International Journal of Market Research Vol.

53 Issue 2

Associative networks
A new approach to market segmentation

Céline Brandt and Charles Pahud de Mortanges

HEC-ULg Management School – University of Liege
Christian Bluemelhuber
Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management
Allard C.R. van Riel
Institute for Management Research, Radboud University Nijmegen

This paper aims to expand the domain of brand image perception measurement
by providing a method for eliciting brand associative networks and comparing
it with traditional brand image measurement methods. This paper then argues
that these networks may differ from one individual to another, depending on
the cultural background and/or the experience with the brand. Accordingly, the
authors introduce a methodology of clustering consumers with similar perceptions
into distinct segments, which can be targeted differently. Using picture analysis
and metaphor-based elicitation techniques, Lipton’s Ice Tea brand associations are
extracted and utilised as an input for the creation of 160 individual associative
networks.These networks are first aggregated to measure the brand reputation
and subsequently clustered into six segments. This paper provides clear arguments
for using associative networks as the preferred method to capture the complete
brand image. The paper discusses implications of perceptual segmentation for
image management, brand positioning, perceptual competition analysis and brand
communication.

Introduction
Following the majority of cognitive psychologists, brand researchers believe
that brand information is organised as a network in consumer memory
(Collins & Quillian 1969; Collins & Loftus 1975; Tversky 1977). Such
networks, which consist of associations like product features, logos and
usage situations, and associative links (Solomon 2006), show the unique
value of branded goods and services to consumers (Aaker 1996). The

Received (in revised form): 29 April 2010

© 2011 The Market Research Society 187

DOI: 10.2501/IJMR-53-2-187-208
Associative networks

graphical representation of such a brand memory is called a brand concept

map (BCM) (Roedder John et al. 2005).
Although BCMs have been discussed in the marketing literature since
the 1990s (Higie Coulter & Zaltman 1994; MacKay & Easley 1996;
Elliot et al. 2003; Carbonara & Scozzi 2006), mapping methods and
their applications are still in their infancy. They were developed not only
to analyse, but also to manage brand identity and brand knowledge.
This requires improved methods that illustrate the ‘real’ brand as being
perceived by the customer, and that are easy to use. Important ideas and
techniques have been suggested by Roedder John et al. (2006), and by
Henderson et al. (1998), who pioneered quantitative mapping techniques
and showed the link to brand equity.
Our paper follows this important research, and adds one interesting and
important aspect: we try to broaden the scope of using BCM techniques,
using it to segment the market. Based on studies that have discussed the
influences of brand experience (Bird et al. 1970; Ross et al. 1971; Ginter
& Bass 1972; Barwise & Ehrenberg 1985; Alba & Marmorstein 1987;
Gaeth et  al. 1997; Brengman et al. 2001; Anchor & Kourilova 2009),
gender (Bird et al. 1970; Bailey 2005; Mitchell et al. 2005; Sawyerr &
Strauss 2005; Wolin & Korgaonkar 2005; Bain & Rice 2006), personal
involvement (Jacoby et al. 1978; Clarke & Belk 1979; Bolfing 1988;
Brengman et al. 2001) and brand awareness (Brengman et al. 2001) on
brand perception, and have shown that different subgroups of consumers
may have different brand perceptions, we will introduce a segmentation
technique that uses brand perceptions as its main criteria.

Literature review

Brand image measurement techniques

In the literature, qualitative and quantitative methods are used to measure
brand image perception.
Several qualitative techniques have been developed to elicit brand
associations. These are defined as ‘all brand-related thoughts, feelings,
perceptions, images, experiences, beliefs, attitudes that become linked
to the brand node’ (Kotler & Keller 2006, p. 745). Marketers use free
association tasks, asking respondents what comes to mind when they think
of a certain brand (Gree & Srinivasan 1990). Projective techniques, like
comparison tasks (Vriens & Frazier 2003) or interpretation tasks, are used
when consumers are reluctant to express their feelings. Brand personality,

