Reservoirs (Non-Porous Fractured) 7.6.2.3 Reservoirs with Aquifers... 7.6.2.4 Enhanced Recovery .. 7.6.2.5 Value for Reservoir Characterization 7.6.2.6 Unfavorable Case Chapter 8 SECONDARY AND ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY 8.1 General, 8.2. Factors Influencing Recover: 8.2.1 Reservoir and Fluid Characteristics 8. 8.2.1.2 Permeability oT 8.2.1.3 Viscosity of Fluids and Mobility Ratio 1 Reservoir Geology 8.2.2 Injection Characteristics 8.2.2.1 Volume of Injected Fluid. 8.2.2.2 Type of Flui 8.2.2.3. Flood Patterns 8.3 Efficiency Analysi: 8.3.1 Injection Efficiency and Definition... 8.3.2. Areal Sweep Efficiency Ey 8.3.3 8.3.4 8.3.5 8.4 Waterflood. .. 8.4.1 Technical and Economie Aspects... 84. 8 1 Technical Aspect . 2 Economie Aspect... R, COSSE 256 256 258 258 258 259 259 261 264 264 264 264 266 267 267 267 267 an 272 272 274 275 276 277 278 278 278 XVII8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 91 9.2 XVIII TABLE OF CONTENTS 8.4.2 Time and Start of Flooding 8.4.3. Implementation Gas Injection (Non-Miscible)..... 8.5.1 Technical Aspect. 8.5.2 Economic Aspect 8.5.3 Implementation... 8.5.4 Comparison of Waterflood and Gas Injection Gas Cycling in Retrograde Gas Condensate Reservoirs. ..... Enhanced Oil Recovery. 8.7.1 General 8.7.2 Miscible Methods... 8.7.2.1 Miscible Displacements .... 8.7.2.2 Two Types of Miscibility .... 8.7.2.3 CO, Injection... 8.7.3. Chemical Methods 8.7.3.1 Micro-Emulsions 8.7.3.2 Solutions of Polymers in Water... 8.7.3.3 Micro-Emulsions + Polymers... 8.7.4 Thermal Methods ... 8.7.4.1 Heavy Oils, and Principle of Thermal Methods... 8.7.4.2 Steam Injection sum. 8.7.4.3, In Situ Combustion (Fig. 8.17).. 8.7.5 Enhanced Oil Recovery Pilot Flood. Conclusions. Chapter 9 RESERVOIR SIMULATION MODELS Role of Models. Different Types of Models... 278 279 279 279 280 280 281 281 282 282 284 284 285 288 289 289 290 290 291 291 293 294 296 296 299 300 R. COSSETABLE OF CONTENTS 9.3 Numerical Models 300 9.3.1 Principles 301 9.3.2 Modeling and Use,, 301 9.3.3 Specialized Models 305 9.3.3.1 Compositional and Miscible Modcls (Fig. 9.5). 305 9.3.3.2. Chemical Models .......... ‘ . senna 306 9.3.3.3. Thermal Models 306 9.3.3.4 Fractured Modets 306 9.3.4 Recent Model wrncunnnninn - ee 307 Chapter 10 DEVELOPMENT OF A FIELD 10.1 Development Project, snnimnnnnnnnsnnnsnicense 309 10.1.1 Analytical Phase 310 10.1.2. Modeling Phase 313 10.1.3 Forecasting Phases 313 10.2 Economic Concepts Used in the Development of a Field get . 313 10.2.1 General vs 313 10.2.2 Different Cases Examined and Decision us - 316 10.2.2.1 Uncertainty in the Size of the Accumulation ... a7 10,2.2.2 Search for the Best Recovery Method. 37 10.2.2.3 Comparison of Different Development Schedules. a a7 10.2.2.4 Influence of Inflation and Borrowing 317 10.2.2.5 Influence of Taxation — 317 10.3 Research Directions in Reservoir Engineering...» 318 Chapter 11 TYPICAL FIELDS 11.1 Oil and Gas Fields in France. 319 R, COSSE XIXCONTENTS 11.2 Typical Fields, 321 11.2.1 The Lacq Gas Field....... 321 11.2.2 The Frigg Field. 326 11.2.3 The Vic Bilh Field.. 332 11.24 The Villeperdue Field 335, REFERENCES 339 INDEX. 343 XX R. COssEMAIN SYMBOLS AND INDUSTRY UNITS USED Symbol bpd cfd R. COSSE Definition Flow arca Formation volume fac- tor (volume at reservoir conditions divided by volume at standard conditions) Barrels per day Deliverability curve coefficient (gas well test) Water-drive tabular function Isothermal compres- sibility a < = Cubic feet per day Industry] Equivalence between units Industry and ST units fe 9.3. 10-%m? Ratio bpd 1.84 . 10% ms mu § TO" nth sx pascal wee 2145. 10° V/V psi Pascal cfd 3.277 . 