Question 1

Blood vessels in the brain are located in the subarachnoid space. Rupture of these vessels may
lead to hemorrhagic shock which can lead to brain ischemia. Head traumas can lead to rupture
of these vessels. The brain receives approximately 25% of cardiac output meaning that blood
supply to brain is very crucial. Suppose a rider wearing a helmet is involved in an accident, and
you suspect s/he has experienced skull fractures, is it advisable to try and remove the helmet
during first aid or its best to try to cut out the helmet? (assume that you have to administer first
aid as soon as possible and at the same time avoid dislodging fractured skull pieces into
subarachnoid space which may rupture arteries worsening brain hemorrhage)

Question 2

Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted by the choroid plexus into the brain ventricles. Sleep has been
documented as an important factor that aids in lymphatic drainage of brain. This is because
during sleep there is increased cerebrospinal movement into the glymphatic system, promoting
waste clearance. What can happen to the brain if someone is deprived off sleep for 8
consecutive days?

Question 3

Dendrites are covered with synapses at points with specific membrane proteins including
receptors and channels. Can a strong stimulus lead to downregulation of these receptors or
consequently a weak stimulus lead to upregulation of the receptors?

Question 4

During action potential, the threshold of the neurons to stimulation changes. Hyperpolarizing
potentials elevate the threshold while depolarizing potentials lower it as they move the
membrane potential closer to threshold potential. During rising and much falling phases of spike
potential the neuron is refractory to stimulation. Absolute refractory period corresponds to period
from the time firing level is reached until repolarization is about 1/3rd complete. A relative
refractory period lasts from this point to the start of after depolarization. During absolute
refractory period no stimulus no matter how strong can excite the nerve. However, during
relative refractory period stronger than normal stimuli can cause excitation. What do you think is
the importance of the absolute refractory period?