—_ eee ies In Brief = Laggan in comb saber cali, = Like grains, legumes have characters that predisposed them for human use as food, tion with grains formed the agricultural basis of the fis ‘+ Assceiations with ntrogen-fixing bacteria result in high protein lvets in lezumes and give them the ability to ensich soils with nitrogenous compounds + Soybeans, domesticated in China, and common beans independently domest ‘ated twice in the Americas, are the dominant legumes in the world today. The Iegame family is second only tothe grass family in ents of its importance to ‘human nutrition. Almost every agriculturally based civilization had a bean as well as 2 grin as part of its support system, Barley, wheat, and lentils; rice and soybeans, ‘nd corn and beans sre cassie grain-legume combinations that aot only taste good but also make good nutritional sense. ‘Legumes are members of the bean family (Fabaceae or Leguminosae). A large and diverse fanily containing more than 19,000 species, legumes have tradition ‘lly (and we now know erroneously) grouped into thre subfuniles on the basis of their floral characteristics (Figs. 8.1, 8.2). Despite hese differences in their flowers, almost all members ofthe Fabaceae produce a similar fruit formed by a single earpel tha: spits along the 1wo opposite margins to release its weeds. The fruit, botanically called a legume, is more commonly known asa pea (Fig. 8.2) or bean pod Fi, 8. although some members of the family have fruits so modified thst they bear Hite resemblance to a common bean, ‘Among the legumes, the subfamily Faboideae is the most important as source cof food craps. Other members of the family are occasionally used for food but are ‘move commonly employed to linprave soils, as forage, sourees of guns (Chapt 1 lyestulls (Chapter 18), and even fuel, Here we deal primarily with pulses (dried legume seeds used for human food) and forage crops, but we also include tamarind ‘and carob, 10 fonds obtained from the pulp of legume fruits. ‘The ancestors of our domesticated legumes had many characteristics that attracted hunter-gethers an later led to their domestication, Amon these ate: + anannval habit that is correlated with «high investment in the seed crops + weedy tendencies that make them comparatively easy to grow; + dey fits that caa be stored for long periods of time + aigh protein content that complements the starches of graias in the human dit.Legumes 351 FIGURE 8.1 Major roups ofthe Fabaceae difer in floral characters. The common been (Phaieol vugerit) (a), ike most Fabuideve merbets, bis biuerlly symmenteal lowers withthe upper pest, or stndav, exterior to the wing petals. The Kec, formed bythe joming ofthe hwo Tower sc the ile sc the variously Jomned stamens. May logursos illastretod by Sena (b) Ie itezulr flowers which the Ue al is inside the others and the stamens are usualy fee. Albi (e), simile to her meaiers ofthe Mimonieae has ry epula mers bome inches, The sumers ae often he showy pat of these overs,a2 (CHAPTER FIGHT FIGURE 82 Legumes can have ver different flower types a shown in (tp let) iasoso borealis, top right) Spore afin, and Clower figure) Pride of Barbados (Cees pulcervimal, bt ll have fats that ate pods Tapa IL Nat over Melly.st (CHAPTER FIGHT ‘The morphological changes tha occur in zune rots duc- ing the process of nodule formation ave been known for several decades, With the advent of molecular engineering tcfigues, researches began to invesugae the posit ‘of iting noegume crop plans ino nitrogen xe. All ‘forts ta date hove had Limited sucess because so many it ferent genes are involved "The esocaion been legume fst ad bacteria -ymonttegns wih hein of ts by baci els preset inte si Nitrogen bacteria can ve reels ite so, bain thet ste. they om fxaivogen and must cli thet fod saprophytic from dowayingcxpanic mt ter, Afera eye see enna, the scene's 10% sere compout tat mult mlpleaton af ceiving bacteria Calls, increasing the pci of cones As asa ows aa proces root has, ean encounter bacterial eels ht become nivel muelaginows compounds hat sere, The ‘rigs contains honisa, probably ets hatte “some” ecterium species for hat game tecogaizes. If recognition cect the Btu ns less compounds thc cans the fect ric. Aste pf he cel fds in oni, acum! thong whic the acer enter he ets omnes. ‘When the bac, cari inside provetve channels as they grow inven reach the oot cones, hey invade inv sal ces hy pinching othe mentrane ofthe chanel faving | hen uappd within coll acu. An point a the bast in iret const with het bos’ cyroptism Once ise he calls the bacteria elase compounds i stimulate rapid iv ‘Soa in the host cel, prodicng «nodule. The bacteria then ange into frm no Tonge sepabl cf saprophytic living sn | take up the business of mirogen Fixing using sas proved by the hos as metabolic fel forthe prodtio of akonosine tephesphte (ATP), a compa fh ses chica ney. An important characteristic of most species of the bbean subfamily is their propensity 10 form root assoris- tions with various bacteria (Box 8.1) that ensure a usable supply of nitrogen. It has been estimated that more than 193 percent of the species of the sublamily are associated with bsctoria that fix nitrogen. The percentage appears to be smaller ia the other groups of legames. This inter sction has been hailed as a classic example of 2 symbi- ‘tie relationship. Symbiosis involves. 1wo organisms that live together to the mutual benefit of both. inthe legume association, bacteria (primarily Rhizobium species) infect the roots of a legume species, causing the production of swollen areas called nodules (Fig. 8.4). The bacteria live Within the nadules and absorb ruitients fro the host ‘The bacteria ase tis sored energy to brea apart the (wo toms of nitrogen tightly held together in niogen gas (N ‘Two major enzymes or enzyme complexes coded for by so sas of genes ae involve in he cleavage of HHO gen gas tend the subsoquen! ation of hycrogen to fon ammonia (NHL), The first is mtrogenase, a complex of two enzyInes, One ofthese enzymes splits the band of nitrogen 24s, end the other aks tbe hydrogen ions 1 form anmania. The yon enzyme complex produces leghemoslobin, which consists ‘of an iron-containing, or heme, potion suppfied by the bac tevium and a protein prt produced in the host's extoplosm, LLeghemoglobin shields the octeria fom iret conact with ‘onygen yet provides oxygen for collar respiration. Nzogen fixation i a process tha mst occur at very Jom oxygen levels ‘The ammonia produced by nitrogen fixation i released imo the plant cell a¢ ammonia fons, which enter into one of the bieciacmical pathways that wltimately form either ano acids or purines, Eitier (ype of these nitrages-containing ‘compouads can be tansported trough the xylem f0 various part of the plant fr protein symhesis or as a seuss of nto ‘gen for compourss such as altoids, From this description, we can S22 that dhe problem of iinzoducing such an extensive repertoire of genes ito plants that lack them is formidable. Scientists mast ansfer the genes involved in nodolation (including recognition genes), {hove that code forthe polysaccharides ant membranes, and tone that are iavolved in prodocing legheroziobin, There have been some successes in genetically engineering nite gen fixation into nonlegumme crops suck as wheal, but prog ress hs been slow and estrcted to particular crap