SpaCreek: THE 12 VOLT DOCTOR’S ALTERNATOR BOOK Edgar J. BeynThe 12 Volt Doctor's Alternator Book “The 12 Volt Doctor's Alternator Book continues inthe same familiar and wel loved style as “The 12 Volt Doctor's Practical Handbook" to help simplify the mysteries of the boat's altemator—the prime source af poser on almost every boat. ‘Simple drawing and clear instructions abound, helping you to identify your alternator and understand how it works. Get to know your alternator—it could save your battery's lif, aGreek) division of Liton —_ bi Cc PLATHEH NAVIGATION AUTOMATION. North American Division 222 Severn Avenue ‘Annapolis, Maryland USA 21408-2569 301 263-6700Published by C. PLATH NORTH AMERICAN DIVISION 222 Severn Avenue Annapolis, MD 21403 ISBN 0-911551-10-7 ©1986 Spo Creek Inc. Annapolis, Merylond Allright cesrved. Notice : Names, brands, and designs appearing in this bookare registered trademarks or service marks which belong to the respective proprietary companies. INTRODUCTION ‘Alternators are all around us. There is hardly an engine which does rot have one, running alongside in ears, trucks, buses, recreational vehicles, boats, aircraft, form machines, earth moving equipment, and all kinds of stationery engines. Obviously, the alternators are doing job very well since we hear 20 little about them. something does go wrong, most of the more popular models have their replacement available almost instantly, waiting on dealer shelves, in alternator shops, often even in department stores. How different things become though if you want something slightly out of the ordinary, an alternator with greater output, some added feature, unwsual application, or if you and your vehicle or vestel happen to be in a place where technical services are less abundant. Where you are the available technical service. Or when you want your alternator to do something new or different and, even though the expert may have fold you it could'nt be done, you ore not quite ready to give up. On top of that, it does not help that alternators on thelr way from the manufacturer 10 the engine or car factory take on a new name : Delco alternator may become a Buick or Perkins, « Motorola one may become known as a Volvo or Universal. Just try to find @ Hitachi or ‘Mitsubishi alternator in an auto store : there it may only be known ot @ Mazda, while at an engine dealer's it may be called Westerbeke or Yanmar. This book tries to make you see how alternators work, what they have in common, and how they differ in some details. The sketches should help to identify brands and types , if not models. dimensions should help when you hove to replace one w: IF you are lucky, you will never need the trouble shoot ‘emergency repoir instructions. But if you do, | hope they help. They should ot least make you more fluent on the subject. Annapolis, April 1986 Edgar BeynCONTENTS Introduction Nomes : Generator - Alternator, Difference Coils and Mognets Why Not Permanent Magnets Of Rotor Poles and Stator Cotls The Stator Alternating Current Three Phase Alternating Current Intermediate Summary Rectifying Diodes The Three Phase Rectifying Circuit Rectifying Diodes: Mechanical Auxillary Diodes ‘solating Diode Voltage Regulators Type P ard Type N Excitation tattery Wiring Diagrams, Schematics Voltage Regulator Testing : in Operation Test Regulator Separately Voltoge Regulator and Battery Charging Voltage Regulator Setting Marwal Alternator Controls Specific Veltoge Regulators Repoirs, Trouble Shooting ‘Alternator Output Test, Field Curent Test Voltage Regulator Seiting Tet Testing Alternator Off Engine Disassembling the Altersator Alternator Fi INDEX 16 - 31 37 40 43 4% 43 9 50 51 54 59 n 80 83 oy 92 102 m4 216 218 NAMES : GENERATOR - ALTERNATOR Have you wondered what the difference is or which might be the proper name ? Our subject is « generator. But just as with "light bulbs" which properly should be called "lamps", the popular name alternator in common use. The story behind it is the change, in the early sixties, from a generator with big coils and brushes but very modest.output to a new machine of different design. It wos then called a Self-Rectifying ‘AC Generator and some other complicated names. Improvements were ‘made in rapid suecession and the new machine needed a new name because it was much different from the old. Even though some makers sill avoid calling it anything but a generator, the name alternator has become official for the new design. THE DIFFERENCE Direct current generators have at least two brushes in contact with a commutotor :@ ring of copper contacts. The generated current hos to flow from the copper contacts fo the bruthes which had fo be big fo h current. Most elternators tll ave brushes, but for nt purpose, to cory a few Ampere of field current. Main feature of alternators is thatthe power generating coils of wire are fixed in one place instead of rotating. That improvement over the conventional generators has been mode posible by solid state since the stationary generating coils produce alternating current or AC, this alternating current must frst be converted to direct current before an be uted fo charge 0 bo! ry compact but powerful silicon diodes ate located directly within the alternator hous solidly connected directly tothe power generating coils . Details in the following sections will show you how that works,5 the tft iron becomes magic and alo farmes poles. Sof iron means any ton or wee which wll not become permanently ogre in sketch (Z) , the poles of a magnet with solid letters is shown near @ bar ot ot om which hon become magnate cr [uJ Ted by the dated Iter poles Note thet the Nentrond South poleset Ob ond Fee the some effet onite ton bor Cmpere this with the < poles dagen in peed. Seetch (6) - Opposite MAGNET poles at opposite ends Of the some coil will increase the magnetic flux and emphasize each others effect. Next step t look at sketch (4) again, We can improve that design by having fur cols irtaa of js wo. As before, we will connect nee which ove et Oppe= tite ends ofthe magnet, Sketch @ . This design will generate twice the pomer of th Sketch @ revel there a