SDMS PN Eng-04b Fire Protection Second Edition (September 2016)

Fire Protection Code
This Practice Note is one of a series of engineering notes issued on behalf of the Mondi Group and
contains the precautions that are required to control fire hazards. It describes asset protection
requirements that either eliminate the identified fire hazard or ensure that it is reduced to an acceptable
level consistent with good international industry practice. The Practice Note primarily refers the National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA), an US organisation charged with creating and maintaining minimum
standards and requirements for fire prevention and suppression activities as well as other life-safety codes
and (building) standards. It supports Operating Standard 19, Process and Equipment Safety and in
particular implements PR 19.10, Fire Safety Management. The health & safety of people working for
Mondi is heavily dependent on good asset integrity, a pre-condition for working together successfully
towards Zero Harm.
Document Title: Fire Protection Code

Document Type: Engineering Practice Note
Version: PN ENG-04B (September 2016)
Replaces: PN ENG-04B (October 2015)
Valid Until: December 2018
www.mondigroup.com
Practice Notes
As the costs of incidents can compromise the Group’s reputation and right to operate, structured and
systematic managing processes and systems, high standards of performance, tracking results of key
indicators and audits will help to achieve and to sustain safety and operational excellence. A number of
key management processes and controls exist that must be applied in a way that hazards (risks) are
identified, understood and controlled so related injuries and incidents are prevented. The Group uses a
common approach to integration of these processes and controls in business decisions that include
Governance, Risk Management, Incident Reporting and Investigation, Plant and Equipment Integrity or
Audits. Nevertheless, leadership, visible management commitment as well as thorough management
systems, a robust organisational structure and operational discipline as well as the skills of inspired
employees/ contractors are needed to identify and control risk.
Practice Notes are meant to assist managers and engineers with providing assurance and improving
performance. They should be read and used in conjunction with the Group’s Policies, Standards and
Requirements (PSRs). The Group’s Sustainable Development management system (SDMS) is
hierarchical where documents and systems must meet and support the requirements of those of higher
levels. Management Standards are not supplemented by Requirements as; in general, operations already
have their management systems and related procedures in place.
The mandatory requirements of Policies, Standards and Requirements are signified by the use of the word
‘shall’. A ‘must’ denotes a Mondi obligation as it outlines a statutory requirement applying to the activities.
The word ‘should’ indicates that the primary intent is to comply with the full requirements as if they were
mandatory. It represents good practice (recognised good international practice, GIIP), which, if adopted,
will usually be what is reasonably practicable under the given circumstances although there may be other
legally acceptable ways of achieving the same objective. However, there will be circumstances where
local conditions may demonstrate that the requirement is either not applicable or an alternative approach
is necessary. In cases where ‘should’ has been used in a requirement, variation can only be considered
as compliance if the most senior Line Manager approves it based on an evaluation of the risk.
2 PN ENG-04: FIRE PROTECTION CODE www.mondigroup.com

Fire Protection Code
Scope Page 4
Responsibilities and Duties Page 6
Chapter 1: Introduction Page 7
Chapter 2: Protection Measures Page 11
Chapter 3: Loss Scenarios Page 18
Chapter 4: Minimum Fire Precautions Page 20
Chapter 5: Fire Hazards and Precautions for Mill Operations Page 24
Chapter 6: Fire Hazards and Precautions for Converting Operations

Handling Flammable Substances Page 44
Chapter 7: Fire Hazards and Precautions for Converting Operations not

Handling Flammable Substances Page 56
Chapter 8: Fire Hazards and Precautions for Electrical Equipment, Spare Parts
Storage and Offices Page 62
Attachment 1: References Page 65
Attachment 2: Procedures Page 67
Document Log Page 68
Document Control Page 69

Scope
Fire hazards present a significant risk in the paper and packaging industry.
The intent of the Fire Protection Code is to eliminate or minimise the risk of fatality, injury or asset loss
arising from fire and explosions in the manufacture of pulp, paper and packaging materials. It applies to
all Mondi Group operations.
It establishes requirements and responsibilities related to the Group’s fire protection programme. It
contains requirements for fire prevention, detection, control and suppression. Compliance with the
requirements expressed in this Fire Protection Code is mandatory for all Group owned/leased and/or
occupied facilities, both new and existing. The individual operations are responsible for implementation
and enforcement. It supports Operating Standard 19, Process and Equipment Safety which requires
“hazards to be eliminated or the consequent risk reduced in accordance with leading industry
practice”. The Fire Protection Code details the engineering requirements for fire management which “as
far as possible, identifies the hazards and ensures that their potential consequences and
likelihood are assessed (…) and as far as possible, appropriate fire safety management systems
(will) reduce the fire risks to an acceptable level” (SDMS PR 19.10, Clause 2.1(b), Fire Safety
Management).
Any decision to waive or vary from the requirements in this Code requires the concurrence of the
responsible Technical Director. The Fire Protection Code is not a substitute for regulatory life safety
requirements. Statutory requirements apply to all Mondi operations and they are responsible for keeping
up-to-date with the current statutory requirements that apply to their operations. Countries may have
their own fire prevention programmes that must comply with. It is our approach that where requirements
are conflicting, the most stringent applies. In general, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Fire Codes apply to the Group’s fire protection programme and exceptions are stated.
Adequate safeguards are to be provided for all operations. This can be accomplished by conducting an
analysis to identify all fire hazards and accomplish the following:
 Significant hazards shall be eliminated or reduced to acceptable risk levels.
 Where the hazard cannot be eliminated or reduced, it shall be relocated to an area less
threatening to people and property.
 Where the hazard cannot be eliminated or removed, it shall be isolated within the operation so as
not to pose a danger to the remainder of the structure or its occupants.
 Where the hazard cannot be eliminated, relocated or isolated, protection shall be provided to
ensure adequate levels of personal and structural safety.
 In the event of a fire occurrence, the occupants of the operation shall be provided with protection
to enable them to leave the area safely, with the structure protected to ensure its continued
integrity.
 Final decisions regarding fire safety shall be made after consultation with a fire safety expert.
Solid fire protection judgment is necessary to assure that adequate levels of fire and personal safety are
achieved. The release of the Fire Protection Code is not preventing the use of systems, methods or
devices of equivalent or superior quality, strength, fire resistance, effectiveness, durability and safety over

those prescribed by this Code. The Group Loss Prevention Manager shall review and formally propose
equivalent measures and approval must be sought by the responsible Technical Director based on an
evaluation of the fire risk. In consequence, equivalent systems, methods, or devices approved as
equivalent shall be recognised as being in compliance with the standards and practices set in this Fire
Protection Code.
The Fire Protection Code contains the Group’s knowledge about the fire protection standards in the
paper and packaging industry. It applies the relevant fire protection developments of the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA), an international non-profit organisation whose missions in the reduction
of the worldwide burden of fire and other hazards on the quality of life. NFPA codes provide globally
recognised standards of protection allowing the Group to achieve a rating of overall good protection.
The Group Technical Director sponsors the Fire Protection Code and the Group Loss Prevention Manager
has to ensure it is kept up-to-date and relevant. In order to be effective, the Group Loss Prevention
Manager is required to network with appointed BU experts on good international practice, technology,
audit results, benchmarking, risk reduction and avoidance of failures experienced elsewhere.
Although paper reels and board are combustible materials and may not be easily ignited, once they
caught fire the flames will spread rapidly. On the other side loose paper, plastic films or flammable liquids
can ignite easily. These types of fires are often very difficult to extinguish once they have started. In the
paper and packaging industry ignition sources can be found throughout the operations.
The development of an incipient fire and its spread throughout the operation depends on several factors
such as stored materials, plant layout and building materials, housekeeping and the training of
employees/contractors. Adequate maintenance of means of escape, alarm systems and the training for
first responses will reduce the risk to people in a major fire event. Regularly performed fire safety audits
shall ensure that the:
 Risk of fire starting is reduced to an absolute minimum.
 Risk of an incipient fire developing into a major fire and spreading through the plan is minimised.
 Every person working for Mondi is able to leave the plant on its own and reach a ‘safe habour.’
In the last decades there has been considerable progress in the area of fire protection. Not only does fire
protection was regulated on the basis of strict laws and norms but it also has improved by the use of risk-
oriented engineering methods. By risk-oriented fire protection concepts, advantages can be achieved in
the efficiency of industrial building’ fire protection. However, fire protection has to be seen in the context of
the overall asset integrity to ensure efficiency of the fire protection measures in the case of fire.
This Code is aimed at managers and engineers who are responsible for the fire safety at their operations
and should provide them with the Group’s protection practices taking note of the recommendations made
by Global Risk Consultants (GRC), our joint loss prevention auditor.
Fire protection measures have been divided into three categories (organisational, structural and technical)
in order to get an overview how much costs are involved and what kind of impact they have on the risk.

Responsibilities and Duties
Responsible Executives need to organise for fire safety. They shall ensure that systems are in place for
establishing fire precautions that are required in any workplace in connection with the work process that
is being carried out there (including the storage of articles, substances and materials relating to that work
process). They are to prevent or reduce the likelihood of a fire breaking out and if a fire does occur, to
reduce its spread and intensity. Buildings must have the standards of fire protection required by national
standards which deal with building controls in new and altered premises. Typically, they define the types
of buildings and building work which are subject to controls and specify the requirements for building
design and construction in relation to fire safety including means of warning, escape routes, internal
and/or external fire spread.
Mitigation measures shall be applied which are consistent with the fire risk assessment and appropriate
to the nature of the activity or operation. These can include preventing fires and explosions from
spreading to other plant and equipment or to other parts of the workplace, reducing the numbers of
employees exposed to a minimum or, in the case of process plant, providing plant and equipment that
can safely contain or suppress an explosion or vent it to a safe place. Measures taken to achieve the
elimination or the reduction of risk should take into account the design, construction and maintenance of
the workplace and work processes, including all relevant plant, equipment, control and protection
systems.
Where the assessment and, in particular, past experience indicates the types of fires which can be
anticipated, specific plans to tackle these shall be made. The emergency plan shall specify the particular
fire safety responsibilities of the most Senior Line Manager present having overall control of the
workplace and specify the responsibilities of other nominated people. In the event of a fire, everybody in
the workplace should be familiar with the fire routine and fire safety arrangements to take the correct
actions and evacuate the workplace safely. The arrangements could include the following:
 Take each part of the process or plant in turn, assume it is out of commission and assess the
potential for damage to business should a fire occur.
 Consider whether the process can be done elsewhere.
 Find out if alternative machinery can be used or obtained.
Fire is only one type of emergency that happens at work. Large and small workplaces alike experience
fires, explosions, medical emergencies, chemical spills, toxic releases and a variety of other incidents.
To protect people working for Mondi from fire and other emergencies and to prevent property loss,
whether large or small, operations must use emergency preparedness plans. The two essential
components are the following:
 An emergency plan, which details what to do when a fire occurs.
 A fire prevention plan, which describes what to do to prevent a fire from occurring.
Fire audits must identify all the hazards and risks together with existing control measures including
information provision and training. The audit may be done either on a process-by-process basis or on an
area-by-area. There should be definite conclusions about the level of hazard and risk and decisions
about the adequacy of protection and the need for improvement. The responsibilities for fire protection
are documented PR 19.10, Fire Safety Management, Clause 2.1(c), Responsible Person.

Chapter 1
Introduction
The term ‘Fire Protection’ includes all precautionary measures which are responsible for the prevention
of fires and for minimising the fire damage. Furthermore, protection serves different interests such as:
 Life and health of humans and animals.
 Protection of certain material assets.
 Environment protection.
 Protection of goods and means of production.
The term ‘Fire Prevention’ is used to refer to the sum of all measures for preventing fires or their spread
with the goal to minimise the fire damages. Included are the technical and organisational fire protection
measures. Fire protection and its measures can be divided as follows:
 Constructional fire protection measures.
 Plant engineering fire protection measures.
 Protective fire protection measures.
 Operational fire protection measures.
The technical fire protection includes constructional and plant engineering fire protection measures,
whereas organisational fire protection consists of protective and operational fire protection measures.
1.1 Fire Definitions and Principles

1.1.1 Combustion
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction usually involving oxidation of a fuel by atmospheric
oxygen. Glowing combustion involves direct oxidation of a solid or liquid fuel, such as charcoal or
magnesium. Flaming combustion involves a gas phase or volatile matter driven off by heat.
1.1.2 Ignition Temperature

Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature to which a substance must be heated to initiate
self-sustained combustion in whatever atmosphere is present. To start the chemical reaction
between fuel molecules and oxygen molecules, sufficient energy must be imparted into the mix. If
the fuel is a solid or liquid, some of it usually is turned into a gas (unless the oxidiser is also a solid
or liquid) so that there is intimate mixing of molecules. The ignition temperature can vary, depending
on the fuel or oxygen concentration, the rate of air flow, rate of heating, the size and shape of the
solid or space involved the temperature of the ignition source and possible catalytic or inhibiting
effect of other materials present. For less volatile solids, such as wood, or paper, the ignition
temperature is greatly dependent on the time necessary to volatilise the fuel to form an ignitable mix
at the surface. Artificial heating can also initiate self-heating, which may bring the fuel up to its
ignition temperature.
1.1.3 Self-Ignition
The normally accepted minimum self-ignition temperature of wood, paper, cotton, wool and
combustible fibreboards is 200°C to 260°C. Ignition can occur at lower temperatures if the material
is contaminated with oils or if charcoal is formed followed by ensuing self-heating.

1.1.4 Protective Goals
The individual protection goals are to be determined for each building but the legal provisions as
well as the directives of the authorities have to be taken into account when determining the
protection goals. With the appropriate fire protection measures the implementation of these
protection goals can be ensured. Before the protection goals are determined, an analysis of the use
of the building and the fire risk has to be performed. On the basis of this building analysis, the
geometrical and physical framework is determined for the people, systems, material goods and the
buildings that have to be protected. Depending on the type and the use of the building, e.g. an
industrial building as compared to a high-rise building, the protection goals can differ significantly.
1.2 Fire Causes

For fires to start and spread there needs to be fuel, oxygen and a source of ignition. In paper mills,
there is always paper and paper dust. Both of these are readily ignitable fuels. There may also be
other flammable solids, flammable liquids and gases. Oxygen is always available from the air.
Sources of ignition cannot be completely eliminated.
1.2.1 Fire Sources

Fire sources are likely to include:
1.2.1.1 Frictional heating (example: hot bearings).Sparks (example: hand tools).
1.2.1.2 Static discharges.
1.2.1.3 Naked flames (e.g. on welding equipment or gas-fired plant).
1.2.1.2 Electrical sources (e.g. overloaded conductors).
1.2.1.3 Hot surfaces (e.g. steam pipes or infra-red dryers).
1.2.1.4 Cigarettes and/or matches.
1.2.2 Fire Causes

Both the fuel and ignition sources must be controlled to minimise the risk of fire. Problems may
arise from the following situations:
1.2.2.1 Poorly maintained equipment.
1.2.2.2 Welding and/or cutting of plant.
1.2.2.3 Faulty or misused electrical equipment.
1.2.2.4 Poor storage of packaging materials.
1.2.2.5 Poor storage or handling of flammable liquids and/or gases.
1.2.2.6 Inadequate site security.
1.2.2.7 Smoking and smoking materials.
1.2.3 Fire Spread

Once started, fires can spread rapidly. The following will contribute to rapid fire spread:
1.2.3.1 Poorly maintained equipment.
1.2.3.2 Welding and/or cutting.
1.2.3.3 Poor housekeeping and accumulation of waste material.
1.2.3.4 Un-segregated storage of materials increasing fire hazard.
1.2.3.5 Excessive stocks of paper in production areas.
1.2.3.6 Unbanded, end-stacked reels of paper;

1.2.3.7 Lack of fire separation between floors or rooms.
1.2.3.8 Fire doors wedged or propped open.
1.2.3.9 Combustibility and fire spread characteristics of wall and ceiling linings.
1.2.3.10 Poorly maintained fire-fighting equipment.
1.2.3.11 Inadequate/inappropriate fire detection and extinguishing equipment.
1.2.3.12 Inadequate provision of fire venting.
Employee actions are critical to the spread of fire. If the wrong extinguishers are used or people
working for Mondi fail to follow appropriate instructions then the situation will be considerably worse
than it needs to be. Where there is a fire team, there must be clear instructions as to when the local
authority fire brigade is called in.
1.3 Fire Risks

The emergence of a fire always has to be assumed when there are flammable materials as well as
ignition sources in the plant or industrial building. The term fire risk means the probability of damage
to life or health and/or for material goods as a result of a fire. The employed fire protection
measures should be carefully observed and analysed when calculating the fire risk. In every fire
protection measure a probability of a fire occurrence stays behind. The existing fire risk therefore is
set up by the sum of all remaining probabilities of fire occurrence. By a higher effort in fire protection
measures the fire risk is reduced as well as the damage costs and vice versa. Nevertheless, a fire
risk exists and it can never be completely excluded. A risk-adequate improvement of the fire
protection measures shall therefore always be aspired, so that the effort for the fire protection as
well as the expected damage costs yield a financial optimum. Most of the damages are caused by
either wrong fire section formation, deficient extinguishing systems or by neglecting safety
procedures including excessive storage of combustible material leading an increased fire load. The
following formula is used to describe the existing fire risk:
R = Es  K  Rborder
R Existing Risk
Rborder Borderline Risk
Es Frequency of Occurrence of a Fire
K Probable Extent of Damage
The existing fire risk R is determined by various factors such as e.g. the construction classification,
construction method, use as well as the number of people. The risk of a fire emergence can never
be completely excluded and therefore the existing fire risk is always larger than zero. The sum of
the expectable damages to people and material goods constitutes the probable extent of damage K.
The exact calculation of the existing risk is impossible, because the damage to humans is very
difficult to quantify. The borderline risk Rborder depends on the use of the building and constitutes
the level of the accepted risk. It has to be taken into account that this borderline risk is determined
by the defined protection goals. On the basis of the probability of the emergence of fires as well as
their spread to a blazing fire, the frequency of occurrence E s can be calculated. The probability of
the emergence of a fire in industrial buildings is about 2 on a floor area of one million m 2 within one

year. The fire-fighting measures in place are crucial for the probability of the development of a fire to
a blazing fire. In buildings where large numbers of people gather, the fire protection measures must
be enforced. This should have the effect that the risk per person is brought on the normal standard
and kept constant.
1.3.1 Fire Risk Probabilities

By the use of different fire protection measures with this probability, following values can be
expected:
1.3.1.1 Plant supported by public fire department: 0,1
1.3.1.2 Plant equipped with sprinkler systems: 0,01
1.3.1.3 Plant fire department in connection with a fire detection system:  0,01 to 0,001
1.3.1.4 Plant fire department and plant equipped with sprinkler systems:  0,0001
Risks can be divided into major and minor risks. Major risks are, for instance, blazing fires of the
entire plant, while a blazing fire in one fire section is considered as a minor risk. The according fire
protection measures reduce major risks to a minor risk level. With regard to the risk focus, the
individual protection goals must be determined. Every building has its own risk depending on its
purpose. By the use of preventive fire protection measures as defined by good international industry
practice acceptable risk can be achieved and held. The constructional and organisational regulatory
fire protection measures must be complied with because they exhibit the local/national
understanding of the highest efficiency in people protection. In case of a fire where major damage
costs are likely, additional plant engineering fire protection measures have to be designed and
implemented. Various fire protection measures are used in to keep the fire risk as low as
reasonably practical. Reducing the fire risk to the lowest level possible by exaggerated fire
protection measures is not economic because the costs for the effort can be much higher than the
costs that can result from fire damage. In order to prevent financial imbalance between the effort
and the damage costs that can be expected, fire protection measures have to be optimised. The
exact determination of the optimal fire protection is questionable as the loss of human life would
have to be quantified. The graphic depicts the financial imbalance that can occur between the effort
and the damage costs that can be expected.

