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    Steel Wire Technology Per Enghag

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    Tien Dung Phan

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    @.. Tecnology Per Enghag STEEL WIRE TECHNOLOGY Pee = 26 aed i ‘The author about the autho ‘uring the 1980" wor or forthe The Swedish Setoo of Mining ‘and Netatugy in Pips. Than got broad contact wth the nell working itduties in Sendhnava and tho problems and posses {n 19701 was responsibil or RAD an ome yar algo fo the production at Hatin Geran a poduoerofvave sping wre and ther ery qusfiod steel wre produ, Fram 1980 | have rn my own company, Matoriaekni HB (pie Matai J ethnclogy. From ts boston Tworked very much fr Sandy, bom weh stl (cepecily ens wee) and with comerted cari. om tie Nord Stee Wire Assoc. nthe petioa afte 196D | favo wotked vi research and egicaton for many comgeniet in Sweden ar {toed and as for UNIDO (Unked Naton Indusval Development Organization). 1m 1980 began wih the yoartyScarnaian We Seminars which gpk the Bipor Reward | gotmy Doctor degree n comity intO73 and was appobia associat professor (dcent in Matrns Chemis in 1098 by Uppsala Univers. ‘Asa sonor tien Ihave contibted to buldng up an Instn for Mott ‘ern ecb, ncaa wee rns, tt ow ers See also er Eaghag Encyclopedia ofthe Elements ‘Publi y Wey. Ven Seer 2D, oration sie. Applied Matera Technology Material BB Stortorget 17, SE-702 11 OREBRO, Sweden Phone and fax +46 19611 §3 1. ‘email perenghag@telin.com © The author and Materateknik HB Edition No3 2003) Printing No9 September 2008) Printed by Repro Orebro University ISBN 91-631:1962.5 Preface Preface to the first edition ‘The steel wire "family" is very diversified. This i illustrated by the following examples: * Nail wire * Wie for fasteners, = bolts mus * Rope wire bright + galvanized * Prestressed concrete wire, PC-wire * Spring wire upholstery and bedding wire + music wire (for springs) ~ Benuine music wire (for strings) = cold drawn stainless spring wire oil hardened and tempered spring wie (valve spring wire) * Staple wire * Steel wool wire * Baling wire * Tire wire cord wire ~bead wire * Spoke wire “Fish hook wire * Shaped wire “flat wire hexagonal wire * Welding wire ~core wire for electrodes MAG wire, CO: welding wire (copper coated low carbon stee! wire) = MIG and TIG wire, stainless welding wire tubular welding wire (fuxed core wire) {High-speed steel wire for drils and (flattened) for electron beam welding * Resistance high alloyed wire ‘During the manufacture of diferent steel wie products there are several things in common oF at Teast sila: Wire rod preparation and scale removal Drafting ‘Tribology, lubricant carirs and Drawing machines and other wire drawing lubvicans machinery Davwing dies and die preparation Wire cleaning ‘The materials behavior inthe die Heat treatment Drawing force and power Surfice coating ‘Work hardening Wire testing Preface ‘This book deals with these general subjects and not with the specie wire products. Itis mainly @ ‘translation fiom the Swedish language of the couse literature for «series of Scandinavian wire ‘seminars, given by the author for maay yeas In stel wire technology there isa gap, both n education and resech, between specie drawing theory and al the diferent applications with tec practice and principles The two areas, both absolutely necessary, ae iustrated in he follwing diagram. Sea Wie Tecnology Maieralbebavoriatied, | [Wirerod weaiman mash studi on a slat base’ | | descaling and pling with plastic theory ising tiny Evaluations of stresses, Tribology. Labicats and i ores, temperatures. The ears U Fnflence ofthe materia Susihtning | proper, rtion eduction] | Fat wire roliag tn i and de goamsry oo Wire leaning these parameters eat eatneat Surface eat and Usiizaion of FEM and other| [coating modeisin combination with | | Wire testing, Mechanical computerized caeuation methods and NDT. techniques. Werk hardening Carbon se Comparison feasted > High speed steel values with results achieved | )- Stainless sels in pacialwexting Resistance aloys This books intended tobe a “bridge over the gap Between theory and practice”. Lknow that ‘many technicians, active within the wire manufacturing industry, need information ftom the chapter Wire drawing theory’ as well as from the principal sections in every other chapter, On the other hand, people who have a deep knowledge of wire drawing theory, deeper than is given in ibook eed practi hints on iret seo ote veiled se eects correnly Literature referred to inthe book i indicated on the actual page, bu the following books, proceedings and journals have also been a great help: Preface Hortllng von Stahlératt, Teil | und Tel 2. Vela Sthiison Dissldor 1969 : Stel Wire Handbook, The Wie Association, Gilford, Connection, USA ‘Volume 1 (1968), Volume 2 (1969), Volume 3 (1972), Volume 4 (1980) : Ferrous Wire, The Was Assocation, Guilford, Connectt, USA. Volume 12 (1989) : Conference proeedings from the Wire Associaton Interationl. USA, : E.M. Miclaik, Metalworking Science and Engineering. MeCraw Hil, 1991 : Eckard Albert, Mirko Sehiling, Marcus Pacch, We do straight Wire Sroighoning. Wits Albert Berlin : Wire Indy. England ral, Germany, : Wirral It USA : [Nordisk TadisniskForenngeArsbok. Sweden ‘The book can be used as supplementary reading for students in mechanical engineering, At intemal courses fr the education ofa company's employees, with varying backgrounds, the book ean also be used as the course literture, {thank all the frends in the different production and supply companies, who bave given me information via brochures, pictures and also via very valuable discussions, Dita pars of he manus av boon read by te exerionalconsiing engineers Lars Rabe (RUF, Karo) an Lars Parson (LEP Wire Tecnology, Nori end Doria) os vel as by Dr Magn Js, Dr Morgn lg sod Se Pt itd at Oe Unies. L hk these colnges frei coments aad good advice. also thank dhe Wire Associaton International inthe USA for ther generous willingness to Jet me use illustrations and information from their handbooks, (November 2001) Preface to the second edition For this second edition Mr Adam Shulman, the Editor of Wire Industry, has