Automotive Aluminum Crash Energy Management The Aluminum Association The Aluminum Association, in. 900 19% Steet, NW Suite 300 Wastingoon, OC 20006Automotive Aluminum Crash Energy Management Automotive & Light Truck Committee Sponsors Alcan Aluminum Corporation Aluminum Company of America Aluminum Precision Products ARCO Aluminum, Ine Commonwealth Aluminum Corporation Hydro Raufoss Automotive, Holland, M. Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp. Nichols Aluminum Norande Aluminum, nc Reynolds Metals Company Southwire Company V.A.W. of America, Inc. Wabash Alloys Publication ATS © December, 1998 ‘he information in his publication has been prepared in cooperation with Diversified Computer Engineering & Development, nc. ord is believed to be accurate athe fime of publication. The Aluminum Assocation and its member componies assume.no responsitiliy forts uses. No warranties, expressed or implied, by The Aluminum Assocition or its member companies accompeny this information, © Copyright 1998 The Aluminum AssocictionChapter Page Executive Summary 3 1. General Intreduction 5. 1.1 Inroduction 5 1.2. Safety regulations, accident and injuries—history 6 1.3 New car assessment program (NCAP) 7 2. Vehicle Design Approaches for Crash Eneigy Management 8 2.1 Structural layout, component stiffness, load paths and load transfer 8 2.2 Packaging, crash zones, mean crush load and pulse response: 9 2.3. Vehicle kinetic energy, weight and sofety W ‘3. Aluminum Vehicle Design, Material Properties and Joining Methods 18 3.1 Aluminum vehicle design 18 3.2. Auminum alloys 20 3.3 Properties of commonly used aluminum automotive alloys 22 3.4 Aluminum joining methods 33 ‘4. Eneigy Absorption in Aluminum by Axial and Bending Collapse 37 4.1 Aluminum strain rate, dynamic effect, geometry and joint ype 37 4.2. Aluminum structural sabilily, critcal loads and buckling stresses 39 4.3. Axial collapse, response, analysis and design application 43 4.4 Bending collapse, analysis techniques and plastic deformation 465. Designing for Crash: Perfomance, Issues ond Tips for Solving Them 5.1 Performance of aluminum built vehicles 51 5.2 Bumperrall attachment, bracket ard crash space penally 51 5.3. Front upper rails, load transfer and green house collapse 52 5.4. Backup stucture, collapse load ard premature bending 53 5.5. load path to rockers 53 5.6 Upper rail load and greenhouse collapse 34 5.7 Thicknessiowidh rato effect on stability of crash 34 Appendix! Re‘erences 56 Appendix Il Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 59 Appendix Ill Occupant Injuries and Performance Criteria 74 Appendix IV Acknowledgements 76Assessment Program* and achieved the top safey rating for both the driver and the front seat passenger. ‘The purpose of this publication is to bring cogether in one document all the relevant information for aluminum concerning design principles for crash energy management, behavior under crash Executive Summary With the growing concems about over steel, particularly as the vehicle type loading, material properties the effects of vehicle emissions and producers downweight their vehicles and gest cesults to aid the auto the depletion of natural resources, co reduce fuel consumption and designees as well asthe ial aluminum is on the threshold of ‘exhaust emissions, Other advantages and component suppliers in the being adopted for high volume for aluminum intensive cars are that, development of crashworthy production vehicles. This is with appropriate engineering, a lower structures for aluminum intensive because its lower density than steel center of gravity can be achieved, _yehicles. ‘Readers are presented a allows significant reduction in thereby lowering the risk of rollover historical overview of the relevant” vehicle weight, and hence, in fuel and, with the excellene corrosion itiotoe Vehicle afexy eegulations; consumption and exhaust emissions resistance of aluminum, the crash- followed by a description of the without sacrificing sie or safery. worthiness of aluminum structures yarious design approaches for crash will nor deceriorate with time energy management along with With the change in material from details on vehicle structural yout, steel to aluminum, however, there is Several aluminum structured packaging constraints and vehicle avery natural public concern that models are on the road today in Kinetic encepy. vehicle safety and crashworthiness_ North America, Japan and Europe, could be adversely affected. In fact, all of which have met of exceeded Sheer-based aluminum vehicle the reality is that aluminum vehicle the erashworthincss targets for bodies, space frame structures, structures behave very much like public use. Examples include the appropriate aluminum material steel ones in crash