Chapter 2
Protection Measures
A fire brigade is the most obvious element of fire protection. However, this represents the last line of
defence in the event of a fire, since the fire brigade is not usually called out unless the fire is out of control.
Such intervention often comes too late to prevent serious fire damage.
For this reason, an effective fire protection concept includes protection objectives, defining the degree of
safety for people and protection of property. Apart from the fire risk, such concept must take into account
possible consequential losses such as business interruption as well as environmental protection. The
protection objectives specify which risks must be reduced and the residual risks which are consciously
accepted and properly controlled. Often, there is a certain amount of leeway allowed within a local/national
law which is where a risk policy manifests itself. The protection objectives form the basis of the fire
protection concept alongside available resources in terms of people working for Mondi, public emergency
services and finance as well as official requirements. The objectives always shall describe what is to be
achieved but not specify how this is to be done. The latter is reserved for the fire protection action plan.
Fire Risks
Policy, Standards and

Requirements (PSRs)
Protection Objectives Regulations
Available Resources
Action Plan
Protection Measures with Organisational, Structural and Technical Actions
Structural, technical and organisational fire protection measures must be dovetailed in such a way as to
ensure that the pre-arranged protection objectives are achived as efficiently as possible, taking into
account the specific risk situation of each individual plant circumstance.
2.1 Structural Fire Protection

The quality of structural fire protection measures is mainly determined by (1) the fire resistance of
structural elements; (2) the construction stability of the building in the event of fire; (3) the
structure`s potential for limiting the fire; (4) the segregation of ignition sources and combustible

material; (5) escape routes and intervention paths in the event of an occurrence and (6) suitable
lightning protection. The following graph provides an overview of structural fire protection.
Fire Resistance of Emergency Access Routes Escape Routes

Structural Elements
Stability of Building Static’s Structural Fire Protection Safety Gap between

Buildings
Building Structure and Fire Separation of Ignition Lightning Protection

Areas Sources
2.1.1 Fire Resistance

The fire resistance of individual structural elements such as walls, beams, ceilings and pillars is
dependent on their dimensions and the materials used (fire resistance rating). The best
characteristics in this regard are displayed by masonry and concrete. Critical materials are
unprotected steel, which loses around half of its cold tensile strength at around 600 °C and wood,
which is flammable. Materials used for insulation, cladding and interiors are significant in limiting or
accelerating the spread of a fire. Fire barriers such as doors, dampers, glazing or compartments,
when used on the boundaries of fire zones, must also demonstrate a defined level of fire or smoke
resistance. The corresponding values are determined by accredited testing institutes with special
ovens in accordance with standard fire curves. Test certificates are issued and the values are
classified by means of 30-minute intervals (30/60/90/120/180/240 minutes).
2.1.2 Construction Stability in Event of Fire

The stability of an entire construction in the event of a fire is dependent not only on the fire resistance
of the individual structural elements but also on the static system used, the thermal expansion of
individual structural elements and the fire scenario assumed. Thus, for example, fire protection
dividing walls made of masonry should neither be in contact with the supporting structure nor serve
as a support for the latter.
2.1.3 Fire Areas

The most important quality indicator of structural fire protection is the passive ability of the building
structure to restrict a fire to an area of acceptable size. This is achieved by dividing the building into
fire-resistant horizontal and vertical fire areas.
2.1.4 Safe Distances

Between the individual buildings on a built-up site, minimum protective spaces are required in order
to prevent the spread of fire. These are dependent primarily on the type of construction and the
height of the facades. They hinder the spread of fire through sparks or infrared radiation and enable

the emergency services to access the buildings in order to fight the fire. A rough minimum value is
around 15 meters to 20 meters.
2.1.5 Separation of Ignition Sources from Combustible Material

Suitable construction methods and minimum distance requirements must be employed to ensure that
ignition sources such as heating elements, light fittings, machines and electrical installations do not
set fire to any flammable building components, storage materials, etc.
2.1.6 Lightning Protection

To ensure that a lightning strike cannot be an ignition source for a fire, it is essential to have a
lightning protection system in place which is constructed in accordance with statutory building
standards and is regularly checked and maintained. From the perspective of fire and people
protection, external fire protection is important. This generally consists of a grid system of copper or
aluminium wires on the exterior skin of the building, designed to direct any lightning down into the
earth without causing damage. Equipotential bonding is created by connecting all metal parts on the
facade and roof areas of the building (guttering, skylight frames, ventilation ducts or antennas) to the
lightning protection system, thus preventing the danger of lightning flashing across to unearthed
sections of the building. Internal lightning protection is much more complicated and mainly comprises
surge protection for electrical equipment and installations within the building.
2.2 Technical Fire Protection

The quality of technical fire protection measures is determined by normal and special measures.
Normal is the basic fire protection equipment such as handheld fire extinguishers, hydrants, wall-
mounted hose cabinets or adequate supply of fire water. Special Measures are extinguishing
systems, fire detection systems, monitoring systems, alarm signal transmission methods, building
instrumentation and control and fire management mechanisms.
2.2.1 Normal Measures

2.2.1.1 Handheld fire extinguishers must be available in sufficient quantities and the fire-fighting
agent must suit the type of fire risk local to each extinguisher. For provisional purposes, a
guide estimates 300 m² per extinguisher for medium-sized and 200 m² per extinguisher for
larger fire risks. The maximum distance between the extinguishers’ locations should not
exceed 20 meters to 30 meters. Regular fire extinguisher maintenance is important. Many
handheld fire extinguishers contain dry powder (such as a type of bicarbonate) or
compressed gas such as carbon dioxide.
2.2.1.2 For larger industrial buildings, hydrants shall be installed at a maximum distance of 60
meters to 80 meters apart and at an absolute minimum distance of about gable height from
the building facade. Above-ground hydrants are preferable to those underground concealed
by manhole covers as the latter can be covered over by cars or snowfall.
2.2.1.3 Hose cabinets are generally equipped with a maximum 40-metre length of small-diameter
hose and a small nozzle. They are designed such that they are easy for non-experts to use.
These installations must be placed so that every part of the property can be accessed with
water to extinguish a fire.

2.2.1.4 An essential component of the normal measures is a good supply of water with which to fight
fires. The main characteristics for the quality of the fire-fighting water supply are:
2.2.1.4.1 Available water volume in the event of a fire (m³).
2.2.1.4.2 Available water volume per unit of time (m³/s).
2.2.1.4.3 Available hydrostatic and flow pressure of the firefighting water system (bar).
2.2.1.4.4 Reliability of the supply system.
For industrial risks with an average fire load, the minimum volume is about 300 m³ of fire-fighting
water per hour and time to extinguish the fire is calculated at around three hours. Hydrostatic
pressure should be between 5 bar and 10 bar and flow pressure should not drop below 3.5 bar. For
the water supply to hydrants at industrial facilities, the minimum pipe diameter across the various
different standards is generally set at around 15 cm. In areas where the topography is flat, water
towers (gravity tanks) or a redundant pump system must be used to create sufficient pressure.
2.2.2 Special Measures

2.2.2.1 Sprinklers are automatic extinguishing systems that react independently to a fire and can
keep it under control. They consist of a system of sprinkler heads which are generally
arranged in a fixed pattern on the ceiling of the area to be protected. They are under
constant water pressure thanks to a permanently installed network of pipes. In the event of a
fire, i.e. when a specific temperature is reached, the glass bulb or fusible link allows the
sprinkler heads to open automatically and spray out water to fight the fire. The alarm valve in
the central sprinkler control system identifies the flow of water in the pipe work system and
triggers the alarm. Sprinkler systems are often found used as compensation for inadequate
structural and sometimes organisational fire protection.
2.2.2.2 Permanently installed gas extinguishing systems of this type consist of an extinguishing gas,
mainly stored in pressurised cylinders and a network of pipes connected to the cylinders with
extinguisher heads (see left image on next page below). The gas may be triggered manually
or automatically, such as by means of a fire alarm system. It is distinguished between room
and object protection systems. Room protection systems which can flood an entire room and
all its equipment, such as the hardware room at a data center. Object protection systems
where the application of the extinguishing gas is targeted at or in a device or installation,
such as a printing machine consuming solvent-based inks, related storage, a switching
cabinet or cable route.

Various different extinguishing gases are used, some with different properties such as
carbon dioxide, argon, Inergen and FM 200. Flooding a room with CO2 requires additional
safety measures as otherwise people may be exposed to the risk of asphyxiation.
2.2.2.3 In areas which are at risk of explosion, such as silos or mixing drums, inertisation systems
replace atmospheric oxygen with an inert gas such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. and thus
prevent the risk of explosion.
2.2.2.3.1 Spark detection and extinguishing systems are based on IR or UV sensors. Sparks
and smouldering fires are identified immediately due to their radiation and may be
extinguished. The system also includes water nozzles, extinguisher barriers and
shutoff valves. These prevent the ignition source from being transported further
around the facility. These types of equipment are often used in conveying systems
such as those used for moving chips in the wood-processing industry.
2.2.2.3.2 Fire detection systems are designed to automatically discover a fire at an early
stage and notify the emergency services at a time when the damage level is still
low and it is possible to extinguish the fire with little effort and few consequential
losses. A series of sensors (see right image above), distributed around the
property to be monitored, notify a manned gatehouse of any incipient stage fire via
the central fire alarm system or use appropriate alarm transmission methods to
notify the emergency services or company fire brigade. Generally, in addition to the
automatic fire alarms, alarm push buttons are situated in appropriate places around
the building, allowing staff to activate the alarm manually.
2.2.2.3.3 Air sampling fire detection systems are an important special form of fire alarm
system is designed specifically to detect smouldering fires in their earliest stages. A
system of ducts is used to extract air on a continual basis. As an example, a
detector examines air for traces of smoke which is extracted from electronic
installation switching cabinets. These systems are also known under the product
name VESDA (Very Early Smoke Detection Apparatus). All that is needed is a tiny
hole in the ceiling for the extraction duct.
2.2.2.3.4 Gas detection system automatically monitor for undesirable gases which are
mainly flammable or toxic. The structure of the system is very similar to that of a
fire alarm system and combination systems are often found whereby the gas and
fire alarms are connected to the same central control system in separate alarm
groups. This type of monitoring may be found in cold air compressors (to detect
ammonia), battery rooms (to detect hydrogen) or natural gas-fired central heating
plants or power stations (to detect hydrocarbons).
2.2.2.4 Alarm signal transmission is used to alert an external fire brigade by telephone or by means
of an automatic transmission device.
2.2.2.5 Fire management mechanisms are technical systems that control the technical systems
within a building such that the damage after the outbreak of a fire is minimised and both the
evacuation of the building and the intervention of the emergency services is supported. In a
modern building with a high degree of automation, fire management mechanisms are
generally a part of the building management system.
2.2.2.6 Access control and protection against intruders (e.g. an intrusion detection system) can
significantly reduce the risk of arson by a perpetrator.

2.3 Organisational Fire Protection
The quality of organisational fire protection measures is determined by risk-appropriate personnel,
design and administrative measures such as suitable prevention, effective and timely intervention
upon occurrence of an event, appropriate emergency planning and reliable management and
operation of all safety systems.
2.3.1 Personnel
2.3.1.1 Personnel involved in organisational fire protection should be grouped together under the
heading of Safety and Security. The structure and importance of the safety and security
organisation are reliable indicators of safety awareness.
2.3.1.2 The Fire Safety Expert is the central fire person within the safety and security organisation.
The individual’s commitment, expertise and personality have a fundamental effect on the
effectiveness of the organisation and also influence the culture of fire safety within the
operation. The expert is responsible for the implementation of the fire safety concept at an
organisational level and must also constantly review and adjust this concept to take account
of changes in internal and external conditions.
2.3.1.3 The external emergency services generally include the public fire brigade, police and
paramedic services. Their manpower, intervention times and approach routes may vary from
place to place. As they are a sustained influence on the intervention concept, it is
recommended that regular contact be maintained and joint exercises and site visits carried
out. The manpower of public fire brigades can vary widely. The lowest level of manpower is
that provided by voluntary local fire brigade. They are normally called to action by telephone
or pager and must first go to the local fire station to pick up their equipment and join their
team-members. The number of fire fighters available at any one time may also fluctuate
considerably (during holiday periods or at weekends). At the other end of the scale are
professional fire brigades which are equipped and trained both for fighting major fires and for
dealing with events involving hazardous goods or radioactive materials.
2.3.1.4 As with the public fire service, the internal emergency services (firefighting manpower in
internal fire brigade) can vary widely, from a team of employees trained to use hand-held fire
extinguishers up to a permanent in- house fire brigade, available around the clock, such as
in large chemical facilities. It is essential that the combination of public and company fire-
fighters is appropriate for the risk situation of the respective site.
2.3.1.5 Site security personnel may be allocated the following tasks in the event of an alarm:
2.3.5.1 Identifying the cause of the alarm if a smoke detector goes off.
2.3.5.2 Transmitting the fire alarm to internal and external emergency services, if required.
2.3.5.3 Acting as guide for the external emergency services.
2.3.5.4 Blocking off the location of the fire during fire-fighting and clean-up operations.
2.3.1.6 Depending on the size of the operation, an on-call roster this may consist of members of the
crisis management team and employees from the maintenance department or other
departments. These persons are called in as necessary, depending on the type of event.
Their responsibilities range from fixing technical malfunctions through to catastrophe
management by the crisis management team upon occurrence of a large loss event.
2.3.1.7 In addition to the security officer, the crisis management team generally consists of senior
and/or executive management and in-house specialists in emergency organisation and
possesses the necessary authority to make decisions in critical situations. It is important for

this team to carry out regular exercises.
2.3.1.8 Paramedics and evacuation personnel are generally only concerned with rescuing lives and
from a fire protection perspective they only perform a supporting role.
2.3.2 Preventative Measures

Preventative measures are a mainstay of organisational fire protection. The principle of prevention is
better than cure applies. The objective of these measures is a sharp reduction in the probability of
occurrence for certain causes of fire. Some examples are listed and explained further below.
2.3.2.1 The Hot Work Permit comprises the procedure for necessary approvals and monitoring in
relation to performing such tasks, generally described as a Hot Work Permit in risk reports.
This approval must cover all repair, maintenance and construction work such as cutting,
sanding or soldering associated with high temperatures, naked flames or flying sparks.
These jobs which are often inadequately safeguarded and are carried out by contractors are
some of the most frequent causes of fire. PR 19.3, Control of and Permit to Work applies.
2.3.2.2 The cleanliness and tidiness of an operation is relevant for safety purposes and is one of the
most important assessment criteria for the subjective portion of a risk. This aspect is
described as housekeeping and includes functioning concept for cleaning and waste
disposal, regular clear-outs, the switching off electrical equipment which is not in operation
and regular removal of unnecessary ignition sources and fire loads. PR 18.18,
Housekeeping applies.
2.3.2.3 Flammable chemicals and liquids must be stored in appropriate containers and storage
areas. In storage areas the permitted stacking patterns must be established and stacking
heights restricted. The transport and handling of such substances must be in accordance
with approved rules. Storage of combustible materials at the front of the building increases
the risk of arson. PR 12.2, Hazardous Materials Handling and Storage applies.
2.3.2.4 If the specific risks require a smoking ban, it must be clearly signposted and, more
importantly, implemented. In individual operations where a smoking ban is in place
throughout, it is a good idea to create separate, signposted smoking areas to reduce the risk
of personnel smoking secretly at their workplaces.
2.3.2.5 Regular maintenance and testing of electrical, mechanical and building technology
equipment are an important preventative fire protection measure and scopes electrical
installations including infrared thermography of switch boxes and electrical cabinets to detect
loose connections, ‘cold’ junctions and faulty, overheated elements. Operational facilities or
machines shall be included that represent a fire or explosion risk in the event of a fault. Also,
safety equipment such as extinguishing systems, fire water pumps, emergency power units,
fire doors or dampers. PR 19.7, Plant and Equipment Integrity applies.
2.3.2.6 In-House Inspections checklists and computer programs that prescribe the type and
frequency of preventative checks, controls and maintenance work to be carried out.
2.3.3 Emergency Planning

Emergency Planning includes all measures taken to limit damage upon occurrence of a loss event
from the personnel, design and administrative perspectives. It relates to short-term immediate
measures taken to limit damage, such as fire-fighting, evacuation and rescue. Contingency planning
also includes long-term precautions to minimise production stoppages and thus also any potential
loss as a result of business interruption.

Chapter 3
Loss Scenarios
Loss scenarios are based on individual risks. Insurers and reinsurers are limiting their commitment to an
individual risk of an estimated or calculated maximum loss. Familiar expressions for this calculation include
Maximum Possible Loss (MPL), Probable Maximum Loss (PML) and Estimated Maximum Loss (EML),
which are a percentage of the total sum insured or an absolute figure.
3.1 Maximum Possible Loss (MPL)

The Maximum Possible Loss (MPL) may occur when the most unfavourable circumstances being
more or less exceptionally combined, the fire can only be stopped by impassable obstacles or lack of
substance. The MPL equals the sum insured. Following conditions contribute to an MPL reduction:
3.1.1 Cleanliness and tidiness of an operation is relevant for safety purposes and is one of the
most important assessment criteria for the subjective portion of a risk.
3.1.2 Physical separation of blocks includes compliance with minimum distance requirements.
3.1.3 Structural separation of blocks includes the creation of fire zones using fire walls, or
compartments.
3.1.4 Absence of fire load.
3.1.5 Technical and organisational measures to combat loss are generally not taken into
consideration to reduce the MPL value. In particular the effectiveness of automatic fire
protection systems such as extinguishing systems or fire alarm systems or a fire brigade that
is severely hindered, delaying its deployment.
3.1.6 Not taken into account, even if they are insured, are natural disasters such as flood or
earthquake; aircraft crash on a building; arson attacks in more than one place and arson
attack using large quantities of easily flammable materials brought in by the arsonist.
3.2 Probable Maximum Loss (PML)

The Probable Maximum Loss (PML) is generally defined as the anticipated value of the largest loss
that could result from the destruction and the loss of use of property, with the normal functioning of
passive protective features (firewalls, a responsive fire department and proper functioning of most
(perhaps not all) active suppression systems (sprinklers). This loss estimate is usually smaller than
the Maximum Foreseeable Loss (MFL) which assumes the failure of all active protective features.
Insurance decisions are influenced by PML evaluations and the amount of reinsurance ceded on a
risk could be predicated on the PML valuation.
3.3 Estimated Maximum Loss (EML)

The Estimated Maximum Loss (EML) can be traced back to a single incident taking into
consideration all factors within or outside the affected business which could increase or reduce the
scale of the loss but excluding extraordinary or devastating circumstances or combinations of
circumstances which are possible but unlikely. The following may contribute to a reduction:
3.3.1 All measures that reduce the MPL such as structural measures.

3.3.2 Technical measures such as extinguishing systems or fire alarm systems.
3.3.3 Organisational measures such as training and availability of a fire brigade and other defense
services including warehousing concepts.
3.3.4 The effectiveness of measures and the risk awareness are also taken into consideration.
3.4 Criteria for an EML/MPL Scenario Selection

3.4.1 High value/scale/volume assets such as warehouses, manufacturing facilities or IT centers.
3.4.2 High fire load materials such as materials or goods that are rapidly combustible and/or easily
flammable (flammable gases, vapors, dusts or solvents).
3.4.3 Activation hazards such as heat generating operations, naked light/flame, electric power,
sparks, short-circuits, static charge, spontaneous combustion or mechanical power.
3.4.4 EML loss mitigation measures such as tasks related to extinguishing fires, e.g. planning,
efficiency, extinguishing agents, type and volume or safety equipment.
3.5 Required Information for calculating an EML or MPL

3.5.1 Risks to be assessed and scope of cover.
3.5.2 Sums insured and their allocation to individual insured items of property, such as building
complexes, buildings, installations or goods.
3.5.3 Process descriptions and conditions, such as pressure, temperature.
3.5.4 Volume and type of materials used.
3.5.5 Location maps with scale.
3.5.6 Protection measures (only applicable for EML).
3.6 Criticality Assessment

A criticality assessment as a quantitative analysis of expected losses ranks in order of the
seriousness of their consequences. The assessment identifies key assets and infrastructure that are
deemed business-critical. It evaluates the impact of temporary or permanent loss of key assets or
infrastructures to the viability of the plant operation. The applied criticality assessment format has
been developed in collaboration with Zürich Insurance Group and presents a tool to prioritise fire
protection measures. The assessment results in loss expectancy, expressed in percentages of
property value and annual turnover. Loss expectancies are based on the experience of the Zürich
Insurance Group and should inform the operations, in order to have a better understanding of losses
which could be expected in the different plant areas. The expected total loss with protection in % of
property value represents the losses which would occur in the defined plant area with the described
protection system in place. The loss expectancies are referring to the total insured value of the
operation (building and equipment) and not only for a specified plant area. The values should
decrease for each additional protection system defined. The expected loss in a defined area with
only a fire detection system in place cannot be the same if a sprinkler system is present in this same
area. Expected total loss with protection in % of annual Business Interruption concentrates on
Business Interruption. The already stated values present Zürich Insurance view on Business
Interruption caused by losses in the specific areas. For instance, the loss expressed in % of annual
turnover will be much higher if a loss occurs in a production area then in a warehouse.