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i.e. ‘the specific mix of human traits that may be attributed to a particular
brand’ (Kotler & Keller 2006, p. 745), is also used to measure brand
image through open-ended questions (Swait et al. 1993) or ratings of the
‘Big Five’, a scale of five factors developed by Aaker (1997) to assess the
brand’s personality. Multidimensional scaling is also used to understand the
beliefs about a brand and the dimensions that underline these perceptions.
However, contrary to cognitive network theories describing each concept
with nodes and links, all these techniques do not consider the brand image as
a network, and focus instead on the dyadic relationship of an attribute with
a brand. Therefore, these measurement methods do not emphasise which
attributes are directly or indirectly linked to the brand, which attributes
are core associations and non-core associations, and which associations are
linked together and therefore interdependent (Roedder John et al. 2005).
Cognitive network theories assume that the structure of the elicited map
reveals the inherent relationships between the associations and the brand
as represented in a person’s memory (Joiner 1998). According to the
spreading activation theory (Anderson 1983), recall of information is made
through the activation of one node and this activation spreads from that
node to other nodes connected to it in memory. The spread of activation
depends on the distance and the strengths of the link (Anderson 1983).
Promising in this regard are the existing qualitative mapping techniques,
based on cognitive network theory, where attributes are either directly
elicited from the consumer (consumer mapping) or produced using
analytical methods (analytical mapping). An example is Zaltman Metaphor
Elicitation Technique (ZMET) (Zaltman 1997), which uses multiple verbal
and non-verbal qualitative attribute elicitation methods to emphasise
subconscious attributes. Using qualitative concept maps, associations are
elicited and mapped at the same time, allowing great flexibility in the data
collection and efficient use of time. However, the variety of associations
elicited does not permit any aggregation procedure, which requires
standardisation. Quantitative mapping techniques are potentially more
effective in this regard.
While qualitative techniques only uncover the types of beliefs making
up the brand image, quantitative techniques focus on their contribution
to brand equity through measurement of strengths, favourability and
uniqueness (Keller 2003a). If we focus on the associations, the strength
of brand associations is obtained through the rating of several brands
(Kardes 2002). As a uniqueness measure, brand sensitivity, measured by
the number of persons who recognise the brand, is considered as a proxy
for brand uniqueness (Kapferer & Laurent 1988). Several brands can

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also be represented in the multidimensional space using multidimensional

scaling (MDS), which is a tool that transforms similarity measures into
distances.
However, like most of the qualitative measures, these quantitative
measures focus on the dyadic relationship between the brand and an
attribute, without taking into account the network nature of the brand
image. Thus, if we want to know if the attributes are core or not, or
which attributes are first- or second-order attributes, or the types of link
between attributes, a network technique would fit better. In view of these
impediments, a new qualitative method of measuring brand image has been
developed, based on knowledge structures in psychology. This approach,
first proposed by Roedder John et al. (2005), pioneered a valid and
reliable quantitative mapping technique, namely brand concept mapping
(BCM), which offers structure at each stage, ease of administration and
aggregation procedures, no need for special expertise, and flexibility in the
collection method. However, this technique is still in its infancy and needs
to be broadened. There is a clear lack of empirical research on quantitative
concept mapping techniques and their applications in branding.

Associative network theories

Based on the fundamental ideas of Collins and Quillian (1969) and Collins
and Loftus (1975), we assume that the structure of a concept map reveals
the inherent content (concepts and their associations) and relationships
(links between concepts and associations) represented in a person’s mind
(Joiner 1998).
Researchers that have used this technique in marketing (Bird et al. 1970;
Pohlman & Mudd 1973; Green & Devita 1977; Boivin 1986; Dobni &
Zinkhan 1990; MacKay & Easley 1996; Elliot et al. 2003; Carbonara &
Scozzi 2006) apply methods that either (1) ask consumers to construct
the network (consumer mapping) or (2) use analytical methods, to build a
network of brand associations that were elicited from consumers (network
analysis).
The best-known technique designed to understand cognitive structures
or mental models is the ZMET (1994), which combines visual and
narrative aspects, and consists of three steps, namely elicitation, mapping
and aggregation. During the elicitation stage, 15 persons are recruited
and the topic is introduced. Then, participants collect 12 pictures about
the topic to prepare a two-hour interview that will take place ten days
later. During this interview, participants will be asked to tell stories