provided Valuable advice about the editing and as very carefully transformed all the language in Steel Wire Technology into clea and concise English. T express my thanks to Adam Shulman for this contribution, as will the many readers of this book. (Ganuary 2002) Preface to the third edition eas ani inthe pefie tothe fein that there sa gap in sel wire ecology, bol in education and research, betwooa specie drawing theory en lle diferent sppistions, with thei practice and principles. Many readers have expressed the the intention withthe boo jo bridge ove this gap as fon fled In this thd edition te corrections made in the 2 and 3 printing ofthe second edion have ben completed. The changes are however 20 small tat it tas been posible to keep the orginal chapter division ad pagination Orebeo, Swede in Febuary 2003 Per Enghag Stel wire eehnology “Without experience nobody can tell you the force necessary to drav the iron wire through the drawing plate" Leonardo da Vinci (0452-1519) Stel wire technology Contents 1 CHEMISTRY IN THE DRAWING MILL Chemical symbols ‘tons, molecale, ons ‘Thechemical bond ‘Acids, bases, pH, newtalization Osidation and reduction Water Bardnese Lubricant chemistry ‘The concentration of oatons 3 MATERIALS TESTING General ‘Teasiletestng principles ‘Tene testing the dawg ill ‘Technological methods for wire ting Hardness esting ay cueent testing BC 4 WIRE Rop Steel manufcrring Refining of raw scl Production of anes ot ‘The slag inclusion problem for wir ro. Super clean stel Manufacturing of bills Cooling after rolling and tel structs “The wire od tolerances ‘The wire tod oxide, The scale Wire rod defects ‘The tensile strength of th wire rod Wire produced diol from mt 9 10 a B 1 15 19 2 2 2% 2 Es 20 2 3B 3 EN a st st 3 5s 55 7 8 9 64 “ Stel wire technology EEE s PICKLING Some general views Picking in hydrochloric Sulfur acd picking Pickling of silos stats Tnhibitars ia picking of carbon stele Rinsing ‘The performance of batch pickling Etetroytie pickling and clesning “Hydrogen uptake ~ hydrogen embritlement MECHANICAL DESCALING - ALTERNATIVES TO PICKLING Descalng by reverse bending Combination of bending and brshing Desealng by shot blasting ‘Tho stream method ~ a special Basing method Alster jt descaling Shaving Some uscoaventona tecaiques LUBRICATION Lubrication in wire drawing ~ an overviow Wear “The do pressure ‘The power in LW ‘The temperature atthe wie drwing Work Drating DRAWING Dips ‘Materia tong dis None and sans fr omen aie Die geontry for damond des Sutabie de geomety Griigand posting ‘The beaig ent Grading to cge Esme or indigo is Cnt af the di geo Prenuedes Rosati dt B a B % a 8 8 a 35 36 a ot 95 96 400 at 102 13 10s los 106 108 a 07 n0 1B 13 16 bs 18 16 1 19 10 16 1st al 16 1s 18 m m m mm 1m ast Stel wire ecology eee 10 DRAWING MACHINES ‘The devélopment of drawing machines Single blocks = for ap oto dss ‘Accumulating machines ‘Stightline machines, Beeline machines Dancerarm machines The loopline system ‘Tuner ine machines Double block machines ‘The MRB-Veetse machiae Block cooing ‘Wet daving machines 4M STRAIGHTENING. CAST AND HELIX 9 aay srg m Roll arsine na Inuenceofstapheing on wite procs 210 Cast nati a Spring back ter bending 23 12, PAVOPF-TAKEUP- WELDING 2s Overview 25 Pave equipment as Takcup equipment 28 Spools forpayeand tkeap za Welding in connection vith desing 2 13 CLEANING OF DRAWN WIRE us Tateduction us Cleaning wit igh resure water = Urtrsonsceaing 2 lsolyc cleaning 2 14 ROLLING AND FLATTENING Pr oligo siting Fr Teminolgy 2a Roling theory sort cretion me Meal flow daring fatcning cr Spreading Fe simation offre, rqu and power 20 CCotinoas ling aa ‘The continue ling milan example 0 ‘The tke up rel 2 Wire shaping ill Tks head 24s Index 1s 0 GALVANIZING Why ine coating of sol? Drawing of galvanized wire High tomperaure galvanizing of fstenes ‘Aclosed degreasing eyele forthe galvanizing plant ‘The MHD galvanising process (CHEMICAL AND ELECTROLYTIC METAL COATING OF WIRE, ‘Why metal coating? (Chemical mca canting (without lic current) “Blecrolytie metal exating~ plating ai a1 2s a7 21 22 258 259 an x9 29 29 23 Bs BS BBy x9 Chapter 1 (Chensstry inthe dawing mill CHAPTER 1 CHEMISTRY IN THE DRAWING MILL 1 Chemical symbols For those working in the wire industry itis necessary tobe able to read wire rod specifications including the information they contain about the composition of the rods concemed. Throughout such specifications, the intemational chemical symbols forthe elements are always used, For example: Carbon. Chromium = Cr Silicon Si Nickel Ni Manganese Ma Molybdenum Mo Phosphorus P Vanadium —V Sulfir§ Tungsten W Tron Fe. Niobium” Nb Aluminum AI"? Tantalum — Ta Zine Zn Titanium — Ti Copper Cu Lead Pb Hydrogen Oxygen 0. Nitrogen N Argon Ar ‘Previously known 8s Columbium Cb **) Als aluminum in American but aluminium inthe UK Elements, in tum, combine to give chemical compounds such as Water H,0 Hydrochloric acid HCL Sulfuric acid H,S0, Phosphoric acid HPO, Nitric HNO; Sodium hydroxide NaOH Ammonia NH, Sodium carbonate Na,COy 2 Atoms, molecules and ions Flements are built up of atoms, with an atom being composed of a nucleus, which is positively charged, and negatively charged electrons ia orbits around the nucleus, ‘Atoms are very small, with diameters from 1-3 A (Angstrbm), 1 A= 0.000 000 1 mm = 107 mm. Ina stel wire, for example, the average distance ‘between individual iron atoms is 2.87 A ‘A molecule is a group of two or more atoms joined by chemical bonds, eg. water HjO and hydrochloric acid HCI, fan atom gains or loses one or more electrons it is known as en ion. When nickel isin a plating bath it is composed of green colored nickel ions Ni? Iron in pickling bath, on the other hand, is present asthe ferrous iron ion Fe" Chapter | Chemistry inthe drawing sill 1m pickling bats, borax baths and phospating baths there ar diferent ions present: eatydetags cba ee GesEDe cone al la) an “ia uli aed pting but tears hyopen ons, ns SO ant erous ns Fe" LR Se See oe uring chemical coppering the copper ions, Cu, react withthe iron atoms atthe wire’s surface and "change places” G+ > Cut RY cupric iron copper ferous fon metal metal ion biue rd sind Ions of less noble metals, such as zine