situations in that Acura NSX, the GM EVI, the Audi properties and the joining methods the principal energy absorbing ‘A8, the Plymouth Prowler and the between the various components of members fold or collapse ina highly Ford AIVs. Impact barrier crash aluminum vehicle struccures are all predictable manner. absorbing the data for the Audi A8 and Ford AIV discussed. “This is followed by an kinetic energy of the vehicle by the are shown in Chapter 5 of this analysis of the axial and bending resulting work of deformation document and convincingly show modes of collapse of aluminum Furthermore, because of the low that appropriately designed components, their deformation density of aluminum, longer front aluminum structures provide crash behavior in each mode, and the and rear energy absorbing crush performance equal or superior to crash energy absorption asiociated structures can be used to enhance that of an equivalent sized steel with these modes. crash energy absorption capability structured car. Further, the Audi without incurring a significant AB has now been tested under the ‘This publication concludes with weight penalty. In this sense, National Highway Traffic Safety a coverage of the most commonly aluminum has a major advantage Administration's New Car encountered crash energy manage-ment design issues at the component and sub-system level of the vehicle structure and provides remedies and suggestions on haw ro solve them. In adi sclevant federal motor vehicle safety standards, occupant head and chest injuries, and crash performance criteria is appended at the end of the publicat yn, a summary of the Finally it should be recognized that crashworthiness and safety are not synonymous. ‘Today, there are some concerns about the discrepancies in height and weight between passenger cars and light trucks. Auto companies are now looking for ways to address these issues. Aluminum can play a major role, especially as itis now well ‘established that structurally efficient and crashworthy structures are being built in aluminum, and that the application of aluminum ro light trucks would enhance the compaibility of larger, light tcucks with smaller passenger cars. * National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Crash Test Press Rekase, U.S. Department of ‘Transportation, Seprember 15, 1998. sl].General Introduction 1.1 Introduction seructares manage crash energy absorption and, hence, provide Thisdocument hasbeen developed DayPiing an Nene: pv to provide the major rlerane iafoetacion sboue he beer ebiels occupant inexciy the : same way. Therefore, there should of aluminum in vehicle crash ee eee situations and how this behavior, ne ems combined wath knowledge, that aluminum can be used just as experience and appropriace design, can he used to develop crashworthy structures for aluminum intensive vehicles. ‘The fact that this is indeed possible has been convincingly demonstrated by the many crashworthy aluminum structured vehicle designs that have been developed in recent years, such as the aluminum intensive version of the Ford Taurus which meet al the relevant FMYSS crash safety requirements, the GM EV1, which also has an aluminum structure, and the Audi A8 aluminum space frame vehicle which meets all European and North American safety requirements for crashworthiness (1,2,3). cffectively as steel to provide erash- worthy vehicle structures. There are however, important physical and metallurgical differ- ences between steel and aluminum: itis, for instance, much less dense than sted! but itis typically used at about 1.5 times the steel thickness in equivalent structural components, gin front rails. These provide the primary energy absorption in a frontal collision and the increased thickness for the aluminum resules in more deformation and, henes, ‘enhancement of its energy absorption, Conversely, automotive structural stels will generally deform more before fracturing than the corresponding aluminum materials and therefore the design of components and whole structures ‘must take all such properties and characteristics into account to ensure that the vehicle structures have the requisite crashworthiness. Aluminum, just like stel, absocbs avehicle crash by folding and bending deformation of the metal structure. Both steel and aluminum, when used for vehicle (1.2.3) Numbers in parentheses refer ro References in Appendix 1. Crashworthiness is one of the most important aspects in vehicle design but there are many other aspects to be considered such as weight for the projected size of vehicle, structural stifiness which is key for good road holding and handling, occupant space and manufacturing cost and ‘compromises have to be made to evolve viable vehicle designs However, crashworthiness