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about the pictures and to sort the pictures. As a result, constructs will be
elicited using the repertory grid method and laddering process. During
the mapping stage, respondents are asked to create a map illustrating the
connections among important constructs. Finally, during the aggregation
stage, data are codified and constructs are chosen regarding how frequently
they are mentioned. ZMET’s main strength is its ability to reveal personal
feelings, irrationality, illogical behaviour and repressed attitudes, which
are hard to obtain through conventional interview techniques (Pellemans
1999). On the other hand, the ZMET, and especially its elicitation stage, is
very labour-intensive. Interviewers must be thoroughly trained in cognitive
psychology, while respondents must be willing and able to participate in
two interviews and in the creation of the brand concept map. Up to now,
those maps, which are the main outcome of studies using ZMET, have been
analysed qualitatively.
Henderson et al. (1998) and Roedder John et al. (2005) were among
the first to develop quantitative tools that capture the brand image. Those
methods are easier to administer, with fewer labour-intensive processes in
the elicitation and aggregation stage, and procedures that do not require
specialised expertise and training for interviewers. Roedder John’s method
enables firms to capitalise on existing brand research (replacing the
classical elicitation stage) and allow data collection from larger sample
sizes (Roedder John et al. 2005). The main weakness of these methods
(compared with ZMET), however, is the emphasis on the conscious parts
of brand evaluation. Therefore, we suggest combining the strengths of the
quantitative methods with the elicitation stage of ZMET (picture analysis
and metaphor-based elicitation techniques), which enables the researcher
to elicit also ‘hidden’, unconscious information.

Market segmentation in terms of brand image perception

Market segmentation and product positioning are major strategic issues
in companies. Traditionally, consumers are grouped into segments based
on demographic, behavioural or psychographic data (Kotler & Keller
2005). Once subgroups have been identified, managers can improve
their marketing efforts by more closely approximating the need of
each subgroup. However, recently, some authors have suggested that
consumers may differ in their brand image perceptions depending on their
culture, or subculture (Gonzales-Arce 1975; MacKay & Easley 1996),
and their experience with the brand (Alba & Marmorstein 1987; Keller
& Staelin 1987; Brengman et al. 2001; Law 2002). Only a few authors

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(Gonzales-Arce 1975; Gensch 1978; MacKay & Easley 1996; Buchta

et al. 2000) have investigated market segmentation in terms of brand
perception, comparing perceptions of several brands on a limited number
of dimensions. However, these methods (multidimensional scaling) do not
take into account all the brand associations and the connections between
them. Considering the implications for positioning, image, communication
strategies, brand equity management and perceptual competition analysis,
we propose to further expand and advance the BCM method and cluster
the network data to reveal segments with different brand perceptions.

Methodology
We will present our methodology by applying it to one special case:
Lipton Ice Tea. We have chosen that brand for three reasons. First, it
is a well-known brand with a wide variety of associations and distinct
user segments. Second, we had direct access to proprietary data from the
producer of Lipton Ice Tea (Unilever). Finally, Lipton Ice Tea seemed to be
heterogeneously perceived in the Belgian market (according to the Lipton
brand manager).
For using the segmentation in terms of brand perception, we developed
a five-step process, which is summarised in Figure 1.

Step 1: selection of the associations

Individuals are asked to create individual brand maps. They are provided
with cards that contain brand attributes/brand associations and are asked
in a first step the following question: ‘Considering the brand and the
associations listed on the cards, what comes to mind when you think about
this brand?’ Respondents are allowed to select as many cards as they wish.
The associations are selected through two different sources: an internal
source and an external source. As an internal source, the brand manager
provided us with an initial list of associations that ensured we covered
the associations coming from past research and consistent with the brand
positioning. Since brand associations are evolving, we also used an external
source (consumers). Given the continuous evolution of brand attributes, we
then updated this list using the ZMET elicitation process (picture analysis
and metaphor-based elicitation techniques). The goal was to also elicit
personal feelings, irrationality, illogical behaviour and repressed attitudes.
We should add that alternative elicitation sources may be considered,
such as brainstorming sessions or insights from other research. A total of

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Step 1: Selection of the associations

• Internal perspective: brand associations listed by the brand manager based
on brand position and past market research
• External perspective: brand associations elicited by consumers with ZMET

Step 2: Mapping

Step 3: Codification and aggregation

• Core associations: frequency of mention and number of interconnections
with other associations
• First-order associations: frequency of first-order mention and position in
the interconnections

