meat and Concrete Neate 9 (2008) 381-40 Contents lists av Cement and Concrete Research Journal homepage: http:/i 5 SelenceDirect rae vier.com/CEMCON/default.2ep Potential pitfalls in assessing chloride-induced corrosion of steel in concrete ‘A. Poursaee*, CM, Hansson ** 1 Stal 9 hinge. Pre ners, Wet feet, USA * pxpriment of aie! Egierig. ives of Wore, Weer ON Conde ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT ce ir Received 7 November 2007 ecg 29 amy 2002 ecirochemicalassessmentof the condition of embedded reinforcing bar (rebar) in concrete i being cared ‘out increasingly routinely, bth in the laboratory and in thee, However, because ofthe perceived need to Drove results very rally the results mayo infact, be tepresentatve ofthe acta behaviour of the ‘bat This paper describes ome ofthe pts the authors have encountered in their own work and have, ey eevee proper seclatien testa plrisation structures is corrosion of the reinforcement caused by localised breakdown ofthe passive film on the steel by chloride ions. Because of the impact of this deverioration on both safety and the economy, the abil to accurately and reliably measure the corrosion condition of, the reinforcing bars (rebas) inthe concrete i essential In this paper, the authors describe some ofthe difficulties and problems in such ‘measurements that they have encountered in their work and in the literature. In practice, chloride ingress into reinforced concrete takes many years, This means that che cancrete has time to mature and the steel hhas time to equilibrate in the alkaline environment. before the steel encounters chlorides and corrosion is inated. However, for labora- {ory experiments itis impractical to wait many years to obtain results and mostof the problems described below aise because ofthe desire te accelerate the onset of corrosion. Furthermore, fr those assessing the condition of structures in the field, i¢ appears that one main ‘objective isto make as many measurements as possible in as short a time as possible, n oder to reduce costs. This push fr speed is, again, the cause of some of the problems described below. Other problem areas are the use choice of appropriate electrochemical techniques {nd specimen dealls, One problem, which cannot readily be aver- ‘come, is that almost all laboratory tests are conducted on young. Jmmature concrete and at relativelyeanstant ambient conditions. This is not the same environment as that encountered by steel in real, ov © conespntig ath Email ansonsuotronca (CO Hasson ciasnmmangeetnenerae ‘shat amcone 8010 pea wer SX oe oC es therefore, analysed and quate, together with ahers which have apoeared in the literate. {© 2008 Fever Lid Al rights reserved, — got Pogo if 2. Admined chlorides een 9 ws “The most common method fo acelerating the corrosion of tetin oO ‘concrete is to contaminate the concrete with chloride atthe time of mixing. This is a completely acceptable method, for example, to determige maximum allowable lings of chlorides in. concrete componenis BOT WHER rebar corrosion might be a problem However, for other applications, it may not be appropriate, Firsty. it takes time for steel to become passive in uncontaminated concrete, 3s, ilusrated in Fig [1] chlorides are mixed int the concrete, the ste! doesnot have time to passivate before encountering chlorides and so, the concegt of localised passive fm breakdown as the fist step ip corrosion intiaion must be modified Iti probable that the mill scale present on most carbon stel reinforcing bars also results in localised Corrosion but the mill scale isnot as protective as a passive film. Secondly there are extraneous effects of chlorides on the concrete itself. These can include: (1) acceTefation of cement iydration which increases the porosity of the concrete [2 (il) an increase in the conductiviyof te preston: yang’ he of he pve a indo chemically bound chlorides Moreover, the Ghloride cat) ihlluences the direction and so ico ie Of these efecs the pH is increased by NaCl and Kel but decreased by CaCl and, probably, by MgCl [3]; the amount of oride binding when the chloride s CaCl is significant higher than ‘when it is present as NaCl and KCI [4]. Despite the greater degree of Dinding. the my ‘ottosion rate induced by CaCl is greater than that we ayee Meet OX Senda 0% 0 80 100 Ten Mencived OH Santas oon om 4% @ wm 1M 10 10 10 ‘Porat, CM. Honson J Cement ond Concrete Research 39 (2008) 301-400 1609 Tine (hour) 180 200° 230 240 260 280 300 (b) | Wo 160 “Time cours) 180 200 220 240 240 240 300 ig the curent density oer the fst 300 ak sel (src) rebar and andl ear 2} mbes in marta, (b) exposed to sted pe statin. by NaC or KC [3), Consequenty,in evaluating the amount of chloride contaminated constituents of ‘concrete, it might be prudent 10 determine the exact nature ofthe contamination and the associated cation. 