pulze ot CD, then at AB again except with opposite pol then ot CD with opposite polarity. We hove to make @ point here. Obviously it is an improvement to arrange 8 many coils os possible all the way eround the rotating magnet. Why is there a problem with that concept ? With our bar magnet as the rotor, pulses are generated in the coils at different times. The output at A and B will have to be rectified separately from the output of C and D, only then can the direct current output be connected to common DC output terminals. With each additional pair of coils, an ditional poir of rectifying diodes would become necessary. We will see how an improved rotor will simplify this complice To make ths important point clearer, consider sketch @) which has calls eonged around orotating permanent magnet. Since each col t Gonerete pubes of olterating Eurten the coil otput mut be tecified or converted fo direct Current with dade. Ae inthe previow examples, we can pein connect pairs of calls tn teres: the coe which oe the poles ofthe rotting magnet connect in series coils Tond 5, Zand 6, 3and 7, 4 and 8. cows But we can not connect the together, their output les each, or a total of 8 . netic rotor. The same ‘and (1) ‘show two different magnetic rotors. The coils in (0) af best can be wired in three separate groups of two coils, the same coils with the new rotor in 9 Ss rust be rectified first which requires two This points to our next sketch ©) com ll be wired together ond then require only one set of rectifying diodes, The rocoon i thot here al colle generate ther pula oF the sometime becove all have rotor maga ple po by ot the tae tive. The colle on be wired in ares highet voltage, or porallel br highew coment. The olterefors tn rect life ee mode with Reavy wise ond tom frre pr coll» bul then have many ssc coils wired Imsores, to llow high event but ot sitet high vltoge «We wil se ino moment excely ow tat done ond wha other tricks ore hed Inthe degre3 COILS_AND_MAGNETS Induction is the phenomenon which makes an electric pulse appeor ir wire when magnetism changes inthe vicinity ofthe wire. The emphri ikon "charge" #0 pulie ls generated when the magnetic eld becomes stronger or weaker or changes poles, You wil remember most ofthis and we should just mention thatthe ‘A mogaetiam con cone from permanent tragnets or electromagnet, that @ pulse iso momentary voltage which con @ create a momentary current : power. 8 Our first design at left shows 2 wire a coil around « bor of iron. More turns of the wire give higher voltge at the terminals A and B when the magnet is moved back and forth. Moving the horseshoe magnet back and forth is not very practical. Easier is to rotate bar magnet at in our second design. When a North pole posses the coil, A 1 pulse appears at terminals A and B , and when a South pole passes ext, another pulse oppears at A ‘ond 8 but in the opposite direction IFA is plus at first, it will be ® Ha scoaeacatearers CY teat & The iron bar is not only convenient to hold the wire coil, It also serves to collect and orient the magnetic field of the magnet cand improves the induction effect. Even better is our third design with the coil wound on a U shaped C S iron core which collects as much Of the magnetic field os possible by extending all the way from North to South pole of the magnet. When ® the mognet is rotated on the oxis, induction occurs in the coil. Now let's improve our design one step ato tm stay with the bor magnet os in sketch (2) to make the next point + In that design we had only one generating coil. An improvement is to have two cotls a ‘8 in sketch (4), each has « mognet pole passing by ot the same time. To create output voltage, we have both evils connected in series. At one stant, the voltage peak of one coil ‘odded to thot ofthe other coil. One lW thing to watch out for : both coils must tL have the wire wound in the same direction so that pulses are generated > inthe seme dive ion or polarity. ‘What about polarity? Look ot @ sketch () + the North pole of a Col magnet Ys moving in to the low end of @ coil os in(G)a «Let vs ose thot the coil ie wound to have this make the top terminal plus as sketched. Moving the North pole away will generate a pulse with minus at the top terminal 08 ot b - Moving a South pole in toward the same coil at € will agcin have minis at the top terminal, and the op Com whan that pole is moved awoy. Ifyou look at our design in sketch (6) nate thatthe two poles at opposite ends ofthe curved coil generate pulses in the same direction wthich then amplify esch other, the same elect thet from o stronger magnet Skatched gt the coils above, the the generator of sketch would look ike sketch (6) + oppeite magnet foles moving Together bt ot opposite end of the sone coil. "Al of thet is easier to sort out if you think about the way in mhich © permanent meget attracts @ piece of fot iron: opposite poles, attract each other, and os the magnet opproaches,7 WHY NOT eRMANENT MAGNETS? (Our naw ond improved rotor in sketch (7) has several magnetic North Se macnn ae acetal matic Na cd ee gee Se eee een pe retool eae eee cel eee amet eas ane ares eee ee eer eem eens Se aie aes eam cee meaner see eee cea ae asters ani ‘an electromagnet instead. An electromagnet is shown in sketch (2). Ra eens eete Reale eee eet. acre een oreo @ Merietcins mek cas | een ee eee a eri aa ae aaa shih lat becom eer toner aac a ao Saas eres me bh enter mi Interesting about magnets i thet thie North ond South ples clove fo pieces of iron create magnetic poles inthe Inga See the electromagnet in sketch @ ‘iv urns the ectongler preven oF ion ino magnets which have North ond South ples or shown inthe sketch tnd which ettract eachother, ee pposite poles ore known to. The magnetic fel, instead of spreading ut Into space from the ends of the magnet, pretest fellow the iron pieces which contain or conduct the magnetic flux» Patience please, follow this one step further :f we place two iron bars ‘across the ends of the magnet in sketch (1) , the bors develop two new North and South poles . Very similorly, wwe generate the needed poles at the edge of the alternator