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    Plants in Our World 17

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    nicolad

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    an In Brief Alcoholic beverages contain ethane progicod when Saclearomyces yeasts ferment simple sugars in a water solution, releasing carbon dioxide in the process. ‘Fermentation occurs in narute al humans all over the work have used ito pro- duce wines from trait juices and beers from starches such as grains. ‘+ Aleolol isa drug that can have health benefits if eonsumed in moderation, but its abuse bas made it the third major preventable source of mortality inthe United Sates. ‘+ Geapes ere the preferred fruit for wine making, and malted basley provides the primary starch for beer brewing. + The ethanol content of beverages made by fermentation eunnot exceed amounts lethal o Saccharomyces, wsually 14 to 18 percent. Higher alcohol levels are ust- ally chained by disilling a fermented beverage. Alcoholic beverages could be considers! the converse of caffeinated beverages because aloohol acts as a depressaat rather than a stimulant in the human body. AS a result, people mistakenly often use coffee to "sober up" after excessive drinking, Products that dul the senses would seem to be something to avoid, bat alcoholic beverages have been independently “discovered,” or readily adopted, by almost every society. Although many pri (even frit flies) have & fondness for alcobol, humans are the only animals that drink alcohol to excess under natural conditions and are, therefor, the cnly species that can become trly acted tit Traces of rice “wine” from China dated to 9000 ybp atest to the fact that humans have purposefully fermented beverages for millennia. Here we concentrate on the effects of alcohol as & drug, the history of fermented beverages, methoxls of pro= dluction, and the various plants invelved in creating common alcohol beverages (Table 17.1) The production ofall fermentation by microorganisms, especially yeast. Because these yeasts (most ‘commonly Saccharomyces cerevisiae) canncs tolorae high aleohot levels, sim- ple fermentation yiekls Deverages with comparatively low alcohol concentsa- tions, Distillation ofthese products results in a wide anay of beverages with hi alcohol contents izes depends initially on the process of Alcoholic Beverages a Agave Pulgue,meseal, tequila Agave Xaylont Aaacene Mexico ecu “A tesalnea Mescal A viipara Beriey Beer. cate, vod Hordewn vulgare Poaceae Mediterranea Corn (size) Com whishey.bourten Zee mays Poscere ‘Mexico/Cental ‘America Gripe Wine Vics vinifera vitncese ‘Westen Asis Hop Beer (avorng) Honus tapatas Camabicene ain Sniper Ginand vouka (avoring) —iniperuccommmic _—Cupressacese ‘North Temperate Post Vodka Solanum miberorure Solanaceae ‘South Ameria Rice Sake, adjumerforbecr ——Orsaasainr Poaceae China Rye Rye whiskey Sele ceveate Poscene Eurasia ‘Wheat ‘Wheat heer Triticum ces Poscene Mediternean Wormwood Absit Artemesiaabsiihiun Asteraceae Turasio, Nh Africa Alcohol as a Drug Most peaple recognize that aleohot is drug, yet iis used leguly throughout most of the world. “Approximately '3 percent of Americans over tbe age of 18 reguany con sume alcohol and about 4 perez! (bout 15 millon people) se Gependent on it. Spending on alochal in the United States exceeds $90 billion sully. Pethops people's long association with fermented hev- rages o the fat that, antl fly cecently, most conned Joy levels of alcohol explains the widewead acceptance of aleahol consumption. Is low to moderate doses, lite or no evidence of persisen,harmol efecs on the bodies o ind ‘duals who drink has been foand. In fet epidemiological studies have shown that aking two drinks a day (equivalent to 70 bates of er, two glases of wine, oF P40 ounoes \whiskey) Jowors the risk of heart disease an stoke, obo- bly because ities the fev! of high-density lipopeveins in te blood. Moreover, stalis indicate that individuals who drink modestly ater undergoing surgery to replace blocked arteries have fewer repeat heart problems nd stokes thaa their nondrnking counterparts. Moderate drinking also low ers blow glucose and improves the body's use of insulin, both of which help reduce the incidence of Tyne 2 cabeies However, because alcohol is abeor'ed, metabolized, and excreted differen fom most che drugs tapi aes foe's sense of reason and physical coordination, Social drinkers who deve cars or take trangilizers while drinking often inadvertenly harm tbersees or thers. Alcohol con sumption is x major source of mortality with 50 peseent of driving taaites snd 40 perent of instil Etats at sab to drinking Beverage alot is ethanol ¢wo-carbom acl hat ‘is sole in both water and fats Fig. 17-1) Consequently, i moves rapidly across membranes an alin: all the alcohol consumed is absorbed in the stomach andthe upper portion of the imestines hefore being carried through the hody 10 the liver, where it is broken down. The only way for aleo- hol to leave the system is by metabolic breskdown into car- bon dioxide and water, a process that is linear over time, However, when the amounts ingested exceed the amounts that can fee metabotized,zlcoho! levels in the body rise and incbriation can occur (Fig. 17.2). Womea seem to be more strongly affected by alcohol than men, aot only because of their smaller average body size but also because they initially metebolize one-fourth as much alcohol as men, Wich means that more aleohol remains in women’s blood: streams. Dependence therefore procees al a faster pace than in men, and women addicted to aleohol develop cir- shosis, fatty liver problems, and cognitive impairment