Chapter 4
Minimum Fire Precautions
Chapter 4, Minimum Fire Precautions, defines the basic requirements for all businesses needing to install
or apply fire precaution measures. The purpose of this chapter is to define the minimum organisational,
structural and technical precautionary measures such they meet the intended fire performance. PR 19.10,
Fire Safety Management applies.
4.1 Organisational Fire Protection

4.1.1 Combustible Materials
Any fire load and any amount of combustible material that could catch fire are considered a hazard.
Regular housekeeping inspections shall detect any such unnecessary accumulations of fire
hazards. They shall be eliminated routinely at a frequency given by the nature of the operation. In
some areas this may need cleaning twice per day, in other areas, once per week may be enough.
4.1.2 Yard Storage

Fires starting in combustible material (like paper, carton, wood or idle pallets) stored in the open
next to buildings can propagate to the buildings, especially if these have combustible building
construction or roof. The distance of combustible yard storage to any building must be at least 1.5
times the height of the building if the building or roof is combustible. In the case of non-combustible
but not fire resistant construction the distance must be at least equal to the height of the building.
Storage next to buildings is only allowed if the walls are fire resistant at least to the F90 standard
and the roof construction is also rated F90. For waste paper storage, these distances must be
multiplied by 1.5. For storage directly at buildings, the wall must be at least F240 and no hazard to
the roof must be created from a fire. Flammable liquids or gases shall not be stored next to the
building even if the walls and roof are fire resistant.
4.1.3 Fire Brigade

A reasonably well-equipped fire brigade is required to control fires once they are detected by the
people working for Mondi or fire detection systems. For large operations, the required solution is a
plant fire brigade with 24/7 availability and adequate resources (personnel and equipment)
according to the hazards present. Local regulations concerning an in-house fire brigade must be
taken into account. A plant fire brigade must be ready for action in less than five minutes with at
least one fire-fighting team of four people. If a plant fire brigade has not been established due the
size or hazard of the operation, a public fire brigade is acceptable if it can be on site within ten
minutes with at least one fire truck. Wherever no sufficient fire brigades are available, automatic
means of fire-fighting such as sprinklers must be considered. If the plant fire brigade is not available
and the public fire brigade would not be sufficient or within ten minutes at the operation, an analysis
should be conducted to justify the introduction of a plant fire brigade.
4.1.4 Fire Safety Training

An important factor in fire prevention is the competence of employees and contractors about fire
hazards. Even when a fire has started, it can be controlled at the very beginning by relatively simple

actions. Practical evacuation drills shall be provided to employees and contractors annually.
Introduction safety training for new employees must take place at latest three months after starting.
The theoretical fire awareness training shall commence annually supplemented by a practical
training using portable extinguisher every third year.
4.1.5 Arson
Arson is one of the main fire causes and accounts for approximately 40% of all fire losses. Waste
and pallets kept in the open are frequently targeted by arsonists especially if in close proximity to
buildings. It is very important that arsonists are denied easy access to materials that they may use
to fuel a fire. The risks to the operation significantly reduces by clearing waste from the yards and
ensuring that accumulations are prevented by arranging for regular housekeeping. In addition, idle
pallets shall be collected frequently enough to prevent build-up of large piles.
4.1.6 Security
Security covers several aspects of protection. These range from preventing unauthorised persons
from entering the plant including arsonists or people planning criminal damage after obtaining
access to the plant. The outside of the plant, yard area and fencing shall be inspected on a weekly
basis by established control rounds with a check list, reporting and follow-up. Action shall be
decided for any detected weak points and they shall be remedied within an agreed time frame.
Plant access should be limited by complete fencing of the premises and a controlled gate access for
both visitors and employees. Central IT facilities shall be secured by controlled access, preferably
by a key card system or similar. PR 18.20, Security of People and Assets applies.
4.1.7 Maintenance
Protection and detection systems like any technical system will only operate reliably when properly
maintained. Whereas malfunctions are spotted immediately in production systems, in safety
systems they will only show up when the system would actually be needed and is not performing as
designed. All fire detection and protection systems shall be maintained and inspected according to
manufacturer’s instructions and inspection routines given in the relevant NFPA standards. For
water-based extinguishing systems refer to NFPA 25 and fire detection systems refer to National
Fire Alarm Code NFPA 72. PR 19.7, Plant and Equipment Integrity applies.
4.1.8 Inspection
Fire safety not only depends on the function of detection and protection systems but to a much
larger extent, on fire prevention. This can only be achieved by regular self-inspection carried out by
plant or maintenance personnel according to predefined routines and check lists in the same way
as any management system. Housekeeping rounds shall be conducted on a weekly basis. PR 19.7,
Plant and Equipment Integrity applies.
4.1.9 Hot Work Permit

Many serious fires occur while repairs and alterations are being undertaken, particularly by
contractors. Fire hazards arising from such activities shall be controlled by the use of a Hot Work
permit system, to ensure that the area of work is made safe prior to work commencing, that
appropriate precautions are taken while work is in progress and that the area is suitably inspected
following the completion of work.

4.1.10 Smoking
Smoking is only allowed in the designated smoking areas. Smoking is prohibited in all storage and
production areas where flammable liquids are used.
4.1.11 Electrical Cabinets and Switch-Rooms

Electrical rooms are critical for the operation of the plant. Fires can do serious damage and
incorrect fire-fighting can ruin the left-over. No combustible materials such as packaging,
documentation, spare cabling or any other combustible materials not directly required for the
operation of equipment within the room shall be stored in electrical or electronic data-
communications rooms.
4.1.12 Thermography
Electrical installations shall be inspected at regular intervals. The most efficient technology is infra-
red thermography. This allows the detection of local heat spots at a very early stage and can be
carried out at full production. This maintenance service shall be carried out after each new
installation. Following this, it shall be repeated annually. Should no problem areas be detected
during these checks, the interval can be extended to coincide with the frequency required by
authorities for the inspections of electrical installations. Nevertheless, condition monitoring/scanning
must not be taken as a substitute for robust engineering practices such as checking for the
tightness of connections, regular cleaning of panels or the insulation’s integrity check.
4.1.13 Impairment Handling

All impairments of the fire protection and detection systems with duration of more than a day shall
be reported immediately to the AON. The impairment notice can be found within the Group
Insurance Manual.
4.2 Structural Fire Protection

4.2.1 Buildings
Building structure has an important influence on the behaviour of a building in a fire. Critical factors
are if the building can collapse and whether it contributes to the fire load. Build-up of heat during a
fire can lead to fast propagation of a fire (flash-over) and collapse of buildings structures. Buildings
should be built so as not to collapse in the case of a fire either by a reinforced concrete construction
or by a steel construction coated with a fire protective coating. The minimum fire ratio of such walls
or fire proof coating should be EI 90 or similar. Metal sandwich panels with PU or similar foam
insulation are combustible insulation will contribute to the fire and help to spread the fire. Therefore
this insulation shall be avoided in new building structures. Mineral fibre insulation is non-
combustible and therefore preferable. Depending on the criticality of the area, PU panels shall be
replaced with non-combustible panels. The replacement of the PU panels is not required if these
are equipped with fire retardance according to one of the following international testing standard:
NFPA 256 (Class A) or FM Approval (Class 1) or BS476 (Class 0) or DIN1350 (Class A).
4.2.2 Fire Separation

Existing building structures may not satisfy the requirement for conventional fire rated walls (i.e. F90
or F180). In this case the fire separation shall be established with water curtains along the existing

separation walls.The fire separation established through the water curtains shall only be applied in
the paper and pulp production and converting operations not handling flammable substances. This
type of fire separation is not feasible within converting operations handling flammable substances
as the fluid fires have other characteristics compared to fires resulting from paper and pulp.
4.3 Technical Fire Protection

4.3.1 Smoke and Heat Venting Systems
Where a fire would lead to the collapse of the building structure, smoke and heat venting systems
shall be installed in the roofs which are either manually or automatically activated. If ESFR (Early
Suppression Fast Response) sprinkler protection is installed, automatic heat/smoke vents shall be
equipped with a high temperature-rated standard response operating mechanism (121°C - 149 °C).
4.3.2 External Hydrants

In the case of a fire where there is an externally stored high fibre load, sufficient water supply needs
to be at hand quickly. External hydrants shall be installed at distances of maximum 90 meters from
each other. These shall be connected to a supply source and piping which allow a total of
1900L/min to be drawn from the hydrants. In cases where public hydrant supply is insufficient, the
supply must be provided from process water supplies. If this is not possible, a sufficient number and
volume of water reservoirs or ponds shall be available to provide 1900 L/min of fire water supply for
at least 2 hrs. Rivers or streams in close plant proximity (not exceeding 30 meters) can also be
counted as fire water supply, provided that proper access points for the fire brigade are established.
4.3.3 Heating and Cooling

Large plants generate parts of their needed process and space heating using black liquor, bark
and/or coal boilers. Special engineering features are available for these steam boilers. Reference is
made to PN-ENG-01, the Kraft Recovery Boiler Good Practice Techniques Manual and PN ENG-
02, the Power Boiler Plant Safety Manual. In smaller plants, heat is mostly generated by gas or oil
fired boilers. In boiler rooms for gas fired boilers, gas sensors shall be installed and linked to the fire
detection system.
4.3.4 IT Centres
IT centres are critical for the operation of the plant. Fires can do serious damage and incorrect fire-
fighting can ruin the left-over. IT centres shall be fitted with automatic smoke detection systems.
The most sensitive detectors are smoke aspiration detectors which will give very early warning.
Critical IT centres shall be protected by automatic gaseous fire extinguishing systems like CO 2.
Care should be taken to plan for the dissipation of the displaced air to avoid overpressure leading to
building damage. For CO2 systems the applicable standard is NFPA 12. If CO2 systems are not
acceptable by local legislation, inert gas systems such as Inergen, Argon, NOVEC 1230 or FM2000
shall be used.
4.4 Project Review

All projects related to building construction and fire protection and detection systems shall be vetted
by a competent consultant and the Group Loss Prevention Manager prior to the approval.

Chapter 5
Fire Hazards and Precautions for Mill Operations
Fire hazards are present in mill operations and precautions must be set out to protect people and assets.
5.1 Outdoor Log Storage (Log Yard)

Log and pulpwood storage occurs in two configurations: stacked piles and ranked piles. Stacked
piles are cone-shaped piles formed by conveying and randomly depositing logs in the centre of the
pile. Ranked piles are evenly arranged, usually by conveyors or cranes. The most common causes
of fires are sparks from conveyors, passing locomotives or other vehicles, cutting and welding
operations and smoking. Wetting down of logs during warm seasons is used to prevent fire spread
across log piles but foremost to hinder infestation of stored logs. The combustion of wood takes
place in two stages. The first is destructive distillation where the heat drives off flammable gases
from the wood and leaves charcoal. The second stage involves burning of the gases in the air
above the wood and burning of the charcoal combined with oxygen, forming an intensely hot and
luminous bed of coals. The heat from burning both gases and charcoal distils more volatiles from
the wood and increases the temperature and rate of combustion. The acceleration of combustion is
limited only by the rate at which air can be brought into contact with the burning wood. An orderly
arrangement of ranked piles restricts air circulation and the surfaces available to burn. Once the fire
is established in a ranked pile, however, an intense fire will still result but will propagate at a slower
rate and radiate less heat than a fire in a similarly sized stacked pile. Fire loss experience in outside
storage of logs indicates that large undivided piles, congested storage conditions, delayed fire
detection, inadequate fire protection and ineffective fire-fighting tactics are the principal factors that
allow log pile fires to reach serious proportions. The fire hazard potential inherent in log storage
operations with large quantities of combustible materials shall be controlled with the implementation
of organisational and technical fire protection measures.
5.1.1 Organisational Fire Protection

Separation of mill buildings from pulpwood and log piles is vital because possible damage to
production depends upon vulnerability of the exposed building as determined by height, wall
openings, combustibility of construction and occupancy, as well as the factors described above
regarding exposing the pulpwood pile.
5.1.1.1 The storage site should be reasonably level, solid ground, preferably paved or surfaced with
material such as cinders, fine gravel or stone. Refuse- or sawdust-filled land, swampy
ground or areas where the hazard of underground fire is present shall not be used.
5.1.1.2 Weeds, grass and similar vegetation shall be prevented throughout the entire yard. Dead
weeds shall be removed after destruction. Weed burners shall not be used.
5.1.1.3 Good housekeeping shall be maintained at all times, including regular and frequent
cleaning of materials-handling equipment. Combustible waste materials such as bark,
sawdust, chips and other debris shall not be permitted to accumulate in a quantity or
location that will constitute an undue fire hazard.
5.1.1.4 Smoking shall be prohibited except in designated smoking areas.

5.1.1.5 No cutting, welding or other use of open flames or spark-producing equipment shall be
permitted in the storage area unless approved by a fire permit.
5.1.1.6 Separation between cold decks should be at least 7m. The Local Fire Protection Authority
is authorised to allow the separation distance to be reduced when additional fire protection
is provided. The decrease shall be based on a fire risk assessment that determines the
capabilities of the system installed.
5.1.1.7 CCTV shall be in place to minimise security risks. Arrangements should cover both the
working day and outside normal hours. For external log yards, a 24-hours manned security
presence should be considered or at least 24 hour coverage such as by drive-by security
runs.
5.1.2 Technical Fire Protection

Prompt discovery and alarm and immediate application of large amounts of water are the major
factors in bringing log fires under control. Adequate monitor nozzles, close-range fire-fighting with
hose streams and removal of surface wood to reach the actual seat of the fire are all essential. To
effectively control a log yard fire, the following technical fire protection measures shall be applied:
5.1.2.1 Yard hydrants shall be provided each 100m. Hydrants preferably should be located at fire
lane intersections.
5.1.2.2 Portable fire extinguishers suitable for the fire hazard involved shall be provided at
convenient, conspicuously accessible locations in the yard.
5.1.2.3 Approved fire extinguishers of suitable type shall be provided on all power vehicles and
units, including haulage or private locomotives in the yard.
5.1.2.4 Diesel- or gasoline-fuelled vehicles that operate on bark or chip piles or in log storage areas
shall be equipped with an approved fixed fire-extinguishing system.
5.1.2.5 Where pile heights exceed 7m, monitor nozzles or mobile elevated nozzles mounted on a
fire-fighting truck shall be provided. Monitor nozzles shall be installed so that every part of
the pile surface is within range of at least one stream.
5.2 Recovered Paper Storage (Waste Paper Yard)

Recovered paper as a raw material is stored in large quantities and carries a considerable risk of
fire. If block sizes are too large, a fire cannot be controlled within one block and may then spread
throughout the yard. Fires in baled recovered paper are of a burrowing nature and are difficult to
extinguish. In case of fire, the paper may need to be torn apart by trucks. Fires in in-door waste
paper storage develop a strong glow in areas not accessible to extinguishing water. Fire-fighting
efforts may require smouldering bales to be removed from the storage building to facilitate complete
extinguishment. The removal may be difficult if the piles have become saturated with water from
sprinklers and hoses. Waterlogged bales will fall apart if material-handling equipment such as a
forklift is used. In addition, they produce smoke that complicates manual fire-fighting. Bulk density of
baled waste paper is about 250 kg/m3. Bales of waste paper will expand and become unstable
when wet. Sparks or burning fire brands from nearby fires are a potential ignition source for outside
storage and combustible buildings. Separation distances between outside storage and exposed
combustible buildings will not prevent fire spread when fires are driven by high winds. In case of
fire, the paper may need to be torn apart by trucks.

Fire protection block sizes in recovered outdoor paper yards shall not exceed 700 tons and not
exceed 6m height. Spacing between blocks is used for transport and access of fire trucks. These
roads shall be at least 5m wide or 1.5-times the height of storage. Limited size of blocks and ease
of access are also important in order to tear apart the blocks to gain access to the seat of a fire.

Extinguishing fires in recovered paper yards require high amounts of extinguishing water over
extended periods of time. A flow of 5700 l/min over a period of 5 hours is required. Yard hydrants
shall be installed according to NFPA 24 or equivalent local standards. In order to apply the
extinguishing water to the fire over a long period of time, it is often impractical to bind large numbers
of fire fighters and equipment. Therefore fixed nozzles shall be pre-installed that can reach all areas
of the waste paper storage. Supply to the nozzles can be established by the fire brigade either from
fire trucks or from yard hydrants.
5.3 Woodchip Yard

Pulp and paper mills receive all or part of their wood supply as chips which are mainly stored
outdoors. They are typically obtained from wood waste at sawmills and woodworking plants. Mills
also chip logs when received in order to economise by storing a handling the raw stock in chipped
form. Chips stored outside deteriorate much less rapidly than logs and handling is simplified. They
are typically obtained from wood waste at sawmills and woodworking plants. Pulp and paper mills
also store low-grade wood chips, commonly referred to as hog fuel, which are used to fuel their
steam boilers. Many power plants also have converted to, or built, wood chip-firing boilers as an
alternative energy source to coal, oil or gas. Economic, environmental and energy concerns have
resulted in the storage of wood chips in silos, bins or sheds prior to and during processing into the
end product. Two types of incidents occur in outdoor wood chip storage piles: surface fires and
internal heating which may result in subsequent fires. The latter is far more prevalent. Surface fires
occur infrequently due to the normally high moisture content of outdoor wood chip storage piles.
Wood chips with 50% or greater moisture content (by weight) are too wet for easy surface ignition.
However, surface chips may have low moisture content as a result of dry weather conditions.
Surface fires occasionally occur from external exposure fires. Surface fires also originate from
mobile work equipment operating on wood chip storage piles. Under dry weather conditions, a
surface fire, once initiated, could spread rapidly and radiate considerable heat, especially if exposed
to winds over 9 m/s. Tests and limited fire experience also indicate slow penetration of a surface fire
into a pile. Immediately after storage, wood chip piles begin to heat up due to cell breathing, a
microbiological activity. Wood chip piles can reach a maximum temperature of approximately 66°C
after two weeks (or 90°C after three weeks); however, temperatures within the wood chip piles
occasionally continue to climb and spontaneous heating-up results. In the event of respiratory
heated drying without rewetting a 1% dry matter loss per month would result with a measurable
drop in moisture. Factors cited in such spontaneous heating losses include pile height or a low
surface area to volume ratio, age of wood chips (older and more compacted from mobile work
equipment traffic), low air flow and the presence of metal or other impurities including bark, decayed
wood and sawdust. Pneumatically conveyed or blown wood chips are more susceptible to

spontaneous heating-up due to separation and stratification of fines which can hamper heat
dissipation from the storage pile. Steel conveyor legs within wood chip storage piles may have
either caused or accelerated the spontaneous heating-up process. During the spontaneous heating-
up process, wood chips lose fibre content and char. The charred chips also may contaminate the
good chips within the pile, minimising their pulping value. This damage may occur over a time at
elevated temperatures before smoke is evident. This damage normally occurs at temperatures that
are lower than the temperatures where glowing combustion is observed.