can not be compromised but adding weight is not the answer; a well designed military tank might be a safe vehicle for its occupants but likely would result in fatalities in any passenger schicle in collision with the tank And the tank would nor meet any” of the purchaser's expeciation for speed, comfort and road holding. Thus the challenge for the designer is to develop vehicles which meet the customer’ expectations for performance, read holding and space while, at the same time, having « a iia kate FIGURE 2.2 Crush zones concept in a front end structureFIGURE 2.3—Axial stable collapse of extruded 6061-14 double cell, hollow rectangular tube (7) KLOAD SUBSEQUENT PEAK f\i a N\ J DEFORMATION (IN) FIGURE 2.4 Rail Force Deformati jon Responsea e z ° z < « = a e a a 90 TIME (MILLI-SEC) FIGURE 2.5—Deceleration-Time Response a ° z ° = < a w = = e a a TIME (MILLI-SEC) FIGURE 2.6—Front Loaded Pulse Response 7Aluminum Vehicle Design, Aluminum Alloys, he current infrastructure for high Material Properties Gnd yolume auwbodies and which results ‘The challenge before the engineer designing lightweight scructural assemblies using aluminum is to balance the customer’ various needs, ‘These are weight saving, enhanced structural performance, minimal cost impact and conserving packaging space, The engineer can accomplish this task most effectively by raking advantage of the avail- ability of aluminum in different product forms (i.e. sheet, extrusions, castings and forgings) Each product form has its own characteristics capabilities and limitations. Aluminum Sheet Structures Sheet based aluminum body seructure designs may resemble the unibody construction of the Ford Taurus/Sable ATV or the body structure of the GM EVI, Figure 3.1. An integrated body/chassis structure made from stamped aluminum sheet (similar to those ‘Aluminum Vehicle Technology (AVT) structural adhesive bonding system, for example, provides a system of materials and process technology that is compatible with Joi 1g Methods in very rigid and durable body structures. However, the cost of the currently produced in stel forall required dies may not favor the exten- ‘mass production vehicles} offers good sive use of stamped sheet compon- mass efficiency and, in high volume ents in low volume applications. production, 2 low cost option. In the AVT system, essentially only ‘The production of traditional cone sheet material, 5754.O temper stamped sheet components benefits is used. This is supplied with a from the existing experience in sheet surface pretreatment to provide metal xamping and, in addition © good long-term bond durability giving design and manufacturing and with a pre-applied high comfort, offers the ability to make performance press-forming lubricant complex shapes with ourer quality to facilitate forming and to protect FIGURE 3.1—GMEV1 sheet based aluminum body structurethe pre:reatment during forming and handling. The pretreatment and lubricant coatings are fully compatible with the toughened, heat-curing epoxy adhesive used in the body seructure assembly. This adhesive can be robotically applied to one of the joining flanges before sembly, and cither spor welding or another form of mechanical fstening, can be used to fixture the structure prior to curing. ‘These fasteners also increase the peel resistance of impact critical members. When ‘completely assembled, the body HYDRAULIC RAM, ALUMINUM, structure is cured either in an “E- coat” paint oven after finishing or ina separate cure oven without the need for E-coat finish protection. ‘The weld-bonded joints contibute significantly to structural rigidity and fatigue endurance and also help the structure to absorb energy during crash by increasing the average collapse load of the frone rails. The final weld-bonded seructure is durable, retaining its strength under load and in aggressive environmens. CONTAINER HEATED ALLOY BILLET FIGURE 3.2—Aluminum Alloy Extrusion Process 3.1.2 Aluminum Extruded Structures Extrusion is a hot metal shaping process in which the aluminum alloy is heated to about 500 degrees Celsius and then driven through a die into the desired shape (9), Figure 3.2. Exiruded components ate extensively used in space frames as straight and bent or evisted members. Extrusions provide the ability to have closed hollow ceoss- sections with variable thickness around the perimeter and without lengthwise joint, TOOL HOLDER Zo EXTRUDED ALUMINUM3.1.3 Other Aluminum Approaches The space frame approach takes advantage of the different product forms available, and of aluminum’s properties of higher specific strength and specific defor- mation ener result in a stiff, strong and durable crashworthy structure (10,11). gy absorption. These produce solutions typically resule in 40 to 