more rapidly than men, The result is their higher risk of ying in alcohol-related accidents than male drinkers. ‘Aleohol's effect on humans is complex, however. Various studies suggest that it has offects en normal ncuroteansmit- fer actions and even chemical components of eell mem: branes (Bos 17.1). In addition to its temporary effects, alcohol can lead to permanent physical damage. Drinking during pregnaney appears to be contelated with fetal abnormalities such as reduced brain size, small eyeball, and malformations of the fips and jaw, This suite of characters, known as Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), seems to be most prencunced if the woman drinks in “binges”, heavily throughout peeg- nancy, or drinks during critical times in fetal development The number of newooms with FAS ranges as high as 3 por 1000 live bins in some parts of te United States. In many cases, the effects attributed to FAS can persist throughout tite Epidemiological studies show that individaals. who both smoke and drink have oven highor risks of dying from ‘cancer than do thase wi indulge in only one or neither of| these activities. Alcohol caa be an addictive dewg with some ar CHAPTER SEVENTEEN rend oto we age Q, a enon wok te prepate se soe 6 o® HP? ovo@ apremagrmstonte tion @-——__— I vi Hoon dene eehnte Diydoeere ea erence co@) RAD 1 non 1 boo 1 saonateaen I Finis se owt i ch 08 ; i} eo At, pe® bo +4 a 00" hence ah ea! | a i esas FIGURE 17.1 ‘The process of fermentation, which involves the conversion of glucose or fructose to ethanol and carbon diocie, is slo known 36 the Enladen-Meyeshol-Patnas pathway air the cients wo discovered i Alcoholic Beverages om Number of crinks, body weight, and physiological effects of alcohol on men (ef) snd wornen (ght) Approximate Blood Alcohol Content (846) n One Hour Approximate Blood Alcohol Contant (BAC) In One Hour Sh tent aT ay natn Intuonces ‘Body Weight In Pounds Introd Irpated ‘Subttact015 for each hour afer drinking oe. gue te sence an may ay ate aan enya FIGURE 17.2 Subtract 015 for oa hour ater dinleng 1S) en tS ex). Od ‘The conecalraton of alcoho na persons body Is eed athe mber of drinks consume! per ait of te, Weigh, and Sex. Bld alcohol content (BAC) is measred asthe weight of alcohal i a Fixed geantty of Bont (eg, & BAC of 0.10 parson dates that one-tenth of & pefoent oa person's ial) ‘atonal Hghva Sty Aenean TABC pees) individuals apparently more prone than others to develop addiction, Researchers have long sought gene correlated ‘vith alcoholism. One study reported & variant of the dopa- mine D2 receptor gene associated with alcoholism, another in 2004 focused on a region of chiomosome 15 that con- tains several genes that regulate the movement of GABA, between neurons (Box 17.1), and a study in 2010 sug- gested a link between a variant of a gene involved in aleo- hol mietabotism and zddiction. Although any or all may be involved in the propensity to become addicted 1 sleohol, none has been proved to be a direct eause, The tendency fof the disease to run in families may therefore have a genetic basis, but exposure to alcobol drinking could also explain the tendency of the children of alcoholics to drink. Prolonged, excessive use often leads ie severe malnutrition ‘caused by lack of interest in cating properly, permanent brain damage, proliferation of fat in the liver (ciathosit), and heart problems, ‘The passage ofthe Eighteenth Amendment that prohib- ted aleaho) siles in 1920 was repealed in 1933 (Twenty. First Amendment). The repeal was not due co a change in the perception of alcohol as a dangerous drug but because ‘Congress decide thatthe proliferation of crime, aurnbers of deaths, and amounts speet for legal fees were higher under Prohibition than without it Since then, Americans have heen able to buy and consume alcoho! freely—a freedom that is not withcut its consequences. Data. from 2006 est- ‘mated that alcohol contributed dirostly to more than 22,073 Meats in the United Stas. In addition, 20 pereent of the suicide vietims were alcoholic, and alcohol was involved in 50 percent of apes, 65 percent cf homicides, and 70 percent Cf assaults. As alcohol becomes @ proportionately. more {mpostant mortality factor, here is pressure to institute legal Ssmitions against alcehel abuse while providing rational treatment (Fig. 17.3) for those who have beceme its victims, ‘Many states have initiated educational programs dealing ‘with the use and abuse of alcohol, emphasizing that alco holism is a disease, not a moral failure. Similarly local laws with increasingly stiff penalties for offenses such as driving hile intoxicated have been passed in many areas, Fermentation Ethanol is prexced by fermentation, a naroral process that converts simple sugars into alcohol. Vistually all beverage alcohol is produced by yeasts, primarily species of the genas Suachuaromyces. Like all fang, yeasts lack chlorophyll and 3m (CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Many of us have expetienced the seies of sensations that follow from that first drink through several {oo many, Fist, there is # feeling of excitement and then a feeling of relax ‘Gon or even euphoria. After a while, although we may not te anare of it We sat to fee! tired rather than excite, an ‘people around us may notice that we are misspenking or slur ring wows. The next day, we might not remember the con ‘erstion or movie from the night before. Pechaps we even have a pounding headiche and a queasy stomach, Only recently have scientists begun to understand the ways, often jjxtsposed, in which alcohol works on he body and brain Contrary toa commonly he notion, mederate drinking does ‘ot lea io the dest of brn cells, bu only tthe temporary dysfunction of many of the broin's neurons by interfering ‘with spesiie neuareceptors. The resepies involved set be the gemma-aminobulyric acid (GABA), dopamine, endor- pia, and glotamate. The fetings of relaxation or reduction in stress can be traced to the effect ethanol as on the GABA. recepters. It sems to increase the sensitivity ofthese recep tors to GABA, a neurotransmitter that prevents neurons fom firing. cans the fting of neurons is associate with exc! tation (and tenseaess), preventing or slowing neural activity Produces calming effect The feelings of well-being associ= ‘ated with alcohol appear tobe linked fot ability t9 inewoass dopamine levee and imal endeephin production, Bath of these nearotransmiters are part ofthe endogenous “rewant” ‘sysem, and both ae also stimulated although differently) by psychoactive drugs such as cocaine and heroine pleasur- | able effects of these drugs decreses with continued use with | the roult that increasing amounts are neoded to maintsin the same feelings. Alcohol also interacts with the prveins ‘and lipids in cellalar merabranes, In particular, it affects the cyelic AMP-rexponse-inding protein CREB that ultimately increases the amount of an endogenous antinristy com pound, When slcokolies are prevented from drinking, feel ings of sirens and annity can retum as withdrawal sympioms cannot manufacture their own food, They difer from mest other Fang in that each cel lives independently and repro- duces primarily by budding, or simple mitotic divisions (Fig. 17.4). Yeasts live by metabolizing sugar produced by other organisms but cannot effectively broakc dosen stareh fven though it is composed of units of sugar molecules Consequently, in the prxboction of all fermented beverages, the substrate must naturally contain mono- and/or disac- ccharides (Fig. 17.5). These inelude sverose, a disaccha- Fide consisting of glucose and fructose, the most common sugat found in nature, maltese, a disaccharide produced by germinating grains, and froctose, a common monosac~ charide found in frat, The aced for simple sugars means that nclade the “shakes” sweating, nausea, headache, aco erated hear rates, ae an increase in blood pressure. TFecings of relaxation and the “slow” associated with alcoho! consumption can also involve the glutamate recep tors and usually occur within the fist 10 minuies of con~ suming a gists of Wine o¢ beer: Glutamatos are excitaery ‘peurvinuamiters thar cause neurons to fie, Molecules of ‘ethanol can apparently bind to glutamate recoprors nd distort, thea so that they can no longer receive glutamate. After ‘wo rinks, $0 percent of the ghutamate receptor function int tai can be impaired. As a result cur cerebral neurons quit trstow down tending messages © neurons that control olher body pats If the ncuron that fil receive erders from the trim are thoce tha ultimately contol muscie, feeling of ‘relaxation, lethargy, and eventually, difficulty moving ensue. E the neurons tothe muscles controling speech are affeced, ‘speech becomes improcise or distored. Eventually if invol- tuntary muscle neurons do not recive adequate stimuletion, rates can slon—to the point of death inextreme situations. One particular type of pltzmate ecep- tor, the NMDA (N-Methy|-D-aspartae) reespior, seems tobe involved in peomoting the stimulation of the group of ‘ewrons involved in memory and learing. When alcobol prevents these receptors from recaiving glutamate, memary is impsired, Drinking can result in the failure to remember ‘evens ata party of can even loa to cemplets blackouts. Ths jracess does not cause the las ef previous memories, but it ‘mibits ony the memories formed during tae time of aicahot Inlucnee. In fat, recent wotk suggests thet alevbol primes tareus of the brain involved with subconscious, but not con- seis, fearing and memory. For society at a whole, the effects of alcohol on glata- rate receptors have dhe mos serious consequences because they lead to impaired thought and coorcinatioa, Alcohol related deaths ave now dhe tied major preventable cause of ‘mortality inthe United Stats | that enzymes in some form must be added (0 almost every ‘thing that is fermented except sugar, honey, saps, and fruit {iiees, In addition to sugars, yeasts require amino acids 10 live and reproduce. The aced for both is absolute because Saccharomyces die in 2 medium that does not contain sim- ple sugars znd will grow poorly, i a all, in one that lacks nitrogenous compounds ‘Although many fungi can carry out fermentation, spa- cies of Saccharomyces are generally used because they are comparatively efficient at aleohol production and can tolerate higher levels of ethanol than most other fungi, Also, during fermentation, they produce compounds ether than lech that are bolicved to influence the tinal flavor of the * = Pee i fermented liguid. Seme strains of Saecharamycer also have the ability t clump into masses during the later stages of| fermentation, fociliating their removal from the final bever- age. The species of Saccharoniyces use for alcohol produe- tion, primarily 5. cerevisiae, 5, bayunus and 8. pastoriaras sre able to ferment sugar into ethanol under anserobie (oxygen-fiee) conditions, usualy ina solution. The process of fermemation bresks down the simple sugars during yeas! metabolism ro provide energy, leaving ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products. Fermentation also produces small quantities of lang-chain sleabols, acet- aldehyde, acetic acid, and traces of salfurcontaining com pounds. Theoretically, considering only the energy required For the chemical reactions, 51.1 percent