BASIC =) INDUSTRIAL £Y) HYGIENE DANIEL G. JARLENSKI WESTERN NEW YORK JUNCIL ON OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH 450 Grider Street Buffalo, New York 14215 Prepared under NYS-DOL Occupational Safety & Health Grant #85100 2sne Il. W. MIE VII. VIL. Tk. AN INTRODUCTION TO_BASIC INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE DANIEL G. JARLENSKI, SR. INTRODUCTION ROUTES OF ENTRY 1. INHALATION 2. INGESTION 3. ABSORPTION PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CONTAMINANTS 1. DUST, FUMES, SMOKE 2. AEROSOLS, MISTS 3. GASES, VAPORS 4. SUMMARY PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CONTAMINANTS: 1. IRRITANTS: 2. ASPHYXIANTS 3. ANESTHETICS & NARCOTICS 4, POISONS 5. SENSITIZERS OTHER CONTAMINANTS 1. SOLVENTS, CLEANERS, & DEGREASERS 2. NOISE 3. HEAT STRESS 4. RADIATION TRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES AND TIME WEIGHTED AVERAGES CONCEPTS MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 1, © RESPIRATORY 2. CLOTHING 3. EYE & FACE PROTECTION 4. OTHER CONTROL OF CONTAMINANTS AND SPILLS FEDERAL HAZARD COMMUNICATION STANDARD AND NEW YORK STATE RIGHT-TO- KNOWBASIC FUNDAMENTALS OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE INTRODUCTION Industrial Hygiene can be defined simply, as the recognition, evaluation and control of the workplace. The ultimate goal is the prevention of injury to the health of the worker. This can be either an acute effect, which can be inmediate or short-term, or a chronic effect, defined as long-term, in many cases, several years. It must be kept in mind that several terms must be understood regarding any effect on our body. The terms “hazard" and "toxic" do not mean the same. Hazard means that there is a risk, or danger, or chance involving a material and/or situation. Toxic actually means poison and we know that a poison can cause harm. Therefore, in order to recognize, evaluate and control our workplace, we must have a clear understanding of some basic facts such as routes of entry into our body, how they effect our body, and in what form, physical, chemical, or biological. It is very desirable that there be zero risk from any contaminant but where this is desirable it is not easily possible. Our bodies are superb mechanisms with a system of defenses that can effectively protect us if exposures ‘are kept to absolute minimums. It is in this mode that an understanding of the concepts of Treshold Limit Values and Time Weighted Averages are necessary. In summary, the intent of the following information will be the practical application of a background of knowledge to protect @ worker's health and well-being. Exposure control can be achieved by: a) realization of the potential hazard(s) b) evaluations of exposures c) removing or reducing the source of the exposure d) protection of exposed workers through various methods such as protective equipment, medical screening, and management of the exposuresie ROUTES OF ENTRY hs we discussed earlier, a hazardous agent must exert its toxic effect on the cells of our body if it is to be harmful. Therefore, in order to do this, it must come into contact with a body cell through sone mode, It is an accepted fact that there are three main routes of entry {nto our body; inhalation, ingestion, and absorption. We must also recognize that there ere also physical stresses that can cause injury in 2 Somewhat different manner than the three normal modes. Extremes of temperature and pressure, mechanical vibration, repeated motion, radiation and noise are the most frequent that occur during work. AL INHALATION The majority of worker health hazards arise through inhaling agents into our lungs. If an agent reaches our lungs, it can be deposited there, ft can be absorbed by the blood stream and be carried to other parts of the body, it can be metabolized by the body to be rendered harmless or it can be cleared by the action of bronchial and tracheal mucous. It is noteworthy to point out that we can inhale through our noses or mouths. In the nasal area we find our first defense mechanism, namely, the cilia (or hair) and the fissures with mucous lining. Larger particles are bounced around these fissures, activate the hair which releases mucous and traps these larger particles. In the case of mouth-breathing, the epighottis, a leaf-shaped structure of cartilage is covered with mucous fenbranes which protects the entrance to the airway. It similarly traps particles diverting them to our digestive tract for metabolization and ultimate excretion. smaller particles may by-pass these areas and enter our trachea (or wind-pipe). The traches is a ringed series of cartilagenous structures lined with ciliated mucous membranes. Here also is a similar action as found Jnour nasal cavities to trap particles. The trachea, about 4-1/2" long divides into two main bronchial tubes, each entering @ lung. Each bronchial tube, after it penetrates the lung divides into thousands of smaller bronchial tubes ending as very small bronchioles. MM the end of these we find a tiny terminal bronchiole ending in clusters of alveoli or air sacs. Each of these air sacs has a network of wood Upittaries covering the surface and, by the process of diffusion, results sPtiear air (02) exchanged for dirty air (C02) for entry to the blood stream. Any deposition and retention of particulate matter in this area will surely build up and upset this biological cycle, cut off the supply of Blood to te air sacs, in essence, killing them, We now have @ fibrotic pondition. In the case of gases and vapors, they act in a chemical manner with resultant destruction or upset. Not 211 particles remain deposited. Some are metabolized (changed) jn the cells and cleared through the lymphatic system. Others are absorbed by macrophages (dust cells) and digested by them.A. INKALATION (Contd. ) Obviously, when you study