and nickel, must be electroplated onto the wire’s surface. {ons can exist not only in water solutions but als inthe solid state. For example, atom combinations, like sodium chloride NaCI, are built up of Na’ and CI ions. Each individual sodium ion does not belong to specific chloride ion but forms a unit with six Because ofthis arrangement NaCl is not designated a molecule but a formula unt. 3 The chemical bond ‘The ionte bond The simplest chemical bond to understand isthe lectrostatic bond found in ionic crystals such as NaCl. Because of the different charges present, plus and minus, on the individual ions, there is an attractive force between them. The fact thatit is difficult to squeeze atoms together too closely, even when the chemical affinity s strong, shows that a short- range repulsive force also exists between the atoms. The real spacing between a pair of atoms corresponds to the postion with the lowest energy (see Figure 1.1), rl Fig LT Potential energy ofa pair of clecroposiive and one clectronegative fo _ Increasing Potential Chapter (Chest in the drawing mill ‘he covalent bond ‘When yo atoms (oto approach seieleean loads pea exch otra ody ‘stones oGuEVcuo pe This pesng known seca bond ad responsible for the formation of diatom gates sch as H, Oy Ny Inthe inet gs argon aleectons are pic in the atomic state, Thetfre, no covalent binding ean coeur between he argon sons and its formula i rien a Covalent bonds keep the atoms in organic molecules, such as lubricants, together. Their structural formulae can be written with electron dots or with lines, with every line representing a pair of binding electrons, Two simple examples of organic molecules are H HH I tt B-o+n ies I H HH CH, molecule Coy molecule Methane Ethane ‘The metallic bond ‘Metallic bonds are closely elated to ordinary covalent electrox-pair bonds in that they both involve atoms sharing electrons with their neighbors, However, ia metallic bonds the ‘metal atoms tend to bind to as many neighbors as can be packed around them, Also, in a ‘metal more electrons are available than are necessary for bindng. This mikes a flow of clesiispossble uid the infuence of applied src eld leading 1 metal ‘conductivity 4 Acids, bases, pH, neutralization Acid are compounds, which give off hydrogen fons when in solution. HCI=> Ht +c. (Hydrochloric acid = hydrogen and chloride ions) HSO, => 2H* +S0,> (Sulfuric acid = two hydrogen fons and one sulfate ion) Acids have acid reactions and a pH below T(see Figure 1.2) ain ues in acid, neutral and alkaline (basic) solutions Chapter Bases are compounds, which givé of? hyd¥oxide ions) O1jin solution, Bases, therefore, have alkaline reactions and pHNalisy ab6¥e 7 NH +H,0 =>NH,* + OH” (ammonia and water give ammonium and hhydroxide ions) NaOH > Net +O" sodium hydroxide gives sodium and hydroxide ions) Ca(OH); => Cat* +2087 (aleium hydroxide, line, gives one caleium fon ‘and two hydroxide ions) ‘When acids and bases are brought together they neutralize each other, Ht + OH ==> H,0 ‘The neutralization of hydrochloric aid and water with sodiam hydroxide (lime) can also be written: HCI + NaOH => NaCl + H,0; 2HC1-+ Ca(OH), => CaCl + 2H,0 me sree rronroners GES. vst Figia weal tne Hook VoL 4p 8 vhs lite | aw Iron chord preset wil ot the same process be precited as iron hydrxdde russ FeCl; + 2N00H ==> Fe(Olg + 2NACI NEUTRAUZ TON TANG SLURRY TO LAGOON Chapter 1 (Chemisty inthe drawing mill In the wire industry, after hydrochloric acid pickling, the rinsing water is neutralized and iron hydroxide is retained in a lamella separator and a filter press. The water, containing, calcium and/or sodium chloride, is passed to the recipient (serroundings; the stream passing the factory). Its pH value is about 9 =] =f / L aa fel Fig 14 Newtralization and removing the sludge by lamella separator and filter press Reprinted wih permission of Ot WIT AB Nomhapag Sweden 5 Oxidation and reduction (Oxidation is defined as oxygen uptake. On the surface of a steel wire, heated in air, for example, different iron oxides are formed, e g, FeyOs. Oxygea is also given off during reduction. In a blast fuave oxygen is taken from the iron ore present and combined with carbon to give carbon monoxide, CO. This results in iron oxide being reduced to iron metal Chapter 1 (Chemisty i the deawing mill ‘The concepts of oxidation/reduction have now been extended such that Fe™ is said to be in an oxidized state although the iron is not bound to oxygen Iron and other elements can also exist in a number of diferent oxidation states (valence states) Fe > Fe" > Fe : inerosing oxidation state ‘Using this new definition oxidation is an increase and reduction a decrease in the ‘oxidation state or oxidation mumber. ‘There are for example, a number of environmental problems associated with hexavalent ‘chromium. This is chromium withthe oxidation number of 6+. Ina wire mill hexavalent chromium is produced when stainless steel wire is degreased electrolytically before annealing. However, by reduction with sulfite the hexavalent chromium can be transformed into trivalent Ce, which is much more acceptable from the health point of Ce + reducing agent > Cr” yellow area (The ion in the 6-alet chromium i ia fst CxO," oF C07") 6 Water hardness Industrial water and tape water are never quite clean as they have been in contact with xock and, hence, contain dissolved salts, sch as fons of calcium Ca, bicarbonate HCOs, sulfate SO,” and so on. ‘The concentration of calcium ions isused as a measure of the ‘water's hardness ‘Temporary hardness So-called temporary hardness is caused by calcium bicarbonate, ic. Ca” and HCOy. It disappears when the water is heated up as the soluble calcium bicarbonate is, transformed to almost insoluble calcium carbonate CaCOs, Permanent hardness Permanent hardness is caused by calcium sulfate when ion of Ca" and SO¢* dissolve inthe water: This type of hardess cannot be removed by heating, Water types ‘The level of water hardness is expressed as the number of milligrams of Ca per litre or in “aH (’German degrees”). 