50 percent weight savings with improved stiffness, scrength, durability and noise vibration-harshness when compared tures they to traditional steel str would replace. ‘They have been demonstrated to have improved crash performance to such systems icc. in the Audi’ A8, Figure 3.3. Multi-product solutions also allow the engineer to choose from a variety of different joining hods (spor welding, are welding, mechanical fastening, each with or without suitable adhesive in the joint); the choice will depend upon the product form used, the performance and dimensional control needed, and economic considerations, Other aluminum structural designs Using extrusions or combinations of extrusions and sheet have been developed by Renault (12), Lotus Cars (13), Pinin Farina (14), and Pancz (15). In the latter case joining is by mechanical compression fit (CF) join IGURE 3.3—Audi A8 aluminum multiproduct structure 3.2 Aluminum Alloys and corrosion resistant in its pure state Aluminum (Al) is soft, ductile, Aluminum is generally alloyed with other elements to f alloys wich higher mechanical properties. The common alloying elements being copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium and zine (16) Wrought aluminum and aluminum alloys are identified, through a system developed by The Aluminum Association, by four digit number and followed by an alpha-numeric suffix (eg, 6111-14), The four digit number indicates the major alloying elements and chemical composition of the alloy The frst digit indicates the alloy group or series, and depends on the major alloying element. Ixxx series alloys contain mare than 99 percent of pure aluminum. The major alloying clements for the ‘A. nx series alloys is copper (Cu), 4 3xxx series alloys is manganese (Mn). 4 drexe series alloys is silicon (Si) ‘A. Sux series alloys is magnesium Me), ‘A. 6xxx series alloys are both nesium and silicon & Si), and 4 Texx series alloys is zine (Zn)Other elements can be found in the Sxxx group. The 9xxx group is an unused series. The letter suffix indicates the temper condition of the alloy as follows: F As fabricated, applies to products where no thermal oF srain-hardening treatment was used. © Sofi or annealed, applies to ‘wrought (formed) products which are heated then slowly cooled to increase ductility and reduce strength. HH. Strainchardened temper, applies to products which have their strength increased hy strain-hardening. W Solution heat-treated, applies to alloys which spontaneously age at room temperature afer solution heat-treatment. TF Heat treated. T is generally followed by a digit indicating the sequences of heat creatment. ‘TH Indicates a product cooled fiom an elevated temperature and naturally aged to a stable condition, ‘Tindicates a product cooled from an devated temperature, cold worked, and naturally aged to a stable condition. T3 Indicates a solution heat treated, cold worked, and naturally aged 10 a stable condition, T4 Indicates solution heat created and nacurally aged oa stable condition, TS Indicates a product cooled from an elevated temperature and then arcificially aged, 6 Indicates solution hhear-reared and then autifically aged, ‘T7 Indicates solution heat- «reated and stabilized, TB Indicates solution heat- treated, cold worked, and then artificially aged. ‘TO Indicates solution heat- treated, artificially aged, and then cold worked. TO Indicates cooled from an elevated temperature, cold worked, and then artificially aged. ‘The Lex, Sex, and Sxoe alloys are non-heat treatable, and produced primarily as sheet and plate products or wire, rod, bar and cubing The 2exs, Grex and Zax are heat treatable, and produced in a wide range of products, including sheet, plate, extrusions and forgings. The combinations currently most widely used in the automotive industry are Dew, Seax and Grex sheet and Gexe and 7xxxalloy extrusions.3.3 Propertie: of Commonly Used Aluminum Automotive Alloys ‘The Aluminum Association has published ewo comprehensive ‘manus (17) describing the compo- sitions, properties and applications for both the aluminum sheet and extrusion alloys that have been developed or optimized for auto- motive applications. Respectively, these are entidled “Automotive Alu- minum Sheet Manual” (Aluminum Association Publication AT3), and “Automotive Aluminum Extrusion Manual” (Aluminum Association Publication AT6). The reader is therefore strongly advised ro obtain copies of these wo documents as. well as “Aluminum Standards and Data” (16), the industry standards, for detailed information. However, to aid the teader, the following basic information is provided to give guid- ance on the composition and typical properties of the materials most ‘commonly used in vehicle structures and hence that have been used to achieve crashworthy structures. 