this spectacular process of respiration, jt explains why the threshold]imit concept can work. However, as obvious is the need to keep exposures to possible inhalation entry to a bare minimum, Any interference with our respiratory system, upsets our circulatory system which jneludes our system of blood vessels in addition to our hearts. Therefore, our entire body may be affected. B. INGESTION This is the process of taking material (hopefully food only) thru the mouth and into the gastrointestinal tract. This includes the mouth, pharyns (throat), esophagus, stomach and the smal] and large intestines. Macct invariably this 13 unintentional or accidental. Also, it usually is particulete material from our hands or airborne particulate that is deposited bn our Tips and swallowed. Use of protective equipment Tike gloves and “dust” respirators, coupled with good personal hygiene can effectively contro) this. hecidental ingestion with possible poisoning can be avoided by proper label ing (with symbols added) and education. C. ABSORPTION The passage of any substance thru any surface of the body is referred to as absorption, This passage of substance thru the skin can be the result of several processes such as diffusion, filtration, and osmosis. In most occupational situations this is a very slow process many times taking years to occur without any noticeable effects. However, when the effect occurs it 42 equally damaging and generally irreversible. Processes emitting metallic faming, acid mists and poor handling methods are particularly responsible. [ead mercury, cyanide fumes and many other substances in an oxidized state fell upon the skin surfaces, or thru normal clothing, and slowly enter thru pores, into body fluids and tissues, and are carried to our blood stream Prom there they can enter many Organs where they cannot be metabolized, Fenining there until damage is done. Our liver, intestines, and kidneys, are extremely vulnerable.Pharyngeal opening astern tention ae and conchae ‘Oral cavity Right and tert 17 } vagus nerves Left and right Parietal pleura phrenic nerves Pleural cavity PRIMARY LOBULE OF LUNG ORGANS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMm TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS Too frequently terms such as dusts, gases, vapors, fumes and mists are used interchangeably. This is incorrect and can be extremely dangerous. For exemple, a “fue” respirator is worthless as a protective device for gases and vapors. A “dust” respirator is likewise dangerous in use in an area of fumes. Precise meanings must be understood if we want. to be effectively trained and educated. Each term has a specific meaning and describes a certain definite state of matter. In general, we can state there are three states of mater - solids, liquids, and gases. However, there are variations of these three states that must be recognized. A. DUSTS, FUMES & SMOKE 1) Dusts These are solid particles generated by handling and destructing materials such as rock, ore, metal, wood, coal or grain. These solid particles vary in size and weight and generally settle under the influence of gravity when airborne. They are measured in microns (M£) and range from .1 to 25 microns. As a reference point, one micron is equal to 1/25,000 inch. Generally, particles above 5 microns in size do not remain airborne long enough to be an inhalation problem. Depending on what author you read, 2 microns or smaller are referred to as respirable, that is small enough to by- ass, the defenses of the nose and trachea, thereby entering our bronchial tubes and Tungs. 2) Fumes These are solid particles, generally very small in sizing and are generated by condensation from the gaseous state or by condensation of a solid that has been volatized, that is, the solid particle had been vaporized by heating. In either case, a chemical reaction occurs when the heated gas or solid reacts with oxygen’ in the air to form an oxide. Examples are lead oxide fumes from smelting, iron oxide fumes from welding, oxy-acetylene cutting on metal or the burning of fuels. The solid particles that make up fumes are almost always less than 1 micron and thereby totally respirable. They can also flocculate (collect) into small masses and due to their chemical make-up, tend to attach themselves to tissue, negating the mucous clearing effect. ‘A fume is a solid, not a gas or vapor, regardless of what you hear, read or see. 3) Smoke The incomplete or poor combustion of organic materials Tike coal, oil and wood, cause carbon or soot particles well under 0.1 micron, In Gadition to emall dry particles, smoke can also be in the form of droplets as the tarry type resulting from tobacco. In either case, due to their small size, they are totally respirable and enter the lungs easily. The inhalation danger of cigarette smoke, due to its tarry nature becones clearly evident when one considers its tarry nature with the ability to adhere.B. AEROSOLS AND MISTS 1. Aerosols These can be either solids or liquids as droplets that are of very fine particle size so to remain dispersed in air for an extended period of time. In many cases, they act as "carrier" for specific chemicals in spray- type containers. 