varieties, Enyghass is now focused on more traditional practices such ‘i using cr9p rotation, optimizing the timing of fentlzer application, and breeding for mow efficient use of nitrogen, plant, In retura, they incorporate, or fix, atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable to the plant host. Although nitrogen gas is the ost sbundant substance in the earth's atmosphere, flowering plants eannot use elemental nilro- gen, Instead, they must absorb it through their roois in the form of ammonia or nitrate ions or perhaps as organic compounds from decayed organisms (Fig. 8.9). The sup- ply of nitrogenous ions is often lacking in the sil, Hence, in cultivated fields, farmers often add fertilizers high in nitrogenous compounds (Fg. 8.6). Plants with nodule~ forming bacteria have overcome this deficiency because their symbiotic bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen ico ammonia (Bor 8.1), The cost incurred by a plant in supplying its nodulating bacteria with nutrients appearsto be offset by the benefits gined from having a guaran teed source of nitrogen ions. For this reason, legume seeds are often inoculated with an appropriate bacterium before sowing them into a new field Legumes’ ability to form associations with bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen into « usable form leads to two additional features of importance to humans. First, because nitrogen is not « Limitation for them, these legumes seem t0 be more lavish in iis incorporation than are other angiosperms. For ths reason, the family is known as a good source of proteins and sometimes alkaloids, classes of com. pounds that contain nitrogen. A comparison of Tables 6.2 and 8.1 shows the yarying protein levels of important grains and egutnes as well as the varistion among legumes in the amount of fa, carbohydrate. and fibes. It should be noted that, although legumes are rik in proteins, they fend 10 be Jow in some oF the amino acids nec essary for humans. By eating other kinds of plants contain- ing these amino acids, people can avereome this deficiency and obiain-« complete specinun of the amino acids neces for human nutrition (Box 82. A second feaiure of nitrogen fixation of particular valve to humans is thatthe legume-bacteria assceiation usually FIGURE 8.4 ‘A closexp of a poanst part shows he cot nodules where nitrogen is fixed. It wes originally thought that all legume assocoted bacteria wore in the zesus Rivzobiem, but molecular analyses hive now shown tha at lesst dee end maybe five genera— Rhizobium, Brachsrhrobiur, Acoraizoblum, Mesorhicoben, and Sinorhicobiun-—re involve. Interestingly, tose genera do no 2v2n appear be closely relate ts one another, For ery pastcaercaocla ten, however thre i oenssking specificity Betwoon the specie of tecieria and its ot, (Pets OFAGYP. Cit) produces an excess of usable nitragen, meaning that grow ing legumes can provide a food crop and simultaneously Fentlize the soil. Becutse of this property, farmers bis- torically rotated (alternated) legume crops with other crops that would normally requir the spplication of nitrogenous fertilizers. Afler nonlegume crops have been grown for ‘one or to years, the supply of nitrogen ions in the soil is depleted and legumes sre replanted. Like grasses, legumes have undergone a number of changes asscciated with domestication. Some are paral Jel 10 the changes that grains underwent, Like most cul- tivated grains, the major cultivated Jegumes are annuals and normally prococe seeds by self-pollination and sel {ezilization, Consequently, the energy put ito seed pro- duction by individual plants is high. Selection hes boea for characteristics that increase yield snd maximize efficient harvesting. These characteristics include reduction of seed scattering, an increase in seed size, and more synchronous fruiting. In addition, there has been selection against snces- tral dormancy patterns. Seeds of wild populations have variable dormancy that leads to germination of portions of the seed crop across successive years. Virtually all seeds in ‘domesticated legumes germinate as soon as they aze planted, One issue that has prompted considerable discussion is whether suppression of dormancy in lentils (and perhaps some other pulses) preceded or followed domestication ‘The case has been made that it would have been unpenfit- ale to plant and harvest crop that had the normal wild type of dalzyed dormancy. Because yields of wild lozarnes sre comparatively low and if only a small fraction of the seeds collected germinated when planted, the probability of Obtaining a useful erop would lave been small. One group of researchers thus argues that carly farmers would net have been interested in cultivating such legumes that would have become an acceptable crap only after dormancy suppression red in the wile, However, the ease of procuring a ercp has 10 be weighes! agains its nutritional valve, Conventional ‘wisdom therefore favors the hypothesis that many cult vated legumes fad variable dormancy when they began to the grown as crops but that the loss of dormancy aceurted quickly under artificial selection, mans ise many legume species, but here we discuss the 10 most important pulses. wo ober fruit crops used far their156 (CHAPTER EIGHT organic resitves (urea & amare acts) ropon in Mk, grou) sean cen yntiees in ants FIGURE 8.5 “The nrogen cycle showing the role oF lepumes an their assorted nivogen-fxing baciLegumes 37 FIGURE 8.6 “The numbers prised on bag of tertlizer reer to the lative propottions of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potas (N-P-K), Nitrogen Promotes lush green grow of vegetative plant pars; phosphorous stimulates soot growth ad is necessary for proper maturation of seeds ‘nd rts and potassium contributes co disease resistan: and steagihens stems and wolerance w poor sei. TAT fries ae generally hey in nitrogen, but those iended for fruits and Moyer production contain meee phesphoravs. 1 spud be noted tat soiled weet sn fed (op righ) provaets that contin both a selective herbie and ferilzer ar not recemmented because they are enviroametally UnfHendy an the normal timing ofthe application ofthese two prot snot the came (oy mato Beans Pino, rw 1130 ser aut 1 ws 133 White, ew ino 323 Ba Ds 03. 2 Broad beans 11.00 4 261 Is 583 50 Carob, flour 358 me 46 96 9 38 Ghickpeas 1150 364 13 60 608 ba Coxpens 110 343 2K 24 395, lor Lents, rw toto 353 255 os 305 Lima beans, raw 10.20 338 ais 07 63 190 Pescut,raw vith skins 650 567 258 492 Il 85 Pees 1150, sal 243 12 a 233 Pigeon pens 1080) ua 27 1s ony 150 Soybeans 830. 48 365 93. 