N-HERTH presents CAPSULE COURSE FOR UGC-NET 2020 g NATIONAL TESTING AGENCY NTA UGC NET 2020 Subject: Home Science Code Number: 12 Theories of Human Development- Part 2 N-HEART ontact Emallultural theory of Lev iS 1S” - 2 as , é i ,) 4 i ie io re re i 2 mh oanSocial interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive development. Social interactions with adults and more learned peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning. IN-HEARTH 2070 (contact Email Nhearth2620@gmail.com)Key concepts * Social Interaction: It lays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. The children construct knowledge actively and social learning comes before cognitive development. ¢ The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): It refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.* Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): It is the distance between a child’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the child’s ability solving the problem independently. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task.Can do if guided Can gs indepesydently Zone of Proximal DevelopmentEcological systems theory views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. «Characterized as bioecological model because the chil’ biologically influenced dispositions join with environmental forces to mold development. J *Each layer of the environment joins with the others to powerfully affect development. ontact Ematl mail.com) N-HEAYTHE MICROSYSTEM The innermost level of the environment, the microsystem, consists of activities and interaction patterns in the child’s immediate surroundings. All relationships are bidirectional: Adults affect children’s behavior, and children’s also affect adults’ behavior. Other individuals in the microsystem—also affect the quality of any two-person relationship.THE MESOSYSTEM Encompasses connections between microsystems, such as home, school, neighborhood, and childcare center. For example, parent-child interaction at home is likely to affect caregiver—child interaction in the child-care setting, and vice versaTHE EXOSYSTEM The exosystem consists of social settings that do not contain children but that nevertheless affect children’s experiences in immediate settings. These can be formal orgavizations, such as parents” workplaces, their religious institutions, and health and welfare services in the community. Exosystem supports also can be informal, such as parents’ social networks—friends and extended-family members who provide advice, companionship, and even financial assistance.THE MACROSYSTEM The outermost level of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the macrosystem, consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources. The priority that the macrosystem gives to children’s needs affects the support they receive at inner levels of the environment.THE CHRONOSYSTEM The environment that affects children in a uniform way is not static, instead, it is ever-changing Important life events, such as the birth of a sibling, a move to a new neighborhood, or parents’ divorce, modify existing relationships between children and their environments, producing new conditions that affect development.School -€ CHILD he Poors ‘services % PS Reigoul Pe Neionbourege ftgartzaion Shygou Daycare facility NHEARTH 2020 (contact Email 220* James Marcia refined and extended Erikson’s model, primarily focusing on adolescent development. In his approach, adolescents are asked questions regarding their exploration of and commitment to issues related to occupation, politics, religion, and sexual behavior. Marcia identified four identity statuses that represent the four possible combinations of the dimension of commitment and exploration.Identity Statuses of psychological identity development . Identity diffusion: Neither explored the options, nor made a commitment to an identity. . Identity foreclosure: Those who have made a commitment to an identity without having explored the options. . Identity moratorium: Those who are exploring in an attempt to establish an identity but have yet to have made any commitment. . Identity achievement: Those who, after exploration, have made a commitment.Has not | experienced Has made a Identity achieved Foreclosure commitment Has not made a Moratorium Identity diffused commitment Identity status shift «Throughout the lifecycle, identity status shifts will occur. *When disequilibrium occurs, a period of re-construction begins. These periods of re-construction are called MAMA (moratorium-achievement-moratorium- achievement) cycles. ntact Email mailcom)Filial imprinting: Lorenz observed that in certain species of birds, there is a brief critical period of time during which the newborn is particularly sensitive to certain forms of learning.Behavior is not always learned through conditioning. Some forms of behavior, particularly behavior that promotes survival, may be built into the species.Pre-attachment phase «Jndiscriminate Responsiveness to Humans: Babies | generally respond to all people in the same ways. They like to hear human voices and look at faces. ¢ Around six weeks babies will begin social smiling. Babies’ use crying to signal distress. N-HEA NheAttachment in making phase |sFocusing on Familiar People: Baby’s coo, gurgle, and babble more in the presence of people they recognize. The one person that they develop the strongest attachment with is often the one who has engaged and responded most positively to the baby.Clear cut attachment phase Intense Attachment and Active Proximity-Seeking: Infants become very particular and intense about their | attachment to one person. *They can begin showing signs of separation anxiety. «Around seven or eight months the baby shows a fear of strangers. The attachment figure