2. Mists hen a finely divided liquid is suspended in the air, it is called a mist. When a compound is changing from its gaseous stage to'the liquid state due to condensation (two or more molecules of the same substance react with each other), a mist is formed. Another type of mist is formed when a liquid is broken up into a dispersed state such as by splashing, foaming or atomizing. Such operations as cutting and grinding operations using oi] can form oi] mist, spraying of paints, and acid mists from electroplating are some examples. C. GASES AND VAPORS 1, Gases Perhaps the most difficult of the three general states of matter to define are gases. Where solids and liquids have definite mass and form, gases do not since they are formless. They occupy space or enclosure and diffuse (spread), luckily, very easily becoming diluted. Gases can be changed to a liquid or solid only by the combined effect increased pressure and decreased temperature. It should bevery evident that gases are extremely dangerous since they are so small (infinitely invisible) they can enter our body easily, metabolize very easily into our blood stream and literally run all about our body. As an example carbon monoxide, a gas formed during the burning of any organic material easily enters our blood stream well ahead of the vital oxygen during the alveolar diffusion in our lungs. It has been measured at a volume of 200 times that of oxygen. Consider the carrying of carbon monoxide containing blood by our carotid arteries to our brain! The result can be a painless but rapid death.D. SUMMARY Before summarizing the states of matter, we should consider some definitions regarding the degree of exposure. This is vital to put the ‘theories of threshold value and time weighted averages in perspective as well as allowing us to understand material safety data sheets much better. a) ppm = parts per million, by volume of air contaminated by gases or vapors. b) mppcf = millions of particles of a particulate per cubic foot of air. This unit designation is often used with general air description. c) mg/M3 = milligrams of a substance per cubic meter of air. A milligram is approximately .028 ounce. This unit is used in the measurenent of solids for human inhalation. 4) micrograms/1 = micrograms of a substance per liter of solution. Finally, the entry and/or deposition of contaminants into our lungs leads us to anticipate that certain conditions may occur. a) There can be little or no reaction of any kind. b) Very active production of mucous secretion with ‘increase in the size of mucous glands. ¢) The recruitment of macrophages with increased ‘ingestion of particles. 4) Inflammatory reactions either chronic or acute. e) Fibrosis - thickening and increase of fibre tissue with subsequent loss of elasticity. f) Change of cell structure with possible malignancy. Over two thousand years ago, Hippocrates extended a suggestion that today we know is a fact. Anything can produce a poisonous effect on our body. Only the dose (amount) and/or length of exposure must be Present. We have since learned that genetic make-up and individual resistance play an important part in disease but, in any case, the dose is the critical factor.We PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CONTAMINANTS In the preceding section, we concerned ourselves with the states of contaminants as they may exist in the workroom atmosphere. We briefly touched on what may or may not occur. Physiology is defined as the science of the functions of cells, tissues and organs of a living organism. With this in mind, we ought to consider how the contaminants can, not necessarily nay, affect the functions of our cells, tissues, and/or organs if they enter our bodies in sufficient dose and time. 1. Inritants Materials of an irritant nature are usually corrosive (wear away) or blistering in their actions. These can attack the upper respiratory tract and/or the lungs. Examples are: a) Upper respiratory tract - aldehydes, alkaline dusts and mists, ammonia, chronic acids, hydrogen chloride (and fluorides) and a1] sulphur oxides. b) Both the upper respiratory tract and the lungs = chlorine and its oxides, cyanogens, methy! sulphates. Ozone sulfur and phosphorous chlorides and TOI. c) Some irritants affect only the terminal bronchioles And air sacs, such as phosgene and the nitrous oxides, and are really more than irritants since their action often times results in asphyxial death. 2. Asphyxiants Any agent that causes anoxia (lack of oxygen) is called an asphyxiant. The most famous of these is carbon monoxide. The actual physiologic effect is very complicated but the basic concern is that the Substance replaces oxygen in the blood stream, upsets the hemoglobin Content and its vital action, of delivering oxygen to our tissues, and ray form other compounds that can be toxic to our body. Some other aphyxiants are hydrogen, nitrogen, ethane, helium, arsine, cyanogen, nitrites and the old rotten-egg smelling hydrogen sulphide. 3. Anesthetics and Narcotics Usually these do not produce serious systemic effects unless the dose is large. They cause a Joss of sensation and feeling with or without loss of consciousness. Some examples are: acetylene, ethylene, all the ethers, alcohols, propane, acetone, ethyls, and some esters.4. Poisons There are substances that do injury to our organs, in many cases, irreversible. These organs include the stomach, intestines, kidneys and the liver, as well as others. Examples are the heavy metals, lead, mercury, cadmium, and beryllium, benzene, phenals, non-metals, such as arsenic, Phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, and the fluorides. The halogenated hydrocarbons (hydrogen and carbon bonded to chlorine, bromine, iodine, or fluorine) cause severe damage to our intestines. The most damaging poisons are those that affect our nervous system. Although there are many under study, the two most researched are carbon disulphide and methy! alcohol. Since our nerves control all body functions it is obvious that any incursion into this system can have profound effects. 