rotor with o single tromagnet. In tketch (2) , we ore splitting the magnetic flux into two channels to form two North poles which will not be as strong as the original N pole of the electromagnet. To make the number of magnet poles of the elherotr tr wiciey omg, 2 rong electromagnet is made with a 9 cglled field coil which is ploce round the eltercor shat ein sketch QBs Iatead ofthe fw Wr Inthe sketch, the field call typically has a few hundred turn of magnet wire which iso solid copper wire with o thin coating of lacquer or ‘varnish as inl made to ollow maximum umber of turns and minimum space taken up faced by two steel disks which, if they were left cs inthe sketch, would develop North and South poles at their edges as shown here. In reality, the edges of these disks ore shoped to have stor North and South poles , bent so that they form the outer edae of the rotor. Current forthe field coil is supplied through carbon brushes which ae in contact with insulated smooth copper rings which are called ship Flags . They are fastened to the shoft and rotate with it but are lectrically insulated. Other alterntor designs use a stationary field cil without brushes of alip rings. Here the magnetic flux of the field coil reaches the rotating magnet poles through © gop between stationary ‘ond rotating components.— Non 3. they ae spaced far enough from eachother fo have the regnate fox pas tcogh the striated of being sor tented by fewing relly bemecr rotor Noth ond South polar Inthe leroy, the ion core of he ser with i goneating oo minding woul be Iocated ivecly ot the magnet ples ofthe rr, with jus! enough Teeonce el he rotor spin ely Tonveen the magnet Poles, the wire windings of he Feld cot! oe sketched The ono he eal ire oe ped theugh wo holes end ‘are connected to the slip rings. Alternators which use a needle bearing SF the ping end of the sah wl hove the pln end he sha en sketched here. If a ball bearing is used, its inner race will be press fitted on the shaft and the outer race will then be located directly next foe to spins and wil sual as hove the sone dima the og Si that here oreo umber of alternators wth tony Feld coils. Although hey ets have ror witnSnler mage poles, the Id ctl wil rot reed lip rng or bes: Deli re shown ft he {posi olterndors which incledeseverl Belo ord Merchel models ‘Als oleh tose alter ith Feld brutes Reve ora linea sp rng ox sown ere ond witha rail bushy nd one Wk hope all rtgy boot likes large washer, with ov enfl esh in coma, th bash oriented pose foe sh Sind Inthe Notion rom corwertonal generates falters, ee wih for fdivdvl nage! poles eoch wood with wh own ld The outer dnerion of hav ety alteton aio he the proportions oF the longer ond nerower gorarer 10 (OF ROTOR POLES AND STATOR COILS For @ general understanding of alternators, this section is not essential. Bot fo be complete, «look ot the stator is needed, at that component which contains the power generating coils and which, in contrast to the Conventional generators, produces alternating current. The transition to tlternators on a broad scale become possible when capable and inexpensive solid state rectifying diodes became available. And with them, the "self rectifying AC generator" made use of several phenomena related to alternating current to improve its performance and reduce its Size. In this section, we will se how present alternators use three phase tlternating current, as well os high frequency AC, to meke conventional ‘generators obsolete. The sttor coils o stationary power generating ens produce putes of electricity when the magnetic poles of the rotor poss by. We have seen earlier (sketch OOO) ‘that impulses from N poles have the opposite polarity of those from 5 poles. Our goal is to have mony coils focated cround @ rotor with many magnet poles ox in sketch (I). We did rot connect the coils there because we have to do some thinking First. If we moye the magnet in sketch CD) olong the i ‘oils ond wont fo connect varies, 2 that wwe get highest generated voltage, we must connect 3 fzpe § PS ed by the dotted ins hes cae @ —_ plies gress, Ree inane Td Pl cinos hve Sons aro pl camino opie nds To hove the ail phn the sme ection a rey othe Stee ore caw Horet he sot twee ree mosicl wa tee, al cts osnd ini one Shstono ccmecion Sieger sketch @ , 2M comets nin Scionn changes back and forth. Or, shatch @) , windings and connectiono are Fay Bay Be Bee mmogne!pole- All thete stator winding mathods ore actuelly ued in alternoor The pparert waste of method GO) in relly is overcone by hovingcrther group of coils in the positions which were skipped . The output of the fro group of coll however mt be rectified opaately. THE STATOR Please allow me to sketch stator ond rotor details in this section in o straight line , rather than in the round as they actually are. It saver space and keeps the sketches simpler which, | hope, will help them make their point more readily. NOTE : STATOR AND ROTOR IN REALITY ARE CIRCULAR, NOT STRAIGHT AS SKETCHED IN THIS SECTION, We have the alternator rotor, sketch (@) , with evenly spaced magnet poles cround its edge, the poles are alternately N or S poles. To have the greatest possible magnetic flux pass through the generating ‘coils, they are wound on a core of laminated iron which has its pole ices extend very close tothe mognet poles of the rotor, sketch @) tate cropls i echer ord CO cape Har Season Nand 5 poles then is concentrated inthe iron stator. The sketch alo, shows the sall extension of The sal poles which help to hold the coi wires in place. Note thatthe rotor S poles are shown fnferconnected while the N poles are coming up from behind: this would be the oppea tance ofthe rotor when looking ct the South ple sde of the rotor see Hetch @ and © - a Te place generating coil windings on the stator in shgtch @), we can use ay of the methods in sketches, @@), (@) + of GD » Mos often, rrethod (3 appears to be practiced’? forexonple, wiresrourd In Tight turns whore N pole Ts shown ond left tors where S poles 12 ALTERNATING CURRENT IF the rotor in sketch @) hod) mognet poles, namely 5. North ples nd 5 South poles, then the stator would ave’ 