Wood chips show heat production from microbiological metabolism as they have relatively
high moisture content and are normally stored outdoors. Fungi and bacteria are dependent
on moisture for degradation of the wood content. Microbial growth results in a temperature
increase in the stored chips. Peak temperatures of microbial self-heating vary between
20°C and 80°C, dependent on the type of microorganism. Chemical degradation normally
starts to have some influence at 40°C, and at temperature above 50°C these processes will
dominate the biological processes. As the heat producing processes proceed, heat is
transported from the interior of the bulk towards the surface. The centre of the pile is drying
and water is transported out from the centre and condensing on the outside layers. Height
of pile and ambient temperature are factors which influence average moisture content and
temperature during storage. In particular, the shape of a chip pile effects the temperature
rise more than the height of the pile as the shape will determine the ventilating chimney
effect in the pile. The ventilation provides the oxygen needed by metabolic activity as well
as it cools the pile interior by convection. The main factors influencing the temperature in
the pile are moisture content, moisture gradients, the size of the pile and density. Mixing
fuels with different moisture content causes the moisture gradient to increase the risk of
self-ignition. Spontaneous ignition starts as pyrolysis in the interior of the stack in cases
when the heat production exceeds the heat dissipation in bulk material. The spontaneous
ignition results in flaming combustion in cases when the pyrolysis spreads to the surface of
the stack. Chip piles need to be rearranged or turned over at regular intervals in order to
guarantee that the inner storage areas are brought to the outside to cool down. As an
alternate measure, thermocouples shall be installed for measuring the temperature within
the pile. A temperature >60°C is typically observed after an induction time of 65 days
minimum. Conditions then become critical and piles must be turned over. Pile turn-over has
an effect on residence time and therefore on biological action. Piles shall be handled in a
first-in, first-out principle as biological action is affected by the type and species of biomass
being handled, moisture content and the amount of oxygen present. Control shall be
exercised through the following precautions:
5.3.1.1 Control the rate of pile build-up. Preferably, wood chips should be stored in circular
piles and shall be handled in a first-in, first-out principle. A maximum residence time
should be set, not exceeding 20 days and in case this limit cannot be guaranteed,
thermocouples shall be used to ensure that interior pile temperatures are not
exceeding 60°C.
5.3.1.2 The maximum storage heights for wood chips is set to 19m and exceedances
should be avoided.

5.3.1.3 Monitor nozzles shall be installed that are fixed onto a platform or build as a tower
supplied with a yard main pressure of 0.76 MPa.
5.3.1.4 Keep storage sites free of combustibles such as grass, brush and rubbish.
5.3.1.5 Prohibit smoking near or within wood chip storage sites.
5.3.1.6 Provide at least 15m separation between outdoor wood chip storage piles and any
plant buildings. If this is not possible due to space limitations, external hydrants and
nozzles shall be installed to cover the wood chip storage area.
5.3.1.7 Refuel mobile internal combustion engine-driven wood chip moving equipment at a
safe location, at least 15m from any wood chip storage site.
5.3.1.8 Decomposed logging residues must not be compacted.
5.3.1.9 CCTV shall be in place to minimise security risks. Arrangements should cover both
the working day and outside normal hours.
5.3.2 Bark Storage (Bark Yard)

Internal heating is a hazard inherent to bark storage that will progress to spontaneous
combustion under certain pile conditions. Internal fires are difficult to detect and extinguish.
Unless provisions are made for measuring internal temperatures, such fires can burn for
long periods before emission of smoke at the surface indicates an internal fire. Prevention
of internal fires requires an understanding of the factors that cause exothermic oxidation so
that steps can be taken to minimize this hazard and to provide means of monitoring
temperature conditions inside the pile. Precautions to prevent a possible bark pile fire are
established in the Power Boiler Plant Engineering Manual, clause 6.1.4.
5.4 Pulp Production

In pulp production the role of general fire precautions play an important role in the overall effort to
manage fire risks.
5.4.1 Woodchip Preparation

Pulping operations begin with receipt of wood at the mill site. Pulpwood is supplied in log
form as round wood or chips. Round wood is usually received with the bark on and cut to
size for convenient handling. Wood chip preparation from logs starts with debarking
followed by a chipper that produces the small sized chip needed for pulp production. The
raw material is very wet, so there is no immediate fire hazard. As dust and waste dry-up,
this accumulated material becomes increasingly easy to ignite and may then spread an
incipient fire very quickly throughout the entire chip preparation. As dust accumulates and
dries in the exhaust systems, fire hazards increase. A single spark can be enough to start a
dust explosion or at least a fire in the duct that spreads quickly.
5.4.1.1 As organisational fire protection wall hydrants with dimensionally stable hoses shall
be installed. Where this is not possible due to high costs of retrofitting in an existing
plant, mobile 50 kg water/foam extinguishers must be placed in positions so that
they are easy to move to the place of a starting fire.
To prevent the accumulation of dust and waste in the plant, two factors are
important. Firstly, the machinery must be constructed and maintained in such a way
that as little material as possible falls aside of the main product flow. Any electrical

cabinets in the area must be constructed in such a way that no dust can enter. They
must either be quite air tight or, better even, they should have a cooling air supply
from outside the dusty area. Secondly, a regular cleaning regime needs to be
organised to clear away the waste and dust that will unavoidably accumulate.
Particularly hazardous areas are cable ducts, electrical cabinets, motors and gear
boxes, i.e. parts of the machinery that can heat up.
Maintenance practices and procedures shall address maintenance requirements for
each piece of equipment critical to production1, valuable equipment2, the facility
itself and the related document records. Planned inspection and testing activities
are an integral part of equipment condition evaluation and need the commitment
and backing of both local and Group management to ensure their success. When
inspection and testing are necessary, there shall be a commitment to perform a
thorough evaluation using qualified personnel. When repair work is necessary, the
personnel involved shall be qualified for the work to be done. There are numerous
tools and approaches for planning inspection and testing activities, many of which
are integrated into maintenance scheduling and planning tools. Equipment must be
supervised to ensure that performance is within its design specifications and control
limits. At a minimum, parameters critical to operations shall be appropriately
monitored. Operating personnel must also be aware of the proper response to
prevent or control damage when operating parameters reach their limits or change
drastically. They must be authorised to act accordingly. To ensure accuracy of
machinery condition monitoring and control, supervisory and safety equipment such
equipment and systems shall be regularly checked and calibrated in accordance
with the equipment manufacturer’s specifications. The maintenance schedule shall
be provided for all equipment and facilities requiring maintenance actions. The
frequency and extent of activity shall be determined on the basis of experience with
similar equipment and buildings and of the recommendations of equipment
manufacturers, user groups, data sheets and trade and technical associations.
5.4.1.2 As technical fire protection the entire area shall be fitted with automatic fire
detection according to NFPA 72. In practice, linear beam or aspiration systems
appear to be the method of choice as they are less prone to false alarms due to
soiling. Beam detectors have a maximum range of 100 m and a maximum distance
between detector beams of 18 m which gives coverage of 560 m 2. Using 25.5 m2 as
the maximum theoretical coverage of a spot detector, one beam detector should
replace 22 spot detectors. In practice, however, one beam detector will replace
about 12 or more spot detectors. Beam detectors are especially useful in locations
with high ceilings. Having a beam detector mounted on a wall is much easier to
access for maintenance than spot detectors mounted below a high ceiling. They
may also overcome stratification problems better than spot detectors because beam
detectors can be installed more easily at lower elevations and at least part of the
stratified smoke may obstruct the beam. Beam detectors should not be attached to
1
Equipment critical to production is defined as that equipment which regardless of its replacement cost would inhibit production or
otherwise adversely affect the operation of a facility.
2
Valuable equipment in the context used is defined as equipment having a high replacement cost but which will not necessarily
impact production or facility operations.

metal building walls because expansion and contraction due to temperature
changes can cause misalignment of the beam.
A cloud chamber smoke detector is one type of air sampling detector. An air pump
draws a sample of air into a high humidity chamber where the pressure is slightly
reduced. Moisture in the chamber condenses on the smoke particles, forming a
cloud. The density of the cloud is then measured by the photoelectric principle. The
advantage of a sampling system is that only one sensor is needed. This is a cost
benefit which can be used for a large, advanced detector system. This system
might employ more than one type of detector such as smoke and gas analysis.
Newer sampling systems use laser detectors. Exhaust systems shall be fitted with
automatic spark detection and suppression systems.
5.4.2 Woodchip Digestion

Chip digestion or cooking is accomplished in a batch or continuous digester. A chip digester
is a large vessel provided with raw-chip feed and cooked-chip discharge ports and
equipped with means for heating and maintaining its contents at a specified temperature
and pressure for the required length of time. The digester material of construction also
varies for corrosion resistance. This area is mainly a wet chemical reaction process carried
out in closed vessels therefore no special fire protection measures are needed apart from
those generally applicable throughout the plant.
5.4.2.1 As organisational fire protection installations shall be inspected at regular intervals.
The most efficient technology is infra-red thermography. This allows the detection of
local heat spots at a very early stage and can be carried out at full production. This
maintenance service shall be carried out after each new installation. Following this,
it shall be repeated annually. Should no problem areas be detected during these
checks, the interval can be extended to coincide with the frequency required by
authorities for the inspections of electrical installations. Visual inspection of
electrical equipment shall be conducted on a daily basis checking that electrical
equipment is operating in a clean, cool, dry and tight condition with no abnormal
noises, smells, vibration, or heat. Inspection and testing frequencies shall be
adjusted depending on the particular type of equipment and its duty, failure history,
criticality and condition.
5.4.3 Chemical Recovery

The chemical recovery area is mainly a wet chemical reaction process carried out in closed
vessels therefore no special fire protection measures are needed apart from those generally
applicable throughout the plant. Kraft pulping is an alkaline process using a solution of
sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphide (White Liquor) in the digesters. Large batch
digesters are usually used but continuous digesters are also increasing in use. Continuous
digesters of the horizontal and inclined tube designs move the chip charge through the
digester by mechanical screw or bucket conveyors. Vertical digesters accomplish chip
movement by gravity in down flow digesters, or by a lifting mechanism in up flow digesters.
5.4.3.1 As organisational fire protection installations shall be inspected at regular intervals.
The most efficient technology is infra-red thermography. This allows the detection of
local heat spots at a very early stage and can be carried out at full production. This

maintenance service shall be carried out after each new installation. Following this,
it shall be repeated annually. Should no problem areas be detected during these
checks, the interval can be extended to coincide with the frequency required by
authorities for the inspections of electrical installations. Visual inspection of
electrical equipment shall be conducted on a daily basis checking that electrical
equipment is operating in a clean, cool, dry and tight condition with no abnormal
noises, smells, vibration, or heat. Inspection and testing frequencies shall be
adjusted depending on the particular type of equipment and its duty, failure history,
criticality and condition.
5.4.4 Direct Contact Evaporators (DCEs)

Fires inside DCEs will usually not occur if all normally wetted surfaces in a direct contact
evaporator (DCE) are continually wetted with black liquor. In normal operation, the flue gas
temperature drop across the DCE precludes the possibility of fires in equipment
downstream of the DCE. The loss of black liquor flow, to or within the DCE, can result in
evaporation of black liquor. Dry deposits can form and ignite due to the flue gas
temperature being above the ignition temperature of the dried black liquor solids.
5.4.4.1 Organisational Fire Protection

Kraft RB teams and fire brigade members shall receive regular training in fire-
fighting practices relating to the DCE. The operating procedures shall be in writing
and shall include how and when to manually activate any fire protection systems.
5.4.4.2 Technical Fire Protection

Automatic fire protection sprinkler system (deluge type) shall be installed inside the
DCE. The sprinklers shall be installed at the inlet and outlet within any cascade
evaporator. Additionally, sprinklers shall be installed at the inlet and outlet of any ID
fans located upstream of the precipitator. Sprinkler head orientation shall be such
that debris cannot collect in or on them. At least one sprinkler shall be provided for
every 3m of enclosure or duct width between the outlet of the DCE and the inlet of
the precipitator. The horizontal area protected by each nozzle shall not exceed 9m².
The systems shall be designed to deliver at least 6mm/min of horizontal area.
Sprinkler positions in other-than-horizontal runs of ducts, should be placed to
provide proper protection based upon duct orientation and process conditions.
Unlike horizontal ducts, 3m spacing of sprinklers may not be required. Water flow
alarms shall be provided with an annunciator in the recovery control room. If the
sprinkler system is activated by an automatic fire/heat detection system, the heat
detectors shall be provided at the outlet of the evaporator and the inlet and outlet of
the electrostatic precipitator. Additional detectors may be needed for any multiple
evaporators or precipitators. The alarm setting is specified in the Kraft RB GPT
Manual, clause 2.5. The boiler shall be prevented from restarting until the
temperatures within the DCE are normal. Fire protection systems shall be tested in
accordance to NFPA 25 and at least once every 12 months. The alarms shall be
tested periodically as defined in the Electrical Engineering Good Practice Manual.

5.4.5 Bleaching
The bleaching plant houses a wet chemical reaction process carried out in closed vessels
therefore no special fire protection measures are required apart from those generally
applicable throughout the plant. Bleaching wood pulp is regarded as an extension of the
pulping process. Dyes are formed from the tannin in the wood during the digestion process.
The bleaching agents oxidize and destroy the dyes. They also dissolve and remove the
remaining lignin in the pulp, leaving the pure cellulose fibres. With Kraft pulp, the bleaching
sequence is elementally (ECF) or totally chlorine free (TCF). TCF is a technique that uses
no chlorine compounds for the bleaching of wood pulp for paper production.
5.4.5.1 The organisational precautions are as described under 5.4.3, Chemical Recovery.
5.4.6 Conveyors
There are several types of conveyor systems in the paper and pulp producing mills. Belt
conveyers form a special risk due to the fact that the belt is made from combustible
materials. Although the conveyed product and the structure may be non-combustible, loss
history demonstrates that the belt itself presents combustible loading sufficient to spread
the fire without other fuel contribution. Conveyor belts are manufactured of natural and
synthetic rubber or plastic such as PVC), polyethylene, polypropylene or nylon. They are
often reinforced with fibres for strength. Outdoor belts usually are formed in laminated
layers and may have, for example, a PVC base for flexibility with a rubber top layer to allow
for product adhesion under incline conditions. Belt conveyors, whether made of natural or
synthetic rubber or plastics, generally are assumed to be capable of self-sustained fire
propagation whether or not other combustibles are present. For this reason, automatic
sprinkler protection has been recommended for most installations regardless of the
conveyor material’s claimed fire or flame retardancy or of the combustibility of materials
conveyed. The use of fire-retardant belts is encouraged. They are typically harder to ignite
when exposed to a low-energy ignition source, thereby reducing the frequency of fire.
Accessibility and openness of the system directly influences fire spread, severity, ease of
manual response and damage. A fully enclosed system will not allow heat to be released or
hose streams to be introduced from outside the conveyor system. Fire-fighters cannot
physically fight the fire except from the ends of the conveyor and dense smoke often
prevents effective response. A fire-fighting team will rarely enter an enclosed conveyor
system. All of these factors combine to permit a free-burn fire that will spread rapidly with
very high heat release and expose the steel structure. If this occurs, the entire structure can
sag, cantilever, or collapse. Alternatively, an open or partially open system will allow heat to
escape and hose streams to penetrate the fire plume. Damage can be significantly less with
structural collapse much less likely.
5.4.6.1 As organisational fire protection conveyor systems are seldom tight closing so
material and dust tends to fall off the belt. Thus combustible material tends to
accumulate under the belts and on the horizontal surfaces in the area of the belt,
e.g. on cable tracks. This material dries up and becomes easy to ignite. There are
several source of fire at a conveyor belt. The most prominent are linked to heat
generated by friction. This can be a blocked bearing, a slipping drive roll etc. A
second source is electrical faults. Finally, a fire can be introduced by the
transported material. Conveyor areas must be cleaned at regular intervals

determined by the amount of dust accumulating. This needs to be established by
regular inspection schedules. Regular internal inspection of the conveyor system
form an important part of fire prevention, as any malfunction of the system can be
spotted this way, as well as accumulation of dust or other combustible material.
Inspections shall be done weekly and include check lists, reporting and a recorded
follow up. Critical areas are the drive rolls and motors. A fire could also be started
by a blocked roll along the belt, but friction there is not as high. These rolls along
the belt may become critical when several rolls are blocked. Belt alignment shall be
controlled. Drive rolls for conveyor belts should be equipped with slip monitoring as
a slipping drive roll can quickly generate enough heat to start a fire. The tensioning
roller also may need slip monitoring. Alarms by either sprinkler or fire detection shall
always lead to stoppage of the conveyor belt in order to prevent spreading a fire
into another fire area. Stoppage shall be initiated automatically by the system.
5.4.6.2 The loss of some conveyor systems can lead to substantial, though not critical,
business interruption. Even if their function can be replaced by other means of
transport, the proper damage may be substantial and restoration of the facility may
take relatively long. The conveyor systems shall be equipped with fire detection
systems. Protecting these conveyors with fire detection will allow the fire brigade to
control the fire to a size that does not damage buildings and will allow relatively fast
replacement. As a technical fire protection fire detection systems shall be installed
according to NFPA 72. Conveyors are crucial for transportation of large quantities of
material within a plant. Losing conveyors can lead to a complete shutdown of
production, if no alternative means of transportation are feasible. Many types of
conveyors are not accessible to fire-fighting by a fire brigade because they are
either located in underground tunnel systems or are installed high above the ground
like cable cars. Critical conveyor systems shall be protected by automatic fire
fighting installations, in most cases sprinkler systems. Density needs to be 10
mm/min, distance of heads along the conveyor shall be 3.7 meter at most, and total
water requirement is at least 950 l/min over 1 hour minimum. In countries where
freezing temperatures have to be expected, the sprinklers need to be installed as
dry pipe system. Installation of sprinklers shall be carried out according to standard
NFPA 13.
5.4.7 Pulp Warehouse

Pulp presents a very high fire load, even if it is not very easy to ignite. Once burning, it is
very difficult to control as it will glow into the bales and the storage piles need to be torn
apart and exposing new surfaces to oxygen. Pulp is mostly delivered in baled form and
stored in block units with a size up to 500 m2 and a height of 7 m. The warehouse area is
often adjacent to a production area or the pulp preparation area and shall be separated
from them with a fire resistant wall (according to F90 or F120). Fire risks in this area arise
from sparks from the forklift, overheating of the lamps or possible cable traces, ignoring the
smoking ban and arson. Baled pulp ignites slowly, but once it has caught fire, the
temperatures rise extremely fast and the fire spreads to the other block units.
5.4.7.1 As organisational fire protection block storage, block sizes must be limited to 96 m².
Aisles between storage blocks shall be at least 2 m wide. Alternatively, block sizes

can be increased up to 300 m² with an aisle width of 6 m. Storage height must be
limited to 9 m. For sprinkler-protected facilities, the design criteria for block size,
aisle width and storage height are as defined by the sprinkler standard.
5.4.7.2 In structural fire protection due consideration must be given to keep the elevated
fire load of a pulp storage properly separated from production. Although separation
by fire walls is the best solution, this may not always be possible due to existing
building structures. In these cases, other means of separation supported by manual
or automatic intervention can be considered. These may be hydro-shields (see left
image below), water curtains (see right image below) or other means of cooling
building structures and preventing a fire spread due to radiation or flying firebrands.
The storage area shall be separated from the adjacent production by a F90 fire
wall. If this separation is difficult to achieve due to the existing building structure or
the material flow, a water curtain system shall be installed.
5.4.7.3 As technical fire protection fire detection systems shall be installed in order to
summon fire-fighting capacity quickly. For practical reasons this would be smoke
detection either by linear beam or smoke aspiration. Detection alone is not useful
without a strong fire brigade that can intervene quickly. In most cases this needs to
be a plant fire brigade, as public fire brigades are seldom equipped and trained to
fight industrial fires. Fire detection systems shall be installed according to NFPA 72.
The building shall be equipped with sufficient heat and smoke venting installations
in order to prevent early collapse of the building and to give the fire brigade a
realistic chance of intervention. In cases where a fast and effective intervention by
the fire brigade is not certain, sprinklers may be the only option to protect the
building and contents. If no production capacity is at risk because of distance or
other means of separation, sprinkler protection may be omitted, but the possible
capital loss should be considered. Installation of sprinklers shall be carried out
according to the standard NFPA 13.
5.4.8 Pulp Preparation (Pulpers)