Step 4: Clustering based on complete linkage method

Step 5: Make clusters vivid, for example through BCM

Figure 1 BCM segmentation: five-step process

25 students participated in that ZMET study. As we reached theoretical

saturation after the 15th interview, this number should be sufficient
(Zaltman & Coulter 1995).
The respondents were asked to collect 12 pictures that express their
brand knowledge and brand feelings, from magazines or from the internet.
Then, the respondents explained the reasons why they selected them. From
these validations the interviewer completed the list of brand attributes
by assigning abstract associations to consumer quotes. The following
example illustrates this process:

Respondent 12: ‘I chose this picture of a river with a cascade because I think that
Ice Tea has to be consumed very cold.’

Researcher: Attribute: freshness, ice cubes

Based on the pre-tests, we obtained a final list of 32 attributes, as shown

in Table 1, that were used in the BCM construction process.

Step 2: mapping
Having selected those associations (cards) that represent the brand, the
160 respondents (see Table 2 for the sample description) are shown

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Table 1  Complete list of attributes

  1 Sport, move, mountain bike, clubhouse, fitness, adventure, sensation, effort

  2 Wellness, harmony, equilibrium
  3 Family, children
  4 Fruits, exotic
  5 Nature, green, veggies, flowers, plant, leaf
  6 Freshness, ice cubes
  7 Overweight, obesity
  8 Thirst-quenching
  9 Sun, heat, beach, swimming pool, holiday, deck chair, sand, scorching heat
10 Light, diet, silhouette, figure
11 Lemon, yellow
12 Break, free time
13 Sugar
14 Relaxation
15 High price
16 Soft drink
17 Terrace, outdoor, restaurant, between friends, social
18 Energy, revitalising, active
19 Aperitif, cocktails
20 At any time
21 Carafe
22 Glass ‘balloon’
23 Indigestible
24 Waste, pollution
25 Marketing, advertising, packaging
26 Addictive, antidepressant
27 Additive, sweetener
28 Sparkling
29 Peace, rest
30 Hedonic
31 Cool, fun, trendy, contemporary
32 Good quality

one brand concept map for another brand as an example to explain the
construction process, and especially the different links that could appear.
We used a BCM for the Volkswagen Beetle (Roedder John et al. 2006).
The respondents ascertain that some attributes are directly linked to the
brand (like ‘German car’ or ‘easy to park’), while others are linked to
each other (like ‘neat colours’ and ‘lime green or silver’, meaning that
because of their lime green and silver colours Volkswagen Beetles have
neat colours), and that BCMs contain different types of link between the
brand and the attributes, as well as between attributes (single, double or
triple links), which indicates how strong the associations are, with a triple
link meaning ‘very strong’. After this ‘respondent learning process’, the

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Table 2  Sample description

Frequency % Frequency %

Age
<20 12   8
20–24 30 19
25–29 37 23
30–39 30 19
40–49 24 15
>50 27 17
Users/non-users
Users 92 54
Non-users 68 40
Sex
Male 70 44
Female 90 56
Income
<10,000 57 36
10,000–20,000 11   7
20,000–30,000 37 23
30,000–40,000 38 24
>40,000 15   9

respondents are asked to create a personal concept map, using the pre-
selected associations/cards, a blank poster containing the brand name in the
centre and single, double and triple lines to connect the cards (all provided
by the researchers). Respondents stick the cards with the attributes on the
poster and connect them with single, double and triple links.
In our Lipton Ice Tea study we collected BCMs from 160 respondents.
We used quotas of age, gender, income and experience with the brand
(see Table 2 for sample description and demographics). All respondents
confirmed that they understood the procedure and had no problem
following it.
In the end, the interviewer asked the respondents to describe prior
experiences with the brand (user or non-user) and to provide us with his/
her demographics. The BCM construction and interviews lasted 15–30
minutes on average.