of the sugar could Alcoholic Beverages 35 FIGURE 17.3 ‘Alcoholics Ancesmous helps people with sleohol aaldction in may countries, e9 hove in Mevida, ‘Yoeaian, Mexico (Phonoty Maty 0) FIGURE 17.4 ‘The lle eycle of Saccharomycee cere sive, the Yeest most commoaly used in brewing processes, sons tha ye fot form mycels of speciale spor: bearing strctaes, Although budding (ites divisions) of diploid cells 1s the most conor form of rpredxt y Senin repesicton Involving eiass he converted imo alcohol. Tn praciice, because the yeast uses a portion of the sugar for growth and maintenance, only shout 47 percent is converted, ‘As the yeast culure grons and metabolizes more ancl more of the sugar in the liquid, carton dioxide builds up, using the solution to become bubbly, This gas is ofien allowed to escape fem the solution. With unlimited sugar, the slcoho! level inereases during fermentation until it reaches ‘a concentration beeen 12 and 18 percent, Levels of alcohol shove 18 oF 19 percent are usually toxie and lead to death of the yeast cells, This tolerance limit places an upper value on the percentage of alcoho! produced solely by fermenition. Achieving a higher eoncentration of alcohol requies ihe solu: tion 1 be distilled or fortified by adding concentrated alcool 376 (CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Wines, Mead, and Fortified Wines [By definition, wine is fermented fruit juice. In practice, how lever, the sem is overwhelmingly used forthe ferment juice of grapes, Vitis vinifera, Other wines are generally specified by fain the ft fom which they are mate, for example, peach wine or blackbeny wine. Human production of wine could involve merely collecting fits, bruising er crushing them, snd Jetting them ferment, Stl, no one knows when grape wine ‘making began; estimates vary from $000 co 3000 a. ‘Wine may be the oldest fermented beverage made by humans, but some authors contend that mead or even be=e was produced earlier. Mead is a fermented solution ofhoney and water. The sugar in pure honey is so concentrated that Suceluaromyces ani otber fungi and bacteria cannot live on it (hence its long shelf life), However, if honey, which coa- sists of simple Sugars, is diluted with water, it provides an excellent medium for yeasts. Consequently, before humans could have consciously made mead, they would have had ta gather wild honey and dilute it (by washing combs or add ing water). Today, mead is made by boiling «dilute solution FIGURE 17.5 ‘The mowsaesharldes slucose and facie, box slx- atten sugars, can Join to form sucrose, n disioh- ‘de, Seorose i the most consmon sugar eensported in plats, Several monosaccharides can ali link iogether {o form polysaccharides or starches. All polysacchs rides ineloing sar mus be broken down fo disace= Fides cr monnsscchardes before they canbe consumed bby yeass and used to proce sch fof honey to which amino acids and, in some ceases aromatic herbs, have been aukded, After ‘cooling, yeast is added, Fermentation is eom- pleted in 6 10 8 weeks at temperatures between, 15° and 25°C (59° and 77°F). Mead is class- fed according to the type and dilution of the honey fromm which itis made, In contrast to boar and mead, wine is pro- duced in nature, The yeasts respensible for the fermentation of fruit sugars are usually already present on fruit skins, and fermenta- tion can occur spontaneously if the skin of a ripe, sweet fruit is punctured. Grapes, like ‘most eshy fruits, are mostly water, but they also contain appreciable amounts of feuctse. eecause grapes are the dominant fruit used for wine, we concenteute here onthe proiction of rape wine. Botanical evidence suggests that the species of grape most widely sed for wine (Fig. 17.6) was originally domesticated in the Near East perhaps 8000 years ago. The ear ext evidence of grape wine is from the Zagros Mountains in Iran where traces of fermented grape juice more than 7000 years old have been found. In 2011, uncorked, 6000-year-old wine bartels were discovered in. Armenia near the Iranian border. Evidence of enushed arapes from Grooce indicates that wine making was practiced in Europe by 4500 nic. Egyptians used wine primarily for religious ceremonies (Fig. 17.7), and it was only between 2000 and 1000 we, during the reek empire thar wine became a pop- ular beverage (Fig, 17.8). Classical Gresks stored wine in vetsels smeared with pine pitch to prevent leakage, a prac tice that may account forthe Greeks’ fondness Tor a rexinous Favor in wine, This flavor is now axed to produce retina wines, The Romans di not use pitch on wine vessels, which is one reason that Halian wines surpassed Oreck wines in Populssity under the Roman empire. Wine grape cultivation spread from the extern ‘Meditesrancan region (Fig, 17.9) about 600 8. to France and later to Spain, Portgel, and Algeria Until recently Europe (aly, France, and Spain) was the undisputed world leader in quantity and quality of wine preduction. Today, the United States, Argentina, Australia, Ching, Germany, Portal, and South Arica rank sequentially among the top 10 wine prodicing countries, FIGURE 17.6 “This branch and flowers of «wild mustang giape show the te ils an the thre Tive-lobed leaves characersue of the rape family. this species th greenish flowers have reduced pals and five nectar producing planésaltsting with the stamens atthe bese ofthe two-colled ovary. The fruit isa two. wo fourscede berry. On the right amature burch of saps, (Photo nghedy Net ‘Wine making in the United Sites started slowly, prob- ably because the northeastern part of the country was too cold for growing traditional European wine grapes. However, the vinifera grape was