302 93 ‘Tamarind 3140 29 28 06 as 31 ‘Snr USDA Nutra ute Date fr Sauda Refrstoe a hypo nin gorfirioodconpcah158 (CHAPTER EIGHT thas long been known that legumes are geod for people and that bess and grain combinations are even better. Thanks to theicassociacion with nitogen-fixing bacteria, legumes excel at producing nivogen-contzining compounds such 6 pro- teins ad alkaloids. The family can ths provide both nate vious food and desaly toxins Most dried legames are high in protein and contin full complement of the elgt amino acs consicered esson- tial because Human aduts are unable to manufacture them ‘and rust obtain chem from an enteral source such 2s ret oF protcintich plant foods, Fortunately, grains are compara tively high inthe two amito aes in which legumes re corm paratively deficient, methionine and cysteine. Thus, beans end _rcins ae sit “complement one snot, are combinations of them were crucial tothe development of major civilizations. Legumes contribute other things to our diet. They are high in carbohydcates and, in some eases, fat. The ratio of protein to carbohydrate to oil is usually about 22:70, although this varies for different legumes. Dried Iegumes also contain comparatively high levels of fiber, and it has therefore been suggested th consuming them leads 10 ‘ecuced loves of intstnal and colon iiablityand cancer. Tn recent years, interest in the relationship between legume consumption and tow levels of cbelesterol, par- ticularly among people who eat soybeans, as increased. ‘Ociginally, the association was thought o stem from the high | fiber level, but interest sified from fiber to proteins because s0y-fextured protein (which is fiber fee) produced the same effect. Later work suggested that compounds known as iso- flavones, particularly genistin and dads, not fiber or pro- tein, were the beneficial agents. These agents appear 10 act hy proventing th oxidation of “bad” cholesterol (LDL) and tas the foanation of plague. Experiments showed, however, fruit pulps (Table 8.2), and seven ofthe major leeume Forages sg7own today. In our coverage of the important pulses, we begin ‘with the vo mest important legumes. worldwide, soybeans snd common beans, and then move tothe ether major pulse ‘crops, pointing out the asseciations of these legumes and telr ‘rain porters in the areas in which they were domesticated. The Powerful Pulses Soybeans Among the legumes, soybeans (Glycine ma) reign supreme (Fig. 8). Although all the pulses ean be considered as partial substitutes for animal protein, soybeans have the ‘most proce (Table 8.1) and greest versatlixy. Soybeans tat the ioflavones alone without tho legume proteins were ‘ineffective in lowering LDL orcholestero in genet ‘The association of soybean consumption and the relief ‘of menopause sympoms in Asian women led (othe discov cry of other bioativo effects of legume isoflavones. These compounds appear to have a wesk esiogenie effect. As & souz0o of plant estrogens, or phytogostrogen, soybeans have heen promoted as usefl for televing menopause symptoms and, lke synthotic estrogens, in lowering incidences of ean ‘er. Research does no hear out these claims, hawever. ‘Along with thei reputation for boing mstitious, legumes are alo notorious for thei oxi facies. These inch pete 4:0 inhibitors, ancvitamins, alkaloids, cyanogens, saponins, land various eompowinds thst promote allergenic reksions ‘Tae fist to toxins an be rendered harmless with cooking (Concentrations of the ofhers have been recied tough bree ing for the most par, Peanuts, however, can cause a severe llergenie reaction in some pecple—so severe, in fact, that i lines have been asked 19 have “peanut fee” areas for suscepti blepastengers. Tce, 19 peanut prceinsthat cause allergenic reactions have teen identified, Any of these ean interat with snubodiet on human Iymphoeytes to produce hitamines sulting in swelling and constction ofthe lng airways thas ten suggested thatthe ecent rise in pean lenges ray be ‘elated to maternal consumption of peanais. Researchers have ‘tied to develop a vaceine to desensitize people and sr work ing to alter protin production though genctic engineering. Likewise, sy proteins can cause allergnic reactions in some ‘peuple, Agronomists have ie to selest For vats that lack. the effersive proteins, bt these types soy donot produce the “ard tof the Japanese prefer Other appraais to thwart the problem inciude antisense technology fo prevent production of the proteins and genic engineering for nonallergeic proteins. also haye loss carbohyetrate per unit weight than any other pulse except peanuts. The amino aeid content of soybeans, especially that of the searce sulfu-comtaining emino acids (cysteine and methionine), is particularly impressive. In Chin, soybeans are referred (0 as “poor man's meat” oF cow-without-bones,” indicating their importance in that populous country. Combined with rice, this humble bean supperted the civilizations along the Yangtze River and ‘combined with mallets, cities along the Yellow River. In the Western Hemisphere, soybeans are today use primarily for oil extraction and animal food with only 5 percent ofthe huge US erop consumed directly as Food. In tease Asia, soyhean use isquite a different story. Wild soybeans aro native to eastern China, although controversy about where the crop was domesticated still exisis. Some authors favor northeastern China a the areaLegumes 159 Besa road Vila faba Comma Phiseols wagers Lima Phaceolu nenss Cao Ceretonia sigue Ghickpea Geer erietinary Cowpea Vigra anguttana Leni Lensetnaris Pes. common Piston soriren Posnot Arachis hypogaea Pigcon pen Caja cajun Soybean Glycine va ‘Taman Temirinis tnbea Cems Asin Metin, Poss Meico, Pons ‘Andie Near Fast Afra Netw Bost Nea Est Central casterm South Arnica Souther Asia Chins “Tropical Africa Nw: Roa es we se Te FIGURE 8.7 Soybeans wit pening fruits growing in their native Chins, (Cae Wally ‘of domestication; others claim a more southern loca: tion near the Yangize River. Some authorities even sug- est (Wo of more independent domnestications while their calleagues counter with molecular evidence for a single domestication with many landraces developing over the next 3000 years as cultivation spread. The oldest archeo- logical date for domestication eurtently is $000 yp from. southeastern China. Brought trom Asia to the Netherlands in 173), soybeans lid not become popular outside China snd Japan until after 1899. Now: many experts consider soybeans to be one of the prineipal plants that will help sustain the workl’s burgeoning populations. Soybeans are versatile, eaten in the form of eurds, cheese, drinks, sauces, sprouts for sala, and oil, Died or fresh soybeans are bitter and contain trypsin, compound that inhibits digestion, Roasting or cocking helps alleviat this problem, Mature soybeans also contain fipoxidase, an enzyme shat leads 10 the oxidation of lipids and ereates off flavors. Breeding. for low trypsin and for low lipoxidase varieties with large seeds that are harvested when immature has led (othe pro- ‘duction of fresh beans such as steamed edamame seeds that are an increasingly popular food item. Most commonly, however, the mature seeds are used and ace often highly processed to produce a variety of nutritious products. OF these, iso. tofu, tempeh, soy milk, and soy sance (soy) are the most important (Fig, 88). Miso is made from a paste of cooked soybeans often mixed with a grain such ts barley or rice and then fermented by Aspergillus with Lactobacillus added to consol unwanted bacteria, Red, black, and white miso forms are prokinced from variously colored soybeans and salt, To make tofu, died soybeans are soaked, rinsed, and ‘rushed in water. This slmry is then heated 10 nearly boiling ster which the erushed bean solide are strained from the lig id. This liquid, known as soy milk, cam he used #8 a drink160 (CHAPTER EIGHT FIGURE 8.8 “The array of soybean procs om the US market est hoops erowing! In addition 0 formulas and tofu prodects, soybeans provide the ‘he United States, soy proeis are integrated into {verything from beast har to pot chips, 20 wy lectin fs