Step 3: codification and aggregation

In a second step, the individual BCMs have to be aggregated in order to
show the general perception of the brand. Figure 2 shows the aggregated
BCM for Lipton Ice Tea in Belgium.
Therefore two independent coders (inter-coder agreement 98%) coded:

• the presence or the absence of each of the 32 attributes

• the types of links between associations, and between the brand and the
associations (single, double and triple)

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Nature, green, veggies, Marketing,

flowers, plant, leaf advertising,
packaging
Thirst-quenching Fruits, exotic

Cool, fun, trendy,

contemporary

Freshness, Ice Tea

ice cubes Soft drink Sparkling

Pleasure, Sugar Overweight,

relaxation obesity
Sun, heat, beach,
swimming pool, holiday, Terrace, outdoor,
deck chair, sand, restaurant, between
scorching heat friends, social

Figure 2 Model: Lipton Ice Tea brand map

• the level at which each attribute was placed on the map (1 means
directly linked to the brand, 2 means linked to an attribute that is
linked to the brand …), and
• the associations linked above and below each brand association on
the BCM.

First, we had to decide which attributes would be ‘core’ in our aggregated

BCM and used the following measures for this purpose: ‘the frequency
of mention’ and ‘the number of interconnections’. The first measure is
calculated by dividing the number of times an attribute is cited in the
individual BCM by the total amount of individual BCM. The latter
one counts the number of times the attribute is linked to all the other
associations. Adhering to previous content studies of brand attributes,
beliefs and values (Roedder John et al. 2005), we used a 50% cut-off
measure to decide whether or not one attribute should appear on the
aggregated BCM, resulting in a brand map containing ten core brand
associations.
Then, we had to decide which of the core associations would be directly
linked to the brand. Two measures were used, namely the frequency and
the ratio of first-order mentioning. The first measures the number of times
an association is directly linked to the brand. The second is the frequency of
first-order mentions divided by the frequency of total mentioning. Finally,
the type of positions, superordinate or subordinate, indicates if most linked
associations appear below it (superordinate) or above it (subordinate). We
considered these attributes as first-order attributes whose frequency of first-

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order mention is higher than 50%, and whose number of superordinate

connections is higher than the number of subordinate connections.
The third step involves an analysis of the associations’ links in order
to consign the remaining core brand attributes. Towards that end, the
frequency of links between associations (for example, ‘thirst-quenching’
was frequently connected above ‘freshness’ and ‘ice cube’) is examined.
We incorporated certain non-core brand associations that are frequently
linked to core associations to show which non-core brand associations
drive consumer perception of core associations. We linked them to core
associations, taking the average link used in the individual brand maps.
Most of the core associations were consistent with the Lipton Ice
Tea advertising messages, such as ‘nature’, ‘fruits’, ‘thirst-quenching’,
‘freshness’, ‘sun’, ‘pleasure’, ‘contemporary’ and ‘terrace’. But we also
found attributes – like ‘sugar’ – that do not correspond to the brand’s
positioning. Another example of non-company-driven beliefs is the
perception of Lipton as a ‘soft drink’, which is in sharp contrast to the
intended ‘fruit juice’ perception. We elicited three attributes with double
links, namely ‘thirst-quenching’, ‘sun’ and ‘terrace’. Those attributes
have the strongest links with the brand and all three correspond to the
positioning and communication messages. The two non-core brand
associations, which drive consumer perception of the core associations
‘sugar’ and ‘cool, fun and contemporary’, are respectively ‘obesity’ and
‘marketing’. Of course, those negative associations can also affect brand
equity, for example, through brand dilution (Pullig et al. 2006) (confusion
in consumers’ minds regarding the features connected to the brand
(Henderson et al. 1998)) or the creation of a Doppelgänger brand image
(Thompson et al. 2006) (disparaging images and stories about a brand
that are circulated in popular culture by a loosely organised network of
consumers, anti-brand activists, bloggers and opinion leaders in the news
and entertainment media (Thompson et al. 2006)).
To test the reliability of our aggregation, we randomly split all individual
BCMs into two groups, produced an aggregate map for each of the groups,
and then evaluated the degree of consistency between both consensus
maps (see Figure 3). The first aggregate brand map had ten core attributes,
while the second one had only nine. Seven attributes are shared by both
aggregated BCMs (six first-link associations with three attributes in
common). Comparing both brand maps based on the presence of each of
the possible 32 brand associations, we obtained a significant chi-square
(chi-square = 16.7; p = 0.00<0.05; N = 32) and thus a high correlation
between the two brand maps (contingency coefficient = 0.586). Using

