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423 Teaching Chapter-2a Processing
423 Teaching Chapter-2a Processing
A
3
Austenite
Cooling rate
Martensite
Time
Bainite
Pearlite
Effect of carbon on hardness of martensite structures
Flame surface hardening:
∗ Heat the surface of a steel part rapidly to a temperature above the
critical point of the steel → form austenitic grain structure
(austenitized) → quickly quench (water or force air) to transform
austenite to martensite → form a hard case (the core of the part in its
original state: ferrite and pearlite);
∗ Requirements: hardenable carbon steels (wrought or cast, 0.37-
0.55%C) and cast irons (0.35-0.80%C), martensitic stainless steels, tool
steels, steels with adequate carbon and other alloy element addition.
Combination progressive-spinning
flame hardening.
Advantages:
∗ Parts that are so large that conventional furnace treatments are
impractical or uneconomical;
∗ Prevention of detrimental treatment of the entire component when
only small segments of the part require heat treatment;
∗ Use of less costly material to obtain the desired surface properties
where alloyed steels would be normally applied.
Surface conditions detrimental to flame hardening of steel parts
Defect or Probable origin of Detrimental effects to be expected on flame-hardened
condition condition areas
Laps, seams, Localized overheating (or, at worst, surface melting), with
Rolling mill or forging
folds, fins consequent grain growth, brittleness, and greater hazard of
operations
(wrought parts) cracking
Insulating action against heating, with resulting underheated
Rolling or forging; prior heat areas and soft spots
Scale (adherent)
treatment; flame cutting
Localized retardation of quench, causing soft spots
Similar to scale condition as noted above left
Storage and handling of
Rust, dirt Severe rusting may result in surface pitting that will remain
material or parts
after hardening.
Present in as-received steel
In severely decarburized work, no hardening response will
bar stock; heating for
Decarburization be found when parts are tested by file or other superficial
forging or prior heat
means
treatment of parts or stock
Pinholes, Localized overheating (or, at worst, surface melting), with
shrinkage Casting defects consequent grain growth, brittleness, and greater hazard of
(castings) cracking
Coarse-grain Casting gates located in
Increased cracking hazard during quenching, compared with
gate areas areas to flame hardened
nongated areas; shrinkage defects also likely in these areas
(castings) (avoid, if possible)
Parts welded with an alloy Weld zone reaction dissimilar to base-metal reaction. Weld
Improper welds
dissimilar to base metal may separate, requiring rewelding or scrapping of the part
(a) Hardness and temperature profiles with the distance from the surface Z for
the specimen flame-treated at 1050oC followed by air cooling and (b) the
positional difference of microstructure.
After: M.K. Lee, G.H. Kim, K.H. Kim, W.W. Kim, Surface and Coatings Technology,
184, 2004, p239.
Induction hardening:
∗ An induction coil with varying current → magnetic field → eddy
currents generated in a electrically conductive material to be treated →
dissipate energy and produce heat;
dΦ
e = −N
Induced voltage
dt
Number of
turns in coil
Time rate of change
of magnetic field (Φ)
Pattern of currents and the magnetic field in a
solenoid coil (a); In (b), note that the induced
eddy current in the specimen is opposite to
that in the coil.
Set-up for induction hardening of gear
⎛ U 2
⎞
S ( μm) = 2.1× 10 ⎜⎜
−8 B
⎟⎟
⎝ ρ ⎠
UB: acceleration voltage of
electron beam in volts
ρ: density of material in
g/cm3
Electron beam generating system and gun
(ASM Handbook Online)
Workpiece configurations and heating patterns for electron-beam
heat treating (ASM Handbooks Online)
Application criteria:
∗ Must contain adequate carbon to produce satisfactory case hardness;
∗ Mass of the part must be sufficient to self-quench the heat treated
area;
∗ Stream of electrons must have line-of-sight access to the area
requiring heat treatment and a beam-impingement angle of at least
25°;
∗ Component being heat treated may be processed in a vacuum
envelope or chamber, or at pressures up to 1atm in air or inert gas;
∗ Surface to be heat treated should be machined or ground to final
dimensions;
∗ Component being heat treated must be demagnetized prior to
hardening.
Advantages:
∗ Precise control and reproducibility of energy input with respect to
location and time;
∗ Constant hardening depth for both areal and laterally patterned
hardening up to a track width of 50-100 mm;
∗ Low thermal stress imposed on the workpiece;
∗ No scaling or oxidation of component surfaces;
∗ No component-dependent means of energy transfer;
∗ No preparation of surfaces to be hardened or of regions that have to be
left untreated;
∗ CAD/CAM compatible and easy to integrate into mechanical flow
lines;
∗ Plant operation requires only electric power and low quantities of
cooling water;
∗ High energy efficiency;
∗ High process productivity;
∗ No waste products generated.