Pulpers are the first step within the paper production. Relatively high fibre load by pulp
bales, dust accumulation from the opened bales and a complex conveyor system are
combined and generate a sensitive fire situation, critical for business interruption. This area
often neighbours the pulp warehouse. Baled pulp is unwrapped and prepared in the

pulpers. The major fire risks in this area arise from the conveyor systems which are used to
transport the baled pulp to the pulpers. Sparks from the forklift could ignite the baled pulp
and the fire would spread very fast through the complete area. The pulp preparation area is
often arranged as one fire section. A fire could also be caused by overheating of the lamps
or short circuits from cable couplings and electrical equipment.
5.4.8.1 As an organisational fire protection accumulation of pulp waste in this area must be
avoided and regular schedules of inspection and cleaning be conducted. The
frequency depends on the observed accumulation over time. The conveyor area
must be cleaned at regular intervals determined by the amount of dust
accumulating. This needs to be established by regular inspection schedules. An
annual cleaning is the minimum.
5.4.8.1 As technical fire protection the building housing the conveyor section of the pulp
preparation up to the vat where the pulp is finally dissolved shall be protected by
sprinklers. Installation of sprinklers shall be carried out according to the standard
NFPA 13.
5.5 Paper Making

Paper machines are expensive, complex units essential to plant production. The dryer ends of
paper machines combine the fire hazards of a highly combustible product, lint deposits, oily
residues and paper scraps in the presence of such ignition sources as overheated bearings, dryer
flames, mechanical sparks, friction and electrical equipment. The buildings are mainly made from
non-combustible materials. One or two paper machines are within one building, arranged as one
fire section area. Adjacent to this area is the reel paper storage. Fire risk in this area arises from
different events including overheated bearing where fires occur primarily with manually lubricated
sliding-element bearings that are not readily accessible with the machine in operation. Other ignition
sources are friction of paper chokes between rolls, friction at belts, brakes, gears and clutches.
Mechanical sparks may be generated by metal contacts from excessive end play of rolls, broken
shafts, gears and doctor blades. The surface temperature of exposed steam pipes, dryer hoods and
ductwork, de-super heater valves, infrared radiant heaters and steam turbines are often near or
above the auto ignition temperature of paper dust and oil. The auto ignition temperature of paper
dust and oils will decrease over a period of time when exposed to heat and the auto ignition
temperature of oily dust similarly exposed to heating will be even lower. These deposits may rest on
the hot surfaces for days or weeks before igniting. Oil-soaked insulation on steam and HTF pipes is
particularly susceptible to auto ignition. Electrical fires result from improper maintenance,
overloading of cable trays, poor housekeeping, short circuits and static discharge. Over-lubrication
of motors results in breakdown of oil-soaked insulation and accumulations of dust and fibre, which
can cause overheating and short circuits. Spliced cables are susceptible to attack by the constant
moisture and dirt commonly found in and beneath the paper machine and can lead to arcing. Paper
scraps or dust that obstructs motor vents can cause overheating of the motor and ignition of the
paper or dust. Hot work fires result from carelessness and failure to adopt proper safeguards,
including a hot work permit system. Once ignition occurs, the presence of grease, oil-covered open
gears, oily fibres, paper dust, paper scraps, rags, rope, machine clothing, or other combustibles can
cause a hot, rapidly spreading fire. A fire starting at or below the operating level is often transported

into exhaust ducts and economizers by the ventilation system. Prompt shutdown of ventilation will
help limit the amount of fire spread.

During normal maintenance management, fixed and flexible piping as well as connections
shall be carefully inspected to detect signs of corrosion or other aging. Any leakages as well
as parts showing critical ageing shall be corrected at the earliest feasible time. To avoid
accumulation of paper scrap and paper dust along the machine, regular schedules of
inspection and cleaning must be conducted. The frequency depends on the observed
accumulation over time and the specific areas.
5.5.1.1 The paper making area shall not be used to store any materials or equipment.
5.5.1.2 Hydraulic systems mostly use mineral oil based fluids. Although these generally
have high flash points, they can be ignited when finely dispersed into a mist. The
entire paper machine is supplied by several hydraulic and lubrication systems. In
some machines, heat transfer oil is used in the drier section. The liquids are
combustible and are under considerable pressure (the hydraulic systems up to 7
MPa). Any small leak in the system can lead to a fine jet or spray of oil being
generated which can be ignited easily on a hot surface. The resulting fire jets have
been known to set entire wet sections of a paper machine on fire.
5.5.1.3 Automatic fire detection shall be installed according to NFPA 72.
5.5.1.4 In the paper machine the risk shall be controlled by a water mist system especially
along the drive and operating side (see left spray nozzle image and right high
pressure water mist generating station image below). The pump systems, which are
usually located next to basement part of the paper machine, shall be protected by
either sprinkler systems according to NFPA 13 or foam-water sprinkler systems
according to NFPA 16. Detailed description for the protection of these areas can
also be found in the FM Global Standard 7-98, Hydraulic Fluids. If the area is
already covered by standard sprinkler coverage, an upgrade is required in cases
where the oil could float up on the fire extinguishing water and pollute a large area
which is then difficult to clean. During normal maintenance management, fixed and
flexible piping as well as connections shall be carefully inspected to detect signs of
corrosion or ageing. Any leakages as well as parts showing critical ageing shall be
corrected at the earliest feasible time. Where systems are placed in separate fire
compartments and where sprinkler protection is not installed and not available
nearby at least fixed piping shall be installed to allow foam application by the fire
brigade into the area.
5.5.1.5 The dryer section of the paper machine dries the paper by way of a series of
internally steam-heated cylinders that evaporate the moisture. Steam pressures
may range up to 150 psi. Steam enters the end of the dryer head (cylinder cap)
through a steam joint and condensate exits through a siphon that goes from the
internal shell to a centre pipe. From the centre pipe the condensate exits through a
joint on the dryer head. Wide machines require multiple siphons. In fast machines
centrifugal force holds the condensate layer still against the shell and turbulence
generating bars are typically used to agitate the condensate layer and improve heat
transfer. The sheet is usually held against the dryers by a long felt loop on the top

and bottom of each dryer section. The felts greatly improve heat transfer. Dryer felts
are made of coarse thread and have a very open weave that is almost seeing
through. It is common to have the first bottom dryer section un-felted to dispose
broke on the basement floor during sheet breaks or when threading the sheet.
Paper dryers are typically arranged in groups called sections so that they can be
run at a progressively slightly slower speed to compensate for sheet shrinkage as
the paper dries. The gaps between sections are called draws. The drying sections
are usually enclosed to conserve heat. Heated air is usually supplied to the pockets
where the sheet breaks contact with the driers. This increases the rate of drying.
The pocket ventilating tubes have slots along their entire length that face into the
pocket. The dryer hoods are usually exhausted with a series of roof mounted hood
exhausts fans down the dryer section. Additional sizing agents, including resins,
glue or starch, can be added to the web to alter its characteristics. These may be
applied at the wet end (internal sizing) or at the dry end (surface sizing) or both. At
the dry end, sizing is usually applied with a size press. The size press may be a roll
applicator (flooded nip) or a blade type. It is usually placed before the last dryer
section. Some paper machines also make use of a 'coater' to apply a coating of
fillers such as calcium carbonate or china clay usually suspended in a binder of
cooked starch and styrene-butadiene latex.
5.5.1.6 In case of a fire in the paper machine the following steps of activities
shall be taken:
5.5.1.6.1 First intervention by automatic or manual means is essential and a spray
hose shall be used. To combat incipient fires fire extinguishers, foreseen
for the area, shall be used.
5.5.1.6.2 Fire alarm shall be raised and the fire brigade immediately alarmed by
pushing the alarm button.
5.5.1.6.3 Alarm centre shall be notified according to the alarm plan.
5.5.1.6.4 Paper thread must be cut to prevent further paper being fed into the fire.
5.5.1.6.5 Drier section shall continue running at low speed.
5.5.1.6.6 Steam or heat transfer oil system must be cut to avoid overheating of
the sieve.
5.5.1.6.7 Control glasses of the oil system shall be cooled to prevent them from
cracking and the leaking oil contributing to the fire load.
5.5.1.6.8 Sieve and presses area and the paper slurry pumps must be shut down.

The building housing the paper machine usually has a low fire load except for some specific
areas related to the paper machine itself. There is no need to cover the entire building with
sprinklers, if the building is a concrete construction with a resistant roof. However,
downstream of the drier section, sprinkler protection at the ceiling is standard, as there are
varying fire loads due to the calendar section, the reeling and usually some storage before
transportation to downstream cutting section or warehouses. This concept is only valid if the
paper machine is protected in itself. Otherwise full sprinkler coverage of the entire building
is necessary. Installation of sprinklers shall be carried out according to the standard NFPA
13. Sprinkler density for the building is 6 mm/min over an area of 230 m². Pressurised oil in

hydraulic systems presents a considerable fire hazard, particularly in processes where
ignition sources are constantly present, as in plastics forming, die casting, automatic
welding and melting and heat-treating of metals. High pressure pipe with welded and
screwed joints, steel and copper tubing and a metal-reinforced rubber hose are used to
conduct oil to the various units, at pressures ranging up to 69 MPa. Failure of piping,
particularly at the threaded sections, failure of valves and gaskets or fittings, pulling out of
copper and steel tubing from fittings and rupture of flexible hose have been the principal
causes of oil release from the system. Lack of adequate supports or anchorage to prevent
vibration or movement of piping has been a factor in these failures. Repeated flexing and
abrasion of rubber hose against other hose or parts of machines have created weak spots,
which eventually resulted in rupture. Tubing under pressure has released oil when
accidentally cut by welding torches or when stepped on during maintenance procedures.
Escaping hydraulic oil has caused many severe fires, particularly where building contents or
construction were combustible and sprinkler protection was lacking. When hydraulic oil is
released under pressure, the usual result is an atomised spray or mist of oil droplets that
may extend up to 12 meters from the break. The flammable oil spray is ignited readily by
hot surfaces, such as heated or molten metal, electric heaters, open flames or welding arcs.
The resulting fire usually is torch-like with a very high rate of heat release.
5.5.2.1 The dry section of the paper machine is one of the most fire critical areas. Heat
sources are present which are used to dry the paper and therefore the paper
becomes drier along the entire section, making ignition increasingly easy. Any
paper jam with continuing drying action may lead to a fire. This entire section
usually is housed in by a hood. The dry section shall be protected by either sprinkler
systems according to NFPA 13 or a water mist system according to NFPA 750,
Water Mist Fire Protection. Detection is usually achieved by flame detectors. These
activated valves are a high pressure water system that generates a water mist in
one specific area only. The advantage of the mist system compared to sprinklers is
a reduced amount of water with a high cooling effect, but still essentially no damage
to the equipment due to a strong quenching effect with a large volume. Where
sprinkler or other specific protective systems are already installed, the installation of
a water mist system is not necessary.
5.5.2.2 The drive and operating side of a paper machine shall be protection by a sprinkler
or water mist system. The pump systems that are typically located in the basement

of the paper machine shall be protected by either a sprinkler system according to
NFPA 13 or foam-water sprinkler systems according to NFPA 16. More protection
details can be found in the FM Global Standard 7-98, Hydraulic Fluids. If the area is
already protected by standard sprinklers, an upgrade is required in cases where the
oil could contaminate fire extinguishing water. Fixed and flexible piping as well as
connection shall be regularly inspected to detect signs of corrosion or aging which
should be corrected at the earliest possible time. Where sprinkler protection is not
installed or available, fixed piping shall be installed to allow foam application by the
fire brigade into the area.
5.3.2.3 To eliminate the possibility of leads of oil under pressure, fixed fire protection non-
combustible guards shall be positioned over flanges, valves or threaded sections on
the oil system. These are the areas where a leak is most likely to occur. According
to tests carried out by independent companies and computer simulations, 3.9 bar is
the minimum operating pressure of oil that could generate a fire. A guard will
prevent oil spray exposing nearby equipment, limiting the potential for ignition of the
oil spray and preventing an oil mist from developing.
5.6 Paper Reel Storage

Fire risks in this area arise from sparks from the fork lift, overheating of the lamps or possible cable
traces, ignoring the smoking ban and arson. The reel paper warehouse is often constructed as one
building or one fire section area, separated from adjacent areas. Storage of paper reels can create
particular fire hazards. The most likely material to be ignited is loose paper material, e.g. discarded
wrappers, loose ends and loose paper on damaged reels. Damaged reels should be wrapped or
taped on delivery. Where reels are stacked vertically in columns, there will inevitably be gaps
between the columns. In the event of a fire starting at the bottom of the stack the gap will constitute
a chimney. Rapid burning will follow as air drawn in at the bottom will accelerate up the chimney,
typically to a speed of approximately 15 metres per second. The rate of burning increases rapidly
with increasing stack height. This rapid vertical flame spread is compounded by rapid horizontal
spread when the layers of paper begin to unwind. This type of fire may be difficult or impossible to
control with conventional sprinklers. The risk of rapid fire is therefore reduced if reels are not
stacked on end. In-process storage must not exceed 50 m2 of lightweight roll paper or 100 m2 of
medium-weight or heavyweight roll paper max 1.5 meters high. Stacks of any grade of roll paper
must be stored with a max height of 4.5 meters with no combustibles within a 4.5 meters distance of
the stacks. In an automated warehouse, reels can be stored up to 15 meters high.

Paper reel storage constitutes a particular hazard, as there is a fire load which in part is
difficult to extinguish as the reels are usually stored on end and therefore the paper peels
off burning, leading to further spread of a fire. The dense storage of reels prevents the fire
brigade from getting access to the seat of a fire. In addition, space between reels acts a
chimney, increasing the speed of fire development. Paper reels cannot be moved by hand
due to their weight and size. They shall not obstruct emergency exits. Emergency exit
routes shall be clearly marked on the floor and they must be controlled as remaining free at
all times. In the same way, access to wall hydrants and fire extinguishers shall be observed.

Reels peeling off their outer layer are easy to ignite even by simple ignition sources.
Therefore any reels starting to peel must be taken to packaging immediately for repair of
the wrapping. There are few ignition sources in a paper reel warehouse, e.g. battery
charging stations, cleaning stations for soot filters of diesel forklift trucks or metal halide
lamps. Charging stations can have electrical faults leading to a small cable fire that would
not do much damage if no fire load is within reach of the fire. Soot filters are cleaned by
heating them up to burn the collected soot. So they are an important heat source. Metal
halide lamps get very hot in normal operation. If they fracture, hot particles can fall onto
paper and ignite it. Metal halide lamps must have protective glass underneath in order to
catch hot particles in case of a tube fracturing. All ignition sources must be separated from
the storage area, either by forming separate fire areas for them, which is relatively easy to
achieve for battery charging stations and soot filter cleaning stations, or by keeping a
minimum distance of 3 meters from combustible material for such activities.

If the storage is properly separated by fire walls equivalent to F90and fire brigade coverage
is available, sprinkler protection may be omitted, but fire detection shall be installed. This
arrangement will not guarantee that an incipient fire will actually be controlled by the fire
brigade, but it will allow protective measures to be taken for the surrounding areas. Fire
detection systems shall be installed according to NFPA 72.
5.6.2.1 In order to have sufficient fire-fighting capacity, even for the beginning of a fire and
in order to reach far and high with the extinguishing agent, hand held extinguishers
must not be the only source. Wall hydrants shall be installed in these warehouses
with non-collapsible hoses attached to them. Hydrant locations and hose lengths
shall be chosen so as to cover each point in the warehouse.
5.6.2.2 If the reel paper storage is not fully separated from production by a fire section
equivalent to F90, the storage area shall be protected by sprinklers according to
NFPA 13, Chapter 19. Maximum storage height for medium weight paper (up to 100
g/m²) is 7.6 meters. For heavy weight paper, storage up to a maximum of 9.1
meters is possible, but only with ESFR sprinklers. Installation of sprinklers shall be
carried out according to the standard NFPA 13.
5.7 Paper Cutting

Paper is mostly not sold as reel but cut into the sizes. During this cutting process, waste material is
generated, which is transported away by mechanical or pneumatic transport systems. Fires have
spread throughout such pneumatic systems backwards from the waste compactor all the way to the
cutting machines. Cut-offs also tends to accumulate at the cutting machines.

A regular cleaning plan shall be organised to clean away cut-offs and to clean the waste
handling system to prevent accumulation of cut-offs and dust in these systems.
5.7.2 Structural Fire Protection

The cutting area shall be separated from reel storage or final product storage by fire
divisions according to F90 standard. If this separation is difficult to achieve due to the
existing building structure or the material flow, a water curtain system shall be installed. As
the fire load in cutting is substantially higher than in the paper production area a fire
separation between these two areas should be established if business interruption due to a
fire spreading from cutting to paper production would be high.

The entire area shall be fitted with automatic fire detection according to NFPA 72. In cases
where burning back could be an issue where the fire would not be started by a spark in the
system but would burn into the system from e.g. a fire at the compactor, fast closing vent
shutters should be installed to prevent the fire spread. In large cutting units or where the fire
division to paper production, reel or final product storage are insufficient, sprinkler
protection shall be installed according to NFPA 13.
5.8 Rack Storage

Storage in racks uses combinations of vertical, horizontal and diagonal members with or without
solid shelves to support stored material. Racks may be fixed-in-place or portable. Loading may be
either conducted manually by using lift trucks, stacker cranes and manual placement or
automatically by using machine-controlled storage and retrieval system. Rack storage that is void of
any solid shelves within the storage array and has adequate flue spaces to allow rapid vertical fire
growth (minimising horizontal fire spread). For rack storage to qualify as open-framed it must have
adequate transverse flue spaces throughout the height of the rack at least every 2.7 meters
horizontally and be void of blocked transverse flue spaces. Open-frame racks can be equipped with
solid shelves provided that the solid shelves are fixed-in-place, no larger than 2.0 m 2 in area and do
not block transverse flue spaces. Multiple-row racks with butted storage can be treated as open-
frame racks if the racks are void of solid shelves, have pallet loads butted in one direction, a
minimum 75 mm net clear width transverse flue spaces on each side of each butted row and a
minimum net 150 mm wide longitudinal flue space and a maximum of every 4.8 meters horizontally.
The storage racks can also be provided with grated shelves as long as the grating is at least 70%
uniformly open, or they can be provided with fixed-in-place solid slats as long as adequate
transverse flue spaces are provided between all pallet loads. Rack storage can create large
shielded areas with no chance for sprinkler water penetration when rack storage having solid
shelves. The degree of shielding is depending on the total area and the obstruction to water
penetration.
Portable racks are not fixed-in-place. They can be arranged in any number of configurations and
include wire baskets without solid sides and bottoms and open-top containers without solid sides
but with solid bottoms. Five-sided open-top combustible containers with solid sides and bottoms are
treated as open-top combustible containers. Portable rack storage of finished products constitutes a
high fire load and a considerable risk. Rack storage fires basically cannot be controlled by the fire
brigade because no safe approach to the seat of a fire is possible as racks can collapse without
warning at any time. If the rack storage is not separated from production by appropriate fire walls, a
fire could develop to a very large size and then spread to production.

All ignition sources shall be separated from the storage area either by forming separate fire
areas of F90 standard or by keeping a minimum distance of 3 m from combustible material
for such activities.

The storage area shall be separated from production by a fire division of F90 standard. If
this separation is difficult to achieve due to the existing building structure or the material
flow a water curtain system shall be installed.