1°dH1 corresponds to 10 mg CaO per litre and 1 mg Ca/litre 0.14 °dH (see Table 1.1). Centr in the drawing il Water ype ang Caper ‘ope [me Caper [alt Table LT eset ois a Different water ypes Saf 15352 | Medium tard [35-70 5-10 Hard 7o-130—_[10-20 Very hard S150 P20 J ‘Wate? with a igh tee ot anda e cane blaring preparation of San eee ANE Tran eeanane timer a ini piepiaraion ihe pales ad deposiss on the steam Heating pipes and on the sides and bottoms te Softening and defonization Deionized water hes zero hardness. This type of water was first produced by distillation but today an ion exchenge technique is used instead. Water sofleners generally use a ile cationic resin to remove calcium and magnesium ions Deionization equipment, on ‘the other hand, which removes all ions (metallic and non-metallic) from the water, uses two columns operating in series. One contains a cationic resin forthe removal of metallic ions, and the other contains an anionic resin for the removal af acid radicals. 7 Lubricant chemistry Lubricants belong mainly tothe area of organic chemistry, which is based on covalent compounds of carbon bound to hydrogen to give hydrocarbons. The structural formulae of these compounds can show the binding pattern between the atoms, Le. hydrogen atoms are added to a carbon skeleton along with different functional groups, Inthe chemistry of dry drawing lubricants, for example, the functional group -COOH is essential, giving what is known as an organic acid, Oils are built up of hydrocarbons, and ‘dry drawing lubricants are made of organic acids joined to soaps containing sodium or calcium. Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons Ifthe supply of hydrogen is sufficient to fill all the bonds, the hydrocarbons are said to be saturated: Ha H ii | ween ne HH Ethane Saturated hydrocarbons Chapter 1 Chen in the dexing mil In unsaturated hydrocarbons, two or more carbon atoms are tound by double bonds: tt Te ker ak ry peed ‘Unsaturated hydrocarbons. 4 shortage oflydrogen compels some ‘carbon atoms to bind with some neighbors using double bonds ‘Unsaturated hydrocarbons can have other elements added to them, e.g. halogens. ‘This isthe basis for a common method to determine the degree of unsaturation in lubricants. The lubricant reacts with iodine, which binds to the lubricant’s double bonds. ‘The iodine remaining is then determined by titration to revel the so-called iodine-number of the Inbricant, | oe Sos It Iodine is added 10 a double bond Lubricants built up of unsaturated hydrocarbons have lower nelting points than lbri- ‘ants based on saturated hydrocarbons. Fatty acid (carboxylic acids) } Fatty acids consist of hydrocarbon chains connected toa caroxyl group ~COOH (see Tables 12 and 1.3). Name [Formula [Molecular ] Melting wegen Pe | [Table 12 | ‘Laurie acid | Figs COOH] 200.3 [ae Melting points for Myrstc acid [Cer COOH [228.4 [58 saturated fauy acids Palmitie cid | C,y- COOH] 2564 [63 | ‘Stearic acid 1 C.,Hhy COOH] 2865 [69 Chapter 1 Chemistry inthe drawing mil Tose Mcsar sara Crapo 3 ncight | elting points for ome — lem coor es he Dalen uae sole se Cay COOH [2805 ee Saponification By distling natural fat products, such as tallow and coconut ol, mixtures of fatty acids can be obtained. These fatty acids can then be allowed to react. with calcium or sodiam hydroxide. This saponification i exeipliied by the following two formalee in which stearic Wid represents the group of fatty acids: NaOH + HOOC : Cy7Hs Cirtss - COONa + H0 odin stearate sodium soap JOH HOOC: CrsHs + > Corths- COO):Ca +240 NOH HOOC: Cisths ‘aleum stearate, tlium soap Esters and fats Many vegetable oils are made up of molecules known as fats or glycerides, which are esters formed from the alcohol glycerol CyHs(OH); and the oleic acid Cy7Hsy COOH, of other fatty acids. Unsaturated fats are oils, which can be treated with hydrogen and a catalyst fo give saturated waxy solids. Detergents and soaps 'Na-, K+ or Ca- salts of long-chain fatty acids are not only Iubsicants but also soaps suitable for cleaning, Their hydrophobic" "water hating”) chains dissolve in oil and ‘grease droplets while their hydrophilic (water Joving”) carboxylate ends stick out into ‘the water thereby enabling the soap droplets tobe dispersed, CH,CH; CH; CH, (CH; CH; CH; CH; COOMe" Iydrophobte port Iydvophie part Since the Ce- and Mg-salts of sulfonic acids are much more soluble in water than the corresponding salts of carboxylic acids, synthetic detergents made from sulfonic acids are ‘more suitable in hard water areas, Chapter 1 Chessy inthe draing ill Emulsions ‘An emulsion is @ mixture of two liquids, which are insolublein one another. After mixing the liquids separate into two phases. However, ifa detergent, nown as an emulgator, is added, an emulsion with a certain stability is formed (see Figure 1.3). Htrghove —Hydrphite Fig he \ 1 micron, Milky emulsion 1-0.1 micron ‘Bhue-white emulsion 0.1-0.05 micron Grey, somictransparent emulsion <0.05 micron Transparent emulsion Chapter 1 ‘Chemistry inthe drawing mill 8 The concentration of solutions nie [Symbol Definitions Molar RF [mal The number of moles ofa disolved component in one litre of solution Normality [Gam The number of gram equivalents oF N lequivatents | dissolved componeat in one lire of solution Table 1-4 Molarity and normality - concentration of solutions x pure emstry ‘he units M and N are for titrated solutions used inthe analytical control of pickling and ‘other process baths. 1 mol isthe weight in gram equal to the molecilar weight. 