hardy in many other areas ofthe New ‘World, Coluinbas introduced plants into the West Indies on his second voyage (1493), andthe Spanish planted vineyards in California around 1769, By the middle ofthe 18th century, California hada small but respectable wine indus. Alcoholic Beverages a7 Harvesting grapes and producing wine Tris uchy that Americans became involved in vticul tere because in 1860, European vines began to die from an ow oF phylloxera (Fig. 17.10, Dakelosphatra vino lige), an insect commonly called 4 1o0e apbil (though not a tre aphid) tha attacks the roots of susceptible Vis species A native of North America, his insect bad been inadver- tently catied to Europe in the 1850s on specimens collected by enger botanists from Victorian England, Populations of (CHAPTER SEVENTEEN FIGURE 17.8 Bacco (sce) as gnd of wine depicted by Caravaggio in 1595, the insoet rapidly spread to the continent wheee the tiny pest ‘cked the life out ofthe susceptible V. vinifera, decimating the vines and threatening the wine industry. By 1863, the pes ‘was discovered in the Rhone region of southern France and son between two-thirds to nine-tenths of Earope’s vineyards wore affected. The French sent a commission t0 the United States lo determine which North American species and hybrids Were naturslly resistant to the inseet. Working with T. ¥.. Munson, 2 Ronicultralist and graps breeder, they dew mined that several Texas species, especially Vitis aestivalis, were suitable as oolstocks for the susceptible wine grape, Asa result thousands of American cuttings and sess were sent to Europe (Fig, 17-11), The plants produced fiom the cuttings snd seeds provided siocks onto which the trad tional varieties of the vinifera grape were grafted. Almost all European grapes are still grafed fo American rootstocks, ceven though resistant stains of V. vinifera have been devel: ‘oped. Outbreaks of phylloxera still occur when growers become complacent and plant nongrafied ‘grapes touted to be resisant to the insect, Gropevines begin wo produce Fruit several ears afier planting and ean bear wel for more than 50 years (Fig, 17.12). In the Northern Hemisphere, long branches produced during the previous year are pruned between February ‘and April to ensure symmetrical. branch ‘anowth, The sprouts that emerge later in the spring are trained onto trellises (Fig. 17.13), Inuny vineyards, several vanities of grapes are given togethers that when the grapes are Picked, they will automatically produce the desired blend of grape types. Blending can, however, be dane at any number of points in the wine-making process, even up to the final batting Since the late 1990s, many volumes have been printed! about the potential hen fits of drinking wine. The idea of beneficial cffeets was derived from the fact that there ‘was-a low incidence of arterioscleresis, or hardening of the arterics, in individuals liv- ing ia southern Europe where wine drinking is very common, This purported effect may actually be confounded by the eating habits of people inthis region, which include a diet rich in olive oil and tomatoes that confer their own health benefits. However, some studies suggest that compounds in wine work by slowing the growth of cas in blood vessels that would eventually lead to nat rowing of the arteries, In particular, resve- ratrol in red wine has been singled out asthe compound responsible for reducing the inci- dence of heart disease. This phenolic com- pound also boosts the action of insulin and stimulates the production of siruins, proteins purportedly Hinked to fon sevity and a balanced metabolism, Resveratral may also reduce the invzsion of blood vessels into the eye, lowering the likelihood of eye diseases such as macular degenera: tion: Conversely, some studies have suggested that there are negative health consequences and that deinking move than one glass of win, a single beer, or even one cocktail per cay is correlated with an increased incidence of breast Wine Making Fine vintage wine is still mace in much the same way that i was centuries 2g, allnough the bulk wines thar are now con monly produced undergo more industrialized treatments, Today, large wine-making companies in the United States monitor each sep af the process with sophisticated chemical and computer analyss. Compounds ranging fro fructose to Alcoholic Boveragor 379 FIGURE 17.9 cece Hebvew foto, when Adan planted he fist papevine, the dil bao pig fon, and lami ats roots that those who dank oo much ofthe juice of is futs would hecome ft fercious, an Feeble Joshua and Caleb are shown in this woodcut earying the FIGURE 17.10 “This 1490 cron by E. L, Stmbourne charters ‘phylloere (the roo louse dooming French gepovincs) ‘Sakoaly consuming the entre harvest ‘minute amounts of mineral salts are aukled when analyses indicate a deficiency. In our discussion, we follow the traditional steps in wine making, pointing out some af the recent innevations in this ancient eral Because grapes are naturally equipped with everything necessary for fermentation, the pro- cess of wine making is basically very simple. The grapes ase picked (Fig. 17.14) and crushed, and the juice is allowed to ferent, Juice ean be expressed by stomping barefoot on the grapes (a ‘method sill used in some parts of Europe) or with hhanc-operated, electric, or fuel-powered presses, Inareas where grapes are grown as part of 1 coop. erative venture, they are often pressed ata central point and the liquid is transferred to trucks for transport to individual wineries. Sulfur dioxide is 380 (CHAPTER SEVENTEEN FIGURE 17.11 “Ths alepria! sane commmemries he reso ofthe French wine ingusty ater the devastation by