An automatic fire detection system shall be installed if the rack storage is separated from
production by appropriate fire walls (from F90 to F180 depending on fire load) or water
curtains and finished goods do not exceed one month of production. In this case the
sprinklers can be omitted. The automatic fire detection system shall be installed according
to NFPA 72. Rack storage shall be protected with sprinklers. For storage heights exceeding
3.7 meters ordinary sprinklers are only possible with one level of in rack sprinklers, unless
special ceiling sprinklers like CMSA (Control Mode Special Application, large drop sprinkler)
or ESFR (Early Suppression Fast Response) are installed. Maximum storage height, even
with these special sprinkler types, is 10.6 meters (CSMA) and 12.2 meters (ESFR). Solid
shelves are not allowed. The applicable code is NFPA 13, Chapter 16.
5.9 Flammable Liquids Store

Flammable liquids used in paper mills usually are of higher flash point, e.g. hydraulic and heat
transfer oils. The storage of these liquids does not constitute a high risk of a fire starting but once
involved in a fire, the fire load is considerable and difficult to deal with. These liquids are mainly
petroleum-based and used in the HTF-Systems and hydraulic systems. These storage areas are
constructed as one fire section or one separated building. The stored liquids can be classified into
different types. The current liquid classification scheme is provided in NFPA 30, Flammable and
Combustible Liquids Code. Flammable liquids have closed-cup flash points <38°C and vapour
pressures not exceeding 2.76 bar at 38°C. Flammable liquids are referred to as Class 1 Liquids and
are subdivided as follows:
Class IA Liquids: flash points below 23°C and boiling points below 38°C.
Class IB Liquids: flash points below 23°C and boiling points at or above 38°C.
Class IC Liquids: flash points at or above 23°C and below 38°C.
Combustible Liquids have closed-cup flash points at or above 38°C. They are referred to as either
Class II or Class III liquids and are subdivided as follows:
Class II liquids: flash points at or above 38°C and below 60°C.
Class IIIA liquids: flash points at or above 60°C and below 93°C.
Class IIIB liquids: flash points at or above 93°C.
The current liquid classification scheme followed by the U.S. Transportation Code and U.N.
Transportation Recommendations classify flammable liquids into two basic groups:

Flammable Liquid — Flash Point ≤ 60.6°C.
Combustible Liquid — Flash Point > 60.6°C and < 93°C.
The fire hazard of a flammable liquid is determined by both inherent physical properties of the liquid
and external factors such as container construction, container size, storage arrangement and
building construction factors. Two measures of fire severity are heat release rate and flame height.
For liquid fires the heat release rate is controlled by the surface area of the liquid, the liquid’s heat of
combustion and the mass loss rate of the liquid. The flame height is controlled by the fire’s heat
release rate. The heat of combustion and mass loss rate are physical properties of the liquid. The
surface area available to burn is dependent on numerous external factors such as liquid release
method (spray release, liquid stream and catastrophic mass release), floor surface and pitch (rough
surface and/or floor pitch will limit liquid spread) and container construction (combustible/non-
combustible). Control of ignition sources such as matches, fired heating equipment and hot work
must be strictly controlled in and around areas storing flammable liquids. Any open flame or spark
has ample energy to ignite flammable vapours released by flammable liquids. Since the vapours are
heavier than air, they have the ability to flow away from the point of release. Hot work or an open
flame well away from a liquid spill can ignite the spill if the vapours flow to the work area.
Flammable liquids are either stored in metal or conductive plastic containers.

Flammable liquids shall not be stored with together with any other combustible material or
equipment that could act as a source of fire.

Flammable liquids storage shall be separated from other areas by F90 walls.

These storage areas shall be equipped with an automatic fire detection system according to
NFPA 72. Fixed fire-fighting installations shall be provided as fire-fighting inside the storage
area is very difficult. These can be from fixed piping with foam nozzles that can be fed by
the fire brigade from the outside, to fully automatic foam extinguishing systems, e.g.
sprinkler systems with foam addition. The choice of system to use depends on the response
time and equipment of the fire brigade.

Chapter 6
Fire Hazards and Precautions for Converting Operations
Handling Flammable Substances
Fire hazards are present in converting operations that store, handle, use and dispose of flammable
substances and precaution must be set out to protect people and assets. In particular, SDMS PR 19.9,
Control of Ignition Sources in Hazardous Areas applies requiring that the “introduction of ignition
sources has to be controlled to prevent the ignition of flammable mixtures of gas/air (…)”.
6.1 Vapours
Ignitable liquids create vapours which present an explosion hazard. The liquid must be dispersed either as
a vapour or mist in air to create a premixed fuel-air mixture within the flammable range. The liquid
dispersion can occur when a liquid is heated and vapours are released or through mechanical means. In
either case, there needs to be enough fuel-air mixture within the contained space to create damaging
overpressure when it ignites. A vapour-air explosion is the rapid combustion of a flammable vapour and air
which produces heat, light and an increase in pressure. A vapour-air explosion can occur when flammable
vapour and air are present in a confined space within the vapour’s flammable (explosive) range and when
the mixture becomes ignited. If unvented, the developed pressure may reach six to nine times the initial
absolute pressure. Boiling-liquid expanding-vapour explosions occur when a confined liquid is heated
above its atmospheric boiling point by an exposure fire and suddenly released by rupture of the closed
container. Part of the heated liquid immediately flashes to vapour and is ignited by the exposure fire,
releasing heat at a lower rate than the vapour-air explosion but for a longer period of time. Explosion
damage is largely the result of pressure created by rapidly expanding gases in a confined space.
Conditions under which explosive mixtures may accumulate shall be eliminated or carefully controlled by
providing adequate ventilation to dilute the vapours, using an inert atmosphere or by other means. The
effects of an explosion are reduced and controlled by explosion vents or damage-limiting building
construction. Explosions can be prevented by reducing heat input to the closed mixer or container or by
bleeding off excess pressure. Heat input rates can be reduced by insulation, by burying or mounding the
vessel or by automatic sprinklers or water spray. Excessive pressure can be prevented by atmospheric
vent pipes, relief valves, bursting disks or safety bungs. Conditions that impact the creation of an
explosion hazard include:
 Amount of fuel released.
 Rate of fuel vaporisation.
 Enclosure volume.
 Air movement within the enclosure.
 Release scenario (i.e., high-pressure spray, elevated 3-D spill, loss of containment above a
boiling liquid or vaporisation of a spilled liquid).
The potential for an explosion hazard exists when any of the following applies:
 An ignitable liquid is handled/processed/used at or above its atmospheric boiling point and has a
closed-cup flash point at or below 218°C.
 The process uses an ignitable liquid with a boiling point at or below 38°C.

 Equipment with a defined explosion hazard occupies more than 10% of the room/ building’s
volume and is not protected as defined in this clause.

The following measure shall be adopted for flammable liquids:
6.1.1.1 A good housekeeping programme for ignitable liquid areas shall be implemented
that adheres to this Code.
6.1.1.2 Spills shall be cleaned-up promptly.
6.1.1.3 Adequate aisles to permit unobstructed movement of personnel and access for fire-
fighting must be maintained.
6.1.1.4 Other combustibles must not be stored in the area including any material that might
wash into or plug drains.

Ventilation systems must be designed to confine, dilute and remove the normal amount of
flammable vapour released from leaks of ignitable liquids stored in mixers or containers.
Adequately designed low-level ventilation will reduce the chances of a flammable vapour-air
mixture accumulating in the process area. An adequately designed system will provide a
sweeping air movement across all floor areas in the process building or cut-off room. The
continuous low-level mechanical exhaust ventilation shall be designed to provide 0.3
m³/min/m² of floor area in rooms or buildings where the following are used:
6.1.2.1 Ignitable liquids with flash points <38°C.
6.1.2.2 Ignitable liquids with flash points <149°C that are heated above their flash point.
6.1.2.3 Design ventilation to confine flammable vapour concentrations >25% of their lower
explosive limit (LEL) to within 0.6 m of points of release (e.g., open mixing or dip
tanks, dispensing stations).
The ventilation system shall be located to take suction within 0.3 m of the floor. Intake
openings at open tank lips, near equipment or dispensing and in any pits located within the
cut-off room or within 8 m of operations that produce vapour shall be extracted. Exhaust
fans shall be interlocked with equipment power supplies. However, if ignitable liquids are
kept in the room or building during idle periods, the exhaust ventilation shall be designed to
operate continuously and plant/ equipment shall be monitored (provide visual or audible
ventilation-failure alarms at occupied locations).
6.2 Combustible Dusts

Any time a combustible dust is processed or handled, a potential for deflagration exists. The degree of
deflagration hazard varies, depending on the type of combustible dust and processing methods used. A
dust explosion occurs when a combustible dust with a dispersion in air or other oxidant at or exceeding
the minimum explosible concentration (MEC) in a confined space. An ignition source such as an
electrostatic discharge, an electric current arc, a hot surface, welding slag, frictional heat or a flame must
be present. In addition to the explosion hazard, combustible dusts can present a fire hazard that must be
controlled. Any dust accumulations outside of equipment present a potential for a secondary explosion
and shall be removed and the source of the release eliminated. NFPA654:2006 (Combustible Dusts)

warns that more than 0.8mm of dust over 5% of a room’s surface area presents a major/ significant
explosion hazard.

Any accumulations of fugitive dust present a potential for a secondary explosion and must
be eliminated in buildings without damage-limiting construction and controlled in those with
such construction. The dust-cleaning frequency shall be based on preventing
accumulations of more than 0.8 mm thickness over more than 5% of the room floor area.
The total area of accumulation shall not exceed 90 m 2. An effective maintenance
programme of production and protection equipment shall be applied including following:
6.2.1.1 Test and maintain spark detection and extinguishing systems, explosion isolation
devices and relief vents to ensure they are in working order per manufacturer’s
guidelines or at least monthly.
6.2.1.2 Test and maintain metal and non-metal detection and extraction equipment to
ensure they are in working order at least quarterly.
6.2.1.3 Check belts and rotating equipment for alignment at least quarterly to prevent these
becoming a source of friction heating.
6.2.1.4 Lubricate bearings and rotating equipment (fans, blowers, size-reduction
equipment) in accordance with manufacturer’s guidelines or at least quarterly.
6.2.1.5 Regularly remove accumulated dust on rotating equipment bearings and
components to insure free movement and prevent friction heating.
6.3 Raw Materials Store

The raw material (plastic film, paper reels, granulate material) are stored either in separate
buildings, or storage areas adjacent to the production areas. The granulate material is mainly stored
on pallets up to 2.0 meters high, while the plastic film and paper reels are stored either on ground or
in racks. Due to the high fire loads, this area is mainly constructed as one fire section area. Fire
risks in this area arise from sparks from the forklift, overheating of the lamps or possible cable
traces, ignoring the smoking ban and arson. A possible fire in this area could spread through wall
openings, if not closed with fire resistant material, to the adjacent areas.

All ignition sources shall be separated from the storage area, either by forming separate fire
areas of F90 standard for them, which is relatively easy to achieve for battery charging
stations and soot filter cleaning stations, or by keeping a minimum distance of 3 m from
combustible material for such activities.

Due to the high fire load present, plastics storage areas shall be separated by F90
separations from any production area or other critical area. Any openings in the walls must
be properly sealed to the same fire resistance level. Any new opening in the wall due to
changes of ducts or cabling must be sealed immediately upon completion of the work.

To control an intense fire expected in a plastics storage area, sprinklers shall be installed.
As plastics fires are difficult to control by pure water, automatic foam addition to the
sprinkler shall be installed according to NFPA 16.
6.3.3.1 For storage areas up to 1000 m² with block storage on the ground up to 2 m height
only an exception from sprinkler protection is acceptable provided that the following
other organisational, structural and technical fire protection measures are in place:
6.3.3.1.1 An effective fire brigade shall be available.
6.3.3.1.2 Automatic fire detection according to NFPA 72 shall be installed.
6.3.3.1.3 The area should form a proper fire compartment as per the F90 standard.
6.3.3.1.4 A manual 50 kg foam extinguisher shall be provided near the entrance
and/or emergency exit.
6.3.3.1.5 Fixed piping shall be installed to allow foam application by the fire brigade
into the area from the outside.
6.3.3.1.6 To avoid sources of fire in this high fire load area, battery charging
stations shall be placed in separate fire areas or outside the area. If this is
not feasible, a distance of at least 2.5 m shall be observed between the
battery charging area and any combustible material.
6.3.3.1.7 Lighting shall be installed with protective covers and in rack storage areas
only above the aisles, not above racks. Starters of fluorescent lighting
units shall be equipped with safety starters to avoid overheating of the
fluorescent tubes when the starters fail to ignite.
6.3.3.1.8 No other sources of ignition shall be installed in these storage areas.
6.3.3.1.9 No storage of other hazardous materials such as flammable liquids shall
be allowed.
6.4 Inks Store

Ink storage and mixing is adjacent to the production area. Solvent-based liquids present a fire risk.
Suitable containers shall be used and flammable materials should be stored preferably in metal
containers, either on the ground or in racks. All containers compliant with supply and transport
regulations will be acceptable (appropriate UN Performance Tested Type). Where fragile, plastic-
based containers are used, a dedicated storage location and specified handling procedures should
ensure physical protection and containment in a case of fire. The area is always constructed as one
fire section due to high fire loads. The amount of fire loads in this area, demands fire rated walls
and doors with a fire resistance of up to 180 minutes. If the openings in the walls are not properly
sealed with fire-rated material (same resistance as the wall), a fire could spread to the adjacent
area either through the openings in the walls or over the roof. If the ventilation system is not
operating properly, vapours could accumulate and a possible spark or short circuit could ignite the
atmosphere in this area. A vapour-air explosion is the rapid combustion of a flammable vapour and
air which produces heat, light and an increase in pressure. A vapour-air explosion can occur when
flammable vapour and air are present in a confined space within the vapour’s explosive range and
when the mixture becomes ignited. If unvented, the developed pressure may reach six to nine times
the initial absolute pressure. The severity of a fire is also dependent on the heat release rate. The
heat release rate for flammable or combustible liquid fire is greater than that of other combustibles

because they have a high heat of combustion, favourable geometry and good combustion
efficiency. The fluid properties of flammable/combustible liquids tend to create large surface areas
when the liquids are released (unconfined liquid spill will spread over a large floor area; pressurised
liquids can be released in the form of small drops or a mist). These properties influence the fire
spread as a fire will expand over the full area of a spill or spray.

The area shall not be used to store any other materials or equipment than used and needed
in the mixing and storage operations.

The area shall form a proper fire compartment as per the F90 standard.

The area shall be properly ventilated, either by passive or active ventilation according to
applicable standards. The area shall be properly equipped with appropriate pressure relief
construction or system in order to prevent too high an over-pressure developing during an
explosion which would be harmful to people and also damage the building and separating
structures. All equipment shall be properly bonded and grounded to prevent the built up of
static charges. This also applies to buckets, drums and containers during transfer of
flammable liquids. Electrical installations in the area shall be of explosion proof design.
Automatic fire detection shall be installed according to NFPA 72. The best form of detector
is most likely flame detectors. Vapour detectors shall be installed to detect any developing
explosive atmosphere caused by a leakage or spill. A mobile 50 kg foam extinguisher shall
be provided, preferably near the entrance and/or emergency exit. An automatic gaseous fire
extinguishing system shall be installed. This could either be CO2 or systems based on other
inert gases. Where foam sprinkler systems are already installed, gaseous extinguishing
systems do not need to be installed in addition. This shall be applied in storage areas where
solvent based inks are stored and mixed. Fixed piping shall be installed to allow foam
application by the fire brigade into the area from the outside. Where foam sprinkler systems
are already installed, fixed piping does not need to be installed in addition.
6.5 Converting Area - Presses, Extruders and Silicone Machines

The production area contains several flexographic presses, extruders or silicon and laminator
machines. The fire hazard within a printing press and laminators is tied to the media being printed
or coated to (plastic film, paper), the inks and/or solvents, hydraulic systems, heat transfer fluid
(HTF) systems, pneumatic systems, electrical wiring and potential combustible deposits created by
dust and ink residue. Very few fire scenarios involving any of these exposures will result in thermal
damage or water damage to adjacent presses, which should limit severe press damage to a single
press. Rolled stock (paper or plastic film) storage creates a significant fire hazard that will produce
large quantities of smoke and water. Flammable or combustible liquid storage and mixing
operations also create severe fire hazards that will produce extreme temperatures, black smoke
and because they are liquids, can spread fire across large areas. Using walls, curbs and drains will
eliminate the potential exposure created by either of these hazards to the printing equipment.

One significant hazard in many printing occupancies is the use of liquids that will burn. These
liquids create severe growing fire hazards if they are not controlled. A printing press alone can
contain flammable or combustible inks, solvents, hydraulic oils, lube oils and HTF liquids. Most are
pumped to and/or within the press and must be shut-down in the event of a fire or damage to the
press will be severe because there are no fire protection systems that can extinguish a flowing
liquid fire. In most cases, shutting down the flow of flammable or combustible liquid to and/or within
the press will allow provided protection to limit thermal and no thermal damage at the press.
Another hazard that is often overlooked is the pneumatic system. Many presses use air to control
various aspects of their operation and the air is delivered in flexible hoses. If a hose melts through
during a fire and the air is not shut down the pressurised air will provide extra oxygen to the fire and
increase its severity. In many cases printers store or stage quantities of flammable or combustible
inks and solvents adjacent to the presses.
Accumulations of combustible dust inside a building create the potential for a dust explosion. All
dust-handling equipment creates the potential for dust explosions within the equipment and outside
the equipment if the equipment vents into a building.