3.3.1 Sheet Materials Various non-heat treatable and heat ‘treatable aluminum alloys have been successfully utilized in fabricating prototype unibody structures in sheet metal stampings (17). The properties of the most commonly ced in used sheet alloys are pres Tables 3.1 chrough 3.6, “The Swex (Al-Mg) alloys are non- heat treatable, Their formability generally increases with increasing ‘magnesium content. However, Sxax alloys with nominal magnesium contents greater than abous three weight percent are subject to “sensitization”, whereby, with a combination of cold work (as in stamping) and long-term elevated emperature exposure (as would aise in proximity to the engine ‘compartment, precipitation occurs at grin boundaries. Consequently the material may become susceptible ‘o intergranular forms of corrosion, including scress cortosion cracking. Although the high magnesium alloy 5182-O has been successfully used ina produ an appropriate pretreatment and a protective painc coating, e.g., chromating followed by a baked clectto-coating), the lower ‘magnesium alloys such as 5454-0 and 5754-0 are considered the leading choices for structural stampings. Alloy 5754-O has been used almost exclusively for adhesively bonded unibody shect structures. ion application (with Heat treatable alloys 6009, 6111, and 6022 have been developed primarily for closure panels. They are characterized by high ducility in the T4 temper in which they are formed, and high strength in the finished application because they strengthen during the paint-bake cycle (see Table 3.5). There are certain applications where they may be used advantageously in vehicle structures (18). However itis inadvisable to use these alloys where they will be continuously exposed to clevated temperatures during vehicle service since this will continue the age hardening process and potentially lead to loss of ductility and cracking during impact collapse. 3.3.2 Extrusions Aluminum extrusion ia both the Gxxx and 7uxx alloy series ate routinely used today in a wide range of automotive applications. The properties of the most commonly used extrusion alloys are presented in Tables 3.9 through 3.14, The Properties shown for some alloys are identified as “tentative.” This indicates that these properties have been established from limited data and are subject to change. For space frame structures, however, the Gxxx (Al-Mg-Si) alloys ate the preferred ones due to ease of ‘extrusion, good formabili excellent corrosion resistance and good weldability. These alloys provide good strength at low cose, ate readily formed in the T4 temper and yet can be aged to the T5 or T6 temper to give higher strengths, OF the commonly produced alloys, 6063 has the lowest strength, followed by 6005, 6005A and 6061 ‘The most commonly used alloys in space frames for crash energy ‘management are 6063, 6005AUTTER ee Le ite ae ae etme We Co cu ee 5 Mg G Zn ee 020-050 40-59 050-10 24-30 0.25 5 2636 20 5 040-08 2 005 5 25 5 POR Ra ue re Toe ag ita ro) Peed ead Average for Tension Tee * Poe nen ary (reso) coe en CeCe) Caieee ea Cy COP Se ae eee Degen a eet Thermal RM ‘of Thermal Cor ee ee pper Standard] 5 ar ra 5182 | 2.65 (0.096) 24.1 (13.4) 575-640 ° 121 (840) lat) 6a 110) SaSa' 2.69 (0.097) 23.6013.) 600-645 ° 34 (930) 20 [34) 06 5754 2670097) ——-23.8(13.2) sma | (0 2 (916) “19 (93) 3) 2.71 (0.098) 3.4130) 605-650 167 (1160) waa) 84 (144 (1090-1200) 1 be eimincted by hortoge 4 c neling ol per Alinum Sancarcs & Ds, 24PUTER eR me ent iain tag See oe re pen eee i Rec cd Eiinisa art (0.025-0.125) 255 137.0) no 18 (0.025-0.031) 215 (31.0) 8 12 (0.032-0.050) 15 85 “ oos1-0119 15 as 16 0.030-0.055) 200 80 0.056-0.087 200 80 00088-0.138) 200 80 120) 0 Ta 10.021-0.070 185 051150) (0.071-0.125 (240) 901130) 0.020-0.12 (340) 301190) (0.020-0.079 (06.0) 40 200) 23 Soe ee eau aay eS ree Pay hacen Cee ie Deedee er) ee h + Paint Bake ce ee ee ee le Elongation Cece en ee en ch in eee! cert Ce eT Ca oa Cee) 25ee a COP ae led Notched (K=3.0) T0771 186 (271 69 (10) 86 (27) 69110) 214 (31) 69 (10) 26 TABLE 3.7 TENTATIVE TYPICAL FORMABILITY DU aw ae oe SC For thickness cround 1-2rm (0:0400,080 7TABLE 3.8 COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS CoP wt ya tw eS 11-4 5 B A ‘AsBe Notes: [I] Reng: of fr ginal bore sheet: aiigs may vay dependent spon cembnotions ofa npet ord filer aly for welded siuctes, Alloys wih A & Bratings con be ved ord seocaad! emiorments wihoul prtcton. Asya C rage shoud be promeled, (2) Ratings ae consensus of formality expert om experi hee, in dectsosng (3) Ratings re consensus Mb 27TCE OCC RCD ee Tek a oe Canoe Cn oadCMC UNC ee Ua a ULC cy ee eer Dey Cr rs Teer acc! Neg ct Eom? oa) ere ken srr oat zs Fs came) 6005-15 305 270 (39) 12 200 (29) 691100) C0OSAS" 30544) 270 _ (39) 2 20k oF 100) 061-16 310 (45) 275 (40) 12 205 (100) 185 (27) 145 (21) 12 5 1100) 240135) 215131) 12 150 (oc 400158) 340149) 15 220 72__ lio) 05-153" 395 _ 1571 350 (50) is 220 72 ‘(N0a) 430 (62) 380155) 15 270 70 (102) (52) 315 (46) 14 200 70 (10.2) 430 (62) 380 (55) 4 270 70 (10.2) evr {2}Tenatne fo ol produto hase alorsttre oe nat eed (1125-1205) 0054 | 27010098) 23.4 (13.0) — 15! 