10- generating cole I we wind them left, right, left, right, all in series, they will be about ‘rinsketch @2 except, of course» located all the way around the Stor ond rotors For each fun of the rotor, there wil be five plies with pos ot ternal Ay ond five putes with plus ot terminal Voltage of temfncl A. will change back ond forth om pls te minis. When A Tso Ts highest postive vlloge, B sot is highest negative veltoge- Our alternator generates celled fll phose alternating Siren or AC + “You probably hae seen curves which represent voltages of AC verus ime, For terminals Av and By such curves would look Ike th “As voltage climbs oA fo the meximum postive vT+ veltope, terminal B falls to the mentum negative veltope, The ectval elves depend onthe number of furs in the Cols, roor speed, ond Srenath of rotor rmognatism. In 12 Volb Glterotors, AC vlfone ot open terminals, with tw loed connected, coh tcsityepproach 100 Volt. How does th alterator AC compare with household 110 V AC? The Frequeney of out household AC 14.60 Hertz the termiols ct on outlet ge through the curves in sketch @) sity tines euch second. The frequency of an alternator with 10 rotor magnet poles has to make only six oll rvolutions por secon, or run ot 360 RPM to generate AC of 60 Hertz (Hz). Usually, alternators are belted with pulley sizes which roke alternators tum Wice sft ov faster than the engine. An engine operated at 2000 RPM wovid ave is elerater ron of 4000 RPM or ou8 tins per second, generating AC of 666 He. Asan average, the alternator frequency willbe about 10 fo 20 Fines that of hovseold AC.13 The main advantage of higher eqvency i smaller sie, oF greater power from o given sce of elterator. Miltary equlpmere offen cperctr ith 400 ic elterrating curert rif you have s chance, se how ach souler rotor or tonfomers ere when compared to 60 Hs unis of sane horsepower or wltages Th alternating corre’ from the alternator of ketch @) = @, traced in sketch)", is clled fll phot, You may have Mod the term split phase + deseribes the Kind of AC wpplied by mas 110 V AC cutlets, fr example in hovscholss Mest often il hase AC on in dketch’ @ but of 220 Volt oro, is plied bythe electrle company IF ut one ofthe two wires, for example terminal A, Is connacted 1 an outlet and the other outlet terminal connected to ground ( the so Called nesta wire)» then the vltoge between the ctl terminals con ‘cn ooch ¢ maximum of HOV, gee MAX “in etch» The outlet tories spit phove AC. The other terminl, B ofthe orftna fll pose B20 AC i oho ved, possibly for ome other Soret. The only Uitference beeen the sutleton A ond ony cutlet on B is that to AC pultes do not occur ot the some tine + sketch shows you hat time psies between moxinum ps (up in the sketch} vltoge at ond rroxinom pls vollage a "here i onster term: tee phase AC, the kind which our alternators are gororating lide before 1s bing ecified. If wo would rectify the wselslteratingcurent.for example by throwing mitch at the ight moment, soe sketch @ , the ret wold be « dhopped +e irect current os shown on the right. The AC pulses are switched and ‘0w all go in the same direction. This direct current is useful to charge botteries, it can be made into smooth DC when necessary. “4 THREE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT We have looked at the output of alternati yrrent (AC ) from a si gereretng coll, for example thot in sketch)» traced in sketch Free hed two coils instead, thelr output poles would be either Completely elke or conplately opporite to each other. But in each core, wre tan connect the coils in porelel by choosing the correct pals of terminals. The reslt would be alternating correo from a ingle coil. Buritwe hod tree soporte generating cole, spaced evenly 10 thot the AC pultes fom ecch occur ine l=2-3-1 22-2 fashion at in cs ton ected output from each col ts setched in @ » you an see thot the result truth closer fo smooth three! current, Even though the voltage of ech coil terminal is at 200, the horizontal axis, between pulses, the tociied outro all hee calls conbined, or connected o ane coneon oviut terminal thes ot lok Ike the wacings In sketch @) istoed, when the voltge fom the ist Seiler phese begin fo fall, the pute from the pent coil spear ond then Takes over to Keep the voltage ups Then tho pulse fromthe tied eo Rent ands on In RECTIFIED -I@ 3-PHase Ac ality, the voltage at the output ten snob Hpac nt ory rama I ek curve in sketch ‘The voltage difference vr between the crests ond valleys is called ripple. pple disappears almost @ entirely when the alter~ nator is connected to @ battery Tine15 Te guearee thee phones feleating cen, 8 hove fo modty the tor cota, teed 1 D125 Meise nnich ‘ voy ce Ate es c 7 — need three sopra sets A ® os shown by the numbers A SINGLE AQ SD S-PHASEA, in sketch @ + the & AL» generating coils of set T 2Te "1" are located at "1", + an identical set of «the ones in sketch @), it located at the places on the rotor cated by the numbers "2", and the third set at numbers "3", all three sting of individual coils which are then connected in series. To fit al these windings on a single alternator stator is not ecky. To make room forthe second end third sets of coils, the iron pole pieces of the stator ore made with two oditionel spoces +i sketeh GI). the poles 1 and 2 are made for a single set of generating coils os ina single phase alternator. Coils 3 ond 4 are wound three pole pieces each which have exactly the width of 1 end 2, all coils still ‘match the magnet poles of the rotor. IF we looked upward, as from the 2) ooran rot rn anol he ta, we ose ie wins fh Ht ae cae teh GS Sa ee icleigh ated ou kee inva te x Stiovnte peel Rhee pvr cou eas fhe mt red ata mer Hee esos ori, 23 _2t_3 1 2 93 4 s ¢ 7 8 9 = Y =z uv =z Y z Y z but over by one, sketch @ . The first phose at "X*, second phase at at °Y", third phase ot "Z", the wire turns go around the numbered pale pieces like this = Xt ound 28-29-90, 1-2-9, 4-5-6, 7-8-9, vovee Y ! ground 29-20-1, 2-2-6, 5-6-7, 89-10, round 20-1-2, 24-5, 6-7-8, 910M, soos Placed side by side , the thee ste of coils would look about like thetch except that there are vsely