1 gram- equivalent isthe weight in gram equal tothe equivalent weight, e.g, 1 mol NaOH is 40 g NaOH, 1 mol H,S0, is 98 g H;SO,. A 0.1 MINAOH solution contains 4 g NaOH per lite and a 0.02M H,S0, solution contains 1,96 g H:S0, per lite For NaOH the equivalent weight is equal tothe molecular weight. For H;SO¢ the equivalent weight is equal to half the molecular weight and so on. Thus, «1M NaOH solution is also 1 N. A IM H,SO, solution is 2N. For the concentrations in a processing ‘bath the units given in Table 1.5 are used. (See also the infermation about pickling baths ‘given in Chapter 5), Tait [Symbol Definitions Percentage |% [Gram of component in 100 gram OF by weight solution Gram per [ai Gram af anponen ia iter lite of solution _ [Ounce per fouigal Oust canons gallon one gallon of solution Percentage [vol ¥% Number of ies of cone gull e@ by volume Jeone. HCL, cone. H;SO,, cone. NH) in 100 lites of solution [Density | p/en™; Kalam” |The weight in gram of | en? solution orthe weight in kg of | da solution Degrees PBS An old unt linked to density Baume PPoiais™ [Away to expres te concentration in Phosphating baths. The poins are ealelated according othe supplie's instructions Table 15 Different “practical” ways of expressing the concentration of solutions Caper 1 (Centr in the deavng mill °BE= 145 - 145/density if density is>1 elem’ 1 gallon (US) =3.785 litre; 1 gallon (UK) = 4.546 litre; 1 ounce = 28.35 g Coacaatoa JOS ce tat 33 anal —lo 160 aa at rat ge lease at ! Table 1.6 Recalculation of gto ozigal and vice versa Chapter 2 Stel propestios CHAPTER 2 STEEL PROPERTIES 1 rostructure and grain size ‘When a melt of pure metal solidifies, small unit cells, usually cubes, ae formed, in which the atoms are arranged in a distinct pattem. Cube is added to cube during solidification to sive aggregates of solid metal in the melt (see Figure 2.1), 2 a Ga ges o ‘osnonay Fig. 2.1 The formation of grains during the solidification of melt. When the last part of the melt solidifies, the solid aggregates meet along irregular "borders", In this way grains are formed, separated by grain boundaries. A wire rod, the starting material for a drawing plant, is made up of equiaxed grains, Which ate not circular and show no elongation in the rolling direction, Just after rolling at hhigh temperature the grains are deformed but recrystallize immediately to give equiaxed ‘rains (see Figure 2.2), Chapter Stee properties Fig. 2.2 The grain stretching and spontaneous recrysializaion during hot rolling ‘fpost-olling cooling is Yoo effective; the wire rod can become not fully eerystallized swith a banded structure, Ths has a negative effestion the drawing properties of the wire ‘During cold drawing the wire grains are elongated and remain so. Therefore, the tension built into the wire makes it hard. Beamatioe Fig. 23 Grain Boundaries spread, after etching, the rap of ight. They appear dark when viewed through ‘aicroscope Grains, grain boundaries, the grain size and grain shape represent the micro structure of @ wire and can be studied under a metal microscope. This can magnify up to 1500 X, but, as ‘rule, magnifications 100-500 X are used. The different components inthe wire structure are made visible by grinding, polishing and etching ‘The grain size ofa sample of ste! is estimated by comparison with standard pictures from ASTM (The American Society for Testing and Materials). Small ASTM values correspond to coarse grain sizes and big ASTM values to fin> grain sizes (see Figure 2.4). Chapter 2 Stel properties eae gain STC AsTH6 astu a : mena a 2 Fig. 2.4 The ASTM method of estimating grain sizes ‘Steel with fine grain size has betiét mechanical propestios thatlbouialgtained steel» ‘At high temperatures and with a long crystallization time the grains will grow larger (see Figure 2.5) Tine Fig 2.5 Heat treatment for a long time and at high temperatures makes the grains coarser ‘The mechanical properties ofthe steel will then deteriorate. This can also occur ifthe ‘welding undertaken during the wire drawing process is carried out at too high a temperature and for too long atime. Chapter 2 In wire drawing and cold rolling the grains are elongated and remain stretched. Tensions ‘re, therefore, built into the material and help to arden it ‘The figures below show the microstructure of low carbon ste after annealing , and after rolling with a 10, 25 and 50 % reduction, Observe the grain stretching. Microscopy Stereo microscope with low magnification Fig 2.6 Micro- structure with — | ‘grain stretching | after cold rolling (and drawing) Fig 2.7 Stereomlcrascape with continuously variable magne fication (25:1 z00n). Reprise with person of Unen erst » Chapter, Sta propentis| For observations of surface roughness and defects, a stereo microscope with a low ‘magnification is usually used. The two oculars (eyepieces) pve a stereo effect. In the Leica microscope, shown in Figure 2.7, the ocular magnification is 10%, 16X or 40X. . ‘The objective magnification can also be changed step by ste) or continuously by zooming in the range 0.8X to 10X. The total magnification is then achieved by multiplying the ‘cular and objective magnifications. For example, with an eyepiece magnification of 10X ‘and an objective magnification of 2X, the total microscope magnification is 20X. The stereo microscope is used a great deal for wire drawing quality contro. 22 ‘Metal microscope For investigations into the microstructure (©, grain size, grin shape) ofa sample, a setal microscope is usually used, To make the microstructure visible the sample is prepared by grinding, polishing and etching its surface. This must be done in a laboratory Steel with 0.30 %C Ferrite and pearl Steel with 0.60% C Steel with 0.80 %C Ferrite and pearlite Pearlite Fig. 2.8 Microstructures insteels. Magnification 1000 chapter 2. ‘Stel propertics ‘The metal microscope'has a very low depth of field and cannot be used to study defeots directly on an unprepared surface. Its, however, suitable foruse in studies of the microstructure of alloys. 23 ‘The scanning electron microscope (SEM In.a scaming electron microscope, SEM, the "illumination" is provided by an electron ‘beam, which is focused, not by lenses but by magnets, onto the sample surface, The \ sample is placed in a small vacuum chamber. The magnification can be very high, eg. 70,000. (One of the benefits of the SEM technique is its large depth of field, which makes it suitable for studying surface defects, fracture surfaces and plating layers in, for example, ‘welding wires. In such applications itis better nat to use the highest magnifictions. | Instead magnifications of 100X to 1000X are usual. Fig 29 SEM photos ofa broken spring. The fractwe has been caused by fatigue The starting point isa slag inclusion Origins! magnification ‘opperpistie) 200K 1 (owe picture) 1000 Chapter Stel properties 3 Carbon'steel (Carbon sad inesionallyin order to siifcantyinfuence the properties ofthe steel. The carbons, ‘however not regarded as an alloying element like chromium (C2) nike (ND,silcon(S) and so on. Stele , ar fen divided ito tres groups, Unalloyed sels are carbon sel vith diferent carbon contents, while | {ow alloyed steels feature ated aloying elements toatl content of es than 6%, Ce/S ot CV sping sels. igh alloyed sues havea ttl alloying clement content af more than 6 %, eg, stainless ‘Sls and high-speed tes, “The meal inn is very spi, in that itas a fret crystal structre at diferent empertires, At room temperature the stomic arangement is body centred cubic (Bc). However, pore ion changes its structure to fe centered cubic (fe) at 910°C, Alu, ifthe carbon content ishigh the Be struct changes to fee ata lower temperature. For example, whos the caon content is 0.8% he foc stractre i formed at 733, °c, ry re) as0 | “The steel structure a oom emperstire Fig, 2.10. The Fe-C-diagram Chaptr 2 ‘Stet properie The ifret types of ion (and sel are known by diffrent sams, Taelow temperature bce type ts known 48 forte vir alpha ion), whe he igh temperature fo pei own ae austnteyron (gamma ‘ron erie a austenite a als iret in many respects, including at tha a + Beiter accommodate carbon inte structure, cron sprsens, coment His it Remedi poate grains — SL HE ci contend p 0,296 ternal abo initia, ce and ec stuctres can eer tobe purely acadesc" buts, ia ac, of reat, practical importance, ast forms the basi or the patenting and ol hrdaing of wie (pag 257-6). The phases present in carbon steel a different temperatures and carbon contents are shown in the Fe-C-diagram Figure 2.10.At room temperatures and temperatures below 700°C carbon is present in steel as iron carbide or cementite, FexC. In the grains ‘cementite forms lamellae in a matuix of pure iron or ferrite. Te cae alae “reinforce” the iron, which explains why high caibon'steelswre tarder than lowearbonx stcolst A mixture of ferite and cementite in a grain is called peariie, Peat ais Fig 2.11 Microstructure of steels with low and High carbon contents ‘The different products made from drawn carbon steel wire are characterized ‘mainly by their carbon content. For example: * nail wire. C-<0,1% * welding wire, CO,-wire. C AL, Solcicaton of ied stot S Cn slight evluson nee of gases. ‘A shrinkage cavity (Grimary pipe is formed in te ‘upper pat of te ingot. ‘Ar rolig, th pipe must discarded. The amount and positon ofthe shrinkage 2 ‘controled by th use ofa “hotop, an insulated reractoy ‘sleeve a the top of the ingot maul {Pe 46 Sel ingot tou Bowes bu with pipe eas afer a preening of steel ‘The oxides formed atthe killing leave the steel melt nd go up into the slag. Some oxide particles, however, especially Aln03,remain in the solid steel a slag inclusions, ‘These particles can increase the dic wear during wire drawing. ‘Rimmed steel wire rod is rarely available nowadays, Because of the tendeney to form central segregations in this typeof ingot, high quality wire nakers very seldom ask for {his type of stel any more, Killed stel is used insta Fig 47 jection metallurgy for deosidation and slag ‘moaification Rapyned fom the bookie Siz ‘oh prison rom Epler” Ueto of the Sah Ste and Met indus, Stectholm Originally injection metallurgy was used to remove sulfur, Nowadays, however, this technique is also used for deoxidation and slag modification. Argon is used as a carier 2 fo transport the powder into the melt and the powder, eg. aluminum or ferrosilicon, is s0 fine that it is uidized inthe gas stream. Chapter 4 Wire rod Vacuum treatment Pig. 48 Vacuum treaiment of molten steel Vacwaum treatment reduces the content of contaminanis, ‘nitrogen N, exygen O and dydrogen H. That gives the steel better fatigue properties. Reprinted from th bacet Se! with Pemmisen from Enpiyert dsocation fie Swedish Sel and tl Indu, Stotholn 3 Production of stainless steel Stainless steels are manufactured in two steps. First, stainless serap is melted in an clectic furnace and second, the carbon content of the melt is reduced by adding oxygen and argon in an Argon-Oxygen-Decarburization (ACD) converter. Ant altemative process is the Creusot-Loire and Uddeholm (CLU) process, which was developed by the French company Creusot-Loire in conjunesion with the Swedish firm ‘Uddehoim, In this latter process a mixture of oxygen and water vapor is added to the ‘converter. Once in contact with the molten steel, the water vapor is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen in order to treat the steel with oxygen. The hydrogen acts as an “inert” gas. The process ends with a short argon blow to remove the hydrogen AA final treatment for deoxidation and slag modification is shown in Figure 4.7. 4 The slag inclusion problem for wire rod. All stels contain slag inclusions. Ifthe quantity and type are under control the inclusions cannot be looked at as defects, Macro inclusions ste, however, very 0.5 mmm, They are also of exothermic type, coming from brick and the furnsce walls ‘Micro inclusions, endothermic slag inclusions, are mainly formed during deoxidation of the steel melt. Jemkontoret (Sweden) has developed a method for assessing non- ‘metallic inclusions in stel. The inclusion chart (JK-chart is shown in Figure 4.9 ss Cpt Wie od ! APOOODOO OODENDOO OOOHOOOO < OO) 1 a 8 Fig. 4.9 An older but simple form of the JK chart for assessment of slag inclusions In steel. In the new form every group A-D ts divided tno three subgroups. Se below Reprinted wih permission of ermontoret, Stockholm ‘Thoclassicaton ie based on tho shape ofthe inclusion afer ste plastic deformation: ‘Type A ductile; TypeB brite; Type C britle-tstle; "Type Duadeformed; (Type A canbe ether seats or cles). Hach type is divided imo tho subgroup with reference to the thickness ofthe inclusions: hin 1), medium (M) and bea (H). Tope A alo bas an AS-group with almost phere inion. Wit ro te vera mers, bdo the ua of ncusions, Chapter Wie ro ‘The quantity of inclusions within each ating group is evaluated by comparison wih the JK-ckart. The group designations are showin Table, Ra [|__Typea iting AT TAM [A JAS [BT 1_[ati[aMi [agi [asi_]ert 2 [a2 [Ama [aH2_[As? [Bra z i 5 T eC. Typed. faa_[Cr_|cm Tex_|pF_ [om [ow fBHI_{Cti_|emi [cir [pri |DMi_|DHt ] [pH | Cro” | eva | cH [DT2_| D2_| DID | [BEB_[CTS_|GMs_|cHs [prs | DMs [pHs [BHA [CTs [wt |cHs [prs _|DM« [pHs [ATS [AMS [AHS [Ass [BTS [BH [CTs_|Ms [CHS [Drs [DMs [DHS Table 4.1 Designations in the slag investigation protocol [ats [AMS [AHS [AS [BTS ATs [Awa [ane [ast [BT4 Brittle and nondeformable slag inclusions have a negative effect onthe mechanical Properties of spring wire stel. D-type inclusions ae especially harmful to the fatigue strength. A slag inclusion is defined as not deformed ifthe length'width <3 after hot rolling. Examinations on slag forthe manufacture of wire tod for spring steels are often restricted to finding undeformed slag inclusions ina thin region (1 mm) near the surface, Undeformed inclusions with a width >15 jm are uaacceptable while smaller inclusions can be accepted to some extent. This needs to be agreed between the ‘supplier and spring wire manufacturer, 5 Super clean steel In the modern manufacturing of wire rod, esetrainagneresstnringpf the molten ste! is ‘used to deorease the amount of non-metallic inclusions. Using injection metallurgy the composition of non-metallic inclusions can also be changed so that they have a low ‘melting temperature. As a consequence the slag particles are plasticized during rolling of the rod. This sec! is BROMINE STERN ut 6 oo eel moe ebb ‘Deereaaed nonmetal inlusions and ‘lowheies ung mold elestomegne sng Mensit ay ca BG 7 Fig 410 | The number of non- | ‘meratlic inclusions and Blowholes is reduced by using mold electro- magnetic stirring. Reprinted with permission of Kobe Stel Lad Iron & ‘Stel Division, Japan 7 Wire rod ‘The main characteristic of a super clean stcl is thatthe widths of the slag inclusions (long the rod axis) are small. Inclusions with widths > 15 jam are not allowed in the wire rod surface region 6 ‘Manufacturing billets Rolling in a billet mill or continuous casting Steel, cast nto ingots, i rolled in billet mill according to Figure 4.1 [mga] Billet mill. Ingots are rolled into billets for wire rod production For most steel types this technique is "old-fashioned". Nowadays continuous casting is the dominant technique used for almost all types of steels. After casting, the string is divided into billets with a square section and a weight corresponding to the required coil weight, x a il Fig. 4.12 Continuous steel casting plant Reprinted from Ferrous Wire VoL1, p47 with permission of the Wire Asocttion International, Ie Billets, produced in one of the two ways mentioned, are aflited with defects, such as Pinholes and cracks. These are removed by grinding, often after magnetic defect detection. The surface quality of the final wire rod isin fac very much dependent ‘upon the careful inspection and grinding of the billets 38 (Chapter 4 Wire rod 7 Cooling after rolling and steel structure TA The older technique In older rod production techniques the rod had to cool asa giiifiGctcoi, directly after laying (see Figure 4.13). Due to “This made it necessary to start production of high carbon wie with AEROS ‘ization annem titoRBiAAWIR. In the production of welding wire, e.g, CO type, twas necessary to anneal toa size of about 2 mm before final drawing to 1 and ‘even 0.8 mm. Today its possible to draw directly from a wire rod size tothe final wire diameter. Whot has made this possible? 12 Stelmor cooling ‘The process Different new cooling techniques after te final rolling have been introduced, which result in a Migeeiewen erein Sted) tedilzistrengthyand daWALili®y, plus any scale formed is easier to remove by pickling, The most important method for wire od cooling isthe Steimor (from Canadian Stefco and American Morgan) technique. The Stelmor process iron od it Remi es ero od awability and mals estat ‘wire ised eles The wire rad emperature of 950°C is lowered by water cooling after the final rolling pass and, Chapter 4 av temperature of 7SOLBMBIEGthe rod is laid in loops on aconveyor, where the wire coils ean be evenly coolest by ai, o Figure 4.14 The Stelmor cooling in practice Reprised with ‘permission of. ‘Stee, Hamilton, ‘Omari, Canad Chapter 4, Wire rod Laying temperature and eooting epood influences the wire rod properties ‘With different laying temperatures the tensile and yield point of the wire rod can be influenced (see Figure 4.15). ese ee en ermine Figure 4.15 The influence of laying temperature on tensile and yield strength for a Jow carbon wire rod undergoing Stelmor cooling ‘BlStelinor process also has retarded cooling and slow cooling Vatiants: The ference between these and the ordinary Stelmor process le in the method of ‘Processing the rod on the conveyer. Byilising @ conveyer with insulated deoks and side ‘walls the heat loss from the material is reduced. The grain size of the steel is then’ ‘increased and the tensile strength decreased: As the rod is also laid in loops, the cooling is even and so are the properties. See further Ferrous Wire Vol. . 96100, 73 EDC cooling Another process is Easy Drawing Continuous (ECD) cooling (see Figure 4.16). eee Fig. 4.16 Continous wire rod cooling in water o Chapter 4 Wire rod ‘The rod is Inid under water, cooled evenly and transported continuously on a conveyer ‘until the final formation of the coil. The water is trested with agents, increasing its vvapor pressure such thatthe wire rod is cooled not by the water but by the water vapor. This slows down the cooling effect and martensite formation is, hence, avoided. 74 Formation of fine lamellar pearlite Fig. 4 17a Stelmor cooled wire rod with high carbon content. Original ‘magaafication in electron microscope 10 000K. Black area = white ferrite, white lamellas lack cementite. Compare the patenting proces in chapter 13, ‘oat treaiment Fig. 6.176 Iscthermal transformation ddgram for 1080 steel ‘containing 0.7 96 carbon cand 0.769 manganese. The samples were austenit- zed at 900°C and had an austenite grain size of ASTM 6. Digram from Aas of lso- ‘thermal Transformation and Conling Transformation Dia: rom (American Seeley for Mls, ASM, Meats Park ‘Ohio 44073, USS. 1977 p28) Reprinted fom Krauss, Prneiples of Heat Treatment of ‘Stl (AS41985, p.22). ‘When wire rod is cooted in molten 1ead from 900%C 40550 (lead patent) the ite goes into the pearlite nose and very fine lamellar peasite is formed. Ifthe cooling Chapter 4 Wire red is slow (ein ait) the formation of Sore . : ue te cooling too Feet ‘il therefore, be bard but oo bit for good drawablty ‘Daring the production of high carbon wire the cooling speed in the Stelmor and EDC processes is adjusted by experience to get an optimum level of tensile strength and drawability. us i tet ete 4 fg 418 Yo een nd nd Vamp tes bee" forme ‘optimum in drawabiley corresponds 10 a cooling speed that gives ne lamellar pearlte Wire rod tensile Re 18 Cooling of stainless wire rod Jn modem production of stainless steel wire rod equipment for continuous laying is also used. Fig. 4. 