5. Sensitizers It is a conmon error to use the words sensitizers and allergens in the same context, Although both produce an allergic-type effect, sensitizers are much more aggravating in that, once the antigen-antibody complex is produced, even the slightest or minimal exposure to the sensitizers will cause a reaction, Allergans must be present in sufficient quantity before an affect is created. Generally, the effect is on the respiratory system and is a very complicated chemical procedure involving proteins and cause an upset in muscle tone. The most common of these are all the isocynates and cyanine dyes.OTHER CONTAMINANTS 1. Solvents, Cleaners, Degreasers Exposure to solvents, degreasers, and cleaners is one of the greatest potential hazards to industrial workers. When you .consider that there are hundreds of different kinds the many kinds of exposures and concentrations and the varied effects on individuals, it is easy to understand why this problem exists. Add to this, the exposures one finds in our homes, since we all use them, we find a whole spectrum of effects. ‘The term "solvents" means any material used to dissolve another material. There are two types of solvents, aqueous and non-aqueous. a) Aqueous As the name implies, these use water as a base but containing acids, alkalis, and detergents. Since aqueous solvents usually have low vapor pressure, therefore, they do not become an inhalation problem with inherent toxicity potential. ‘They can be severe skin irritants, there- fore, use of rubber gloves and other protective equipment can easily prevent any problems. However, they cannot be dismissed as a hazard. b) Non-Aqueous These are organic liquids and are used to dissolve other organic materials. Organic material contains the element carbon. To date over one million organic compounds have been found naturally occurring in nature or manufactured. The most common organic solvents are naphtha, mineral spirits, gasoline, turpentine, benzene, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, trichlorethylene, methyl chloride, and trichloro-ethane. Organic solvents present a problem since most have a relatively high vapor pressure so the possibility of inhalation of toxic quantities is more likely. The effect of these compounds are obviously very numerous due to so many variations, therefore, reading and following labels are an absolute must, always. One effect, however, is that, to some degree, they produce sone effect on our central nervous system, either as depressants or Snesthetics. These effects can range from mild, unnoticed effects to narcosis and death from respiratory arrest. Also, it must be kept in mind that any contact with or wetting of the skin will eause an inflammation called dermatitis. This condition may Fange from simple irritation to severe systemic (and permanent) damage to curskin, They will “defat" our natural protective carrier of fats and oi1s Gnd leave the skin wide open for more irritation and possible infection. ‘The chemical classification of organic solvents and their primary effects are:q) 3) 4) 5) 6) Aliphatic Hydrocarbons a) depressants to our CNS b) generally inert and least reactive c) cause dermatitis Aromatic Hydrocarbons - Example: Benzene a) cause pulmonary & blood vessel injury b) easily observed thru the skin c) can be narcotic, including nausea and dizziness e) cause dermatitis Cyclic Hydrocarbons a) similar to the aromatics b) not as inert as aromatics so they can be metabolized if inhaled ¢) cause dermatitis Halogented Hydrocarbons - Example: Carbon Tetrachloride a) highly toxic to CNS b) attack liver and kidneys c) depressants d) chlorinated are more toxic than the fluorinated Nitro Hydrocarbons 2) primarily irritants b) if bonded with benzene, can be serious CNS and liver contaminants Esters a) irritants to respiratory tract b) potent anesthetics7) Ketones a) can be severe narcotics b) irritant to eyes, nose, and throat c) may impair judgment 8) Aldehydes a) affect CNS b) skin and mucous irritants 9) Alcohols 2) affect CNS b) can impair vision °) inhuttictent quantities can affect liver 10) Ethers a) anesthetics b) mucous membrane irritants 11) Glycols a) inhalation only a problem if heated or sprayed due to low vapor pressure b) severe kidney irritant if ingested so food and cigarettes should be banned in their presence Recently, one sees much advertising literature in reference to “safety solvents". There are no such products! Any solvent, degreaser, or cleaner must be now labeled according to law. The instructions on these labels must, be Followed explicitly with no variations. Only then can they be used relatively safely and without harm. Remember, anything has the potential to inflict injury, ‘only the DOSE and EXPOSURE are needed. Also, it is almost inevitable that the lower the TLV that is assigned to 2 cleaning agent, the poorer its ability to clean. So called “safety solvents" have rather high TLV. (over 300 ppm) and generally have poorer performance.Finally, we must realize that such factors as vapor pressure, ventilation, and manner of usage will determine the hazard potential of Solvents. Other factors such as ignition point, flashpoint, and boiling point, are important as regards the material's fire and explosion potential. Ventifation is all-important in this area of concern. We then end this discussion considering the air pollution potential of solvents. If @ solvent $s collected in the workroom air and vented to the outside, it may merely remove the problem to another area. This must be evaluated carefully when ventilation systems are being planned. 