five, hx, or seven tres in ach col, soy, eround poles 1-2-3 , before the wire confines to the text cal, Each of he thes stings of ctl, or eoch stor phate, hat Gre Yerminal et each end Thee esx ends of lacquer inwlated old copper wire altogether the ends ofthe three coll "oysters" which Conta the power generted by the llernaor, inthe frm of hee fhowe of cternetingcorent They are connected to the restifying Sede. Tox the sake of completeness, we should have a brief ook at to cther “keting patter ifr! from tht shown in hatch 32 The Motor wire windogs could clo be made os mentioned orlor ond shown in hetch QD) by minding al colle in the some ing one in-belween location, In this way, coil at °X would be made by Turns ound. 26-29-90, posing 1, 2,2, around 4-5-6, posing 718, 9, wround 10-11-12, posing 13, Vy 15, and w on unl Conete. Ail ols tn the Soe detion with poyme form In each fo makeup forthe bypased location. Finally, there ise winding etted! mich, Tom sre, was adopted 19 help get that much wire into such crowded space. The pattern is based Sin he fot thet hello turn fn real wll generate helt the voltage of @ fll turns All of ‘he windings ore mode ball 2 treat There tot the windings cotinve eround or seven times ntact, just °stg Zoning7 INTERMEDIATE SUMMARY We looked for the difference between alternators and generators. All ‘alternators are generators, bot with a twist : what rotates is the Field electromagnet while power generating coils are stationary, the stator. ‘An electromagnet is used, rather than a permanent magnet, since it can can be turned up or down or off, to regulate output. The stationary coils Of the stator make alternating current which is eatily rectified, or made into direct current, with modern solid state silicon diodes. Instead of plain single phase AC, the alternator makes three phase AC which, when Fectified, places the peaks so close together that alternator output comes close to straight direct current. To make three phate alternating current, many generating coils must be placed on the stator, and patterns are used to get them in place, around pole pieces of Sator core. Rotor magnet poles match the stator coils exactly, and many rotor magnet poles are generated with o single electromagnet which Consists of the field coil and two star shaped iron pieces, one making North poles and one making South poles at the edges of the rotor. Field ‘current reaches the field coil through brushes and slip rings. Or the field coil is stationary and only the iron magnet poles rotate, in alternators without brushes. 18~ RECTIFYING DIODES Only after silicon rectifying diodes became available did alternators stort to replace the conventional generators. A diode ot one time meant @ loss vacwum tube with anode, cathode, and a heating filament. Slightly ‘more recently, selenium rectifiers came into use but were large , with low copecity and much heat output. Germanium diodes were too vulnerable, but silicon diodes were able to do the job, to rectify the clternator’s AC directly within the alternator. fae Sketch @) shows the diode symbol, wi ‘end min ANODE CaTHopeE. "cathode" for the two terminals. Diodes are ‘ovailable in many shapes and sizes, some are shown here. They may earry a small diode symbol to identify the terminals, or may be ‘marked with a band or ring, oF may be shaped with one pointed end. Diodes for larger current often have cases (the name for the housing) with threaded stud for heat sink mounting. Such diodes are available with the stud os ‘erode or cathode. In alternators, diodes ot the one on the bottom are most often used and ‘ore pres fitted into aluminum heatsinks . This shope alto is made withthe knurled housing being anode or cathode. Silicon diodes have two main forthe two conditions which they face current rating in Ampere when they ore conducting inthe forward direction, and @ voltage rating usually called the peok invert voltage or PIV which they have to be oble to hold back without becoming conductive in the reverse direction. A rectifying diode may have a rating, for examle, of 30 4, 50 PIV. The plumbing equivalent to a diode is a check valve. To find ovt whether you understand how a diode works, look at the next ali twee sketches : in @) a diode ts SYK connected to a battery and a lamp or ‘= "light bulb" The halo around the lamp is meant fo show thatthe lamp is on brightly. Note the direction fn w the diode i connected inthis ci ings, h 20 Sketch @ shows the some diode inthe same circuit of lamp end betery, but here connected inthe opposite direction, and the Tomp dark. IF you think thatthe bight lamp in the egeut of lamp ond battery in Mletch @) is obvious, splendid + cary tne it thare ote dubls or questions, food about bate electricity, for example Inthe 12 Volt Doctor's Poetical Hondbook", this ovthor, Spa Creek Inc. Thete shetches will also give on idou howto test diodes vith its terminals: Arter test method is with 2 VOM ( Volt Ohm Meter} inthe Ohm mode. ’ single diode con be used to rectly the alternating current of @ generating oils In sketch GQ , terminals A ond 8. carry alternating current (AC) , ingulek sucesso, A aS Ie iot while B simon, then Ac De B is plus while A is minus, as @ ee setae Tine in sketch GO)» But ony he itive peaks ere conducted trough the diode which is comctd 1 Thee postive pede teech the pls feminal# voltage ot ht terminal own os 8 tol le in sketch GO) « Eventhough the single diode does rot produce trooth rect caren, TIME. this chopped DC tact charge tatterie ort con be rosie by ier Amore elegant method ist reetfy with fur dies ina called eid circuit or wih abeidge fiir which contains the fur dod !2 package. shows the a Sketch , tome generating coil with its alternating current terminals A ond B which are connected to the rectifying bridge S ]©_ et four diodes, They ore 5 rumbered : a plus peaka ot A is conducted on by diode 1, to reach the plus terminal, from there through the DC it, for example a bottery being charged, tothe minus terminal, through diode 2, to B which completes the circuit, tee sketch 3) « The other two diodes, shown by dotted lines, are blockking current ~ Then, when B