7 = ——— T 27010098) 236(13.1) 580-650! @ 167 (1160) (1080-1205) 2.70 (0.097) 23.4 (13.0) 615-055, 5 209 (1450) 105 0063 | 2.70 (0.097) 23.4 (13.1) 615-055 10 1{1390) 32 (53) 02 | 2.77 (0.100) 23.8 (13.2) 005-645. | 277 10.100) 22.8 (12.6) = 163 133) 7116 | 27810101) 23.4 (13.0) 7 6 (148) 7i29 | 27710100) 22.8 (12.0) = y 71133) — usc meking may be elimnaed by homog 2 TeraPU eee Oe mt ee ecm tat acy cata) pacer oa ei Dr Tensile Yield ed Ee Con ee an eri pers mm co $3.20 (0.124) >3.20-25.00 0.125-1.000, 250 240 (350) 10 9 0058-15 $6.30 (60.249) 260 7 - >6.90-25.00 10.250-0.09) 250 ° 8 COOITOTOST) $6.30 (0.249) 20 8 = >6.30-25,00 20.250 20 0 9 60 12.50 150 31250-2500 _(0.501-1.000) as 6063-16 3.20 (60.124) 25 8 = >2.20-25.00 _0.125-1.00, 205 0 ° 7004-75 $4000 498) 370. 0 e 7005-153 150.750) 0 9 7020-15. 16 7615 50 (0.125-0.500 330 (£0,500) 380 VERE a ee Ceytrintnc tte tar gue Endurance Limit, MPa (k og Ceo Temper ea sis 95 (14) o 95 (14) Pee) ees 6063: 7010) —— 60837 70 (10) 7005 40 (20) 507 7029/7129753 154 (221) = 42 (6)Peer ALUMINUM EXTRUSION ALLOYS 6005-15" 8 A 0054-15" 8 A 6061-16 8 A A A A BB A 7008-15" GS AB A 7005-153 c AB a 702915" —— a ‘S) Piers € AB o 7915 € AB oO ‘are for origin! bore exnsions ings may vary dependent por combinotons of 7, lmger ond ile oy lor welded stucues, Als wth A ond 8 ratngs con be vied in indi ard s20 coos emitenmants wihou pretecton. Albys wih C range shuld be protected (2) Rorngs ore consensus of iomabily experts fon experence in foming exruded shopes, in decreasing oder f ment Hom A tC. Fs! eter conperes alloys teit veered romper (Flot inmedicrely af: heat reament (W).The socone compares aloys nthe stordords hardened tempor (TS, 153 or Te. These alloys naval age harden ot room temperature ofr exsioe oF saliion heat tealnert, s delay subsequent orming may be etic (3) Rotngs ate consensus on Aluminum Assocation Welding and Jening Advisory Parl Rotngs osume use ofrecommerded filet aloys (se Table 51) ond use of GMAW or GTAW proceciter, AsGeneslly weldable by ol commercial procedits ond mathods, (4) Protirory (5} Welding 7029, 71 16 and 7129 i not recommended. Use mechanical fseners cond/o: ochesves 32and 6061. As with the Gxxx sheet materials, consideration must be given to the thermal stability of the 6xxx extrusions alloys when they are used for crash energy management seructural members in locations where these will be subjected to clevated temperature during vehicle service. This can lead to changes in strength and, in some instances, to a tendency to develop cracking upon impact collapse, However, this problem can be overcome by overaging the materials (c.g. 8 hrs at 210 degrees C). This reduces the strength level from the fully age hardened condition (T6) but improves the ductility. soughness and minimizes any tendency to crack on impact crushing while providing sable properties, even with long exposure to above ambient temperatures (19). Ik should be noted that the chemical composition limies for these alloys as registered by the Aluminum Association are relatively wide and individual suppliers have versions of these alloys and tempers optimized for automotive structural applications. 3.4 Aluminum Joining Methods Aluminum components can be joined by most of the joining processes currently used with steel components. This section discusses briefly the processes most commonly used in joining body sheet assemblies. Further information on joining aluminum can be found in the Aluminum Associ: Publications AT3 and ATS, previously described, and in Aluminum Association Publi- cation AT4, “Repair of Aluminum ‘Auromortive Serucrares by Welding”, and in References 20-22, 3.4.1 Spot Welding Spot welding aluminum is a function of three main materia properties: 44 the chemical composition of the aluminum alloy, ‘its metallurgical characteristics, and ‘A the surface finish of the parts being spot welded. “The chemical composition of the aluminum alloy affects its thermal and electrical conductivity. Because of aluminums high electrical and thermal conductivity, a high electric current is needed to generate local hating, As conductivity increases, the electrode thermal load increases, as well as the wear of the electrode. High content of alloying elements (ie., Mn, Mg, Si, etc.) generally reduces the conductivity of the aluminum alloy and