2. Noise In the past few years, tremendous strides have been taken in reducing noise pollution, much of it simple education. What is noise? Simply, it is unwanted sound, sometimes welcone, other times, hated. In Bither casey Tf the dose is large enough and long enough, irreversible Tose can be expected. Almost always, when employees cone into direct contact with noise of a sufficient level, undesired effects will result. Sound (noise) is vibrations of energy conducted thru solids, liquids, and gases (air), created by collisions by objects Tike hammers, gears» drills, ete.” These vibrations have several important physical properties that are factors in the evaluation of effects of noise on our hearing: 2) intensity or pressure b) frequency or pitch c) duration These properties must be examined in order to evaluate the effect of the noise on our hearing. Generally, the louder the noise, the higher is its the sreity sonetines referred to as sound pressure, Also, in evaluating noise, the frequency must be measured since, in most cases, higher frequencies are ieee Geneging. When these levels are determined, you can then attack noise control and/or hearing conservation. Since sound is really pressure, the normal unit of pressure measure ment is in dynes per square centineter (d/en2). The lowest thresnold that our ment ele exrs can respond to is 0.0002 d/cne and can monentarily, respond cera tbo dyen2, Obviously, this range of numbers is totally unworkable in to 2000 w/c sell as in tastrunents. This led to the development of 3 unit of cu cent celled a decibel (dB). This is merely a logarithmic rather than measurenentic scale and compresses the range of our ears response fron 0 0B, the lowest threshold to 180 4B, the highest. We now have a workable range of the romest thonber, however, since they are logarithmic they cannot be addedor subtracted arithmetically. In fact, if the sound pressure is doubled, the increase in decibels is only 3 dB. For example: if one machine's level ‘is measured at 90 dB and another machine is placed next to it, the new level for the two machines would be 93 dB, not 180 dB. Some typical dB levels are: 0 dB = ‘Threshold of hearing 30 dB = —« Soft whisper at 5 ft. 40 4B - Audometric Test Booth 60 dB - Conversation at 3 ft. 75 dB =~ Automobile at 30 ft. 85 dB = =~ Average factory 90 dB = - Subway 110 dB = “Woodworking equipment 120 dB «= - ‘Threshold of pain 140 dB == ~—sdet engine at 50 ft. Frequency, or pitch, is defined as the number of variations in sound pressure over a unit of time. Usually, it is expressed as cycles per sound (CPS) or Hertz. Sounds can have a wide variety of frequencies which contribute to the overall total sound pressure. Therefore, to make noise measurenent accurate and practical, the "A" scale was developed to take into consideration not only the sound pressure but frequency as well. Therefore, noise measurement as it effects the human ear is expressed in dBA. For detailed studies, however, both intensity and frequency should be measured and studied. The effects of noise on humans include the followin 1) Psychological - noise can startle, annoy and disrupt = we can be distracted and suffer injury, it can interfere with vital conversation, it can ‘interrupt much needed rest. 2) Physiological - noise can cause pain and discomfort, reduce our muscular control, create nausea, tension and, finally temporary or permanent loss of hearing. The HUMAN EAR - Reprint from AF Assoc.THE HUMAN EAR EXTERNAL EAR boven an CTR Panay Protec Fic &-2-How the ear hears. Wave motions in the air set up sympathetic ‘Vibrations which are transmitted by the eardrum and the three bones in the Tniddle ear to the Auid-flled chamber of the inner eat. In the process, the relatively large but feeble airinduced vibrations of the eardrum are converted To much'smaller but more powerful mechanical vibrations by the three ossicles, tnd Bally into even stronger Buid vibrations. The wave motion in the fluid is BeaED by the nerves in the cochlea, which transmit neural messages to the brain. Courtesy American Foundrymen’s Society This drawing represents a very simple explanation of a sophisticated and extraordinary function. Remember, all your ears perceive is @ series of vibrations. Only when they arrive in the middle brain as electrical impulses are they transformed to pre-learned letters and words. And all this, in a time span that cannot be measured. A remarkable organ that we normatly take for granted. A mere glance at the funnel-like auditory canal easily convinces us that all sound pressure has unprotected entrance to our hearing mechanism with the ability to cause damage if intense enough over repeated exposure time.HEARING LOSS Any reduction of our ability to hearing constitutes hearing loss, which can be classified into two categories, temporary hearing Joss and permanent hearing loss. 1, Temporary. This is defined a loss in hearing after exposue to loud noise which returns to normal after a period of time away from the noise. This period extends from minutes to hours, and even several days. This again is dependent on dose and time coupled with the individual's level of tolerance. Repeated temporary losses can lead to permanent impairment, as the hearing mechanisms fail to bounce back. 2, Permanent Everyone, to some degree, experiences hearing loss due to the aging process, referred to as Presbycusis. These are predicable levels and should be taken into consideration in evaluating audiometric measurement. However, exposure to loud levels repeatedly causes what is referred to acoustic trauma and is caused by nerve and/or hair cell destruction in our inner ear and is not reversible. These losses are usually partial beginning in the higher frequencies and moving downward. It is almost always binaural, that is in both ears. Total hearing loss or severe loss in one ear is usually associated with disease or traumatic injury. The most critical frequencies range from 500 Hz to 3000 Hz since these represent what are referred to as "speech Frequencies". If these frequencies are normal, we not only hear but understand, something we take for granted. An effective program of audiometric testing can prevent any abnormal loss of hearing. The current OSH Act Standard on noise defines this very well. The standard still accepts an average level of 90 d8A for an 8 hour work shift if there is no shift in an individual's thresholds. If there is a shift, ‘then that individual's level is dropped to 85 dBA time weighted average with hearing protection mandatory if