phyllocers inthe midi of tho 9% century. The young wornan represent the resistant American root stocks that replaced the more susceptible European ootices, The Sate is in Mentpeler, Fane the hoof Gustave eer, wn 9 heath MontpeirSebool of Vieitre at the time atthe Bligh. (Couey of Mik Kipaick) introduced into the closed contuner to kill bacteria. Grapes can even be shaken loose by mechanic pickers and pressed in the fick. Again, the Liguid is usually placed in an atmo- sphere of sulfur dioxide. Whee expressed juice is to be made into white wine cis filtered to remove the skins before being placed in Ferment tion tanks (Fig. 17-15). The separated skins and stems an be re-pressed and added with the secondary juice to the oxigt- nal juice or used For lower-grade wines. For red wine, the skins go into the fermentation vat with the juice, The color of red or rosé wine is due to pigments inthe skis that leach {nto the juice, For rosé wines, the skins are removed after a short tne. White wine ca even be made from red grapes if the skins are removed immediately after pressing. Red wine cannot be made naturally feom white grapes. For example, any red wines made from Thompson seedless green grapes ‘must have had color aded, Before fermentation begins, various agencs can b= ‘ackied tothe juice to help later removal af substances that ‘can make 2 wine look cloudy, ‘These include enzymes that break down pectin molecules, ar bentonite, an adsorbent aluoninum compound that promotes clumping and settling of suspended particulate matter, Although the process could proceed without additional yeast, once the juice is inthe fermentation tank (Fg, 17.16), preferred strains of yeast are add. Fermentation is allowed fo continue for about 8 10 10 days after which the incipient wine is drawn off the skins af they are still present. White Wines ate normally fermented at 1D? to 19°C (50° to 59°). and red wines at 25° 19 30°C (77° to $6°F). At temperatures lower than 10° wo 15°C, white wines become musty favored, and at higher teraperatures, they lose their fitness. For red ‘wines, comparatively higher temperatures are needed to pre- vent an npleasan, thin lavor, but temperatures thst ae 100 high can lead to an overcooked tasto, Any additonal liquid Dbeained from pressing the skins removed sfter fermentation ‘of red wine is inferior ia quality to the intial juice but is useful for blending ‘with poorer-grade wines or for vinegar. After the initial fermentation, the liquid is slowed to Yerment ror an aki- ‘dona 20 days to bout | month Daring this second fermentation peri, par ticles and dead yeast cells setle fo the botiom of the tanks. When the. pro- cess i complete, the wine is drawn Off the sediment and phioal in aging FIGURE 17.12 Grapevine lite hosin anagan Viney, Brin Colanbia replanted os lized for sairan san expose and vent {ott rok nd cs co lagi the vis. Alcoholic Beverages at FIGURE 17.13 “Trelied grapevinas at 2 vineyard tear Capctown, South Aftea an rea that has becouse an important wine= ‘ving rein (Daten Pes Aare Olbih [A close-up of eating prapes et) and farmer eadng grapes South Australia (ith). (et agram Rising perc: ch Royty Frets.) tanks. The conbentraions of acids in the grapes, principally rmalie and tartaric acids, change daring the fermentation and thoughout the aging process. The tartare acid, which precip- itates from the solution as “cream of war,” was once one of the important commercial sources of this baking aid. Because Particle sedimentation continues overtime, the wine is often transferred across a series of tanks during aging in a process known as racking, cach time leaving behind a sedimen lary layer, Aging tanks are used over and over again but are lets and doused ith sulfur o kill bacteria after each use. ‘The large wooden tks traditionally used in wine making eaa acquire individual characters, and some become krown as producers of *superio®” wine. The stainless steel tanks used ‘oda Foe femenation and aging are easy to clean but lack the charm provided by these fragrant wooden vessels, Fermentation stops when there is no more fermentable sugar oF the alecbol concentration reacbes levels toxic to yeast, Ifall ofthe sugars used before ora the time of maxi ‘mim aleohol content for yeast growah, the wine will bey, [f sugar remains after the yeast has dia o if fermentation is prematurely stopped before all the sugar has been converted ‘oethanol, 4 sweet wine results Pastcurization can be used to kill any live yeast remain ing in fermented wine, but this process profoundly affects the taste, Consequently, wine is usualy filtered to remove the live (and dead) yeast cells after Fermentation is deemed 382 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN FIGURE 17.15 ‘Loading grapes into a vt for exsing, (et core of Cra ew i noma et) to be complete. Filtration does not remove bacteria, which ae usually contslled by adding sulfur dioxide or sorbic acid or by the alohol content itsolf, The wine can be furtaer Clarified ard stabilized by removing additional insoluble ‘material using various substances such as e3g site, milk casein, gelatin, and collagen from fish bladders. The precipi tated material is removed using a series of increasingly filters. Stabilization involves cooling the wine and filtering tout any precipitated maria Time of aging in tanks varies. White wines are usually aged (Fig, 17.17) for 1 yearto 18 months, but red wines ean be aged! far as long as 5 years. At stages during aging, the Wine is sampled and judged by a wine master. If the wine master deems the wine ready, itis bottled cr used for blend ing. Again, depending on the wine master's devision about the wine's