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Half 1

Soft drink
Thirst-quenching Marketing

Lemon
Lipton Ice Tea Fruits
Sun

Relax
Freshness
Plants Contemporary
Terrace

Half 2
Overweight

Terrace Relax
Sugar

Fruits

Plants
Soft drink
Lipton Ice Tea
Freshness
Thirst-quenching
Sun
Contemporary
Figure 3 Split-half reliability test

a first link association criterion, we also obtained a significant chi-

square (chi-square = 4.7; p = 0.03<0.05; N = 32) and thus a sufficient
correlation between the two brand maps (contingency coefficient = 0.4).
The high degree of consistency between both brand maps should signify a
high reliability.
To test the nomological validity, we split the individual brand maps into
two categories that should differ in a predictable way (users and non-users).
As the aggregated map for the ‘users’ group has a more complex structure
with more brand associations (ten core brand attributes for the ‘users’ and
eight for the ‘non-users’), more interconnections between associations and
more triple double links (Roedder John et al. 2005) than the non-user-
group map, we can confirm a high level of nomological validity, as shown
in Table 3.
Our nomological validity analysis elicited different perceptions of Ice
Tea based on consumption and buying behaviour. That leads us to our

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Table 3  Nomological validity tests

Users Non-users
Total number of beliefs 11.54 (–5.09) 10.35 (–3.32)
Total number of first-level associations 6.51 (–2.46) 6.41 (–2.59)
Total number of second- and third-level associations 5.03 (–5.19) 3.94 (–3.24)
Total number of links 15.39 (–4.8) 13.91 (4.52)
Total number of first-order links 10.30 (–3.82) 9.35 (–3.65)
Total number of second- and third-order links 5.24 (–3.64) 4.55 (–3.8)
Total number of triple lines 1.05 (–1.29) 0.84 (–0.89)
Total number of double lines 2.25* (–1.43) 1.60* (–1.32)
Total number of single lines 7.89 (–2.5) 8.12 (–3.64)
* Values that are significantly different from each other for an α = 0.05 (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z)
Standard deviation in parenthesis

next research question: ‘Is it possible to link BCM with cluster analysis in
order to effectively and efficiently segment consumers according to their
perceptions of a brand?’

Step 4: clustering
We clustered our individual brand maps based on the absence/presence of
the 32 brand associations to group objects based on the attributes they
possess. Following Everitt et al.’s (2001) suggestion, we used ‘Sokal and
Sneath 4’ as a distance measure and the ‘complete linkage method’ (or
further neighbour) to cluster binary variables. By plotting the distance
coefficients (slope variation), and by using the measure of heterogeneity
change, profile diagrams and the independent-samples T-tests, we decided
how many clusters to keep in the analysis.
For the brand Lipton Ice Tea, we discovered a six-cluster solution that
is described and labelled by using mean scores, the profile diagrams and
the independent-sample T-tests. The clusters differ especially in usage
situations, in the brand evaluation and in the perception as soft vs fruit
drink.

Step 5: make clusters vivid

Traditionally, managers have used demographics, behavioural variables
or, more recently, customer lifetime value (CLV) to segment the market.
By applying BCM segmentation, we create clusters with different brand
perception in terms of brand usage (when? how?), brand features (e.g.

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CLUSTER 1: After sports CLUSTER 2: Sunny

Thirst-quenching
Sport Break Terrace
Wellness
Lipton Ice Tea Relaxation Freshness
Sun
Obesity
Lipton Ice Tea Fruits
Antidepressant
Freshness
Thirst-quenching
Relax

CLUSTER 3: Sweet and expensive CLUSTER 4: Fruit juice

Indigestible
Sugar Sun Energy Additive
Terrace Sugar

Freshness Fruits
Addictive Lipton Ice Tea

Thirst-quenching Lipton Ice Tea Nature

High price Sparkling Freshness
Additive Waste
Contemporary

CLUSTER 5: Quality at any time CLUSTER 6: Light and healthy

Good quality Family Sun Relaxation

Overweight Light
Freshness
Thirst-quenching Sugar Thirst-quenching
Lipton Ice Tea Wellness
Contemporary Quality
Energy Lipton Ice Tea
At any time
Break Family
Terrace Lemon Nature
Fruits

Figure 4 Aggregated BCM for the six segments

sweet, expensive) or other brand associations (e.g. family). To interpret and

profile our six segments, we created an aggregated BCM for each of the six
clusters. The results are described in Figure 4.
Cluster 1 (‘after sports’) considers Ice Tea as a refreshing beverage that
can be drunk especially after sports, or relaxing outdoors on a terrace.
Cluster 2 (‘sunny’) considers Ice Tea as a beverage that is mostly drunk
when the weather is sunny. This segment enjoys the freshness and the fruity
side of Ice Tea. They also link Ice Tea to relaxation.