exposed to levels Of 85 GBA to 90 dBA. The following chart is accepted by OSHA for exposure levels and times.Exposure Time Allowable Exposure Hours Levels - dBA 8 90 6 92 4 95 3 97 2 100 1-1/2 102 1 105 W2 v0 V4 or less us NOTE: Impulsive or impact noises should not exceed 140 dBA peak SPL. This chart takes into consideration the TLV - TWA concepts (explained in more detail in Section VI) and is effective as a noise control method. NOISE MEASUREMENT ‘The preceding paragraphs should obviously imply that noise measurenent is vital to a hearing conservation program. Noise measurement should be done only by a qualified person using acceptable instruments and techniques. Casual measurements with non-calibrated instruments are dangerous ‘and misleading and have no place in an effective occupational health program. Performed correctly, they are the best "preventive medicine" in the conservation of a vital and fulfilling function of our body, just as important as our senses of vision, feel, taste, and smell. NOISE CONTROL Whereas this is a much talked about subject, it remains a very difficult objective. Nost industrial situations have noise levels that are ‘intermittent and variable and require accurate, complete and repeated study. There are many materials and methods available to reduce noise levels effectively. In many cases, they are extremely expensive requiring mich maintenance after installation. However, they require professional evaluation ‘and study by qualified individuals with regular follow-up measurement and evaluation, In far too many cases, materials are selected and used incorrectly giving rise to a false sense of security with eventual poor results and hearing Joss. Unlike our exposure to other contaminants on the job, noise exposure does not necessarily end when we leave the job for home. If the noise standard, as it exists in the OSH Act, is followed, there, theoretically, should not be any cases of occupational hearing loss except thru possible injury or disease, which also can be minimized if not controlled.3. HEAT STRESS Stress is defined as a physical, chemical, or emotional factor ‘that causes bodily or mental tension and may be a factor in the causing of a disease or illness. When heat is the causative agent, we must be concerned with the amount of stress or strain that is placed on the body. This heat Stress can occur on the job due to the nature or type of work we're involved in or off-the-job depending what activity we may be involved in. In any case, the release of energy, the rate of our own basal metabolism and our surrounding environment, all join forces in an attempt to topple us. To avoid over-heating, when the environment prevents an adequate heat dissipation, the body temperature rises, causing, first, disconfor, followed by more serious physiological effects. Body heat is transferred to the surroundings by: a) Conduction - Heat flows through body gases to skin b) Convection - Heat from the skin mixes with cooler ambient air c) Evaporation - Vapor on skin caused by escaping heat 4) Radiation A. Conduction - The released heat from activity flows through body gases to the skin pores, then - 8. Convection occurs - Heat from the skin mixes with the normally cooler ambient air, then C. Evaporation occurs - Vapor caused by the exiting heat (or really, perspiration as we know it) is eliminated by the speed of moving air, and finally = D, Radiation = The escaping heat left moves away from the skin in a wave pattern due to molecular energy.Now, if heat is being generated by the body because of activity, physical and’chemical, the rate of heat loss is automatically controlled. At the base of our skull is the temperature regulating center called the Hypothalmus. Incoming nerve impulses from warm receptors in the skin and tissues alarm it and the Hypothalmus activates heat loss through increased blood flow to the skin and sweating. However, if this activity is met by an environment that will offset this attempted heat loss, then we begin to experience, first, discomfort, and then more serious physiological harm. We begin to experience Heat Stress or Heat Strain. The degree depends on several factors: I. Sweat Rate - The rate of secretion, that is, how much liquid is being lost plus the number of active sweat glands determines the rate of sweating. II. Sweat Evaporation Rate - Evaporation of sweat eliminates body heat. The rate of evaporation depends on the amount of moisture in the ambient air (relative humidity, if you will), and the rate of air movement or flow. II, Heart Rate (Circulatory Strain) - The heart responds to elevated body temperature and increases the flow of blood to the outer dermal vessels. This is an added attempt to get rid of heat. The higher the core temperature, the more messages the heart receives from the Hypothalmus to work harder and produce more blood flow. The body now is under Stress or Stra: There are three main heat-induced illnesses that we must now be aware of; namely, and in increasing order of severity, these are: Heat Cramps, Heat Exhaustion, and finally, Heat Stroke, Heat Cramps are caused by the loss of moisture in the body, primarily the misclas- This ts caused by extended exposure to heat and yenerous amounts of heavy exertion, It generally results in the cramping of muscles in abdomen, arms, and legs. Some nausea may occur as well. When these symptoms occur, the treatment called for is renoval to a cool area (like a breek-room or office) generous amounts of replacement fluids like Gatorade or Kwikick and rest. In advanced cases, muscle soreness may persist for several days.Heat Exhaustion is a state of collapse in the cortex of our brain due to an insufficient supply of blood. The failure is not so much that of heat regulation but more the inability to meet the price of regulation. Body water and salts are depleted, the heart