The area shall not be used to store any other materials or equipment than actually used
and needed in the operations. Storage of paper and foil reels in preparation must be
reduced to the minimum practical. A distance of 2.5 meters shall be observed between reel
storage and machines. If more than three reels are stored per printing or laminating
machine, the storage area shall be equipped with sprinklers according to NFPA 13.
Accumulation of dust inside the machines must be prevented by regular cleaning cycles. In
the same way, paper and plastic film cut-offs shall be cleaned away regularly. As heat
transfer oil is pumped through the system, ink is mostly supplied centrally by pumps from
the mixing room, hydraulic oils are under pressure and compressed air is used for
pneumatic controls. Leaks in any of these systems can create severe fire hazards.
Therefore the emergency shut-down button of the machine shall deactivate all these
supplies and render them pressure-free. All equipment shall be properly bonded and
grounded to prevent the build-up of static charges. This also applies to buckets, drums and
containers during transfer of flammable liquids. Accumulation of dust inside the machines
shall be prevented by regular cleaning cycles. In the same way, paper and plastic film cut-
offs shall be cleaned away regularly.
6.5.1.1 Static eliminator systems must be cleaned and tested periodically. The formal
preventive and predictive maintenance programme for press must comprise unit
bearings, drive motors, clutches, gearboxes, dryer fans and combustion blowers. In
addition, a formal preventive maintenance and testing programme for all fuel-fired
equipment burner safety controls is required. LFL detection systems and interlocks
on press dryers and thermal oxidizer units must be maintained, tested and
calibrated in accordance with OEM specifications. Dryers and thermal oxidizing
equipment must also be maintained in accordance with OEM specifications.
6.5.1.2 Flammable liquids shall only be placed in the area in the amount directly necessary
for production. When transferring ignitable liquids to press room areas open
containers shall not be allowed and a short route from storage to use shall be
established avoiding warehousing areas. Transport shall be limited to a maximum

of one pallet load at a time with product containers properly secured. No transport
shall be allowed when building fire protection is impaired.
6.5.1.3 If solvent cleaning is used the amounts of solvent, ignition sources, flammable
vapour generation and cleaning rags must be controlled. As a minimum, the
following applies:
6.5.1.3.1 Control all ignition sources and remain for cleaning in the zoned area.
Allow hot surfaces to cool before cleaning them.
6.5.1.3.2 Use an approved safety cans to transport and dispense solvent and limit
solvent use to no more than 20L. Laboratory type plastic dispenser bottles
shall only be used at sizes up to 0.5L and only where needed for reasons
of limited access to machine parts for cleaning.
6.5.1.3.3 Use cleaning rags or other materials that can be wetted with solvent,
never use a mop to disperse solvent or pour solvent onto the web or floor.
6.5.1.3.4 Ensure low-level mechanical ventilation is provided to limit vapour
accumulation to 10% or less of the solvent’s lower explosive limit/lower
flammable limit.
6.5.1.3.5 Properly dispose of cleaning rags in sealed metal containers.
6.5.1.3.6 Provide a properly rated portable fire extinguisher in the area.
6.5.1.3.7 Where possible, use a solvent with a closed-cup flash point higher than
60°C.
6.5.1.3.8 When manual cleaning is conducted on a lithograph press, have the web
removed and the dryer shut down but maintain safety ventilation.
6.5.1.3.9 Establish cleaning frequencies for automatic blanket and cylinder washes.
Base frequencies on OEM recommendations as a minimum and change
them if needed, based on observations of residue accumulations during
use. Maintain automatic blanket wash per the press OEM specifications
so they continue to operate properly. Always visually check the press for
unusual conditions, such as fire, before initiating an automatic blanket
wash using ignitable wash solvent. Establish an instruction for manual
application of blanket wash to the press in accordance with the dryer
manufacturer’s specifications.
6.5.1.4 Combustible dusts must be controlled by inspecting dust-producing areas weekly
for dust accumulations. When dust accumulations are found, they shall be
immediately cleaned-up with a vacuum-type system. Dust must never be blown with
compressed air. The source of the leak in the dust-collection system shall be
identified and promptly repaired. Ducts and areas above suspended ceilings must
be inspected every six months for accumulations of paper or other combustible
dust. Pressure drop across filters of press dust collection systems must be
monitored and filters that have become plugged shall be replaced. Plugged filters
reduce air flow and increase dust loading on the press and in the duct. Equipment
that generates combustible dust and the surrounding areas shall be kept dust-free
as possible using automatic dust-collection equipment. In the event of an accidental
dust release, only use vacuuming for cleaning up the dust shall be used. Cleaning
schedules for (a) presses, (b) ink troughs, (c) folders, (d) dryers, (e) slitters, (f) dust
collection ducts, (g) baler rooms, (h) areas below the press sand (i) oil-collection

pans shall be established. Continuous residue accumulations between press units
of greater than 1.5 mm high-density dust to 3 mm low-density dust above or below
the press operating floor shall be allowed with cleaning frequencies recorded. The
accumulation of paper scrap, ignitable liquids and cleaning rags shall be prevented.
Ducts, areas above suspended ceilings and all pit areas shall be inspected at least
every six months for accumulations of ink mist. Clean as necessary. Redesign of
the ventilation system may be needed where frequent cleaning is required.
6.5.1.5 Provide hazardous-area-rated electrical equipment in areas with flammable
vapours/gases or combustible dusts. The drawings should be used to determine
what type of equipment rating is needed and where the equipment is needed.
Areas where Class I, Division 1 and 2 classified electrical equipment is needed for a flexography press using low-
flash point ignitable inks.
Where Class I, Division 1 and 2 classified electrical equipment is needed for a rotogravure press using low-
flash point inks and where Class II, Division 2 classified electrical equipment is needed within and below the
folder sound enclosure.

It must be ensured that the equipment chosen is appropriate for the hazard:
Class I Rated Equipment - Flammable vapours or gases, Division 1 or 2, Zone 0, 1,
or 2
Class II Rated Equipment - Combustible dusts, Division 1 or 2 (US) or Zone 20 or
21 (IEC).
Means to eliminate static electricity for all press types shall be provided. Copper
tinsel (tacker bars) have been found effective on presses. Bonding and grounding
when transferring any ignitable liquid that is at or above its closed-cup flash point
must be applied. Establish a formal procedure on static electricity control and
prevention.

Automatic fire detection shall be installed according to NFPA 72 (see a printing deck
installation on right image and an exhaust spark detection system on middle image below).
The automatic gaseous fire extinguishing system shall be installed in the printing machines
at the print rolls and ink trays and in laminating machines and laminating parts which are
using solvent based inks. This could be either CO 2 or systems based on other inert gases.
Solvent-based silicon machines shall be protected by an automatic gaseous fire

extinguishing system (see left image above). If solvents are used at the silicone and
coatings machines, the entire production area shall be equipped with sprinkler systems. If
the production area is already equipped with ceiling level sprinklers, additional sprinkler
protection shall be provided above the impregnation area of the press and above the print
rolls. Sprinklers shall be installed according to NFPA 13 for water sprinklers. If the
production area is already protected by foam-water sprinklers, installation above the
presses shall be completed according to NFPA 16. A manual 50 kg foam extinguisher shall
be provided, preferably in a central position where it can be reached easily.

6.6 Plastic Bags Converting
Typical converting processes are coating, laminating and printing utilising printing presses,
laminating, coating or slitting machines which may use flammable liquids or solvent-based inks. A
different process takes plastic webs and converts or changes the material into a final product.
For example, web processing might take a web of plastic film, cut it into lengths, fuses their
edges, thus converting it into plastic bags. The fire risks associated with these type of operations
are mainly associated with the storage areas but plastic web processing also contains significant
hazards. The fire hazards are mainly associated with the in-process storage of plastic films,
necessary for the daily production and temporary storage of plastic bags. Although these type of
converting areas do not contain printing machines or solvents, the fire hazards arising from
hydraulic systems, heat transfer fluid (HTF) systems, pneumatic systems, electrical wiring could
result in a fire which would severely damage the equipment and building structures.

The area shall not be used to store any other materials or equipment than actually used and
needed in web processing. Storage of paper and foil reels in preparation must be reduced
to the minimum practical. A distance of 2.5 meters shall be observed between reel storage
and machines. If more than three reels are stored per converting machine, sprinklers shall
be installed above the storage area according to NFPA 13. Accumulation of dust inside the
machines must be prevented by regular cleaning cycles. Paper and plastic film cut-offs shall
be cleaned away regularly.

The entire production shall be equipped with automatic fire detection in accordance to
NFPA 72. If more than three reels are stored per converting machine, sprinklers shall be
installed above the storage area according to NFPA 13.
6.7 Hydraulic Oil Systems

Many presses have hydraulic systems and plant air for controlling rollers on the press. The
hydraulic systems are usually part of the press and can vary in size from 110 L to over 379 L. A
press fire involving its hydraulic oil system will severely damage the press regardless of the system
size. A press fire that is fanned by the release of compressed air will burn hotter, causing increased
damage. Hydraulic systems mostly use mineral oil based fluids. Although these generally have high
flash points, they can be ignited when finely dispersed into a mist.

The area shall not be used to store any materials or equipment.

Where systems are placed in separate fire compartments and where sprinkler protection is
not installed and not available nearby at least fixed piping shall be installed to allow foam
application by the fire brigade into the area from the outside. Automatic fire detection shall
be installed according to NFPA 72. Thermal oil storage shall be protected with sprinkler
according to NFPA 13 or foam-water sprinkler systems according to NFPA 16. To eliminate

the possibility of leads of oil under pressure, fixed fire protection non-combustible guards
shall be positioned over flanges, valves or threaded sections on the oil system. These are
the areas where a leak is most likely to occur. According to tests carried out by independent
companies and computer simulations, 3.9 bar is the minimum operating pressure of oil that
could generate a fire. A guard will prevent oil spray exposing nearby equipment, limiting the
potential for ignition of the oil spray and preventing an oil mist from developing.
6.8 Finished Products Storage

The finished products (printed plastic film, coated paper) are stored in warehouse areas, mostly
constructed as one fire section area. The reels are stored on ground, up to 4.5 meters high. Fire
risks in this area arise from sparks from the forklift, overheating of the lamps or possible cable
traces, ignoring the smoking ban and arson. The finished products are also stored in racks. The
amount of fire load increases significantly compared to warehouses where the finished products are
stored on the ground. Racks may be fixed-in-place or portable. Loading may be either conducted
manually by using lift trucks, stacker cranes, or hand placement, or automatically by using machine-
controlled storage and retrieval systems. Rack storage that is void of any solid shelves within the
storage array and has adequate flue spaces to allow rapid vertical fire growth (minimising horizontal
fire spread). For rack storage to qualify as open-framed it must have adequate transverse flue
spaces throughout the height of the rack at least every 2.7 meters horizontally and be void of
blocked transverse flue spaces. Open-frame racks can be equipped with solid shelves provided that
the solid shelves are fixed-in-place, no larger than 2.0 m 2 in area and do not block transverse flue
spaces. Multiple-row racks with butted storage can be treated as open-frame racks if the racks are
void of solid shelves, have pallet loads butted in one direction, a minimum 75 mm net clear width
transverse flue spaces on each side of each butted row and a minimum net 150 mm wide
longitudinal flue space and a maximum of every 4.8 meters horizontally. The storage racks can also
be provided with grated shelves as long as the grating is at least 70% uniformly open, or they can
be provided with fixed-in-place solid slats as long as adequate transverse flue spaces are provided
between all pallet loads. Rack storage can create large shielded areas with no chance for sprinkler
water penetration when rack storage having solid shelves. The degree of shielding is depending on
the total area and the obstruction to water penetration. Portable racks are not fixed-in-place. They
can be arranged in any number of configurations and include wire baskets without solid sides and
bottoms and open-top containers without solid sides but with solid bottoms. Five-sided open-top
combustible containers with solid sides and bottoms are treated as open-top combustible
containers. Portable rack storage of finished products constitutes a high fire load and a
considerable risk. Rack storage fires basically cannot be controlled by the fire brigade because no
safe approach to the seat of a fire is possible as racks can collapse without warning at any time. If
the rack storage is not separated from production by appropriate fire walls, a fire could develop to a
very large size and then spread to production.

All ignition sources shall be separated from the storage area, either by forming separate fire
areas of F90 standard for them which is relatively easy to achieve for battery charging
stations and soot filter cleaning stations, or by keeping a minimum distance of 3 meters
from combustible material for such activities.

Finished goods storage areas shall be separated by F90 separations from any production
area or other critical area due to the high fire load present. Any openings in the walls must
be properly sealed to the same fire resistance level. Any new opening in the wall due to
changes of ducts or cabling must be sealed immediately upon completion of the work and is
part of that project.

Sprinklers shall be installed in order to control an intense fire expected in a plastics storage
area. The rack storage shall be protected either by foam-water sprinkler systems according
to NFPA 16 or water based sprinkler systems according to NFPA 13. For storage areas up
to 1000 m², where the stock value is less than € 3million, with reel storage on the ground up
to 4.5 meters height only, an exception from sprinkler protection is allowed provided that the
following six measures are in place:
6.8.3.1 An effective fire brigade shall be available.
6.8.3.2 Automatic fire detection according to NFPA 72 shall be installed.
6.8.3.3 The area shall form a proper fire compartment as per the F90 standard.
6.8.3.4 A manual 50 kg foam extinguisher shall be provided near the entrance and and/or
emergency exit.
6.8.3.5 Fixed piping shall be installed to allow foam application by the fire brigade into the
area.
6.8.3.6 To avoid sources of fire in this high fire load area, battery charging stations shall be
placed in separate fire areas or outside the area. If this is not feasible, a distance of
at least 2.5 meters shall be observed between the battery charging area and any
combustible material.
6.8.3.7 Lighting shall be installed with protective covers and in rack storage areas only
above the aisles, not above racks. Starters of fluorescent lighting units shall be
equipped with safety starters to avoid overheating of the fluorescent tubes when the
starters fail to ignite.
6.8.3.8 No other sources of ignition shall be installed in these storage areas.
6.8.3.9 No storage of more hazardous materials like flammable liquids shall be allowed.

Chapter 7
Fire Hazards and Precautions for Converting Operations
not Handling Flammable Substances
Fire hazards are present in converting operations and standards of precaution must be set out to protect
people and assets.
7.1 Reel Paper Storage

Reel paper, required for production, is often stored in areas adjacent to the production area.
Storage of paper reels can create particular fire hazards. The most likely material to be ignited is
loose paper material, e.g. discarded wrappers, loose ends and loose paper on damaged reels.
These problems need to be identified at an early stage. Damaged reels should be wrapped or taped
on delivery. Where reels are stacked vertically in columns, there will inevitably be gaps between the
columns. In the event of a fire starting at the bottom of the stack, the gap will constitute a chimney.
Rapid burning will follow as air drawn in at the bottom will accelerate up the chimney, typically to a
speed of approximately 15 meters per second. The rate of burning increases rapidly with increasing
stack height. This rapid vertical flame spread is compounded by rapid horizontal spread when the
layers of paper begin to unwind. This type of fire may be difficult or impossible to control with
conventional sprinklers. The risk of rapid fire is therefore reduced if reels are not stacked on end. In-
process storage should not exceed 50 m 2 of lightweight roll paper or 100 m 2 of medium-weight or
heavyweight roll paper max 1.5 meters high. Stacks of any grade of roll paper should be stored with
a max height of 4.5 meters with no combustibles within a 4.5 meters distance of the stacks. In an
automated warehouse, reels can be stored up to 15 meters high. If these requirements are fulfilled,
sprinkler protection is not required in the production area. Fire risks in this area arise from sparks
from the forklift, overheating of the lamps or possible cable traces, ignoring the smoking ban and
arson. The reel paper warehouse is often constructed as one building or one fire section area,
separated from adjacent areas.

Paper reels cannot be moved by hand due to their weight and size. They shall not obstruct
emergency exits. Therefore emergency exit routes should be clearly marked on the floor
and they must be free at all times. In the same way, access to wall hydrants and fire
extinguishers should be observed. Reels peeling off their outer layer are easy to ignite even
by simple ignition sources. Therefore any reels starting to peel must immediately be taken
to packaging to repair the wrapping. Metal halide lamps need to have protective glass
underneath in order to catch hot particles in the case of a tube fracturing. All ignition
sources shall be separated from the storage area, either by forming separate fire areas for
them, which is relatively easy to achieve for battery charging stations and soot filter
cleaning stations or by keeping a minimum distance of 3 meter from combustible material
for such activities.

The storage area shall be separated from other areas by F90 walls. If this separation is

difficult to achieve due to the existing building structure or the material flow, a water curtain
system shall be installed.

If the storage is properly separated by fire walls equivalent to F90and fire brigade coverage
is available, sprinkler protection may be omitted, but fire detection shall be installed. This
arrangement will not guarantee that an incipient fire will be controlled by the fire brigade, but
it will allow protective measures for the surrounding areas to be taken. Fire detection
systems shall be installed according to the NFPA 72 standard. In order to have sufficient
fire-fighting capacity even for a beginning fire and in order to reach far and high with the
extinguishing agent, hand held extinguishers shall not be the only source. Wall hydrants
with non-collapsible hoses attached to them shall be installed in these warehouses. Hydrant
locations and hose lengths shall be chosen so as to cover each point in the warehouse. If
the reel paper storage is not fully separated from production by a fire section equivalent to
F90, the storage area shall be protected by sprinklers according to the NFPA 13 standard,
Chapter 19. Maximum storage height for medium weight paper (up to 100 g/m²) is 7.6
meter. For heavy weight paper, storage up to a maximum of 9.1 meter is possible, but only
with ESFR sprinklers. Installation of sprinklers shall be carried out according to the NFPA
13 standard.
7.2 Corrugators, Converters and Presses

There are often several machines (converters) within the production area. The presses, contrary to
those once used for printing plastic films, mostly use water-based colours which are non-
combustible and therefore present a relatively smaller risk. Presses are often located in a separate
area, constructed as one fire section. Fires can accrue at the converter and spread to the adjacent
machines. A certain amount of finished products are often stored within the production area. This
increases the fire loads and the fire risk for this area. Fire risks in this area arise from sparks from
the machines, overheating of some machine parts or possible cable traces, ignoring the smoking
ban. The production area with the converters is constructed as one fire section.

During the corrugating process, stoppage of the material transport can lead to overheating
of the paper in the drying part. The corrugator area shall not be used to store any other
materials or equipment than is actually used and needed for production. To avoid
accumulation of paper scrap and along the corrugator, regular schedules of inspection and
cleaning must be conducted. The frequency depends on the observed accumulation over
time.

Corrugating shall be separated by a F90 fire division if the area is not equipped with
sprinklers-. If this separation is difficult to achieve due to the existing building structure or
the material flow, a water curtain system shall be installed.

Stoppage of the transport system is usually linked in the machine to a shut-down of the
heater. However, when the paper is cut, more paper may be transported into the heater
leading to a build-up of paper that then overheats and catches fire. A detection shall be
installed to monitor presence of paper after and before the dryer. In the case of paper being
present before but not after the dryer, an alarm shall sound and the heating and paper feed
shall shut off automatically. If there is a fire division to reel storage and to the cutting /
printing area, sprinklers may be omitted in the corrugator area, but then the entire building
shall be fitted with automatic fire detection according to the NFPA 72 standard. If there are
no fire division walls or water curtains to the reel storage and cutting area, the entire
production shall be protected by a sprinkler system according to the NFPA 13 standard.
7.3 Presses
During the stamping, cutting and printing process in corrugated production, waste material is
generated which is transported away by mechanical or pneumatic transport systems. Fires have
spread throughout such pneumatic systems backwards from the waste compactor all the way to the
cutting machines. Cut-offs also tend to accumulate at the cutting machines.

A regular cleaning plan shall be organised to clean away cut-offs and to clean the waste
handling system to prevent accumulation of cut-offs and dust in these systems.

In cases where burning back could be an issue where the fire would not be started by a
spark in the system but would burn into the system from e.g. a fire at the compactor, fast
closing vent shutters shall be installed to prevent the fire spread. Pneumatic waste handling
systems shall be fitted with automatic spark detection and suppression systems. The entire
production shall be protected by a fire detection system according to NFPA 72. If there are
no fire walls or water curtains to the reel storage, cutting area and finished products
storage, the entire production shall be protected by a sprinkler system according to the
NFPA 13 standard.
7.4 Bag Converting

During the converting process, stoppage of the material transport can lead to overheating of the
paper in the drying part.

Stoppage of the transport system shall be linked in the machine to a shut-down of the
heater.

The entire production shall be protected by a fire detection system according to the NFPA
72 standard.

7.5 Hydraulic Oil System
Many presses have hydraulic systems and plant air for controlling rollers on the press. The
hydraulic systems are usually part of the press and can vary in size from 110 L to over 379 L. A
press fire involving its hydraulic oil system will severely damage the press regardless of the system
size. A press fire that is fanned by the release of compressed air will burn hotter, causing increased
damage. High pressure pipe with welded and screwed joints, steel and copper tubing and metal-
reinforced rubber hose are used to conduct oil to the various units, at pressures ranging up to 69
MPa. Failure of piping, particularly at the threaded sections, failure of valves and gaskets or fittings,
pulling out of copper and steel tubing from fittings and rupture of flexible hoses have been the
principal causes of oil release from the system. Lack of adequate supports or anchorage to prevent
vibration or movement of piping has been a factor in these failures. Repeated flexing and abrasion
of rubber hose against other hoses or parts of machines have created weak spots, which eventually
resulted in rupture. Tubing under pressure has released oil when accidentally cut by welding
torches or stepped on during maintenance procedures. When hydraulic oil is released under
pressure, the usual result is an atomised spray or mist of oil droplets that may extend up to 12
meter from the break. The flammable oil spray is ignited readily by hot surfaces, such as heated or
molten metal, electric heaters, open flames or welding arcs. The resulting fire is usually torch-like
with a very high rate of heat release. Hydraulic systems mostly use mineral oil based fluids.
Although these generally have high flash points, they can be ignited when finely dispersed into a
mist.

The area shall not be used to store any materials or equipment.