is plus , its plus peok reaches the plus terminal through diode 3 the DC circuit is being completed by diode 4 which connects the minus terminal to A which is ‘irus of this moment. Sketch shows that this time, diodes Tend 2 are blocking » The net effect of this diode xrangement is shown in sketch @& plus peoks ot A ond of Bag raate sketch 4 / @) , peaks from 3 ae te ite te arrangement, we con expect twice the current from the same generating coil. Now, with three generating cll sets and the three phoses inthe clternator, all rectified with diodes in bridge circuits, we would need « total of iwelve diodes. This is rarely dane, first becouse it would be Uneconomical , but aio because there are two more elegant ond much Einpler methods, Sketch @@) on the next page shows voltages, plotted yersus time, just a in the earlier sketch 8) . Next to it, in sketch Gd), the three coils of o S-phose alternator ate shown and labelled A,B, ond C. The solid curve is for coll A, the dotted curve for coll 8, and the broken line for coil C. Note thot each curve shows the volage of one tend of its coll +f one terminal of a col is ot maximum plus voltage, oF Up in the graph, the other terminal ofthe same coil will be ot the 1 voltage, down in the graph, not shown but important fo Understand. Tn this example, we will have the alternator rotor turn clockwise, cos indiegted in hatch @) . The letters A, By and © mork the coil terminals which ate plotted in the graph. 22 ‘As the rotor turns, its North and South poles past coils A, B, C, ond ‘generate electrical pulses ina I~ 2~3~-1-2~3 fashion, Voltage ot the letter-marked terminal of each coil is plotted : note the small circles ch @ when voltage at coil terminal A iso maximum plus, the Terminals 8 ond’ Core recr maximum mim voltage. Note the Tine of eons and ve how you con find out fora sx ernnols whether thay ate pls or minus af that pocive moments When A iva nina pla, the thor ond af eal 8 man be ah manom mina, Hh te minus tion inkatch GB). Av the some tne, the sll ctce below A Colncies with eraer one around ociossing point of curves for Band C. The vltoges for Bord Cot thet iratont ov alk mrt follow the lie of arows ond mer the Yerminaly Terminal Bs mis end sing towerd zero, terminal i ins and sil fling toward ts maximum, tins voltagos You can row lao mork the other ees of eats 8 ond © with plus and minus signs. Interesting is that there are always two coil terminals close together in sketch @6) which have the tome sign, plus or minus. You can verify that : when next terminal B is at maximum plus, both terminals A and C ore minus : A sil falling further, C already in the process of rising toward the zero axis in sketch @) «Even though you may have theowa up your hands, or wore, you have arived in the middle of the most common of alternator stator designs. You ore Tooking atthe explanation why all thre sfotor windings may be connected of the tds to work together, fo generate tree fos elterating currd, with jut fives output fermncls which, of we will tee tne moment, con be rectiied with Six diodes, thes ina group, two groupe total, ‘Admitted, sketches @ ond @) are clttered. But you From where 12 Took, toke the peala at A, B from setch, @ and compare the ples tad ius signs of lft here. Storing the fop, oll A. isch maximum. In the sketch inthe middle, B eof rox trum indicated by the plain plus and Ininut tigre, and of the bottom, cal Ciset moxioumn, end soon, the cycle repeats itself. The (plus) signs in Enocket ore mecnt to indicate thot voltages there oe tof of maximum tet reer, ond ether onthe mayo or from marin or peck. Here agen, you can sae thot the sign othe oil toninal which are Clove together, af the corners of the friongle of cols match + atthe coll tthieh happens to be ot eaximum. And iF you look closely of the other two tells, with signs in brackets they ore Connected in series, jus ike baHeries tre connected In seres for toltoges You can see, with sme fatience, that one col ot maximum Fes the other two coll contribute by omtining ther laser voltage by corners of the triangle. The wiring method is called DELTA because of the triangle arrangement : "delta" wired alternator stator. 24 Int least one respect, the delta symbol is misleading : it may make you think thet each A ~ BC output cycle is with one shaft revolution. Ther tat the case, ook ot sketch G})epuin © the rotor hed 10 mmogret poles, that fs, 5 North poles and 5 South poles, we would get of pulies, A~B~C-A-B-C-A-B=C-A-B-C=A~ a efor just one shaft revolution. There are alternators with 1A magnet poles which will generate 7 ful cycles ofall three phases with each revolution, ‘Another comment is necessary : in the voltage graph, sketch @) , voltoge peaks are shown ot letters A, B, ond C , all on the plus s hove the zero axis, and the corresponding points in the minus region where the other two voltage curves cross, see the small circles. Omitted tre [ost os many instances where each curve i of its lowest point, at is tmoximum minut voltoge. At thot potat, the other two curves forthe ther two cols cross in the plus region and again, al coils cooperate: You could circle those points inthe graph ond, agatn, mark the plus oF minvs polarities of the separate coils, to see again how each coil contributes when they ore connected to each other in "delta" Fshion. “The other stator wiring method ts shown here and, obviously, iscalled "Y" « Keep in ind that the Y symbol is only «@ grophic simplification which is meant fo indicate that one terminal of each stator coll is connected to a common junction a the center of the Y + In feality, the stator windings ore mode ‘exactly like those forthe "DELTA" ‘rrangement. The difference is how the coil terminals ore interconnected. With the Y wiring scheme, there ore ogain thee output terminels which supply S-phase alternating current. We can label them A, 8, and C cgein ond treat them exactly like we did before. In large power genera tors, a wire Is connected to the Y center junction and is called the naviral wire. In our alternators, the contral joint exists ia is umelly not accesible or connected to anything else. In th specific