rate becomes rapid, the skin becomes damp, cool, and pale in color, our core temperature lowers, we feel very weak and usually experience nausea with possible emesis. At this point, the victim must be removed to a cool area, replacement liquids administered, and then be removed to the dispensary or a hospital for observation. Heat Stroke occurs when the average temperature of the body increases to the point where some functions of the body are endangered. The thermo - regulating system has failed totally resulting in very hot and dry skin, red coloration or flushness, extremely high temperatures (sometimes over 105°F.), mental distress, and even coma. Death can result at this level. First aid begins with the removal of the victim to a cool room with fluid intake begun immediately if the victim is conscious. While waiting for the arrival of the ambulance (since hospitalization is vital), cooling of the victim's body with water or ice packs is advisable. Remember, medical attention is needed. The Human Body is a marvelous entity and extremely adaptable to its environment. A set of physiological adjustments can occur during exposure to a hot environment. This is commonly called acclimatization. Although tolerance to heat varies from person to person depending on age, physical condition, heredity, and several lesser factors, acclimatization will occur. However, regardless of how healthy we are, how well conditioned we are, or how well motivated we are,when we are first exposed to heat, we will develop Heat Stress to some degree. As we continue our exposure to the heat level, our ability to work or play improves and the symptoms of high temperature, pounding heart and other signs of heat intolerance disappear. Like the man says, let's enjoy those hazy days of summer, both on and off the job. Remember, our bodies will adjust if we give them time but also proper rest, correct diet, generous amounts of fluid, selective clothing, and general well conditioning. Keep in mind the basic signs of Heat Stress; elevated temperature, increased heart rate, cramping in our stomach, arms, or legs, some nausea, anda generally deep tired feeling. Here at work, notify your foreman so that we can be aware of a possible problem at the onset. In most cases a short time in a cool area, will alleviate all symptoms and discomfort.4, RADIATION _____ This is @ very complex phenomena to study and is @ subject of study in itself. However, any discussion on Industrial Hygiene should include some very basic information on this subject. There are two basic types of radiation referred to as Ionizing Radiation and Non-Ionizing Radiation. There is a great deal of difference between this with Ionizing radiation having the most potential to cause irreversible harm. a) Jonizing This refers to charged and neutral particles which react with gases, solids or liquids to produce charged ions. There are five major types and are referred, simply, as radioactive rays. These are alpha, beta, Xradiation, ganma and neutrons and are listed in order of severity. As these rays are emitted by a source, they are absorbed by the body without any feeling or sensation. When absorbed by the living tissues causing damage. The exact mechanism is complex and highly technical but basically it upsets the normal system of cell division (mitosis) by disturbing the electron configuration of the atoms making up the cells. If a process or job involves the potential emission of ionizing radiation, it is important that this be evaluated and monitored by a health physicist or other qualified individual. Like all other contaminants, dose and time of exposure are critical to protect health. b) NoncIonizing This involves the electromagnetic spectrum and includes radio, microwave, radar, infra red, and ultra violet rays. These are relatively low energy rays and are a great deal less harmful than the radioactive rays experienced in ionizing radiation. Except for potential damage to our eyes, non- ionizing radiation, normally, does not cause serious injury to our body. The most affected organ is our skin due to the heat produced by these rays. Again, dose and time of exposure are the controlling factors. For example: the sun gives off significant quantities of ultra violet rays. I'm sure we've all experienced a situation at the beach or golf course, where our exposure time to the sun was sufficiently long enough to create a rather large dose with the resultant "sunburn" effect on our skin. Perhaps, the most potent type of non-ionizing radiation we see today is from lasers. The nae "Laser" is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. It is an extremely valuable tool and can be used safely if handled correctly. Anyone working with lasers should be properly and thoroughly trained, Since their discovery in 1955, by Nobel laureate Dr. Charles Townes, their use has had a very good track record as far as ‘occupational health is concerned. For purposes of education, we must remember that non-ionizing radiation is involved with TV, radar, microwave ovens, sun lamps, induction heaters, and illumination (1ight).VI. TLY_AND TWA CONCEPTS As we stated earlier, the toxicity of any material is not synonymous with its health hazard. Toxicity is the capacity of a material to produce injury or harm, while hazard is the possibility that a material will cause injury, This possibility depends onee sufficient. quantity, under. given conditions, with a time frame. So we can say, with great certainty, thet toxicity depends on: 1, Dose 2. Rate or Speed of Dose 3. Method and Site of Entry 4, Temperature 5. General State of One's Health 6. Individual Differences 7. Diet Once we understand the potential of toxicity, we can consider those factors necessary to evaluate a health hazard. 1. How much of the material is required to produce injury to a body cell by contact? 