Where systems are placed in separate fire compartments and where sprinkler protection is
not installed and not available nearby at least fixed piping shall be installed to allow foam
application by the fire brigade into the area from the outside. Automatic fire detection shall
be installed according to NFPA 72. To eliminate the possibility of leads of oil under
pressure, fixed fire protection non-combustible guards shall be positioned over flanges,
valves or threaded sections on the oil system. These are the areas where a leak is most
likely to occur. According to tests carried out by independent companies and computer
simulations, 3.9 bar is the minimum operating pressure of oil that could generate a fire. A
guard will prevent oil spray exposing nearby equipment, limiting the potential for ignition of
the oil spray and preventing an oil mist from developing.
7.6 Finished Products Storage

The finished products (bags and corrugated board) are stored in warehouse areas, mostly
constructed as one fire section area. These are packed in units and stored on ground or in racks.
Fire risks in this area arise from sparks from the forklift, overheating of the lamps or possible cable
traces, ignoring the smoking ban and arson.

To avoid sources of fire in this high fire load area, battery charging stations shall be placed
in separate fire areas or outside of the area. If this is not feasible, a distance of at least 2.5
meter shall be observed between the battery charging area and any combustible material.
Lighting shall be installed with protective covers and in rack storage areas only above the
aisles, not above racks. Starters of fluorescent lighting units shall be equipped with safety
starters to avoid overheating of the fluorescent tubes when the starters fail to ignite. No
other sources of ignition shall be installed in these storage areas. No storage of more
hazardous materials like flammable liquids shall be allowed.

The storage area shall be separated from production by a fire division as per the F90
standard.

Wall hydrants with dimensionally stable hoses should be installed. Where this is not
possible due to high costs of retrofitting in an existing plant, mobile 50 kg water or foam
extinguishers shall be placed in positions where they are easy to move to the place of a
starting fire. The entire storage area shall be equipped with automatic fire detection
according to NFPA 72. If this separation is difficult to achieve due to the existing building
structure or the material flow, a water curtain system shall be installed. If there are no fire
division walls to the reel storage, cutting area and production, the entire finished products
storage shall be protected by a sprinkler system according to the NFPA 13 standard.
7.7 Rack Storage

Rack storage precautions and requirements are defined in Chapter 6.5, Fire Hazards and
Precautions for Converting Operations Handling Flammable Substances: Finished Products
Storage. Rack storage of finished products constitutes a high fire load and a considerable risk. Rack
storage fires cannot be controlled by the fire brigade, because no safe approach to the seat of a fire
is possible, as racks can collapse without warning at any time. If the rack storage is not separated
from production by appropriate fire walls (from F90 to F180 depending on fire load), a fire could
develop to a very large size and then spread to production.

in separate fire areas or outside of the area. If this is not feasible, a distance of at least 2.5
meter shall be observed between the battery charging area and any combustible material.
Lighting shall be installed with protective covers and in rack storage areas only above the
aisles, not above racks. Starters of fluorescent lighting units shall be equipped with safety
starters to avoid overheating of the fluorescent tubes when the starters fail to ignite. No
other sources of ignition shall be installed in these storage areas. No storage of more
hazardous materials like flammable liquids shall be allowed.

in separate. The storage area shall be separated from production by a fire division of F90
standard. If this separation is difficult to achieve due to the existing building structure or the
material flow, a water curtain system shall be installed.

An automatic fire detection system shall be installed if the rack storage is separated from
production by appropriate fire walls (from F90 to F180 depending on fire load) or water
curtain systems and finished goods do not exceed one month of production. In this case the
sprinklers can be omitted. The automatic fire detection system shall be installed according
to NFPA 72. If these requirements are not fulfilled, rack storage shall be protected by
sprinklers. For storage heights exceeding 3.7 meter ordinary sprinklers are only possible
with one level of in-rack sprinklers, unless special ceiling sprinklers like CMSA (Control
Mode Special Application, large drop sprinkler) or ESFR (Early Suppression Fast
Response) are installed. Maximum storage height even with these special sprinkler types is
10.6 meter (CSMA) and 12.2 meter (ESFR). Solid shelves are not permitted in any case.
The applicable code is NFPA 13, Chapter 16.
7.8 Ink Storage

The stored Ink is mainly water based and therefore not flammable. Only the empty plastic
containers present the fire loads in this storage are. Some Operations may use flammable inks for
the presses. In that case the fire risk is significantly higher and the cause of a fire could be a spark
or a short circuit at the electrical equipment. The containers are either stored on the ground up to
2.0 meter high, or in racks.

Flammable liquids shall not be stored with together with any other combustible material or
equipment that could act as a source of fire. Empty plastic containers shall not be stored
close to buildings. The distance of the combustible yard storage to any building must be at
least 1.5 times the height of the building if the building or roof is combustible. In the case of
non-combustible, but not fire resistant construction, the distance must be at least equal to
the height of the building. Storage next to buildings is only permitted if the walls are fire
resistant at least to the F90 standard. For waste paper storage, these distances have to be
multiplied by 1.5. For storage directly adjacent to buildings, the wall has to be at least
F240and no hazard to the roof must be created from a fire.

the NFPA 72 standard.

Chapter 8
Fire Hazards and Precautions for Electrical Equipment,
Spare Parts Storage and Offices
Fire hazards are present in offices, spare parts storages and operating electrical equipment and standards
of precaution must be set out to protect people and assets.
8.1 Transformers, Switch Rooms, Cable Ducts or Trays

Electrical installations carry the risk of hidden faults, like faulty connections, imbalanced distribution
of phase load, overloading of components. Any one of these faults can lead to local overheating
and ultimately a fire. Electrical equipment is crucial for the power supply of a plant. High energy flow
combines with a generally low fire load. Yet the insulation material of cabling is usually combustible,
as is the insulating oil of transformers. Overload of components, bad electrical connections, power
surges are the most common sources of fires in these areas. In transformers, loss of insulating
properties of the transformer oil can lead to increased voltage jumps and eventually a transformer
explosion. Network transformers are considered separately from other types of transformers. A
network transformer can be energised from either primary or secondary winding. The failure rates
for network transformers are higher than for other types because the secondary electrical protection
is not adequate. Transformers shall be located within a room of fire resistant construction and/or
protection. The fire resistance of the construction depends on the quality of insulating fluid in the
largest transformer. Transformer rooms should be located on the outside wall where possible.
Outdoor transformers may be located on or adjacent to buildings as often happens with generating
station transformers and distribution transformers at manufacturing plants. They may also be
located in remote areas such as substations. Electrical cable ducts can combine significant portions
of the total electrical supply, especially in larger plants. A fire in such cable ducts not only leads to
an intense fire with release of high amounts of highly corrosive gases which cause severe damage
to equipment and buildings, but also lead to a severe business interruption.

Electrical rooms shall not be used to store any other equipment or material than what is
absolutely necessary for operating the electrical equipment in that room. Electrical cable
ducts, especially in underground tunnels, must be kept free of any storage of combustible
material. Installations shall be inspected at regular intervals. The most efficient technology
is infra-red thermography. This allows the detection of local heat spots at a very early stage
and can be carried out at full production. This maintenance service shall be carried out after
each new installation. Following this, it should be repeated annually. Should no problem
areas be detected during these checks, the interval can be extended to coincide with the
frequency required by authorities for the inspections of electrical installations. Transformer
oil shall be tested annually for thermal decomposition, dissolved gases and moisture
content. Testing shall be conducted by a qualified laboratory. For transformers of a special
sealed construction, the test interval can be extended up to the interval prescribed by the
manufacturer, but in any case not exceeding a maximum of five years.

Electrical equipment rooms shall be separated from other areas by F90 walls. Underground
tunnels for energy supply, especially also for BI critical cable ducts, shall be broken up into
fire sections of F90 standard every 100 meter.

Electrical switch rooms as well as process control rooms shall be equipped with an
automatic fire detection system according to NFPA 72. BI critical closed cabinets shall be
flooded with stationary CO2 systems. These must be NFPA, FM or UL approved. Especially
in closed electrical cabinets, the use of smoke aspiration systems can substantially improve
early detection and lead to an intervention long before an actual fire occurs or at least
before major damage is done. Temperature sensor cables shall be ducted together with the
power or signal cabling and linked into the fire detection system in order to detect
developing fires on BI critical open cable bridges. Underground tunnels for energy supply,
especially for BI critical cable ducts, shall be equipped with smoke detection systems
according to NFPA 72. The recommended methods of detection are smoke aspiration
systems, as they have the added advantage of providing advanced warning when cables
are heating up and emit gases from the insulation long before a fire actually starts.
BI critical enclosed cable bridges shall be equipped with smoke detection systems
according to NFPA 72. The recommended methods of detection are smoke aspiration
systems, as they have the added advantage of providing advanced warning when cables
are heating up and emit gases from the insulation long before a fire actually starts. BI
critical cable bridges shall be enclosed to make fire detection and fire-fighting more effective
due to the use of smoke aspiration systems and to protect the cables from environmental
influences like UV radiation and fumes which lead to shortening of cable life-time.
For BI critical cable ducts on cable bridges, fixed dry piping for water spray application shall
be installed, which can be activated by the fire brigade from the ground. This could also be
installed in the form of dry piping for a high pressure water mist system according to NFPA
750. Underground cable tunnels which are BI critical shall be fitted with automatic sprinkler
systems or manual/automatic high pressure water mist extinguishing systems according to
NFPA 750.
Cable rooms underneath the critical electrical switch rooms as well as critical hardware
rooms for process control (not the operator room for process control) shall be protected by
automatic gaseous fire extinguishing systems like CO2. Care shall be taken to plan for the
dissipation of the displaced air to avoid overpressure leading to building damage. For CO 2
systems the applicable standard is NFPA 12. Larger transformers are usually placed in
partly open housing or completely open. In these cases water mist extinguishing systems
according to NFPA 750, Water Mist Fire Protection, offer an alternative protection.
Electrical maintenance information is provided in PN ENG-03, Electrical Engineering Good
Practice Techniques Manual. The manual provides, among other information, testing and
maintenance details of electrical plant and equipment.

8.2 Spare Parts Storage
The stock of spare equipment and installed redundant systems serves to limit the exposure to
indirect losses in the event of major equipment failure. Spare parts for the machines are stored
within this area. Combustible materials, if stored within this area, could spread a fire that would
cause damage at the stored spare parts. This area is often based near the storage areas and is
often not constructed as one fire section, due to lower fire risks.

No unnecessary fire load shall be stored in spare parts storage other than the fire load
presented by the parts themselves, like conveyor belts, drive belts etc. Any sources of fire
like battery charging units shall not be placed in the storage area.

Spare parts storage shall be separated from other areas by F90 walls only in case if
combustible materials are stored inside.

NFPA 72.
8.2 Office Buildings

Office buildings are separated from the production and storage areas. Although these areas do not
present a significant risk, the amount of persons occupying these buildings and the fire loads
resulting from combustible materials (e.g. equipment, documents, combustible construction etc.)
require a certain level of fire protection. Possible fire risks arise from short circuits or arson. Office
buildings shall be equipped with an automatic fire detection system according to the NFPA 72.

Attachment 1: References
Paper mills – Guidance on fire risk, Paper and Board Industry Advisory Committee, HSE, London,
02/2006
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is responsible for over 300 codes and standards that
are designed to minimise the risk and effects of fire. The most relevant to Mondi operations are:
NFPA 1 Fire Code

NFPA 10 Portable Fire Extinguishers
NFPA 12 Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 13 Installations of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 15 Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection
NFPA 16 Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection
NFPA 17 Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 17A Wet Chemical Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 18 Wetting Agents
NFPA 24 Installations of Private Fire Service Mains and Their Appurtenances
NFPA 25 Inspection, Testing and Maintenance of Water-based Fire Protection Systems
NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code
NFPA 33 Standard for Spray Application Using Flammable or Combustible Materials
NFPA 34 Standard for Dipping and Coating Processes Using Flammable or Combustible Liquids
NFPA 51B Standard for Fire Prevention during Welding, Cutting and Other Hot Work
NFPA 72 National Fire Alarms and Signaling Code
NFPA 75 Standard for the Protection of Information Technology Equipment
NFPA 80 Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protective’s
NFPA 80A Recommended Practice for Protection of Buildings from Exterior Fire Exposures
NFPA 85 Boilers and Combustion Systems Hazards Code
NFPA 91 Standards for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, Gases, Mists and Noncombustible
Particulate Solids
NFPA 101 Life Safety Code
NFPA 105 Standard for the Installation of Smoke Door Assemblies and Other Opening Protective’s
NFPA 115 Standard for Laser Fire Protection
NFPA 170 Standard for Fire Safety and Emergency Symbols
NFPA 214 Standard on Water-Cooling Towers
NFPA 220 Standard on Types of Building Construction
NFPA 221 Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls and Fire Barrier Walls
NFPA 230 Standard for the Fire Protection of Storage
NFPA 231 Standard for General Storage
NFPA 231C Standard for Rack Storage of Materials
NFPA 231F Standard for the Storage of Roll Paper
NFPA 495 Explosive Materials Code
NFPA 557 Standard for Determination of Fire Load for Use in Structural Fire Protection Design
NFPA 750 Standard on Water Mist Fire Protection Systems
NFPA 1961 Standard on Fire Hose

FM Global Property issues Loss Prevention Data Sheets. The most relevant to Mondi operations are:
DS 1-19 Fire Walls, Subdivisions and Draft Curtains

DS 1-20 Protection against Exterior Fire Exposure
DS 1-22 Maximum Foreseeable Loss
DS 2-0 Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers
DS 2-81 Fire Protection System Inspection, Testing and Maintenance
DS 3-0 Hydraulics of Fire Protection Systems
DS 3-2 Water Tanks for Fire Protection
DS 3-7 Fire Protection Pumps
DS 4-0 Special Protection Systems
DS 4-1N Fixed Water Spray Systems for Fire Protection
DS 4-2 Water Mist Systems
DS 4-4N Standpipe and Hose Systems
DS 4-11N Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
DS 7-0 Causes and Effects of Fires and Explosions
DS 7-4 Paper Machines and Pulp Dryers
DS 7-14 Fire & Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquid, Flammable Gas
DS 7-32 Flammable Liquid Operations
DS 7-57 Pulp and Paper: Paper Making Mills
DS 7-96 Paper Working and Printing: Printing Plants
DS 8-9 Storage of Class 1, 2, 3, 4 and Plastic Commodities
DS 8-21 Roll Paper Storage
DS 8-24 Idle Pallet Storage
DS 8-27 Storage of Wood Chips
DS 10-0 Human Factor of Property Conservation

Attachment 2: Procedures
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are instructions that summarise requirements and behavioural
expectations in a certain functional area. This attachment presents a list of standard operation
procedures related to fire protection.
A2-1 Permit-to-Work (Hot work permit)

A2-2 Emergency response
A2-3 Sprinkler and valves inspections and maintenance
A2-4 Water pumps and hydrants inspections and maintenance
A2-5 Firefighting
A2-6 Workplace inspections
A2-7 Evacuation
A2-8 Inspection of fire detection systems
A2-9 Routine fire safety inspections
A2-10 Fire training exercises
A2-11 Fire brigade
A2-12 Impairment reporting
Regular workplace inspections shall be conducted by the appointed fire expert(s). Topic areas are listed
below.
A2.13 Protection of openings in fire subdivisions

A2-14 Electrical systems
A2-15 Fire alarm system
A2-16 Water Supplies
A2-17 Automatic sprinkler and other water-based fire protection systems
A2-18 Water mist systems
A2-19 Special agent extinguishing systems
A2-20 Portable fire extinguishers
A2-21 Plant/equipment occupancies
A2-22 Storage occupancies
Detailed checklists can be found in the Network Library on the Intranet (Fire Protection micro-site). In
addition, the fire protection systems need to be maintained according to the respective NFPA or local
code. Impairments should be reported directly to AON.

Document Log
Change Requests: Fire Protection Manual, Draft, May 2011
Revision of Fire Protection Code, PN S-10A (1st Edition, June 2012)
Release as Engineering Practice Note PN ENG-04A (2nd Release, March 2014)
Adding Clause 6.4, Plastic Bag Converting (2nd Release, May 2014)
Release as Engineering Practice Note PN ENG-04B, 2nd Edition, March 2015
Revising Chapter 5, adding outdoor log storage (clause 5.1) and bark storage
(clause 5.3.2), 2nd Edition, March 2015
Revising recovered paper storage (clause 5.2), 2nd Edition, March 2015
Revising Chapter 6, vapour (clause 6.1) and dust (clause 6.2), 2 nd Edition, March
2015
Adding direct contact evaporators (DCEs), clause 5.4.4, 2 nd Edition, March 2015
Revising outdoor log storage (log yard), clause 5.1, 2nd Edition, October 2015
Revising wood chip yard, clause 5.3, 2nd Edition, October 2015
Revising ink storage (clause 6.4), 2nd Edition, September 2016

Document Control
This Engineering Practice Note is the output from a doctoral thesis to research, establish and promote
good practice for the mitigation of loss from industrial fire events in packaging and paper. The code has
benefitted from stakeholder consultation and we would wish to acknowledge the experts input from our
loss prevention advisers at GRC, Global Risk Consultants. In general, fire-prevention involves depriving a
fire of any one of its three sources: fuel, oxygen and heat. If any one of these is missing, a fire cannot start
and therefore eliminating one is the most effective fire prevention. If this is not feasible, the fire risk must
be reduced to an acceptable level. This code is intended to explain the effective use of fire protection
requirements, ensuring good international practice conditions that are affecting the way we build and use
buildings, install systems or use materials. It refers in many instances the resources created by the NFPA
as the globally accepted standard by insurers and re-insurers. The code presents vital information on the
elements and classes of fire, the fire protection standards and their application. Applying the code, an
operation shall be able to demonstrate that it has an effective and practical plan for the containment and fighting of
fires on its installations.
Document Type: Engineering Practice Note

Document Title: Fire Protection Code
Approval: September 2016
Sponsor: Group Technical Director

Owner and Issuer: Group Loss Prevention Manager
Related Documents: PN ENG-02, Power Boiler Plant Engineering Manual

PN ENG-03, Electrical Engineering Good Practice Manual
Document Copy: This code may contain propriety and/or confidential information and are for
internal use only. Practice Notes are controlled documents and only maintained
electronically. Requests for updates to controlled documents shall be
documented and sent to the issuer or key contact person. The document is
uncontrolled in hard copy format.
© Mondi FIRE PROTECTION CODE, 2015

SDMS PN Eng-04b Fire Protection Second Edition (September 2016)

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Fire Protection Code

Document Title: Fire Protection Code

2 PN ENG-04: FIRE PROTECTION CODE www.mondigroup.com

Responsibilities and Duties Page 6

Chapter 1: Introduction Page 7

Chapter 2: Protection Measures Page 11

Chapter 3: Loss Scenarios Page 18

Chapter 4: Minimum Fire Precautions Page 20

Chapter 5: Fire Hazards and Precautions for Mill Operations Page 24

Chapter 6: Fire Hazards and Precautions for Converting Operations

Chapter 7: Fire Hazards and Precautions for Converting Operations not

Attachment 1: References Page 65

Attachment 2: Procedures Page 67

Document Log Page 68

Document Control Page 69

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1.1 Fire Definitions and Principles

1.1.2 Ignition Temperature

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1.2 Fire Causes

1.2.1 Fire Sources

1.2.2 Fire Causes

1.2.3 Fire Spread

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1.3 Fire Risks

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1.3.1 Fire Risk Probabilities

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Policy, Standards and

Protection Objectives Regulations

2.1 Structural Fire Protection

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Fire Resistance of Emergency Access Routes Escape Routes

Stability of Building Static’s Structural Fire Protection Safety Gap between

Building Structure and Fire Separation of Ignition Lightning Protection

2.1.1 Fire Resistance

2.1.2 Construction Stability in Event of Fire

2.1.3 Fire Areas

2.1.4 Safe Distances

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2.1.5 Separation of Ignition Sources from Combustible Material

2.1.6 Lightning Protection

2.2 Technical Fire Protection

2.2.1 Normal Measures

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2.2.2 Special Measures

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2.3.2 Preventative Measures

2.3.3 Emergency Planning

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3.1 Maximum Possible Loss (MPL)

3.2 Probable Maximum Loss (PML)

3.3 Estimated Maximum Loss (EML)

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3.4 Criteria for an EML/MPL Scenario Selection

3.5 Required Information for calculating an EML or MPL

3.6 Criticality Assessment

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