neexpoted in tos! of our chocolate produits, Nonfond see of soybeans Inch inks, plat, Ahir obras inclusion iain mos widely used eile oil and strn-romoving cletner (Pom ty Seon Bane. caresy of Agr esearch Serie) and forms the basis of many nondairy infant formulas inthe United States, Soy infant formulas noed to be supplemented to equal milk in netritonal quality; some physicians advise against them because they contain estrogenic and potentially allergenic compounds. The solié portion left ater devant- ing the soy milk is called okara, spongy mass that can be eaten like cottage cheese, [n Asia, soy milk can be heated to allow a skin to form on the surface, This skin is care~ fully removed and allowed 10 diy. forming yaba. Soy milk is also used to make tofu by boiling the liquid with mag: nesium (epsorn) or calcium salts (nigart to initiate the pro- duction of curds (coagulated protein). When curd formation has stared, the mixture is allowed to stand until almost all the protein has coapulated. Similar to fresh cheese making. the curds are seo0ped from the now thin liquid and drained After sufficient craining, the cards setle ino frm, smooth lextured ‘elu cakes, Tofu is extremely mutitious, very digestible, and quite bland, qualities that allow it be used ina variety of dishes, At least one study hus suggested that ceting soy protein (tofu) in the first few years alter meno- ‘pause helps to preserve bone density. Ifthe curds are fer- ented, they produce tempeh. Soy sauce is another soy product made by creshing the beans (forming eksra), mixing them with wheat, and forming the mass in cakes. The cakes are inoculated wit Aspergillus to initiate Fermentation, The starter mix is then placed in sat brine with Laerobactltus to complete fer tation, Traditional soy (or tami) sauce takes one to throo years to attain a proper color and flavor. The final filtered, salty-flavored solution is soy sauce, Before you recoll from the thought of pouring juice from moldy soybean paste onto ‘your food, remember that most cheeses are ‘made by allowing fungi to act on mk curds (in Roquefor, blue Danish, and Stilton cheeses, the blue veins of fungi are sil visible). The for- ‘mented sediment left aftr straining off the soy sauce is eaten in Chia like jam. Nontraditional American soy sauce, often male by simply hydrolyzing vegetable protein, adding caramel ‘coloring, and flavoring with saltwater, pales in ‘compas ‘One of the important nutrients that most beans lack is vitamin C. The Chinese, so depen- dent on soybeans, have managed to overcome this shortcoming by sprouting the beans, leading oan inerease in Vitamin content. Soy sprouts, ‘unlike the beans, provide a good source of vita~ ‘min Cand ere eaten in salads, Iti litle won. der that soybeans have been held in sue high esteem in Asin for so long and ane now coming {eo their own in other pants ofthe world as well ‘The soybean was introduced into the United States in 1763 and into the Com Belt region in 1851. However, is rise 0 prominence 5 a US crop eame only after 1920 when there was a shift from growing the plants a hay crop to harvesting the fais for animal feed, Before the 20th century, soybeans were not used as livestock feed because of their wypsin content ‘When it was discovered tha heating destroys the compound, scybeans became a major component of animal feds, and worldwide demand for the crop soared, Since 1824, 2 mete- ‘rie rise in soybean production has made the United States tho world’s largest soybean supplier and led tothe legume's being called a "Cinderella crop” (One ef the first Awnccicans to become interested in soy hheans was Henry Ford, who thought that the bean bod as much potential as a raw material for manufactured goods 25 ithad as 4 protein source. The Ford Motor Company built thee factories inthe 1930s where soybean oil was extracted forthe production of pains and plastics. Ford ate soybeans ‘at every meal and wore a suit made from “soy fabric” to a ‘convention, His company also sponsored a I6-course Sy- bean dinner a the 1934 “Century of Prossess” World's Fair in Chicago. Despite Ford's efforts, only a fraction of the ‘huge US soybean crop is consumed directly. More than half cf the US production is exported, and most of the rest is fed to animals or processed into ol, plastic, pats, and ache sives. This patiern may change as a result ofthe process of | spinning soy proteins ino textured vegetable protein (TVP), ‘Soy protein processed in this way can he avored ta imitate ‘various meats, used as a cat substitute, or added as filler to ceanned or processed meats. Many dry dog foods producedFIGURE 8.9 Varieties of Phaseoles vulgaris eaten a shelled beans include (ef 10 wight from the top): Beno, yeliow eye, Cannella, Appalooss, nowy, bla, pnt Flagecls, ‘xnasan, Norther, calypso te, owt tas 0) FIGURE 8.10 ‘The vatety of common beans caon whol> includes string tans (Left) and Fronch harsot vers, snap bean, diagon tongue beans, cetabery bea, and yellow vas bea, {ont Maty 0) Legumes tet in the United Staes contain processed soy beans aswell as grain by-products Common Beans In the United States, grocery stores offer a wide vasieey of beats (Fig. 8.9) including kidney, navy, shell, pinto, pea, Mexican, black, ‘runner, green (Fig. 8.10), string, wax, and snap beans. Despite their appar ‘ent differences, all belong to the same spe- cies, Phaseolus valgaris. Today, itis the ‘most widely cultivated species of legumes in the world. Soybeans may outrank oor mo beans in tons of legumes produced each year, but P. vulgaris is an important erop in ‘more countries than soybeans, ‘The common bean appears to have been independently domesticated in at least ao regions: Mexica/Central America and the south-central Andean region of South ‘America. In beth ofthese ares, beans were associated with corn, a combination that Formed the agricultural bass of the Maye and ‘Aztec eivilizaions in Nork America and the TInean Empire in South America. The inde- pendent domestications of legumes led to ovo separate gene pools of eahivars that ste ‘morphologically distinctive and cross only with eificaty. Fossil evidence of cultivation from Mexico is about 2500 years old, and ‘material fromthe coastal valleys of Pert has been dated to 4400 years ago. By the ime of European arival in the New Worle, common Deans were an important dietary item for native peoples throughout North (Fig, 8.11), Central, and South America. Commen beans have, however, some less than endesting properties (Box 8.3 ‘Because common bean plants are natu tally vines, they were historically inter planted with another erop, such as com, that provided suppor. AS this chapter empha- sized catlet. this mixed cropping was also ‘advantageous for the com because beans sre aswwciated with nitogen-fixing bacteria. Native Americans and European settlers, ‘without ealizing why, found that growing the wo crops together increased te produc: tivity of com. The indigenous American dish ‘succotash, made from dried corn and beans, reflected this method of mixed agriculue. Our modern idea of svccotash as being & mixtare of comm and fina bess comes from the name on packages of frozen vegetables.182 (CHAPTER EIGHT It no secret that some people have a prublem: with beans even the most innccent-Tooking forms. The flavortul bean Soup or dip goes down easily, but afer 2 few hour, team tun