increases the life of the electrode. The metallurgical condition of the aluminum sheets co be joined directly may influence the spor welding process. Strain-hardening, for instance, reduces the electrical conductivity of the alloy and increases the penetration resistance to the electrode, Sirain-hardening, therefore, may enhance the spot weldability of aluminum alloys. “The surface finish of the parts 10 be joined has.a great effect on the contact resistance electrode-sheet and sheet-sheet. For aluminum, the welding process relies on the restive heating ae the sheet to sheet contact. Repeatable weld quality depends upon material wich a consistent oxide layer or surface pre-treatment. The contact resistance between the sheets and the copper alloy electrodes also cause local heating but, as the dips are water cooled, fi and tp life maximized, Compared to steel che welding current is higher but is applied for a much shorter time, thus allowing for a faster welding cycle jon is avoided Aluminum, like stecl, reacts to all welding processes through changes to the metallurgical condition in the heat affected zone. In this region the material is in ics as cast condition. The yield and ultimate strengths of work hardening materials will be close to the specified “O” temper properties. ‘Age handenable alloys will lose the increases resulting from heat treatment and work hardening. It is recommended that the weld spor be placed in areas of low stresses, oF that the weld area be strengthened 33to balance any strength reduction due to welding. A list summarizing the various attributes of spot welding is presented below: 4 Industry standard process ‘4 Rapid low cost process ‘4 .No material consumable ‘4 Automation applicable 4 Can be used with adhesive 3.4.2 Are Welding ‘There are two principal arc welding processes used to j aluminum, Gas Tungsten Are Welding (GTAW, also known as TIG welding) is an arc welding process which uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode, alternating (AC) current, and an inert shielding gas (usually argon). Filler metal in the form of rod is added manually to the molten metal pool during welding. Aluminum sheet ranging from 0.04-6 mm (0.015-0.250 in, is normally welded with the GTAW process. It requires a high level of welding skill. Gas Metal Are Welding (GMAW, also known as MIG welding) uses an aluminum wire as a combination of electrode and filler metal, with an inert shielding gas being used to complete the process. The GMAW process may be used for welding aluminum shece | mm (0,040 in.) in thickness up through aluminum plate more chan 50 mm (2 in.) in thickness. GMA welding is ‘considered a semi-automatic process because the filler metal is fed auro- matically into the metal pool by a wire feeder. GMA welding requires less welding skill than GTA welding, A summary of the attributes of are welding is as follows: ‘4 Industry standard processes 4 Relatively low cost 4 Automation opportunities available 3.4.3 Adhesive Bonding Adhesive bonding is defined as the chemical joining of two surfaces together. Aluminum Association Publication AT3 on aluminum for automotive body sheet panels ‘contains more details on this joining method. Joining through adhesive bonding is a process that delivers excellent load distribution through the joint and dramatically reduces the stress concentration. Adhesive bonding is characterized ty vibration damping, good ‘comtosion resistance, fatigue resistance, metal property retention, joint stiffness, ability co join different materials, ability to seal joints while bonding them togetes, and the elimination of drilling and tapping, thus enhancing the esthetics of the final products. A list summarizing the various attributes (23) of adhesive bonding, is presented to the upper right: ‘A Improved corrosion resistance ‘4 Improved fatigue resisance ‘4 Better metal property retention A Abilizy to join dissimilar materials with different thermal expansion properties A Abilicy to join macerials of different thickness at low room temperature 4 Ability 10 provide electrically conductive or insulative joints ‘4 Greater join stifness A Abilicy to join different ma 4 Ability 10 seal joints Adhesive bonding is also used in combination with spot welding, ‘The combined weld-bonding, technique is being used extensively in automotive applications and the resulting weld-bonded aluminum products have been proven to perform very well Mechanical clinching, ako seferred to as Penerration Joining, is 1 mech- anical process with no heat appli- cation and, therefore, no thermal distortion. ‘The mechanical clinching process does not require any surface treatment. Furthermore, ‘mechanical clinching can ako aluminum and steel.Mechanical clinching, being a penetration joining technique, has the advantage of being independent of the type of surface finish Mechanical clinching is usually « low cose process and requires an inexpensive insulation. A summary of attributes of mechanical inching (7) is presented below: ‘4 Can be as stong as spot welding, depending upon the clinching process A Low cost A Insensitive to alloy and surface composition ‘4 Joins dissimilar metals 44 Provides fixture for bonded parts 3. 