22, Applied anodic current to accelerate corrsion ‘The second accelerating method, which appears to be gaining in popularity, is the application af an anodic eurtent tothe embedded steel from an external power source inorder to induce corrosion. The degree of corrosion can be controlled by varying the current density, and/or the time interval of the impressed current. The advantages of using this technique are achieving a high degree of corrosion within a short perind of time and the easy control ofthe desired corrosion degre [5]. Many studies have been carried out using this method in the past two decades, including the mechanical behaviour of corroded steel bar [6:7 the effect of corrosion on the bond between rebar and concrete [8-13] the structural behaviour of coroded elements [14 17] and the prediction ofthe remaining service life of rebar-corroded reinforced conerete structures (18 From the electrochemical perspective, this accelerated corrosion process is very different from that occurring naturally by ehoride= induced breakdown of the passive film. Based on the authors’ experience and the research conducted by Yuan eal. [5] the following. conclusions can be draw: Ditheveat pods 1. The chemical compostons of corosion products formed. na atu corde contamina enonment an thse poted thing the impressed arent method appear tobe diferent The Contson products show aire cls eased y arent ig 2. Daten ofthe corasin praductzon he sce teste ea (2) ue to inoased cme hich cur oer the whe sce (I a (0) ae ate ‘orion hie seas 62).tbe on 3 ‘A Purse, C3, Hosa / Cement and Concrete Research 3 (2008) 381-00, Ew) ‘90000001 000001 0.00001 6.0001 om om on (amp) ig. avo yee paaeatn uve kx sel eb oeay Patan cement cones (OF) Sia Tare concrete (SF) ané ns funace Sag ean (36) ech niin 1 Cy gt cnete Na 3 chemical compositions, The differences can be attributed to the time intervals of the corrosion process as well as the lack of chlorides (5). The chemical composition of the corrosion products achieved by an impressed current and natural corrosion is curently under investigation by the present authors. 2, Corrosion occurs ave the whole surface of the steel bar when using the impressed. current method, as illustrated in Fig. 2a. The corrosion poducts are confined to the interface between the -sAgebar isthe concrete thereby ating 2s. a wedge between the steel angg@fcrete In contrat, while, in naturally corroded rebars the ‘under natural conditions, the corrosion is generally inated only ‘on the side ofthe bar closest tothe concrete surface and corrosion products can diflue into the pores and crack ofthe surrounding concrete before building up a pressure inside the structure. Since corrosion of rebars can reduce their load bearing capacity and ductile characteristics, a certain degree of uniform corosion would have lower structural consequences than the same amount of corrOORLaGEAtng over {fraction of the total surface 3, An impressed current ean result in acidie conditions atthe rebar. ‘Tis s because the iron ions become hydrolysed in solution as Indicated in the following reaction [19} because (i) the reaction agicts are being produced very fast and (i), in many cases, the lic reaction Is taking place outside the concrete, i is not possible for the hydrogen fons to diffuse away and be neutralized by the hydroxyl ions produced at the cathode. 2H,0-Fe(0H), +28" 4A. The potential of the rebar isnot normally mogggg@QMaring the {impressed current, but the potential difference BetWee\ the anode {the rebar) and the eathode is usually several volts. The poten difference between hydrogen evolution and oxygen evolut equilibria in aqueous solutions is only 1.23 V [20], and any potential diference greater than this would result in oxygen evolution at the bond. ‘The last three problems would also occur if he impressed current were applied.ta an anode embedded adjacent to dhe reinforcement, father than to {he rebar islf, as has been proposed as @ possible alternative 21) 23, Tests in “synthetic pore solutions" “Testing seein solution has the