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Cluster 3 (‘sweet and expensive’) has a negative perception of Ice Tea.

This group considers Ice Tea as a soft drink, full of sugar that causes
obesity. Customers of that segment also criticise the price of the beverage
and the presence of additives, like aspartame (a sweetener). This group also
considers Ice Tea as a contemporary, fresh, sparkling soft drink, associated
with sunny weather.
Cluster 4 (‘fruit juice’) considers Ice Tea especially linked to freshness,
lemon and other fruits. Of this cluster, 70% find it especially linked to
(tea) plants, but 50% also consider it as very sweet.
Cluster 5 (‘quality at any time’) considers Ice Tea as a contemporary
beverage that can be drunk at any time. This is a quality beverage, but
with a risk of causing excess weight when consumption is excessive. This
cluster also emphasises the healthy side of Ice Tea.
Cluster 6 (‘light and healthy’) emphasises the healthy side of Ice Tea.
This cluster mentioned the quality of the beverage, the link with fruits and
plants, and the energy contribution. This group also recognises the link to
freshness, sun, relaxation and lemon.

Conclusions and theoretical implications

Implications for brand image measurement

This paper demonstrates the usefulness, reliability and validity of the
brand concept mapping (BCM) methodology. Furthermore, our approach
enhances the elicitation stage of BCM by adding picture analysis and
metaphor-based elicitation techniques to obtain a complete and up-to-date
list of attributes. Our study augments the range of BCM applications by
employing it as a segmentation tool. Finally, BCM is a way of measuring
brand image, but also attitude and usage. Therefore, BCM could possibly
replace, or at the very least complement classical research on attitude and
brand usage (visual instead of figures).

Managerial implications and applications for the information

presented in the article

Implications for image and reputation management

From a managerial point of view, this study identifies the different
perceptions of Lipton Ice Tea. When the aggregated brand map is
compared to the intended brand positioning (by the company), we find

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the core attributes of the consensus map consistent with the intended
positioning of Lipton Ice Tea. A single exception is the attribute ‘sugar’.
The two negative non-core brand associations, ‘obesity’ and ‘marketing’,
need to be carefully scrutinised.

Implications for segmentation

Traditionally, companies have segmented their potential customers on the
basis of similar sets of needs and wants that should affect consumption
habits. Most marketers use consumer characteristics and customer
response to translate these sets of needs, or wants, into effective market
segments.
We suggested a method that is not just based on (more general)
needs and wants, but more specifically on different brand perceptions.
This method clusters customers with similar perceptions as expressed
through BCMs. Naturally, these clusters can then be linked with classical
segmentation variables, like brand experience, personal involvement
or brand awareness. The cluster descriptions provide managers with
information about the different consumption habits of these subgroups
and their consequences in terms of brand perception. Brand managers
can, therefore, more easily identify which subgroups are commercially
attractive for the company (cluster number 3 is excluded). We suggest
using this method when the brand is heterogeneously perceived and when
classical segmentation variables do not lead to successful results.

Implications for brand positioning

On the basis of the brand concept map, brand managers can (re-)evaluate
their brand identity by comparing consumers’ perceptions with the brand’s
positioning.
If certain brand perceptions are inconsistent with the intended
positioning, corrective action could be taken to either modify these
perceptions (if possible), or to reconsider the brand’s points of parity and
points of difference.
Another opportunity would be to create different positioning to
incorporate the variations in the brand image perception and overcome the
differences due to the culture, brand experience or product involvement.
Given the profiles of specific segments and their consumption habits,
managers can adapt brand elements, such as product benefits, packaging

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and other aspects of integrated marketing communication, to reinforce the

brand image perception and build brand equity segment by segment.