5 Riveting Joining through riveting isa well known technology. Riveting is surface independent and readily inspecrable. Riveting has @ good fatigue performance and the ability to join different materials, Ieis also a fast joining process. High speed automatic punch riveters are avail- able which can set rivets at arate similar to spot welding. Tubular rive can be hammered secure very rapidly, often with one blow. A sammary of attributes ofthe riveting process (7) is given below: ‘4 Known technology ‘4 Automation applicable ‘A Surface insensitive ‘4 Readily inspectable ‘4 Robust manufacturing systems A Good fatigue performance A Dissimilar material joining ‘A Fast process 3.4.6 Self-Piercing Rivets ‘The process of sel. piercing rivets does not require any drilling or punching of holes in the sheets being joined prior co or during the i forcing the rivet inco the sheets as ce displace metal of both layers without perforating the second sheet. The displaced metal is thea forced into a cavity ina backing anvil. The tubular ends of the river are then flared by a cone-shaped ng. This process consists of ‘center in the cavity of the anvil co secure the rivet in place while both sheets are held tightly together. Self-piercing requires access ro both sides of the two sheets being joined because a backup anvil is necessary. Self-piercing rivets should be made from hardened carbon steel, stainless: steel, or aluminum alloys that are galvanically compatible with alum- inum sheet. Experimental rest data show self-piercing rivets co have = shear strength comparable to if noe higher than that of spor welds, Among the attributes: ‘No requirement for pre-preparation of parts ‘A Secure joint ‘a Fast process 3.4.7 Self-Drilling Self-Tapping Screws The selfdrilling sel-rapping screw joining method consists of using the gun torque to drive the serew and secure the parts together. Screw guns are equipped with an adjustable clutch that controls the torque to its final value for tightening. ‘This method requires access to the joi side which makes it very practical ‘The equipment for installing self- drilling screws is very economical, The most common available screws are made of carbon steel coated through only one with zine for cortosion resistance and of stainless steel. A list of attributes includes: ‘4 Very economical Relatively rapid ‘A Access to only one surface required3.4.8 Magnetic Staking The magnetic staking joining method is a fast method that has no heat effect on the product being joined. Icis a low cost operation and is operator independent. This method works well on T4 and T6 heat treated aluminum alloys. A summary of attributes of the ‘magnetic staking method (7) is listed on page 36: ANo heat effect ‘4 Rapid joining ‘4 Operator independent 44 Low cost operation 4 Joint T4 oF T6 exerusion 4 Provide fixeuring and joint control for adhesive bonding, 3. Laser Welding Laser energy is being pursued as a process not only for welding but also for cutting metals. Laser ‘welding is a one sided welding process ard is available in sizes Lup 1© 25 kilowatts power output. Laser power in the ranges of 3-10 KAW is usually adequate for welding aluminum sheets in automotive applications. The most commonly used lasers are the Neodymium: Yeerum-Aluminum-Gernet (Nd:YAG) and the gas CO,, The CO, lasers are suitable for welding aluminum body sheet gauges (24) ‘Aluminum alloys respond co laser welding in a similar way as they do co other fusion welding processes; some alloys require fillers while ‘others do not. The 2xxx and Gexx seties aluminum auto body sheet alloys generally require fillers when fusion welded; the high magnesium alloys like 5182 do not. Some of the advantages of laser welding are the ease of laser beam transmission and directional control (especially with Nd:YAG lasers where the bbeam can be transmitted by optical fibers), the rapid welding speed due to the high energy density beam, and the conservation of power of the laser beam. Presently Nd:YAG lasers are available with power up to about 4 KAW but higher power units are gradually becoming available. However, the equipmenc is sill relatively expensive ‘The advantages of laser welding include the following: ‘A Access to only one side required ‘4 Suitable for tilor-welded blanks ‘A Processes still being optimized