advantaye of avoiding the long time necessary for chlorides to penetrate the concrete cover However. the ‘same cation apples to solution as tothe use of chlorides admixed into ‘the concrete: the steel shouldbe given time to passivate in the alkaline i ox a6 os 3g 02 Zo Sa aa ae ‘0000 ovo f 001 oot ou amps) Fig i plsaton cues th dient seam ts oa el enforced conte sale wth anes ac. rows show the diction ofthe return potential rasoni We A. Peroe, CM Homi J Comet and Conte Research 39 (2008) 381-400 (b) Polarisation esistance (Ry) 0 , Pr tees WI Double layer eapoitance (Ca) Fie. (a Bde plo) Ral cca he aes pie Solution before being exposed to chlorides. in 2 number of studies ‘reported in te literature, appears that insufficient ime was provided for passivation before the ste! was exposed to chlorides and, in some. case the chioride was ace to the pore solution atthe beginning ofthe experiment [22-25], Because of these untealistic conditions, the application of such results, for example, o the prediction of the Corrosion behaviour of stel in structures may be misleading. The ha, Cell potentials and corrosion current densities shown in Fi. 1(b) [1] Suggest a minimum of 3 days before adding cori, bur the authors recommend at last one week It is well known that steel in high alkaline environments is passive. However it should be noted the protective capability of the Passive him increases with pH {26] and that the pH of most concreres Feorearar than T2 and runially 725 197981 The nt of earunated (us studies of rebar corrosion [5-11] asa substitute for pore solution, although has been demonstrate that stel behaves differently at pH 126 than it does at pH>13 [30|: the chloride threshold value for active rebar corrosion slower ana the corrosion rates are higher for, steel tested in saturated Ca(OH); than ina pore solution of the same ‘composition as expressed from mature concrete [23.31], Moreover, the other ions present in pore solution, particularly, sodium and rater Te EcDHEN eC OA) Vg ate q pole 1600 3. Appropriate electrochemical techniques 2 Linear polarisation resistance and cycle polarisation Gonzales et al. [32] have given an excellent review of the limitations ofthe fies polarisation resistance (LPR) technique and the fac that these imitations are particularly applicable to steel in concrete. Yet LPR is, by far, the most commonly used technique for measuring rebar corrosion rates both inthe laboratory ann the ed, again, toa large extent, because i fst. One major imitation of PRs that, While it gives a reasonable estimate ofthe corosion rate at the ‘ime of measurement, gives no indication of the Behaviour ofthe steel sould the condicions be-changed. As an example, consider the Iiiteasin hie andr crreemnesinetienalreron eaves in ‘lies fare and inthe tir, 258 of OPC had een replaced with slag [33]. The LPR data give corosion rates on the border line between ‘active and passive and, although the silica fume concrete has slightly lower values, the differences could be considered insgniicant. ‘Similarly an approximate Tafel extrapolation of the cyelic polarization ‘curves would show the corrosion TateSTor the steef in the three corcretes to be very similar. The anodic cylic polarisation curves, however, olla very diferent story, with the steel in the OPC and slag Je Fisted curve-20 weeks }O Messured-43 waeks ted curve-43 weeks (© Measured-20 weeks: pas 20 weeks=-0.00001Hz nos 43 Weeks=~0.0001Hz. ‘200001 0001 ooo uot Ot Froqueney 10000 190000 1900000 1g. Thea pt ed fom a chiced OFC conte em afer 20 a aftr 1 wks capa to aie‘A tousace, CM, Hoson} Cement ard Cae Research 39 (2009) 391-00, suo ee Zoo) | tel 2 1 = | | Es] > To oe ty Time 7 Stem Matar fava ube een concretes exhibiting clear chloride pitting potentials, while the silica fume cement exhibits pasive behaviour at all potentials. Consequently, these authors find potentiodynamic cyclic polatiza- vin to bes much more informative tool fo aboraton messurernnt than LPR. Ie isa relatively non-destructive measurement that can provide information on (1) the corrosion rate, (i) the corrosion Potent i) che leakage current ofthe passive fn (iets protective capably), (i) th suscepebiliy of the metal to pitting and (v) any ‘concentration limitations ofthe electrolyte in the system. However, it i imperative that an appropriate cyclic polarisation scan rate for the specific system under study be used; otherwise the results do not accurately reflect the corrosion