the lage intestine into a zas-eencrating machine that in ts most docile form makes the person fel bleated and in ‘amore aggressive mede leads to explosive and embarrass ing eruptions. For years, the nutrition and estness of beans outweighed the poteaial social consequences, However, ‘with other sourees of protein at hand anc! an emphasis on politeness, the pros and cons of bean consumption are now fften weighed agsinst one another Fy Americans who subse ‘quenly oft to forgo the potentially offending pulses "Mectical problems eslpse embarmsiment once people began to fly fist at high elevations and thea in spaceships. Iestinal gas, hike all gas, expands under redvced pres sure, andthe air pressure in aisplanes and spacecraft, even those sith pressurized cabins, is lower then that on the ‘earth's surface. Severe puin and distension can result when lange amounts of gas cre in the itestines of people who fy ‘Conseaucatly, the US military begon to investigate the causes ‘and potential solutions of the bean gas problem, By the 1960s, the sources af the problem had been detezmined to be low molecular weight sugar polymers, or oligesacenarides, primarily ralfinose and stachyose. Beans and some other foods, sls as broccoli and its relatives, contzin enough of these compounds also o eause problems, alike simple sugars, human digestive enzymes do tot break dawn oligosaccharides, so they arrive atthe end ofthe intestinal systom more of leas ntact. Although inert thurman, tbe oligosacchatides constitute 2 usable food supply for the bacteria in the larpe intestine. which metabolizes them reudiy with # coresponding release of carbon dos de (CO,), This gaseous produet of the bacterial metabolism mixed with ederferaas compounds such as hydrogen sulfide pxhices fou Mtsience Research led to an enzyme that is able to break down these oligosaechases, This enzyme, alpha-galactosidase was isolated from Asperills, a fungus that has other uses in human fond processing, such a6 the production of miso ad sake (Chapter 17) Only «few drops oa pill will sever the long oligosaccharide chains in a Serving of beans into shorter sugar chains that humans can digest. Now mar ered under the mame Beano™, the enzyme in pill oF liguid form is touted a “a soientfic and social break through” Interestingly, like most enymatic proteins, aipha> galactosidase denatures at high tomporstces. Consequently, the liquid enzyme should not be added before or daring ‘cooking but mikod in when the food reaches a tomperature ff less tan SAC (30°F), ‘At this point, one can legitimately pose the quostion of ‘whether ising the enzyme increeses the calorie coment of ‘beans [a theory, the anvWwor is yos. The Fundamental reason for aalng the enzyme is 10 cleave the oligosaccharides into ‘coos that can be digested bofore they reach the large ints tine. IF te normal station is For @ certain percentage of the sugars to be iigesibe, the obvious answver is that there) ‘mist bean increae in calories. However, the aroun of oli- ‘zesaccharides in these foods is 50 small—although the effect, fan be large—that dumping them ito the digestible poo! is ‘negligible in tems of calories. FIGURE 8.11 ‘\ colorful aay of common eens in # Mexican pore (Poitoby HL Tone) ‘Although beans were traditionally eaten as rehydrated dried palses the last two cen tories have seen a dramatic increase in the production and consumption of immature fresh seeds and pods. Ths rise was initially due to eansing and then co the widespread availabilty of refrigeration, rapid efficient label transport, and the successful produc tion of frozen vegetables. As result, we ean ‘enjoy green beans as well as edamame, lima beans, snow peas, and suger snp peas all year round.Other Major Pulses Peanuts Peanuts are legumes more often thought of s6 nus oF = source of il (Chapter 11) than as a pulse, but in many parts ‘of the world, the seeds are cooked and eaten much Like any other bean. Tn terms of acreage planted and toas har- ‘ested, peanuts rank thin behind soybeans and common beans. The species, Arachis lypogaea, is native to central South America. Domestication probably occurred first in southsastem Bolivia. By the time Columbus reached the New World, peanuts were being calivated through= ‘out the warm regions of South Ametica. The Portuguese ‘took peanuts to Africa where their cultivation was quickly ‘adopted Peanuts are now an important dietary item in west African countries and an integral part of Southeast Asian FIGURE 8.12 Ato fertlizatin, the lowor sal ef peanut curves downward, tal he developing fn is forced into te pron by the prliferas iow id elongata of cells unde the ovary, The legume subse- shent'y develope undergrxn! Legumes 163 cuisines having been earvied there via ihe Philippines by the Spanish, With their eventual workdwide distritution, itis not sur. rising that peanuts have many cifferent names. The British call them groundauts or ground peas, referring tothe way in ‘whieh peanuts bear ther frit (Fig. 8.12) Like other legumes of the subfamily Faboideac, peanuts boar pea type flowers slong their aerial stems (Fig. 8.13). Seit-polinaion oceurs Within the Qowers but after fenilizaion, insta! of maturing above ground, the pedicels, or Hlower stalks, curve downwant, [pushing te developing fut int the sol. Nest to the withered syle, cells proliferate, forming a peg. A cap of eell onthe tip cof tho peg protects the ovary against abrasion in much the same ‘way the root cap prowess a root. Aller the expanding ovary is pushed into the soil a few centimeters, downward growth ceases, The ovary ten sideways and marures underground, Many people unfamiliar with the sxonemy or Rowcering pro ‘cess of peanuts think te fruits ar rots or tubers (Fig. 8.12) Peanuts are also called “goabers," a name given ther by African slaves, The widespread production of peanuts in the US South cannot te attributed to their being native inthe [New World bur © the popularity ofthe crop in Africa and thir introduction into North Ameria by slaves on southern FIGURE 8.13 This chacicteriste “pe” Mewvers on his ean plan cary Show ‘that despite the tat thatthe “nts” ae borne underground, he spe cies belongs the legume family.364 CHAPTER EIGHT plantations, With the decline of the coton empice, peanuts have panially replaced cotton as a major crop in parts cf the southern United Ststes (Fig. 8.14), and their popularity now cextcads to all pats of the county ‘Most of the peanut consumption in the United States today occurs in the fon of peanut bute, skbough a sub stantial par of the crop is used for pig feed. Sout American Indians greund peanuts and produced s provct similar © smodera peanut butter, but “development” of the familiar spread is usually atisibuted to John Harvey Kelloge (see Box 6.1). The doctor, a health food alvocate, was searching, for on easily digestible, highly nutrtions food that required Lite effor (chewing) to eat. Peanut bulter gained notice at the 1904 St Louis Works Far, but it became poplar only after 1922 when J, J. Rosefield developed » smooth paste FIGURE 8.14 Geoige Wassington Carer i fen sree with establishing the esa nasty Inthe Sou after he Civ Wae ha destroyed the Seem empire thu did noe separate into an oil and solid layer. Rosefield licensed his procese to Swift and Co., which started selling Peter Pan® peanut hurter in 1928, Rosefield began market- his own