Optical micrographs of the : (a) ion nitrided layer; (b) electron beam
hardened zone
After D. Dimitrov, M. Aprakova, S. Valkanov, and P. Petrov, Vacuum, 49, 1998,
p239
Distribution of the microhardness within Abrasive wear resistance: Curve-1:
the depth: Curve-1: ion nitriding layer; ion nitriding layer; Curve-2: after
Curve-2: after electron beam hardening electron beam hardening
Laser-beam hardening:
∗ Energy of a laser beam absorbed by workpiece surface → heat the
surface layer to austenitization temperatures → quenching the material
from the austenite region to form hard and very fine martensite →
increase hardness;
Disadvantages:
∗ Depth of case obtainable is limited to about 2.5mm;
∗ Capital cost of the equipment may be high.
Taper-section of a sandblasted Transition area (top half, refined
specimen showing a lath mar- microstructure ) and base metal
tensitic microstructure in the surface (bottom half )
layer
Potentiodynamic polarization
curves of shot-peened and as-
received samples of 1Cr18Ni9Ti
After: T.S. Wang, J.K. Yu, B.F. Dong, Surface and stainless steel obtained in 3.5%
Coatings Technology, 200, 2006, p4777. NaCl solution
Laser shot peening (Laser shock processing)/LSP:
The plasma burst induces a pressure wave into the surface of the component
inducing residual compressive stress
After: G. Hammersley, L.A. Hackel, F. Harris, Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 34,
2000, p327.
Residual stress profile in INCO 718 alloy
AFM images of Inconel 600 alloy surface (a) after LSP treatment and (b)
original surface
After: A.A. Bugayev, M.C. Gupta, R. Payne, Optics and Lasers in Engineering,
44, 2006, p102.
Comparison of initiation (fatigue crack development to a
specified size, and usually the detectable limit) and later
cracking stages at σmax = 260 MPa for crack detection tests on
7075-T7351 aluminum alloy
After: C.S. Montross, T. Wei, L. Ye, G. Clark, Y.W. Mai, International Journal of
Fatigue, 24, 2002, p1021.
Plasma surface modification:
∗ Plasma: the fourth state of matter and is composed of highly excited
atomic, molecular, ionic, and radical species; obtained when gases are
excited into energetic states by radio frequency, microwave, or
electrons from a hot filament discharge; highly unusual and reactive
chemical environment in which many plasma-surface reactions occur;
high-density of ionized and excited species in it can change the surface
properties (chemical, tribological, electrical, optical, biological, and
mechanical) of normally inert materials;
Sources:
∗ Atmospheric arc plasma source;
∗ Electron cyclotron resonance plasma source;
∗ Corona discharge plasma source;
∗ Laser plasma source;
∗ Radio frequency glow discharge plasma source;
∗ Vacuum arc plasma source.
Plasma sputtering and etching:
Plasma polymerization:
∗ Low-molecular-weight molecules (monomers) were transformed
into high-molecular-weight molecules (polymers) with the assistance
of energetic plasma species such as electrons, ions, and radicals
Plasma-grafting co-polymerization:
∗ Polymers are first exposed to the plasma to create radicals on the
surface where inelastic collisions between the electrons in the
plasma and polymer surface produce radicals in the polymer chains;
∗ Polymers are then exposed to a vapor of the monomer or an
aqueous or organic solution of the monomer;
Plasma-grafting co-polymerization is often employed to alter the
surface hydrophilicity of polymers.
SEM micrograph of silicone rubber modified using electroformed screen
mesh mask of square (left) and round meshes (right). The Ar+ energy is 1
keV.
After: F.Z. Cui, Z.S. Luo, Surface and Coatings Technology, 112, 1999, p278.
AFM images of PTFE pre- and post-DBD plasma treatment (a) before
treatment and (b) after DBD plasma treatment
(Improving surface wettability of the polymer surfaces through changes in
both surface chemistry and microstructure)
After: C.Z. Liu, N.Y. Cui, N.M.D. Brown, B.J. Meenana, Surface and Coatings
Technology, 185, 2004, p311.
XRD pattern obtained from 304 stainless
steel, untreated and samples treated at
different C2H2/N2 gas pressure ratios
After: A.M. Abd El-Rahman, F.M. El-Hossary, Relative microhardness for 304
T. Fitz, N.Z. Negm, F. Prokert, M.T. Pham, E. ASS samples treated at different
Richter, W. Moller, Surface and Coatings
C2H2/N2 gas pressure ratios
Technology, 183, 2004, p268
XPS spectra of N-depth profiles