107? mys XXIMAIN SYMBOLS AND INDUSTRY UNITS USED Symbol Definition Industry | Equivalence between units industry and SI units spar. Specific gravity Ratio 5 E Total efficiency Ratio [ E, Areal sweep efficiency | Ratio 5 Vertical efficiency Ratio - Ey Displacement efficiency | Ratio = f Fractional flow rate (volumetric fraction of | Fraction = 1 phase in a flow) é Gas in place at standard conditions sef 0.02832 m* e Gravity acceleration 32.16 rus? 9.81 mis* h Bed thickness ft 0.305 m Oil pay thickness ft 0.305 m K Diffusivity K=k/¢ me |mdsep. 1 mtx pst. 6.59, 107 mx Pe pail oP Pree k Permeability md 1 md = 0.987 . 10"! m? or = 0.987.109 (um)? k, Effective permeability to fluid i md (see preceding note) ki Relative permeability to fluid i Ratio = XXII R. COSSEMAIN SYMBOLS AND INDUSTRY UNITS USED Symbol Definition Equivalence between industry and ST units 1 Length 0.305 m ly Napierian logarithm joe Decimal logarithm M Mobility ratio (displacing phase mabitity divided by] Ratio displaced phase mobility) M Molecular weight & 1g= 10% kg m Cementation factor - my Mg] Pressure line slope in | P| —pet_ 23 yo? Basco. semi-log coordinates Syele TORY ESE TE ae N Oi] in piace expressed in] Barrel 0.159 m3 standard conditions (or weight) oO (10? kg) Np Cumulative production bbl 0.159 m? n Deliverability curve slope in a gas well test (dog x tog) Pp Pressure psi 1 psi = 6.89 10? pascal PL Ot well productivity : index ppdipsi [LPS ~ 4.769. 19) —B__ psi 3x pascal Q Flow rate at standard conditions bpd 1 bpd = 1.84. 10 m3/s Q Critical flow rate bpd 1 bpd = 1.84, 10 m/s R. COSSE XXUIMAIN SYMBOLS AND INDUSTRY UNITS USED Symbol Definition lindustry| Equivalence between units industry and SI units R Resistivity Johm-foot 0.305 ohm . m R Production GOR (standard gas volume divided by Ratio stock tank oil volume) R Universal ideal gas 10.7 molf constant 1.287 mol/g R Drainage radius in circular radial flow ft 0.305 m Rs Solution GOR r Distance to well (va- ABTS) An GT 110% ft 0,305 m ty Well radius ft 0.305 m s, Saturation with fluidi | Fraction s Skin effect ii Flowing time (well testing) h 1h = 3,600 T Absolute temperature + 460 °R = 1.8K (Kelvin) r Temperature oF 32+ Lac t Time 6 (or hit ecified) 1d = 86,4005 XXIV R, COsseAp At R. COSSE MAIN SYMBOLS AND INDUSTRY UNITS USED Equivalence between Industry and ST units Shape parameter charac- terizing porous medium tem = 107m Speed of injection (or filtration) Lhd = 3.5410 mis 0.159 m? 0.02832 m? Volume (oil) Volume (gas) Critical velocity 1 fd = 3.5410- m/s Water encroachment oi] zone 0.159 m? Water produced, cumulative (surface conditions) 0.159 m3 Compressibility factor of a gas Bed dip Pressure drop I psi = 6.89 10° pascal Time interval d(orhif specified) id = 86,4005 Angle in circular Radian radial system Angle of contact between wetting fluid and solid Time of pressure build- up (after shut-in) 1h = 3,600 s XXVMAIN SYMBOLS AND INDUSTRY UNITS USED. Symbol Definition Industry | Equivalence between units industry and SI units BE Viscosity oP 1cP = 107 Pas - Density gicm® 1 glem? = 10° kg/m? ° Interfacial or surface tension for two dyne/em I dyncjem = 10°? N/m fluids 4 Porosity Fraction Subscript: g Value relative to gas phase. I Value relative to injection. i Value relative to initial time. js 1, t Value relative to steps j, n, t. ° Value relative to oil phase. P Value relative to production. std Value relative to standard conditions. w Value relative to water phase. XXVI R. COSSER. COSSE EQUIVALENT OF PRINCIPAL BRISTISH/US UNITS IN METRIC UNITS 1 Inch 1 Foot 1 Yard 1 Square inch (sq. in.) 1 Acre 1 Cubic foot (eu. ft.) 1 Gallon (US) 1 Barrel 1 Cubic foot per barrel (GOR) 1 psi (pound-force per square inch) 1 psi (pound-force per square inch) Degrees API (°API) 60/60°F = weight of oil volume (at 60°F divided by the weight of the same volume of water at 60°F). Degrees Farenheit (°F) 1 barrel per day (bpd) 1 cubic foot per day (cfd) nu 2.54 cm 0.305 m 0.915 m 6.45 cm? 4047 m? 28.32 dm? 3.785 dm? 0.159 m? 0.178 m°/m* 3 0.06895 bar 6.89 . 