behaviour. As an electrical analogue, the meta/electolyte can be considered as. a resistor, Ra (the electrolyte) in series wth apaallel combination ofa ‘capacitor, Ca (the Helmholtz double layer), and a resistor, Ry (the scan, the elfect ofthe capacitance should be minimised [34 Hr tus fa) Vi0,+H.0+26 20H” Fe> Fe" +20 Yo,+4,0+2 92011 ie (0) shematcrepeentatin fe) mire cartoon, b) mace cron, purpose, the capacitor should remain fly charged atheros, some itn cuentgenrsted wuld fe chrgng of the suce Capacitance and the measured current would then be geaer than that actualy produced bythe corrosion eactions. To achieve this, the Sean ate shoud be slow enough to ensue tate apacance renin fly charged dg the experiment Tit shone lic poesoncures obtained t dierent scan rates fora te reinfrceé OPC concrete spl, with transverse crack fosed to a chore soluton. Cet, the sel eaibis dierent fehaviour at diferent scan rates Because the capacitance and resistance are functions of the mae environment and the applied tential choosing the appropiate scan rate not easy uta method for doing so has been descbed by Mansfeld and Keni (35. The Dene of he mttod bed on the Bode pL Re 3G) (0 baie fom electrochemical impedance spectroscopy nd repre {the scan rate shoul correspond toa trequency less tan fn Fg. >(2) To ensure fully charged capacitor, the maximum scan tate can be based oma flequency naw one decade lover tha fs Follows: Soc = AE 1 fy ‘Where AE isthe peak to peak amplitude, AF is usually ~20 mV to ensure the linear response ofthe system tothe applied potential [37 i. 6 shows Bode plots obtained from a reinforced OPC concrete beam with aw/e=: 045, after 20 weeks exposure and after 43 weeks ‘exposure to chlorides. The frequency range scanned was fom 1 Miz to 001 mba It should be noted that this tes took about a week to ‘complete and, to obtain the full Bode plot, the results were ‘extrapolated, using the Kramers-Kronig. method with 2SimWin sofware (38.39). From Fig. 6, the maximum Scan rate, Sux (corresponding to fous 0.00001 Hz), for performing cyclic polarisation tests is Cleulated as ~0.0006 m/s for the specimen after 20 weeks’ ‘exposure and 0,006 mV/s after 43 weeks! exposure, The different Scan ates are because of the different concrete environments {chloride content. resistance et.) and amount of cortosion of the sel bar after dllferent exposure periods. Using a very slow scan ‘let i ata or bon tet ebr in OFC OFC sesame OFC-254 sag 123). ‘crrovoncuren densty OFC ORM sa tene ORCI ag ‘onlm fonecte coe sore rode Tsiesi? aaa Tres feet dys aiaam Ua2as5 joo 26-28 ays Suits) isos rz 19sA Pose, Hanson Cement and Concrete Resch 39 (208) 391-400 ‘Anodic half-cell reaction: Cathodic hall-cell reetion: 211,0-+ hoe 0,440 40H (a) rate, such a5 0.0008 m/s Is not practical, Nowever. Fur the potential ranges shown in Fig. 4 the test would need more than 50 days to complete. During this period, the corrosion behaviour could change considerably. For this reason and from a practical perspective, a scan rate corresponding tof, rather thaM fa 1S recommended, although this could still take several days. to Complete, It should be noted that the lower scan rate corresponds to the steel in a passive state or when itis corroding at @ low corrosion rate : ‘Alternatively ti possible to determine the appropriate sean rate, ina shorter time using the galvanstatic pulse technique. n this technique, a short-time anodic current pulse. lye I applied between counter clectade placed on the concrete surface and the rebar. The resulting change ofthe electrochemical potential ofthe reinforcement is measured with areference electrode. typical potential response, 1, for a corroding reinforcement s shown in the Fig 7 [40] and is expressed as 1} loo [ex [ -e)] + 4] “The double layer capacitance can be obtained from this plot and correlated co the frequency using the following expression [42}: 1 ac While a test taking several days might be considered to be impractical these authors believe that, in view ofthe expected service lie ofa reinforced concrete structure of 75-100 years, spending a few (b) feeovede Paenal ion feurront densi days to ensure, ur understand, dhe corrosion eltaviour Is defintely reasonable, However, this viewpoint must also be balanced with the fact that the test must be fast enough thatthe system does not change during the test period 13.2, Macro vs. miro-ell comasion [Macrocell corrosion experiments are aimed at simulating the ‘leccocnemical situation o, for example, abridge deck with chlorite penetrating to the top rebar mat while the bottom mac remains in Cchloride-ree concrete. The measurement of macrocell corrosion ‘currents has become popular because they can be measured directly ‘without expensive electrochemical equipment, The standard ASTM G109 specimen (43), which was designed to evaluate chemical admixtures, is being increasingly used for macrocel corrosion studies a5 i the modified Kansas State University method [4 ‘Microcell corrosion Is the term given tothe situation where acuve dissolution and the corresponding cathodic half-cell rection (usualy the reduction of dissolved oxygen) take place a adjacent parts ofthe same metal part. For steel reinforcing bar in chloride-contaminated concrete, this process always occurs in practice, for example, in specimens inthe laboratory containing a single bat and in structures reinforced with a single rebar mat. ‘While a macrocellcorosioncurtent can be measured directly, the same {s not {rue of microcell cofrusion and, therefore, many investigators choose to neglect the microcell component. This has Jed to the general assumption that macrocel corrosion is normaly the ‘dominant component. The theory is that the top mat wil become the ‘anode and the bottom mat the cathode, as ustrated in Fig 8. This is rather simplified view because, in fact, the anodic and cathodic‘A Pause, 3, Hansen / Comet ed Coerete Resch 39 (2009) 391-0 on roo wo Fi rl map othe orig aprachs(A nd 8) (8 May 005 T= 19°C HSB sey) May 2006, T= 14°82 sy (6) gust 205 reactions occur on both metal surfaces and, fr the fonie part of the «corrosion current, its much easier to migrate to an adjacent area of the same bar, 2s in Fig. 8a, than via a longer path through the concrete between the two bars, Fig. 8b. n fact it has been shown [45-47] that microcell corosion isthe dominant process Research has demonstrated that the microcell corrosion of steel in high performance concrete, HPC, was an order of magnitude lower than that of steet in ordinary Portland cement concrete, OPCC [46} es aoc eet Ste) However, the macrocellcutrents in the HPC specimens were more than three orders of magnitude lower than those in the OPCC, because ‘ofthe much higher electrical resistance ofthe HPC, Consequently, care ‘must be taken in using the results of macrocell measurements: the absence of macrocell corrosion cannot be taken as an indicator that ‘microcell corrosion is not occuring. This is particularly true for HPC ‘where measured macrocel corosion rates may be negligible while active corrosion ofthe top bari taking place290 Actors, CM. Hon | Cement nd Conese 39 (2008) 391-400 33, Halfcell potential ‘Thehal-ell potential or corrosion potential Exams the most widely monitored parameter to assess the condition of steel in concrete, particulary in the fled, The potenta is 3 thermodynamic measure of the ease of removing electrons from the metal in steady state condition, and does noe address the kinetics, Le the rate of corrosion, which i deer mmined fom the corosion current density oy» The measured hall cell potentials can be affected by several factors, which should be ‘considered in the interpretation of their values. Steel in concrete exhibits active-passive corrosion behaviour, in Which the anodic af ell reaction i the dissolution or uxidation of ikon and the cathodic half cell reaction is usually reduction of dissolved oxygen. The corrosion potential, Esa and the corrosion Current density, ow correspond to the intersection of the cathodic line fr the reduction of oxygen and the ano tne forthe oxidation of iton, as illustrated in Fig. 9. Fig, 9a shows typical passive corrosion behaviour of steel in sound, uncontaminated concrete in which the intersection occurs ata relatively high potential and low (passive) current density Ire passve fl Is destroyed, eg. by chlorides, che anodic curve changes to that shown in Fig. 9b for which’ the Intersection with the eathodie curve gives a much more negative potential anda higher current density. This is the principal on which ‘ASTM C876 (48) recommendations are based However, if access to oxygen increases (for example by cracking of| the concrete cover), the cathodic reaction lie maves to higher current densities (ie tothe right ofthe diagram) and the new line intercepts the anodic curve at point 3, instead of point 2 as shown in Fig. (0. ‘This results in a higher current and a more positive