peanut batter, Skippy”, in 1993. Peanuts have been the subject of much agricultural research Decause they are a good protein source, grow on poor soils, and thrive in tropical regions. However, peanat proveins can elicit several allergenic reactions (Box 8.2). In addition, peanuts are susceptible to infestation by a fungus that produces aflatoxins, chemicals thet are deadly poison- us to humans, as by-produets ef metabolism, Deaths from cating contaminated pecnuts have been greatly reduced by instituting proper methods of handling and storage that ean Virtually eliminate the danger of infestation Chickpeas Although chickpeas, Cicer arietinum (Fig. 8.15), are part ‘of the ancient complex of Near Bascern damesticares that includes bariey, wheet, lentils, and peas, the first certain FIGURE 8.15 Chickpeas have pods that contain oor three sexe each: (2) po fn (&) ser Beko, he fesh chickpeas show the pods containing fly one oto rou seesrecords of cultivaed chickpeas are from Turkey and are dated to about 9,000 ybp. The original domesticates, like ‘most domesticated legumes from this area, germinrad in the fall and fruited in late spring. Sometime about 5000 (6000 yp, there was a switch to spring sowing and summer fruiting, possibly to evcid fungal infections common during 4 wet spring. Unlike the other western Asian domesticated legumes, chickpeas do not grow well in coo! elimates, anc their subsequent spread was tothe east and west rather than to the northem parts of Europe. East of the Mediterranean, chickpeas replaced peas and broad heans and, along with lentils, served as a Basie component of the diets of millions fof people. By 2000 8.c, chickpeus had been introduced to India, which is now the works lagest producer, although the country prefers a smaller, darker varisty of chick- pea over the globular beige European variety. Cultivation tlso spread casiward around the Mediterrancan, and today chickpeas form part of the cuisines of Italy, Spain, Morocco, and Algeria. Brought to Mexico by the Spanish, ‘who call them garbanzos, they now constitute, along with common beans, an important vegetable proven souree. The duality of chickpea protein, both in terms of amino acid ‘content and digestibility, is among the highest of the pulses. Besides being featured in hummus, the peas can produce a Iiguid infant formula nutritionally comparable 1 soy-based [products and les likely to couse diarrhea Peas Pees (Pisum sativum, Fig. 8.16), along, with lenis, bar ley, and wheat, form the oldest complex of cultivated fonds yet discovered. Fossil sceds unmistakably identified as peas have been collected from excavations in the Near East and Europe and have been dated as being between 8000 and 9500 years old. These seeds ace similar u wild peas: thus, it is impossible to tell whether they were grown as a crop or gathered. Foil seeds showing smooth seed coals characteristic of domesticated peas appeared by 5850 to 5600 n.c, in Middle Eastern axchacological sites. The original domestication of pess is now consid cred to have occurred somewhere in the area that includes ‘Turkey and Syria, ‘The nutritive value of pulses must have been known, (at least subconsciously) since carly biblical times. The Bock of Daniel tells the story of Daniel being taken into the court of Nebuchadnezear with several other young Jewish boys so that the Isaelites could lear the ways of their ruling Babylonians. Young Daniel and a few of his fellow Jews relused to cat the meat served to them because it had ot been prepared according to Hebrew specifica tions and eating it would thus have violuied their dietary Jnws. Danie! asked if they could est pulses (probably peas) rather than meat. The story continues that their Babylonian tutors granted the request despite their fears thatthe boys Legumes 165 FIGURE 8.16 ‘A.suow pea lowes and immature Ft (Peet by Maly) ‘would show ill effects from the “poor” det and hence bring. punishment from the king. However, when the boys were Finally brought wo an malience st the royal eourt, Daniel and the other youths who had rofused to eat the king's meat had reportedly fatier anc more beautiful faces than those who had forsaken theit religion, During the Miklle Ages in Europe, dried peas were the mainstay of the peasent population. The familiar mursery rhyme Pease poctidge hot Pease porridge cold Pease porridge in the pot Nine days old refers to. thick broth or sieuming pudding made from dried peas that, if we arc to believe the text, could be served from the same pot for more than a week. ‘Columbus brought peas 10 the New World on his see= fond voyage in 1493 and planied them in the West Indies. English setters brought the pea New England in the beginning ofthe 17th ceutury. OF the tno introductions the lntier was by far the more successil because ofthe inabil- ity of peas t0 grow well under conditions of high night ‘temperatures Peas were not eaten as afresh green vegetable until the 17th century when a Dutch horticuluist bred ard offered in166, (CHAPTER EIGHT ‘wade the first “zordoa" variates. Members of the court of King Louis XIV enthusiastically accepted green peas even though at that early time fest peas would probably have ‘been mach inferior to modera Varieties, Pause stil wong {he most important pulses, ranking ith behind soybeans, common beans, peanuts, and chickpeas. Recent breeding efforts have sought an increase in pods per node snd syn ‘hronous maturation to fxiitate mechanical harvesting. ‘Chinese snovr peas and the sugar snap peas are vaci- ties eaten when the ped sre sti immavure and tener (Gig, 8.16), Peas that are catenin their entisety must have tender stels. Edible pea pods lack the fibrous layer of the pericarp tha ig characterise of dry pulses. Tender forms Similar to modem snow peas had probably been selected for by the ealy part ofthe 1h century, but heft, sweet agar sap peas enjoyed laday were developed and placed on the market only as recently as 197. Pigeon Peas Although the names pigeon sa o sed gram (Cajuns aja) ‘may net be familie, you have prcbably etea these legume withoot estizing it Inthe United Staes pigeon pes are offen the basis of split pea soup, although tue peas are also used, Im oer pars ofthe world, however, they constitute & comon sun importa part ofthe et When the modern gecgrapic distribution ‘of red vild species is considered, south- em Axia appeus to be the place of eign. The oldest fossil remains of domesiated pigeon peas are only 2000 years ‘ld, This legume is now of major impor- taice fn Tala, which produces 95 pescent cof the work!'s crop because pigeon peas can _:0W on poor soil making them a good crop for faery using marginal agrcutral ll Unlike most ter pulses, piseon pea pants ane pereania shrub, not anal ets. 1 India, the dried peas ze used fk ils ia the preparation of da! (oe dal) purses derived fron several pulses. but mest olen from pigeon peas of lentils, Dal is an extremely Jinponant component of almost every Iain teal, Becatse pigeon peas have remained primatiy a local erop, few large-scale efforts have been mace to produce new varieties and better yields. Animal feeding trials have shown da the protein quality of pigecm peas Js Tower than tha of ehiekpess or soybeans, but these other pulses are too expensive for people wha depend om pigeon pss FIGURE 8.17 Lens: branch (2), seds (b), and 9 seed pod in section