alternators we will see how you can easly tell ifa stator is connected "Y" or "DELTA" fashion, but forall practical purposes we an assure thot the two systems ore afk Should you wonder how the three generating coils cooperate in the "Y" wiring arrangement, look ot them separately, os though they ‘were not connected af the center of the then vse the voltoge graph e2ain, sketch @) . Keep in mind that we hod plotted the voltages at one end of each coll only. Sketch 2) shows the plus ond minvs signs for the three coils where A is at its maximum plus, B is minus ond ing toward zero, Cis minus and falling foward it maximum minus.25 tga When you now imagine the three center terminals connected together, you 2¢ that both coil B and Core connected in series ith coll A. At this rstant, coils B and C cold their generated pultes to thot of coil A. Al work inthe same direction. The assembly (=) hoppers to have one plus terminal et A ond B two minus terminals. e way in which the Y coils are combining theie effort by arrous, sketch @ . Long arrows mean voltage. The orrow always pointing irection toward plus. Again, you that the Y_ arrangement is a symbol only. In reality, the coils are made os we have sketched them earlier. Here, we are looking at a neot graphic shows the peaks only. To be complete, the output pulses ot the three terminals for one full phase would be; maximum voltage thisorder: At, C=, Bt, Ax, CH, Bs, and s0 on. Can you see these places the graph ? The mine paaks had not been circled. THE THREE PHASE RECTIFYING CIRCUIT 26 The basic reqirements ore simple : we have three terminals, A, B, ond , which each produce both positive and negative pulses of alternating current, To use all of these, each terminal GF well ot the nepotve terminal of the direct current output. That meas that ach AC terminal min have one diode which allows postive pulses foreach the plas DC (direct Corre) terminal and another die which Connect negative plies fo the negotve OC cutpet terminal. Thot means two dodes ot terminals A, 8, ond C, ono condicting fo plus, the other condcting fom min, on sketch GD. Remenber thatthe diodes ore conductive inne direction, when pls fe applied to their plus (anode) terminal but block Corret inthe other direction. Sketches Gand Flying diodes forthe “delto" and "Y" stators. As you can see, the rectifying circuits ore identical Th sketches oe simple Baca the three DC plus ond mines inal are not connected fo each other and to 0 comron pls ond minus outpt terminal. Such obviously necestary wiring often makes simple circuits more dificult to view . All you hove to do here js Interconnect the three plus terminals to @ plus output terminals, and do the some forthe three minus terinals Several examples ofthese diodes are shown agoin, with the additional wiring, for specific models of alterntors inthe second section of this book.a7 Sketch @ shows the stator coil ofan alternator in dete orronge The thee ator or Yamafure® terminals ore labeled AC fr elternoting furronts The dest conent or DC outpt terminals have pl and minut Sor. ‘ie hove seen tht the AC terminals in operation will have plus os wall es minus peok they go through thei alternating curtent phases. The fect tha here poke doo! oecut ot the se fine at any Termivel isthe reown why each AC terminal requires itz own To condcr plus or mus pula othe correct DC terminals, terminal neds one diode fo DC plus ond one diode Yo DC mines + use this sketch to trace the paths for electric current. Remember thot current flows through a diode only in one Also keep in mind that a current will flow through any lood (wuch os a battery being chorged, or 2 light) between plus and minus terminols ond the complete circuit outside of the alternator. Note that such circuit is complete only if you can trace from an AC terminal tough a diode in the proper direction, through the ‘external DC circuit, through another rectifying diode in the proper direction, and to another AC terminal. RECTIFYING DIODES : MECHANICAL The diodes in sketch @) ore shown into group ote thatthe thee fades near the minus frmel ell hove their onode in alectical contact th the mins terminal Siler, the ro diodes ear the pls Terminal hove thelr cathode in covfoct with the plo otput terminal Since dades prosuce some hes when current Is lowing they ore vay mounted on hoot sinks made of mel, Such best sink i made lorge trough 2 the ts wrface con bo cooled bya flow, Best thermal Contat is achieved ifthe thee odes are mounted directly Yo the heat in which then come part of he plutor mim terminal Sometimes, tina oder ore mounted dvecly fo the elterntor housings 28 We con make a rough estimate of the amount of heat which is generated by the rectifying diodes. For example, assume that the alternator is producing 50 Ampere which are being charged into 12 Volt batteries. ng diodes typically will have a voltage drop of about 0.5 Volt. The 50.A flowing through the plus diodes will generate 0.5 VX 50A = 25 W (Watt) of hect. Since the same current aio must past the minus diodes, another 25 W of heat are generated there, for @ total of 50 W « If that sounds Tike much to you (he heat of a 50 W light bull or solder iron}, let us compare it fo the total output ofthe alternator : Voltage at such relatively high current is likely 14 V or more, 10 thatthe alternator is generating VX 50A = 700W ‘The loss of the diodes therefore is less than 10% . Additional heat is ing generated by the current in the stator windings and by the strong ‘ond rapidly changing magnetic flux in the stator and nearby metal ‘components. AUXILIARY DIODES ‘Many alternators have three additional small diodes connected between the AC stator terminals and a separate plus DC output terminal . This ‘auxiliary terminal is often used to provide power to the field coil or to the voltage regulator. The advantage of this separate plus terminal is that its power output ceases when the alternator stops running. No switch is needed to disconnect regulator of field current, and there 1s no risk of electric current from batteries being wasted if any switch were left on ‘by mistake. Power for this purpose can not be token directly from the main plus diodes since often the battery remains connected fo the plus ‘output terminal of the alternator. Current from the auxilicry diodes and the auxiliary terminal completes its circuit through the three main minus rectifying diodes. Several of the alternator wiring sketches in the second part of this book show such auxiliary diodes. Their separate output terminal is ‘often called AUX, REGULATOR, +, D+, 61, IND . The section on testing tells how to identify it with a meter.