potential a situation not addressed by the ASTM recommended guidelines. ‘Also, ifthe position of the cathodic line changes to lower current is more negative than F,, wich again appears to contradict ASTM recommenced interpretations. Examples otis behaviour have been, siven by Gu and Beaudoin [49] and by Soleymani and Ismail (30). Shere pe Steet the AST CON [8] gules on steel reinforcement corrosion probability, without recognizing that, these are simply guidelines, not fundamental facts, could cause mistakes in the evaluation of the structure. In addition to the examples above, a surface layer with high resistance gives less negative surface potentials which may cover underlying corrosion, activity [51]. Fell et a. (52) found that generally there 1s a poor Correlation between half-cel potential values and corrosion current ensity measured by polarisation resistance method, while other researchers have found good agreement [53-56] The most common method of presenting the hal-cell potentiat Meld data is plotting the potential distribution or potential mapping Contour. The advantage of this is that potential gradients can be detected and these generally correspond to current flow, Le. ‘corrosion. Nevertheles, other factors should be raken into account. Half-cell potential maps were obtained a different times ofthe year ‘over a three year period forthe approaches toa small traffic beige nd the results are shown in Fig, 10. As shown, the potential values ‘were all more negative than ~ 350 mV vs. CSE (Cu/CuSO, reference electrode) at all times and rust stains, cracks and clelamination confirmed the reinforcement was actively corroding. However, these ‘maps also show that measurements performed atthe same time in teach year, result in similar contour patterns, whereas those taken at diferent times of the year, have radically different contour patterns. “The weather history, particulary the precipitation, over a fairly long period (more ttn a few days) prior to the measurement has ai elleton the potential map ‘second observation of interest in these measurements and in parallel laboratory measurements, i that iis essential to thoroughly wet the concrete surface and allow set ine fer the moire penetrate the surace layers to salve the potent. ASTM C876 Eps thaithe meted vale ofthe potential changes srocustewtitine the turf he concrete std wera Sin Uforunatey inorder to make as any HERETENS “Fossil in as short te as pos, thi recommendation oem Toor Yr cven wes nd oe insist acre sabe potential, Experiments in which the potential of a reinforcing bar Enid ina cont beams eased every 02s fr 0 min om the tect inital weg nated chao 1S nin or te poeta to reach a sable value Ts tne woud agai be dependent on 2 eos aay be gestae cc itis abo eset fo emphase the ASTM C376 eri suidetnes efor carbon set (ck ste) ets conte sed Eeyshould not be apladtocther spect sel sich spy costed baru eaatised sel bs Male potetal measurement of tponycnted rear are not patil bese the pony ats 382 alee preening sectoctemial measurements exept tas inthe coating Themasynamily the hale potent ales fr faherize sel cod be 1000 mV ¥s-€5 nthe pase sate 2 ‘his potent may mislead the ivestgatrs ding inspection. Theor owed af the ype of sini bar essen or toproprae ierpean of the potential Ase import fo tment tht the core esol fr coos ofsaansed sel ener consiered 4-5 tines higher tan tha for ck tee 57 4. Specimen details, ALL Inftunce of surface fish of the reinforcing stel on is corrosion Inicio to the effet of surface finish ofthe steel on corrosion inition (58) ‘but se few results have shown that this plished contin does not reproduce the results obtained on black carbon steel. Even in the passive state, the corosion rate ofthe sandblasted steel isles than that of black steel with the mill scale intact, as shown in Fig. 1b. ‘Moreover, sandblasted steel was found to have a slightly longer initiation time than black steel and a significantly lower active corrosion rate [59], The corrosion initiation in synthetic pore solution ‘with increasing amounts of chloride was determined for(i) lack ‘bed reinforcing see, (i) smooth carbon ste! bar with no mil scale ‘and (il) a section ofthe ribbed stel, which was metallographieally polished to an 0.05 ym alumina finish. Active corrosion could not be Initiated inthe highly polished steel, even witha choride concentra- ‘ion of 16% during the period of the experiment (31) 42, Comporison of diferent grades