fe Unlike those of i wild rlaes, the pods of lets do not split when thoy are rips FIGURE 8.18 {A yatety of colors, sizes and textures makes les «yerstile pulse for many dishes. ‘The varieties show ere are (iagonaly lft to right) block beliza, red petite alder, French. organi eoen; ad ivy whit, Spanish pang. (Poy Maly 0) Lentils ‘The lentil (Lens culinaris, Figs. 8.17, 8.18) is the first pulse to be mentioned in the Bible, Acconding to the story in Genesis25, Beau, the firshom win of Rebecca and Isiac, sold his bictaright o his brether Jacob for a meal of red lentils. Carbonized lentils found in Neolithic villages in the Middle East and associated with domesticated wheat and harley have been dated es being between £000 and 9000 years old. Analysis af the fossilized seeds seems to inicate that x period of domestication had occurred much earlier because those seeds are larger, suggesting human selection, than these of wild lentils that sill grow in the sea Aer initial cultivation of the crop in the Middle Est, lentil use spacad around the Mediterranean and by 4200 wc, they began to appear in Europe, Both the common name lentil and tho scienifie generic name Lent refer tothe flattened ovoid shape ofthe seed that is similar to that ofthe human eye lens (Fig. 8.17). Each pod produces one to three seeds, a smaller number than most ‘ther pulses. However, lertils rank fh among the major legumes in protein content (Table §.1) and ore among the most digestible of the ccmmoaly eaten pulses, Over the smuny thousands of years daring which lentils have been cu! tivated, humans have preferentially solected them for their range of colors nd shapes (Fig. 8.18), Today, lentils rank seventh in tecms of pulse production and ate particularly ‘important in India, where black, green, yellow, and red len tils are the most popular forms used for das, Because oftheir relatively high drought resistance, len tils are grown in semiarid regions seattred throughout the work In the United States they are grown primarily in the dry portions of the Pacific Northwest where they serve as a rovational cop with wheat. Broad Beans Today, broad, of faba, beans, Vicia faba (Figs. 8.19, 820), are associated with the Mediterranean region believed to be ‘helreriginal home, but wild form sharing « common ances tor has not been identified. Domesticated broad bean fossils date 1 8800 yp, and eultvation was widespread inthe exst- em Modlteranean region in prehistorie times. Writings ates ‘o the cultivation of broad beans by the Egyptians, Grooks, and Romans. Fiom southern Europe, brow! beans spre 16 ‘Asia and later to the New World. The second govemoe of ‘Colombia brought the beans with him when he artived in South America in 1543 fom Spain, but the broad bean is pr marily a crop of coo! regions. Today, broad beans sre among the least cultivated pulses: Chins is the world's largest pro. ducer, and Canada is the eader in North Ametia, In the United States, prediction has declined to such an extent in recent years that most of the canned and dried Deans offered ‘in supermarkets re imported, “The seed of broad beans are associated with faviem, 2 genetic discase tha leads to hemolytic anemia. The illness ‘whieh recults from the breakdown of red blood cll, is most common among people of Mediterranean origin. Albiousiy ‘exposure to the beans was Tong thought to cause te disease, Legumes 167 FIGURE 8.19 Broad bean in Nowe, (Tysoby ©Oramns nue Lian Alan.) etree mt ASEXI) FIGURE 8.20 Foliage, wers, nd pot of broad! Bean shoot) ongiudina section of po (8).168 CHAPTER EIGHT snow known thatthe favism is de to a sexcnike! disor= der ofa gene on an X chromosome that results in a lack of an enzyme (ghicose-6-phosphate dehycrogenace). Oxidative ‘agents such as faba bean alkaloids ingested by individuals with this disorder aggravate the anemia, Oddly, before the acvent of modern medicine, the disease was often advanta ecus to aflicted individuals because it provided resistance to malaria in much the same way sickle-cell anemia confers ‘malaria resitance to many indigenous Aftican peopl Black-Eyed Peas (Cowpeas) Africa is usually considered w be the original area of domestication of black-eyed peas or cowpeas, Vigna nguiculasa (Fig. 8.21) Wis proboble that these peas along, with sorghum formed a cereal-based agricultural system that developed in eastern Africa by 3000 nc. There is still fan extraordinary ameunt of diversity in these peas sernss Africa, Their cultivation scems to have spread both west- ‘ward in Africa and eastward to Asia about 2000 years ago, Most of the crop, bowever. is still yrown in Altica where the seeds, sprouls, and leaves are eaten. Slaves brought from western Africa introduced black-eyed peas 10 the United States. Today, they are part of the regional cooking of the US South where “hoppin’ Joba, a mixture of rice, back: eyed peas (or cowpess as they ure often calle), and salt pork, is & customary New Year's dish, Tradition says the stew must be eaten before noon on January’ [to ensure good nck during the new year. Lima Beans ‘The lima bean, Phaseolus lunes, has a ratural wild dis- tributional range from Mexico to Peru end is considered to have heen independently domesticated in the central Andes ane! Central America, Archaeological sites conaining fossil- ized beans in layers with material dated to be 5600 years old bhave been found on the northern coast of Peru. In Mexico, the oldest limas found in archacolozical deposits are only S71 years old. The common name ofthe bean, fina, comes from Lina, Per, the city from which the beans were origi rally shipped to Europe. As in the case of peas, ima beans Ihave historically been used in dried form. In many tropical areas, shelled and dried limas are still tae primary product for which the erop is grow lathe United States, dei limas tre used in soups, but most lima beans are consumed as shelled, immature fresh (inching frozen and canned) seeds. ‘Some cultivars of lima beans contain compounds that release cyanide when the beans are chewed or ground. The US Pood and Drag Administration (FDA) set the amount ff these compounds allowable in beans sold for food in the United States. Consequently, tie amounts present in commercial forms are negligible, and cooking destroys the enzymes that liberate the cynide FIGURE 8.21 Blackeyed peas: Shoot a) flower with a petal raved (), shel peas (cand,Tamarind and Carob ‘Tamarind, Tamarindus indica (Fig. $22), belongs to a group of legumes different from the pulses and tas long been used in Aftica where wild plants grow in the tropical dry savannas, and in southern Asia, The tip, long brown pods bome on tall, spreading tees are used primarily for their tr, rather sticky mesoearp, but the seeds can also be rmasted oF boiled and eaten after removal of the set coat Tamarind is widely used in Southeast Asian cooking. with Inia the world’s largest procaoer. [nthe United States and Mexico, tamarind is used primarily as a flavoring in sauces ‘such a steak sate, Camb is another legume that produces pods used primarily for their pulp. The species (Ceraionia siigua) is native to the Meditenancan region. Iis common name, St. John's bread, comes from the fact tha it consituted the “tocust” on which John the Baptist is said to have fed. In ancient times, carob seeds were used as vieights for small ‘quantities of precious substances