2. What is the probability of the material entering the body to produce injury? 3. How much and how fast the contaminant is airborne? 4. The total time of contact 5. The control measures in use, if any. Once the health evaluation is made, sensible conclusions can be drawn. It is apparent that measurement and analysis of the air must be made by a competent investigator, (Industrial Hygienist) using accepted instrumentation and methods. The data can then be compared with existing acceptable standards. In the 1930's, a group of governmental industrial hygienists decided to form a group, meet annually, and compare notes resulting from their experiences. This gave birth to an organization called the Anerican Conference of Governmental Hygienists (ACGIH). In the 50's, they began publishing a list of Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) which have become standards for human exposure. These Standards are evaluated yearly by this group which consists of scientists representing government, industry, and the academia.To understand, fully, the concept of TL¥s (sometimes referred to as Permissible Exposure Levels or PELs), we'll quote directly from the ACGIH Handbook! "Threshold Limit Values refer to air-borne concentrations of substances and represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly al) workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effect. Because of wide variation in individual susceptability, however, a small percentage of workers may experience discomfort from some substances at concentrations at or below the threshold limit; a smaller percentage may be affected more seriously by agravation of a pre-existing condition or by development of an occupational iliness. Threshold limit values are based upon the best available information fron industrial experience, from experimental human and animal studies, and, when possible, from a combination of the three. The basis on which the values are established may differ from substance to substance; protection against impairment of health may be @ guiding factor for some, whereas reasonable freedom from irritation narosis, nuisance or other forms of stress may form the basis for others. The amount and nature of the information available for establishing a TLV varies from substance to substance; consequently, the precision of the estimated TLV is also subject to variation and the latest documentation should be consulted in order to assess the extent of the data available for a given substance. These limits are intended for use in the practice of industrial hygiene as guide lines or reconmendations in the control of potential health hazards and for no other use, e.g., in the evaluation or control of community air pollution nuisances, in estimating the toxic potential of continuous, uninterrupted exposures or other extended work periods, as proof or disproof of an entire disease or physical condition, or adoption by countries whose working conditions differ from those in the USA or where substance and processes differ. These limits are not fine lines between safe and dangerous concentration and should not be used by anyone untrained in the discipline of industrial hygiene. ‘The TLVs, as issued by the ACGIH, are recommendations and should be used as guidelines for good practices, in spite of the fact that serious injury is not believed likely as a result of exposure to the threshold limit concentrations, the best practice is to maintain concentrations of all atmospheric contaminants as low as is practical”. The ACGIH lists three categories of TLVs. 1, TLV - Time weighted average (TWA) - This is an average which takes into consideration exposures over a normal time period, usually for a normal & hour workday and a 40 hour week, to which nearly all workers may be exposed to, repeatedly, day after day, for many years, without adverse effect.2. TLV - Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) This is a short period of exposure of 15 minutes which should not be exceeded at any time during an 8 hour work period even if the 8 hour TWA is within the TLV Limit. Also, they should not be repeated more than 4 times per day and there should be 60 minutes between these exposures. 3. TLV Ceiling (TLV - C) is a stated concentration that should not be exceeded anytime during a work shift. The Time Weighted Average Concept permits excursions above the TLV provided they are included with equivalent exposures below the limit during the work shift. It is rather difficult to answer how much above the TLV are excursions permitted. This will vary greatly dependent on the contaminant itself, so prudent judgment is required. However, under no circumstance, should the "Ct value be considered, and in considering the definition of the STEL, this ought not to be a level of excursion. Unfortunately neither industrial hygiene data or toxicology can provide a basis for quantifying these limits. As we've stated previously, exposures should always be kept to the absolute minimum whenever possible to avoid problems. We must summarize this section by strongly emphasing that TLVs (PELs) are merely guidelines and no more. They are not Safe/Not Safe numbers in any sense. Again, zero levels are what we'd like to have but extensive industrial hygiene investigations show this is seldom achieved. Therefore, when an exposure is accurately quantified it is meaningless unless it is zero. The TLVs, based upon evidence and experience give us nunbers that we can relate data'to. Also, the 50% level of TLV attitude should be dominant. If any exposure is consistently measured under the TLV (PEL) but over 50% of that allowed, something should be done, either by engineering if possible or use of personal protective equipment.” If levels below 50% are reached, then we can feel comfortable and not be worried about the statistical accuracy of an assigned TLV.