potential, it can be sold soon after being bottled or aged further. Some white wines henetit by aging in the bottle For up to 5 years afier which they tend to deteriorate. Red wines, in contrast, can continue to improve for 30 of perhaps 40 years, The quality of the wine thar ultimately results depends on many faciors, including the grape var ely, the year of harvest, and the procedures followed during fermentation and subsequent aging. When sll of these fac- tors ar optimal, truly fine wine can result ‘The naming and labeling of wines vary considersbly ‘among countrcs. Within » given country, names and label- ‘ng practices can follow various conventions that indicate the kind of grape used, the location of the: vireyert, the slope ofthe area on which the vines were growing, the place where the wine was bottled, the level of sweetness, and, of course, the year in which the prapes were picked. There are Inundteds of varieties of grapes, many of which give their haimes to & kine of wine, for example Caberne: Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Muscadet, Pinot Noie, and Syrah, Molecular studies of fragments and repetitive segments of DNA conducted in 1998 and 1999 have revealed the origin of some of the popular wine grapes. Fer example, Cabernet Sauvignon is actually a hybrid between the Stuvignon Blanc and the Cabemet Frane grapes. Chardonnay and the Gamay Noir grapes both result from selections of hybrids of Pinot Noir and Muscat Blane grapes. The year in which the szapes were picked and the wine wes initiated is Known as the vintage. The knowledge needed to read and assess a wine label and judge a wine properly takes time to soqure and provides ample ‘material for pontifiesting ky zealous oenophiles: Champagne and Other Sparkling Wines Wines produced by simple fermentation of fruit jlces are called st wines heczuse they contin ro gascous carbon dioxide. The fermentation tanks are open or have outes that allow gases to escape as they are pro thal, Sparling wines, in contrast, ste carbonated. These wines, among therm champagne, tho efferrescent wine fom the region of La Champagne in Fraace, re usually made by adding sugar and selected yeasts o a blend of ail wine tofore bottling, The yeasts and sugar sert an adsitional feeraenation in the bottle called prise de masse. The car- bon dioxide produced from the final spate of fermentation Js rapped! inside the bottle, causing the wine to etfevesse ‘oF sparkle wien opened. This late fermentation presents @ problem because the dead yeas cells and various patca Tate mur that sel cut daring this fermentation ae sealed inthe bots, Ingenious methods ave been devised for removing the sediment inthe champogne without losing all the bubbles, Removal ofthe sediment is fitted by storing cham pagne hotles at am angle during the las par of fermentation and wiile the wine i aging withthe booms ofthe botes opt higher than the necks (Fig. 17.18), Tae botles are regulary tamed a itl to help the sediment accumulate in te tip ofthe botle's neck. Traditionally, the sediment was removed by opening the Bottle and ling the chanysagre soot ourwar. A litle eplacement wine wis add, and he bottle was closed as rapidly as posible, Notary, a svat deal of champagne, a vell as ptt of the effervescence, Was Tost. Today, the neck is plunged into liguid nitrogen that freezes the gud in the neck (Fig. 17.19), Ar the ear is removed, pressure from inside the hotle Fores the frozen ‘olnder of champagne containing the debris outward. This ert of te cylinder is quickly et of, the remaining portion is pushed back into the eck, andthe bot is inumeditely recotked, In sicther modem method, knowa asthe transfor Akela 3a ose” fe acne tin] Fernening on et ‘st ‘re “ FIGURE 17.16 Processing vinifera and lbrasea props is contested ars. As the lowshart for rod vinifera wines (top) shows; natural yeasts are wad tiorlly sed, a ileation, if canied out, occurs at he end ofthe process. Sugar is rarely added. White vinifera wines undergo the seme [Procedure bi the skins ae removed before the juice fermented. For labrusca grape (oat), the must, oF unfermeste jue is ste faed before selected yeasts ae neice. Sugars oven eed, resting in sweeter wines. In ov cases, sulfur dioaide (a ga) is used to Killumwanted bacteria To clear the wine of particles tht are small ene ta erin in aspension “Tining agents” sch as tom aeecus cath ae added, These agents atic! and focculae the particles to tha they ean soitle ut. This faa step helps prevent the wines form developing off avers during aging. (CHAPTER SEVENTEEN FIGURE 17.17 During aging wine's acid is rece and ts aroma an final cole develop Here, i Tueceny, Chant ie being barrel age. FIGURE 17.18 Champagne boule ae sered on tilted iacks aad tuned pesedically to ellct the sediment in te necks ofthe les, (Phot etry fg Pasig method, the second fermentation cecurs in a closed tank. The sparkling wine produced is drawn off the sediment aad botled under pressure so tht the carbon dioxide is no Ios For less expensive sparkling wines, carbon dioxide is sim- ply pumped into a stil wine atthe time of hottling in the same way that ts injected into soft inks and beers Fortified Wine onified wines ae those to which concentrated eth- anol or 2 highly disiled beverage such 4s cognac is added, Tho practice of forifying wines bogan in Furope inthe Ith century, Specific regions such 2s Jerez in Spoia, the Douro Valley ia Portugal, and Madeira Island soon became centers for produc ing the ckssie fortified wines: sherry, port, and ‘Madera, respectively. They sill produc the major ity of, and t most connolsseurs the finest, feei- fied vines, akhough wines given the samme names