~ ISOLATING DIODE Another method is ured to mpply current toa regulator without the need fora mitch. Sketch 4) shows the vival three AC. stator terminals and the three main plu rectifying diodes, An isolated AUX ou vial Aux @ me ‘ directly 19 the main a CD Waele ‘alternator's main us output mut ist bs MAIN re onather diode + le Cisoe. drove. ‘he 'xlstina diode, Batteries may remain connected to the alternator + battery current cannot reach the auxillary terminal which will have ne output power after the alternator has stopped . A regulator ‘may remain connected to the AUX terminal without switch and without ‘any wasted battery power. Itolating diodes may consist of one or two Individval diodes on a separate heat sink, most notably on Motorola alternators of 55A or smaller. Here, isolating diodes on a curved flat hat sinker mounted to ha bac Foun and, of cura, carry he in plus output term cuxiliory terials with isolating diode or with auxiliary eectifying diodes. ISOLATING DIODES, CHARGING DIODE: BATTERY ISOLATORS, Because of the diodes should rity of names and components, this application of mentioned here. Two or more diodes as in sketch may be connected BATT. 1 between the main alternator output terminal ond the oer @ reece Bar.2 alternator running, the two batteries inthe sketch will be charged through the diodes « The lower battery by state of chorge will receive greatest current. After the clternator hos been stopped, batteries are isolated by the diodes « no current con flow from one battery fo the ather if, for example, power ‘were taken from only one battery. The diodes have to be sufficiently large to cary the alternator output current. They are mounted on heat sinks, added to alternator-battery systems and never a port of the alternator itself.31 VOLTAGE REGULATORS Without @ voltage regulator, alternator output would almost always be wrong : too low et slow speeds, or too high at high speeds, overcharging batteries, burning out lamps and equipment with excessive voltage ond, possibly, destroying the rectifying diodes in the alternator. ‘Voltage regulators control the field current, they are always connected in series with the field coil. Voltage regulators are also Connected fo the alternator output terminal or to a battery plus terminal. to maintain 2 constant output terminal voltage by easing the alternator field current. The sketch shows Id coll with regulator. Field Increasing or ‘a simplified stator and diodes, ond a current from the plus terminal must pass the regulator which increases the ‘mognitude of field current if voltage drops below the voltage setting which the regulator attempts to maintain. In 12 Volt systems, this voltage 1g ually is 14.2 V . The sketch also shows o battery : alternators lmost always operate with o battery which contributes to the voltage tegulaliny function much like a gigantic filter capacitor. On your car, {you may notice that the battery often is very small, large enough to stort the engine, but too small te operate the headlights for any appreciable length of time. That is not necessary, tharks to the voltage regulator which responds with increased field current if o load, such as the lamp fond switch in the sketch, are switched on. The alternator output then is increased enough so that such demands are supplied by the alternator, rot the battery. ‘There ore several types of voltage regulators in use, some of the differences are obvious, others are more subtle : there are electromecha~ nical regulators built like relays with coils and contacts, or solid state Or transistor regulators, as well as some hybrids using both techniques. 32 Then there are external voltage regulators mounted a distance from the clternator and connected by wires, and internal regulators located in the tlternator housing. Plus a rumber of regulators pretending to be internal but just attached and sometimes recessed and flush with the alternator housing, usvally easy to remove or replace, some as a unit with the bruthes. Then there is the electrical arrangement of field coil and voltage regulator : always in series, but with regulator either at the plus side or the minus side of the field coil. ‘sketch @) shows a relay type voltage regulator with coll. The relay consists if 9 magnet coil and a moving with electrical contacts. The arm is position at sketched. The IGN ("lgnition") terminal is usvally connected fo battery and alternator plus terminal through the key switch, as is the IGN FiecD : GRD com ay () Cor = plus terminal of the magnet coil. Spring tension on the arm is made strong enough 1 that voltages atthe magnet coil below the regulator setting will not generate enough magnetic force to move the arm. With such low walls, ful eld curent can tlw between ls ernie, the rormally closed contact, arm, F FIELD terminel, Feld coil, and grou coral LD terminal, field coil, and ground, IF voltage rises, for example due to increased alternator speed, force fom the magnet ctl becomes stronger utili evenucly pls he arm and opens the contact and Interrupts field eurent. This drop in field current causes a drop in alternator output voltage which, in turn, reduces the force of the mognet coll: giving into spring tension, the cam moves back to its normal position, closes the upper contact ond reconnect fll field current. Again, alternator output voltage rises ond We Process repects itself : magnet coil pulls, contact opens, field ae ond alterna up volo land meget cll es oof he arm 0 ‘operation still provides smooth proportional voltoge regulation becavm the regulator contact pers ond close vary gock Itoscillates, and Feld curent, even thoug if