of steel Tete has been a surge in the number of publications on ‘corrosion resistant stels in which these steels are compared with SIGN stainless steel and/or epoxy coated steel. In many cases, the steels are exposed to concrete or {0 synthetic pore solution into ‘which chloride nas been admixed. This puts some of the corrosion resistant steels ata severe disadvantage because they do not possess the atmospheric passivity of 316LN nor the early protection of the pony. To provide a reasonable comparison, they should be allowed {o equilibrate inthe high pH for some time before being exposed to chlorides. ‘There have also been some experiments described in the literature Jn which the corrosion resistant steels were partially embedded in ‘concrete and exposed to alternate wet and “dry” cycles but the “ry cycles were actually at 100% relative humidity es, [60]) The exposed partof the specimens obviously continued to corrade in the "dry" partof the eyele, Again a comparison ofthese stels with stainless steels, Which are passive under damp atmospheric conditions, is unrealistic ‘nd not relevant to their behaviour in concrete 5. Conclusions and recommendations Itis ler from the above that corrosion testing of reinforcing stels| {is a “minefield”, requiring a good basic understanding of the electrochemical processes involved and a large measure of com sense. In summary, any technique designed to accelerate the corosion ‘races should be considered with septiism: I the goal sto assess a 100 year service life, spending a minimum ofa few weeks or months ‘n evaluation should be considered reasonable and necessary, ‘Accelerating the corrosion by applying an anodic current to rebar should be avoided unless the goa isto assess circumstances in which thi happens in practice, suchas stray current corrosion IF solutions, rather than concrete, are to be used as the rest environment, these should, to the greatest degree, mimic the pore solution of the specific concrete in question, Saturated Ca OH) is not sauficient, spose to concrete or pore solution containing chlorides should be avoided unless the goal sto determine the influence of contaminated ‘mixture components. Instead, the sufficient time should be allowed for the stel to become passivated before exposure to chlorides. For black steel, thishas been found to bea minimum of seven days for steel in OPC ‘concrete and three days for seein pore solution with a pH of ~133 [1] “These periods may bediferent for other types ofeinforcing barsan for other concretes and pore solutions. Cyclic potentiodynamic polarisation is one ofthe more informative tlectrochemical tests. However, using an appropriate scan rate inthis technique in essential and, ithe scan rates too rapid, che vest may na org te merce component wa neste deer Half-cel potential measurements the most widely used technique Jn evaluation of the corrosion of steel in concrete. However, in Interpreting the data, environmental factors should be taken into ‘account and, wherever posible, repeated condition analyses should be conducted at the same time of the year. Moreover, it is Scene ht ngewe of he ce be gi ‘tht SATEEN Dep oar han ~ 19 min ater tears of the first measuremigneTs wet ‘Except for fundamental research on the corrosion processes, the type of reinforcing bar and its surface condition should be represen tative of those used in practice, in order to evaluate eld performance. ‘Acknowledgements “The authors gratefully acknowledge the suppor of the nunistry of ‘Transportation of Ontario far this project and for the continued ‘interaction, advice and encouragement of Mr rank Pianca. References [6] A rosaes CM, Hanson, Rorng ee pesaton in mtr abd poe ‘Sion Cement a onctete Resear 3 (007) 12-1133 {a feu e The Use a Sich Fe, ig ad ether Mw Wy pout tte C1 SP 72-20, Mao 1983. 589-05 [p} Eh Hansen 7 Fad 8 Mareen. The eet fection ype on he ‘Gein ote! inconceteby bed als Cement abd Conte Research {ine 65-73. a1 Tt Corot feelin conc, Sei ame’ ad Concrete Resch Ihe ct Reach Hep ae 452 M6, Scot, Suse. [a1 vn 13. Ssh Conpuon of to acleated oes enue fo Tones ste AG Stra! orl (ay une 2007) 44-3 {61 Aa Nima et of ere ofcorrsonon te properties reifng see {Mtsconsruon na baltng Matera 15 (200) 3-308, 1 eonent an noes Rossh 3 (2009) 304-480 20 IP1TA.E1 Mandan. KA, Sd tena press crn etn to Sioa crosion ose enoceent in cone oural ef Mates nC Engng 13 (1) (2005) 1-4 [a] HS lee Nop omens, ration of te Bond propetie Bete ‘anette and etforceent 5 fncton ofthe degre ferent coon, ment an Concee Reser 32 (200) 30-4318 to] SeAayuny &togur Chung od beaver of coated renorcmen bs, ‘ct Mates jaral 97 (2) (area 000) 26-220. 