10? pas 141.5 5p. gr - 60/ 60°F 9 cx d+ 3: nde cal = 131.5 2 + 50 tons/year £10 m*/year XXVOINTRODUCTION Reservoir engineering is a twentieth century discipline: the concepts of satu- ration and relative permeability, for example, emerged some fifty years ago. It is also a highly specific discipline, nourished by the earth sciences, by ther- modynamics and fluid mechanics in particular. Following a period in which reservoirs produced by their natural energy alone, and on exclusively empirical bases, the need for a more rational development was naturally imposed. The science of reservoir engineering, which developed in recent decades, now draws on many advanced techniques in data acquisition and reservoir simulation. Note also that producing and developing a reservoir implies a close inter- dependence of reservoir techniques, of those pertaining to drilling and well completion, and the surface techniques required for hydrocarbon gathering and processing before transport. Hence it naturally entails a multidisciplinary ef- fort. R.COSSE, 1INTRODUCTION 1.1 WHAT IS A RESERVOIR? A reservoir is formed of one (or more) subsurface rock formations containing liquid and/or gaseous hydrocarbons, of sedimentary origin with very few exceptions. The reservoir rock is porous and permeable, and the structure is bounded by impermeable barriers which trap the hydrocarbons. The vertical arrangement of the fluids in the structure is governed by gravi- tational forces. Figure 1 shows a cross-section of a typical hydrocarbon re- servoir (classic anticline). Fig. 1 A reservoir is also an invisible and complex physical system (porous medium) which must be analyzed as thoroughly as possible, knowing that our under- standing of it will nevertheless be limited by the dearth of information, 1.2 WHAT IS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING? ‘The goal of reservoir engineering, starting with the discovery of a productive reservoir, is to set up a development project that attempts to optimize the hydrocarbon recovery as part of an overall economic policy. Reservoir specialists thus continue to study the reservoir throughout the life of the field to derive the information required for optimal production from the reservoir. R. COSSE 3INTRODUCTION RS R. COSSEINTRODUCTION The following must accordingly be estimated, with the aim of optimal profitability for a given project: (a) Volumes of hydrocarbons (oil and/or gas) in place. (b) Recoverable reserves (estimated on the basis of several alternative production methods). (c) Well production potential (initial productivity, changes). It must be emphasized that the reservoir specialist works on a system to which he enjoys virtually no material access. He has to be satisfied with partial data, furnished by the wells, and therefore incomplete and insufficient. Consequently, he must extrapolate these local data over kilometers in order to compile a synthetic image of the reservoir, enabling him to make production forecasts that are fairly reliable for the near future, and much less so for a more distant future, Yet these forecasts are indispensable to determine an op- timum development scheme. The figure below helps to illustrate the different steps in reservoir engincer- ing (Fig. 2). IMAGE OF. THE RESERVOIR weuncuaracrenisnics) | Ai oaging item | [RECOVERY MecHANsus| Fluids, rocks, flow laws TESTING - Core analyse, f TERR era ERHTNGED RECOVER ANALOGY WITH ere MANUAL eaiaratoe calitahons ‘ / SIMULATION WOOL + casesprocessed | 7 ECONOMICS PRODUCTION FORECASTS DEVELOPMENT Fig. 2 R. COSSE, 5