19 Fagersta rod mill for the production of stainless stel wire rod. Reprinted with permission of Fagersa Stainless AB, Fagersta, Sweden “After finishing the rod is cooled by high pressure water ata temperature of 1050 to 950°C, laid into loops and continuously cooled to approx. 400°C. This D-cooled rod ‘can thea be directly formed into cols. Ithas a very smooth surface and a fine grain « Chapter 4 size of 10-12 ASTM, The standard proces is, however, arnealing This takes about 3 to 4 minutes at about 1050 °C ina continuous annealing furnace (DST-annealng) Positioned directly after the above conveyor inthe rolling nll. As an alternative the | annealing can be caried out on coil forms. This takes about tres hous at 1020 to1150 °C (depending upon the steel grade) in a batch annealing furnace. This is usually used i high alloy stainless sets, DST-anncaling (Direct Solution Treatment gives an ‘even grain size of ASTM 5-7 compared with ASTM 3-6 for batch annealed wire rod. 8 ‘The wire rod tolerances Dimension tolerances are given in official standards and suppliers” specifications. \ StandardSpeciie. [Sie Sis tlranss | Ovaliy pINse1i0 ssSaat [+ 020mm Max 0 Yoak owl ole age Kobe sand lrnss|>3 mam [040mm [Max 1.64 mn | Kok, presen Este [013mm MaxC20 0m tolennce Bish Sat S3aimmm | 030mm [Wier | FagerstaSasess—]5.6-10 mm] 0.15 mm [Max 0% of iad 10135 mm] + 0.20 mm tolecance range | Table 42 Wire rod dimension tolerances 9 ‘The wire rod oxide. The scale ‘Sehamato ~ sa aes $s, oS Fig 4.20 The oxide scale on carbon steel By using Stelmor cooling the scale quantity is very much decreased when compared ‘with simple cooling. This is visible in the following diagrams’ Chapter Wire od pode ce Sterne sl sovetesee a cate tt am fone digas (oveaba pa | 6D Zin nr » vs moot om a on Fig 421 Orde ler ticks (veight 99 a diferent lying temperatares. Selmar cooling compared with older technique” The composition of the scale is also changed. Due to the rapid cooling the scale on the Steltor cooled rod vontains relatively more B&O) which is eiily'soluble in hyffochloric and sulfuric acid: The'rod is thus easier to piekde than rods produced using simple cooling Another important surface change, as a consequence of the Stelmor cooling, is thatthe lee This ean make it more difficult for a coating to be adhered to the wire (especially important for stainless steels) and forthe wire surface to take up lubricant during drawing. This problem has to be solved by optimizing the properties of drawing, eg. byliSingithe correct approach angles, pressure dies and rating dies (see Chapters on drawing). 1) 1 Tominaga, Kin-ya Wakimoto, T. Mor, M. Murakami, T. Yoshimors, Mamgjfactre of wire rods ith good descaling properties, Trans SU 22.No (1982), 9 646 “6s ‘The amount of scale on the rod surface is expressed as % scale of the rod weight or in « oxide per m? wire surface, Ifthe layer thickness is 8 yum (micron) and the amount of oxide is expressed as w g/m’, the relation is 55 gfom is the mean density of the scale 53 10 Wire rod defects In wire rod different types of surface defects can be present Cras Cracks in hot rolled rod may be formed at many diffrent points in the production cycle. Defeets occurring during the casting/solidification stages can give shirt stress, risks and ping. Because ofthe extensive elongation that occurs during rollin, these defects subsequently cause lng each Inthe rolling mil, racks are caused by ‘mpfopecroll surfaces and coarse scale, which has been role ito the surface. Fig. ‘erackn a wire ‘rod with 0.65 % C. Rained rom Frou Wire Bo, p18 wi fermion of Pre aston ternational fe ‘act ihc shun ne | Surface region. The crack is welded up towards the cove with decarbiizain ofits flan This indicates that the ‘exaek has exined before the last reheating: ones viadnucswunt® 100K Scratches Scratches are furow-like depressions, which always nileagitudinally, They can be rather oracklike but asa rule they are lasbottomed furrows and not as dangerous as cracks from a mechanical pont of view. Scratches are caused by scoring with sharp or poined objects Pig 4.23, The bottom radius makes the difference between crack and seratch Crack ‘Scratch Chapter 4 Wire rod Fine Fins are natrowy beads'running longitudinally, When material is rolled in multi-stand ‘continuous mills, fins are formed atthe ends of the coil. Pizes, gross segregation and large inclusions can also cause fins of various forms anc lengths. Fig 4.24 Fin on both sides ofthe rod caused by ‘overfill in the finishing pass. Magnification 7X ‘Reprinted from Ferrous Wire Vo p 122 with permison ofthe Wire Assocation International, Ie. Laps TaKate discoitinaties in dhe material, which generally rn more or les at an angle to the surface ofthe od, They are usually ong, Rassierillingthe most frequent causeof laps; When material is forced ito the roll gap, i folds over and is rolled in ‘the next pass to give a lap. Laps on only one side of the section can also be eaused by badly aligned guides Fig. 4.25 A lap that has causedia break n a spring?” 100K Shell ‘Shillis also overlapping material Its distributed more iregular over the rod surface than isa lap. Itadheres fo the base material only in isolated places. Fig 426 Defect of shell-type on a 2mm wire drawn {from alow carbon wire rod. Under the shell, iron ‘ide was found. 00x ‘From 3, Wille, K.Ofsson, Brvatise fr str (Alas for ire bale). Report DS238 Jemkontort Stosksin) o Chapters Wire rod Detesin ransort and song Dring transport fom the rong to the drawing mill and during transport in the

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