00] cong et a Caen infueneon boo on enforce, Cement and Cnet esearch 342008) 2158-2167. [011A te Fatigue bond betatou of coved evcement and CFR confined ‘oer PHD hess Git Een Ura of Wateron 200 {021 GL A'Selaman et tose acon sd argon nd evi nd Shen enforced corte meer Al Stl oun Matt Aa 980) tna huge ae none. an bei of cored reinaceent ars ‘Acta joa (Me Al 2000) 214221 Ive) Vomet,$Att,Deteoraton of concrete beams apd calms cused by Corroson of elmrcing ste! bars ternational oneenc on Dut tat, Lhe Renfree! corrosion ate deletion of RC eames expr cai of cret at cd Cemeot 8 Canrte Cpeae 2s (Goos)eaes2 06] AA TonesAcsta & Navano-Ccerera. 5. Tean-Gullen esl Mlexte ‘pact of coated rere const beats egerog Sues (2007) aies-152 [07 JG. Gare, Detesoaton of conte de to reilcement steel carson, {apet i conrete Compost 8 (1098) «58 ‘os Smo thatacharee a wast, experimental sevice prediction ofr Sse red sont ere, elo 9) [09] CH Glas, AC Raber, Davina, Hyer coroion protection of ere Coniamisted concrete Castration Maer (Non, 208) 16-172 [20] Pout, Ataf Becrchemia Eats in Agee Slons, tonal (21) Dee Monte, Conese pertoemance af conventional (ASTM ASI) and tewetlow (ASI A705) eercg ars embedded contte ad expe fo ‘tod ernment Comer ard Conte esac 33 (2015) 82-57 (22] Ficus ecrath, rp eye vatamnmetie eto fr seg eet face afecting the coreson of rered coer, Cement at Conte esearch 29 (199) 575 83, soln tec crbonation ae aie canten, Caron cents 2004) 125] fs Zales. Impedance say of reine tel in sna pe Solon with nnn jal a Ape ches #58) (155) 2458-2968 [a5] Eo, ven ourae Png pets versus pt covason 27 (971) 485. [Bo te up arpean orn etrnon wf Sex anes, banish Cason ‘ete ben 183 Clee (an) Eat Fase Comment on lecrskamieal raiment of the rate of ‘croson of slim onerete Cement ad ene seth 1 (18) 5-584 {291 Di ade CR aneboo Chemisty ap ys, CHC Pes, New Yr, 00 [30] Lois. tls Compratve ge vltmmety ab sae aa of pai, Fins sown on tamer sel 26 m concrete pre mod! slr, oa of Eterna chemist 37 (200) 8593 [b1 Lfammottet athe iene suc ashing orenorcing ste and pH of ‘hte slton onthe aie thes comentatan carson natn Sisco aon ment dane enh 94) (8) 9-5 orason as Polarisation reistince method applied to csi of se 10 Soutete carson Sane 2510) (1s) 37-030 [23] Canon jerk Ose Cre esta Wales for coos fen blends cement cance res) [24] BE’sivrman, utoral on POUT andthe cyte Ptentoyaamic Pane fon Techie Argentu Slane. Tne Mp wearentunsoltos los] Mane Rend Conceming the nce of scan tia plriaton ‘nesters Corson 37 (2) (181) 54546 130 plc ae AC Sec Conon and Cant Recah a 08 ‘ie eam cone age es PARE (a7) MStin al Cayectachaplrtaton Arete mabe shape ‘mara cts ju fe creer Sty 141) (187) 36-0 {20] [ML Ethan, Orne, Oa he pps of th Kramers rong raion to ‘ate the canton of electoral impedance dt, jour Ee ‘hemi Sey 18 (1 (991) 7-76 191 St. npn eon 10 fr ina 95/8200 esha Inpedance spony dt nas saw, Tecle Note: Exrapolion tng Bsr Krom tone Princeton Aplie eseah, 20 140] Germann tment ne ip ornegermannon, rts Capa [atl DA Tones, ND. Geen, Kestrel mesuemeat of ow comes ate, aranon 2 (195) 18-2080 ‘A tease, i Hoson/ Cement and Cnc esearch 39 (2003) 391-400 (ol gg ta i en thc Somapase th te reat somes a vo EEE went tng a net ie pS ot ahaa he Somet ie Shs emma cay cee eas we al Sie enn pn sce aa baa nm a I ver i a Se re mene ex in Hla ects arte Sich os een inet stare ea toe iSeries vo Scala temo ap See ae a vo Sa a A te Ehecrsriateoaigeret ia Ce tt me mane Ja tac ale eotrch ounl of nad, 198. i eymon Me ama Comping corosonmesaremet methods asses ‘he corona forty OAC and NPC conte specimens Cement and {nurete Recah 94 (004) 2037-2044, [st] h'Bener with contains fom ©, Ande, et al, Halil! potential ‘estrements~ Pret mapping on rece cance seutres teal Isa fe I Conte and C Andrade, Heocnemial methods or ane activi of tee eifredcontete ttre. AST ST 1276... Bete, a ors. 1986, ATM p 107-18. 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Pot Cement Asciation (PCA), Caco, Nath Craton USA, 204, Ist] Avtimmoud, Tague Rexual Behaviour of Coroded Reinforced Concrete ‘Seams Rep’ With CFRP Shes, MASE thes In Mechanical gine {62} Slate The inuene of oading o the correson of stelin craked airy Porta! cement and igh pesrmance cartes PAD test mh Mechanical Engineering Unversity of Wen, 2007,