becomes a secure base from which the child will explore their surroundings. ES < ca N-HEARTH 2020 (¢ Nhe| Formation of reciprocal reiationship Partnership Behavior: By three years of age a child can understand when a parent says they will be back. * Children will be more apt to let parents go and will act more like partner in a relationship.Mary Ainsworth Ainsworth attachment theory (devised by American Psychologist Mary Ainsworth) offers explanations on individual differences in attachment. In infants and young children, the attachment can be observed by a technique created by Mary Ainsworth called SSC (Strange Situation Classification).RESISTANT AVOIDANT SECURE Separation Distressed when _ Intense distress when _No sign of distress Anxiety mother leaves the mother leaves _ when the the mother leaves The infant avoids the The infant is okay stranger - shows fear with the stranger and of the stranger plays normally when the stranger is present Stranger Anxiety Avoidant of stranger when. alone, but friendly when the mother is present Reunion Positive and happy | The infant The Infant shows Behavior when mother approaches the little interest when returns mother, but resists the mother returns contact, may even push her away The mother and Uses the mother as_ The infant cries more asafe baseto and explores less than _ stranger are able to explore their the > other ty two types comfort the infant gmail.com) equally well Othera + | oe Infants have an innate(biological) need to touch and cling to something for emotional comfort.* Kohlberg defined three levels of morality and each level has two distinct stages. N-HEARTH 2020 (Contact Email Nhearth2620@gmail.com)Level 1: Pre-conventional * People see rules as fixed and absolute Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment, Children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. N-HEARTH 2020 (Contact Email Nhearth2620@gmail.com)Level 2: Conventional Also called as "good boy-good girl” orientation. Emphasis on living up to social expectations and rules. Begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. Focus on following rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority N-HEARTH 2020 (Contact Email Nhearth2020@zmail.com)Level 3: Post-conventional + People begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people. + People follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. N-HEARTH 2020 (Contact Email Nhearth2620@gmail.com)+ Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions. + Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. | ¥ + Individual judgment is based on self- chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. tact Email: smail.com) N-HEARTH 2026 Nhearthi.Obedience/Punishment I Individualism and exchange IL. Good Interpersonal Relationships IL Maintaining Social Order IIL. Social Contract III, Universal Principles No difference between doing the right and avoiding punishment Interest shifts to rewards rather than punishment-effort is made to secure greatest benefit to oneself The “good boy/girl” level. Effort is made to secure approval and maintain friendly relations with others. Orientation towards fixed rules. The purpose of morality is maintaining the social order. Interpersonal accord is expanded to include the entire society Greatest good for the greatest number of people Involves taking the perspective of every person or group that could patentalicheaferted by the decision. 20@emal.com)= PADPsychosocial theories of ageing: Focus on changes in behavior, attitude and personality as we age Activity Remaining occupied and involved is necessary to a (Havighurst and satisfying late life. Albrecht) Disengagement Gradual withdrawal from society and relationships (Cumming and Henry) serves to maintain social equilibrium and promote internal reflection Continuity (Robert Atchley) Past coping patterns recur as older adults adjust to physical, financial and social decline and contemplate death. Identifying with one’s age group and learning new roles postretirement are major tasks.Psychological theories of ageing: Explains ageing in terms of mental processes, emotions, attitudes and motivation characterized by life transitions Human needs Five basic needs motivate human behavior in a lifelong process toward need fulfillment. Individualism "Older adults search for life meaning and adapt to functional and social losses. " Stages of personality(Ego integrity vs despair ) Evaluating life accomplishments; struggles include letting 20, accepling care, detachment, and physical and mental decline. Life span Life stages are predictable and structured by roles, relationships, values, development, and goals. Persons adapt to changing roles and relationships.Biological theories of ageing ‘Stochastic theories: Based on random events that cause cellular damage that accumulates as the organism ages. Free radical theory Membranes, nucleic acids, and proteins are damaged by free radicals which causes cellular injury and ageing. Error theory Errors in DNA and RNA synthesis occurs with aging. Wear and tear theory Cells wear out and cannot function with aging. Connective tissue/ cross-link theory Aging results from the accumulation of intra- and intermolecular covalent bonds between molecules, termed “cross-links.”Non- stochastic theories: Based on genetically programmed events that cause cellular damage that accelerates aging of the organism Programmed theory Cells divide until they are no longer able to, and this triggers cell death. Gene/ biological clock theory Cells have a genetically programmed aging code. Neurcendocrine theory Problems with the hypothalamus-pituitary-endocrine gland feedback system cause disease. Immunological theory Aging is due to faulty immunological function, which is linked to general well-being.