such as gold because they are extremely uniform in size. Our modern unit the carat, a measure for gokl and jewels, iszreection of tis Former us Legumes 169) ‘Traditionally, carob pods were gathered from wild trees, and the sweet mesacarp was chewed fron the endo ‘carp surrounding the seeds, but seeds have also been used tomuke a coffeelke heveruge. Today, carob teet are prop- ‘gated by seed or grafting, Because the species is primarily dioecious, grafting ensures a large proportion of female tees. Precluction is still highest in the Mediterranean region witere the tiny island of Cyprus isthe world’s lang est producer. The two most important uses of carob in the United States are asa chocolate substitute and as a source of ocust hhean yur, a polymer extracted from the endosperm of the seeds (Chapter 12). Forages Just as legume sees complement grains for human con sumption, legume forages supplement grasses and feed grains for domesticated herbivores. In ation to afford: ing the best mixture of foods for grazing animals, legume z7aks associations are beneficial for other reasons. Researeh has shown thar legumes alone do not build soil as weil as FIGURE 8.22 “Tamarind pods faring from a branch (a, an individual lovcr(b) showing the chavcttistics ofthe Mowers of the cacsalpiniod lepuanes (compize with Fig 8.1, and longtudial section ofa flower (c) showing the simple ova tht deve¥ps lo the lea, {Ate alo)170 (CHAPTER FIGHT mixtures of herbaceous species. One of the best ways 10 improve soil is to plant a legume-grass combination and then allow prudent pasturage, Harvesting fray rom such a field removes much of the potentially availible wiogen, and plowing under vegetation without cutting precludes direct monetary profit. Simply grazing animals on a field allows conversion of part of the vegetable biomass into a cash evop (eneat, permits the roots of the grass and legumes to build up the soil, znd provides adkitonal nitrogen in the foun of animal wea, Where conditions permit, such a sys- tem is superior 0 letting the fields go fallow or using asim ple crop roution system. Growing grasses with legumes also circumvents prob Jems presented by pure felds of forage legumes. Ruminants lo poorly on a dit consisting principally of legumes because the fermentation of large amounts of fresh leguminous mae rial in che rumen causes bloat, Forage legumes also generally go not grow well in pare stands becanse they can be overrun ‘wit weeey grasses and herbs. Growing legumes with desir- ale grasses alleviates the protlem of weed invasion. Ifthe crop isto be cut for hay, growing a suitable mixture of grasses nd legumes permits direct baling of high-quality hay. Several hundred legumes are used for forage on a worldwide basis, but a few predominate, especialy im the United States. Unlike grasses, native legumes are used less for forage in the United States than introduced domesticated species. This makes sense in view ofthe fac tha the com- ton domesticated grazing animals are all from Eurasia. ‘Table 8.3 lists some temperate forage legumes that ars {important in the United States. OF these, alfalfa and the elo vers are by far the most important, We therefore discuss those two in some detail and then mention some of the less important forage legumes grown in the country. Alfa Medicago sativa Bind s-for nefoi Lonascornicitones Gover ‘Trijeon ‘Alsike T hybrid ‘Auowlear T sesicuosurs (Crimson o lian Teincarnetan Persisn T resipoutun ed T pratense Stravborry Tfregiferem Sebtenancan Tsubterrancuns ‘white Tropens Lespeors Lespedesa ‘Korean 1 stipulecon Sericea Lemene State sirius Sweet Clover Meiers While Mala Yellow ML officinalis: Alfalfa (Medicaga sativa), or Iuceme as it is ealled in mos of the Old Worl, is foremost of the forage legumes. Probably the only forage crop cultivated in prehistoric times, alfalfa is now extensively grown on every continent except Antarctica. Some considered it the most widely cultivated Crop in the werd Ia the United State, 36 the thiad most limportantcxop in terws of area under cultivation (23.7 million acres in 2009) exceeded only by com and soybeans. Although cculkivated alfa is tetraploid, primitive diploids occur in Iran and other parts of the Near Bast believed to be the area of original domestication, Is likely that the spread of alfalfa culdvation followed the adoption of horse husbandty.extend- ing to the north, east, and west from the Near East afier 300 a, Successful inroution tothe United States occurred about 1850, although alfa hal been cultivated cartier in ‘Mexico and South America, Am initial stumbling block cculivaing alfalfa in north temperate areas was its lack of ‘winter hardiness. After 1900, breeding effrts overcame this problem, and the acreage devoted to alfalfa in the nother United States and northern Bunasia escalated rapidly. Alfalfa is a perennial grown from seed, It can be used 8 pasture crop or harvested for hay. In warm regions with aan adequate moisture supply, up fo six to nine cuttings ean bbe made each year In dred form, alfsifa makes an excel- fen fod, but pure alfalfa hay is comparatively expensive. Consequently, alfalfa is usually grown with foraze grasses 0 that the baled harvest contains a proper mixture of the tow. Genetically engineered alfalfa resistant to herbicides was approved for commercial sale in 2010. ‘True clovers, species of the genus Trifoliun, are the ‘next most important group of Forage legumes, In the United States, red clover (Frifoliunt pratense) and white clover (F-repens) are the most widely grown species (Fig. 823).a > © FIGURE 8.23, The clover inflorescence often mistaka foralower,” x mae of aichster ofthe lowers shown in (a) and (b), Show ere ate @) an frie flower, (b) ketone Slower, (¢) shoot showing sisters Dt flowers and the compound layes pics of legumes Legumes 1 Both perennials are native to the Old World (Table 8.3) and were indepentently introduced 10 Nosth America by European colonists. Red clover is the most extensively arovn ofall the lovers on a worldwide basis, but white clo: ver is the most important in many temperate regions. Like alfalfa, cloyers are often planted with grasses and used as Pasturage oF cut for hay. The other three major clovers grown in the United Stes are alsike (Z dybridu), arvowleat (E-vesiculosum), and erimson (P:incarnatum) clover. Sweet covers, primarily Meidorus officinalis and M. alba, constitte the ether important clovers. grown in the United States. One reason for their popularity is thir supetior ability to improve soils. Both species produce ong ‘odalated roots that avate the soil well during growth, Once senescence hepins, the roots rapidly decay, releasing pre~ cious nutrients at considerabe soil depths. “The lespedezas (Lespedeca sp.) are ancther major cup of pasture and hay legumes groin in the United States. ll are native to easter Asia and were successfully introduced into this country only after 1919. Despite this rather late sae, their cultivation ose rapidly. Annual lespedezas make excel lent pasture forage, and plants can be harvested for hay atthe cera ofthe summer Finally, bird'sfoot trefoil, Lorus corniculats; is for ‘age legume that is extremaly adaptable to a wide range of Climae anc! soil conditions, very persistent, and especially useful ia the northesstorn United States where heavy soils tre inhospitable to other logue Forages,