tre now produced elseshere, Differences in grape varieties and production procedures give each one ‘characteristic flavor. A second group of fortified wines includes operitf wines such 28 Duboonet CCinzano, and vermouth, which have in addition ‘wine and spirit, flavorins from a variety of plans Beers, Ales, and Sake As in the case of wine, no one knows when people first began to brew boot. Educated gucssss ust ally converge on a date sbout 6000 yp because of beer residues from the Micklle East that are 5500 years old. Some amhropotogists have correlated ibees brewing sith the establishment of permanent bbuman settlements. Certainly te practice was well established by the beginning of recorded history Written records indicate that much of the grain of the Sumerian civilization was used for making beer. A Greek myth even clas that Demeter, dis usted atthe beer drinking of its inhabitants, fled from Mesopotamia, Early beewing is often linked with bread making. AS described in Chapter 6, fone ofthe early ways of meking grains digestible was Co sprout them. Barley breads were iniially ‘made from sprouted grain that had been dried and ground into flour. Soft dough of sprouted barley flour would be, as we shall see, @ good place for yeasts to live, In fact, Ezyptian beers were made from a solution of water an pieces of dough mate fof sprouted barley flour chat was subsequently allowed to ferment. After fermentation, the liquid ‘was poured off the sludge that had settled on the bortom of te contaiace. Although Egyptians never used much wine except for special oseasions, they copiously consumed beer and made many diferent kinds. Early beers were relatively simple to make, but the lig tid mixrute o be fermented was left exposed ro wild yeasts and ether microbes. Sometimes bacteria and fungi other than species of Szecharonayces that fell nto the brew would ‘multiply and preduce a foub-wsting or roten-smelling batch of beer. Some quality control was ensured by wsing a small FIGURE 17.19 DDuting “le dégorgement” the cor of the champagne botle is ‘momentrily removed so thatthe sediment and frozen thd in the neck of the bot can extrude and be et aay A tres ore ‘perl steed othe bottle before mere champene can escap, -Chnggs News hd soma Serie) (comess amount of the yeasty iquid from a previous 200d batch of beer. Uniform prediction of palatable beer is relatively recent affair. In fact, the entire process of beer brewing, muck ‘more than that of wine making, has changed greatly in the last 200 years. Today, brewing is a complicated process involving several ingrediencs never used in brewing in eaclier limes, Because most of the beer Americans dink is made ia lorge breweries, we will fo Tow the process as it now occurs in one of those operations (Fig. 17.20). The three basic ingrediems used ia modern beer making are barley malt, hops and wate. In adlition, most US breweries also use adjuncts, earbodydrates derives from plants other than barley, Although beer does not seem to have the same health benefits of wine, it appears that a ber « day helps keep bones healthy beczuse it contains silicon that is known to aid bone ‘growth, Beers mode ftom light malt contain the highest amounts of silicon with uch smaller ‘mounts in fo-calorie beers and wheat beers Alzahalie Beverages 385 Malt Siriily speaking, malt is any sprouted grain that has been subsequently dried, but i practic, the term refers to germ nated barley grains. Ditches used to malt grain dated to be 2550 years old in « Celte village in southwesiemn Germany, indicate the antiquity of this practice. Barley (Fig. 17.21), Horiewn vulgare i preferred over other grains used in the past for several reasons. First, Curing multi, barley husks say on the kemels, whetees other grains usually shed their Inusks once they bepin 1 germinate During the brewing process, the husks add some Flavor tthe brew and later col- lect at the bottom of the mashing tank where they form ‘mat through which the beer ean be filtered before fermen lation. Most important, however, isthe fact that, ofall the possible malts, barley malt contains the largest amount of enzymes necessary for converting staches to fermentable sugars. Two-rowed barley is favored for malting in most of the world, but inthe United States, the largest beer producer in tho world, six-rowed barley is now the predominant type used because it grows better in the migwestera United States 1nd breeding has improved its malting quality The fist step in malting is to steep the grain in huge tanks where itis washed by a low of water for 8 to LO hours The washing process causes the Keres to absorb water ‘and initiates sprouting. The barley then sits in sll wate for another 40 hours, after which the water is drained ar the barley is conveyed to large, climate-contrlled germination rooms where itis periodically tumed over for a perio of bout 6 days FIGURE 17.20 [Modem brewing isan exacting science ailing elaborge eauipmeat with com ‘ions monitored x coperized cone bow (Phew ta Miler bewery;Gh lt) 386 (CHAPTER SEVENTEEN ‘The chemical processes set in motion by this artificially induce germination are the same a those that occur in nature ‘As was pointed cut in Chapter 6, energy forthe emerging seedling is slored in grains as sarc. At the beginning of ger- ‘mination, the emibrye produces enzymes that break down the starch into sugars that can be readily absorbed by the devol- oping seedling and used 2 a food source unl the sing is able to carry out photosynthesis. From the brewer's perspec tive, several important things happen dring ths brief period, ‘The grain synthesizes

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