Implications for brand communication

Due to selective distortion, consumers pay more attention to communication
messages that are in accordance with their previously acquired beliefs
stored in the long-term memory. Therefore, the creative content and the
communication messages should be adapted depending on the segments
and its brand image perception.

Implications for brand equity management

Another implication for brand management could be an adaptation of
the brand architecture. When some clusters describe Lipton Ice Tea as
‘light and healthy’, while others perceive it as ‘sweet’, we could assume
that consumers have different versions (line extensions) in mind. A clear
architecture is needed, to align extensions with specific associations, and
on the other hand create more general associations, that could be shared by
all consumers/versions. We suggest examining brand equity components at
the corporate level (Unilever), at the brand level (Lipton Ice Tea), but also
at the line extension level.

Implications for competition analysis

Managers must take into account that certain products are considered
as competitive products by some segments and not by others. Marketers
need to adapt their competitive strategy in light of these differences in
perception.

Limitations and future research directions

The sample size (160) disallowed the use of latent cluster analysis and led
to relatively small clusters. However, the aim of the study was to present a
technique that is appropriate for solving certain types of problems rather
than to draw any general inferences as to how consumers perceive Lipton
Ice Tea. To pursue this other goal, a replication with a larger sample size
would be necessary.

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For Lipton Ice Tea, a five-cluster solution is suggested. From a managerial

point of view, it would have been easier to have fewer segments (two or
three).
Regarding the effect on buying behaviour, the uniqueness of the brand
associations will have a positive effect on purchase choices (Keller 2003b).
However, Ajzen (1988) showed that perception is only one component of
attitude. The brand map should therefore be interpreted from a contingent
perspective to show the effects on buying behaviour.
Finally, although this methodology produces some interesting results,
it still constitutes a complex (and costly) process for companies (large
number of interviews and codification process) wishing to explore brand
image issues.
As future research directions, we suggest the application of the BCM
methodology to other managerial issues such as evaluation of the
effectiveness of co-branding strategies, brand extensions, advertising and
other promotional tools. The BCM technique could also be useful when
applied to brand perception issues such as brand confusion, brand dilution
(Pullig et al. 2006) and Doppelgänger brand image (Thompson et al.
2006).

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About the authors

Céline Brandt is marketing assistant and postdoctoral fellow at the HEC
School of Management of the University of Liège (Belgium). Her research
focuses are in the area of product and corporate brand reputation,
branding, networks in marketing and consumer behavior. Céline Brandt
is the author of various communications and a doctoral dissertation in
marketing. Her doctoral thesis deals with the measurement of individual
brand image perception and brand reputation using associative networks.
Charles Pahud de Mortanges received his BA (Economics) from the
University of California and his MBA from the California State University.
His PhD (Economics) is from the University of Groningen. Currently, he
is a full professor of marketing at the HEC School of Management of the
University of Liege (Belgium). His research interests are primarily in brand
management and brand valuation.
Christian Bluemelhuber is the InBev Baillet Latour Professor
d’Euromarketing at the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and
Management (Université Libre de Bruxelles). His research is devoted
to the interpretation of consumer behaviour, services and branding
experiences, visual techniques, and integrating European perspectives
into the marketing landscape. More information on Christian’s work is
available on his website http://www.bluemelhuber.de.
Allard van Riel is a full professor of marketing and director of the
Institute for Management Research of the Radboud University in Nijmegen,
the Netherlands. He holds a PhD in Service Innovation Management from
Maastricht University. Between 2004 and 2009 he held the Arcelor-Mittal
Chair in Innovation Strategy and Management at the University of Liège
in Belgium. His research interests include cognitive aspects of decision-
making under complexity and uncertainty, specifically in innovation
management, and service operations and marketing management. He
published in the Journal of Product Innovation Management, Industrial
Marketing Management, Journal of Service Research, Journal of Business
and Industrial Marketing, and International Journal of Service Industry
Management. He is currently focusing on responsible decision-making in
health care innovation.
Address correspondence to: Céline Brandt, HEC Université de Liège,
Department of Marketing, Boulevard du Rectorat 7, Liege, 4000, Belgium.
Email: celine.brandt@ulg.ac.be

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