PRECIPITATION

What is precipitation?

Precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapour that

falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow,
graupel and hail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes
saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and "precipitates". Thus,
fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the water vapor does
not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Precipitation forms as smaller droplets
coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud.

How does the process of precipitation occur?

Precipitation is caused by condensation of water vapours of the air mass. The

ascending air mass with sufficient amount of water vapours becomes saturated due
to adiabatic cooling. Condensation of water vapours leads to the formation of clouds.
Every cloud contains updraft and downdraft.

The development and height of the clouds depend upon the updraft. Stronger the
updraft, greater is the height of the cloud. When the liquid water increases, the
strength of the updraft decreases and downdraft starts increasing. As a result,
precipitation is produced.

Even though all clouds contain water, but some produce precipitation while others
do not. In certain cases precipitated moisture falls from the clouds, but it gets
evaporated from the atmosphere before reaching the earth surface.

Precipitation occurs only when the cloud droplets or ice crystals grow to such a size
that it can overcome the updrafts in the atmosphere. It means that some special
processes are working on in cloud from which precipitation falls.

Impacts of precipitation on the environment .

Acid rain describes any form of precipitation that contains high levels of nitric and
sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material
that settle to Earth.Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some
chemicals that can cause acid rain, but most acid rain is a product of human
activities.

When humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are
released into the atmosphere. Those air pollutants react with water, oxygen, and
other substances to form airborne sulfuric and nitric acid. When acid rain reaches
Earth, it flows across the surface in runoff water, enters water systems, and sinks
into the soil.

Effects of acid rain

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are not primary greenhouse gases that contribute
to global warming, one of the main effects of climate change; in fact, sulfur dioxide
has a cooling effect on the atmosphere. But nitrogen oxides contribute to the
formation of ground-level ozone, a major pollutant that can be harmful to people.
Both gases cause environmental and health concerns because they can spread easily
via air pollution and acid rain.

Acid rain makes such waters more acidic, which results in more aluminum absorption
from soil, which is carried into lakes and streams. That combination makes waters
toxic to crayfish, clams, fish, and other aquatic animals.
Some species can tolerate acidic waters better than others. However, in an
interconnected ecosystem, what affects some species eventually affects many more
throughout the food chain, including non-aquatic species such as birds.

The effects of acid rain, combined with other environmental stressors, leave trees
and plants less healthy, more vulnerable to cold temperatures, insects, and disease.
The pollutants may also inhibit trees' ability to reproduce. Some soils are better able
to neutralize acids than others.

Air Masses

An air mass is a large mass of air that has similar characteristics

of temperature and humidity within it. An air mass acquires these characteristics
above an area of land or water known as its source region. When the air mass sits
over a region for several days, or longer, it picks up the distinct temperature and
humidity characteristics of that region.

Air Mass Formation

Where an air mass receives it’s characteristics of temperature and humidity is called
the source region. Air masses are slowly pushed along by high-level winds, when an
air mass moves over a new region, it shares its temperature and humidity with that
region. So the temperature and humidity of a particular location depends partly on
the characteristics of the air mass that sits over it. Storms arise if the air mass and
the region it moves over have different characteristics. For example, when a colder
air mass moves over warmer ground, the bottom layer of air is heated. That air rises,
forming clouds, rain, and sometimes thunderstorms. Air masses are classified based
on their temperature and humidity characteristics. Below are examples of how air
masses are classified over North America.

 Maritime tropical (mT): moist, warm air mass

 Continental tropical (cT): dry, warm air mass

 Maritime polar (mP): moist, cold air mass

 Continental polar (cP): dry, cold air mass

Growing Energy

Global needs are growing, with the fossil fuels remaining the dominant source.
Approximately 80% of the world’s energy is produced by fossil fuels.  Growing
populations and increasing standards of living for many people in developing
countries will place even more demand on energy resources. Energy consumption is
highest at the moment in developed countries and countries with high populations.

Advances in technology increase the availability of products which require energy. As

wealth is generated, populations desire more consumer goods. Consumer goods
consume energy in their manufacture as well as their usage.

well-developed manufacturing and service sectors, good provision of transport and

movements of goods and people for work and leisure have high energy demands.

Indian Scenario:

Coal, oil, gas and water constitute the main sources of energy in our country. The
share of various energy sources in the commercial consumption of energy is mostly
from coal (56%) and petroleum (32%), the other sources being nuclear natural gas
and water. Among the most energy intensive industries which together account for
nearly 80% of the total industrial energy consumption are the fertilizer, aluminum,
textiles, cement, iron and steel, pulp and paper and chloro-alkali.

Transport sector is the largest consumer of petroleum products — mainly in the form
of high speed diesel and gasoline and accounts for nearly 50% of the total
consumption.In the domestic sector, the consumption of natural fuel (mostly wood)
energy is very high. Around 78% of rural and 30% of urban households depend on
fire wood.
Alternative Resources of Energy

Wind power

 It is the use of wind to provide the mechanical power through wind turbines to

turn electric generators and traditionally to do other work, like milling or pumping.
Wind power is a sustainable and renewable energy, and has a much smaller impact
on the environment compared to burning fossil fuels.

Advantages of wind power

1. Wind Energy Is Renewable & Sustainable

The wind is both a renewable and sustainable resource. Unlike reserves of fossil fuels
it will never run out. This makes wind turbines a viable option in helping to meet our
future energy demands.

2. It’s Good For The Environment

Wind energy is one of the most environmentally friendly energy sources known to
man. This is based on the simple fact that wind turbines don’t create pollution whilst
generating electricity.

3. It Reduces Fossil Fuel Consumption

Generating electricity from wind energy reduces the need for us to burn fossil fuels.
This not only reduces carbon emissions but also helps to conserve dwindling supplies
of the earth’s natural resources. As a result, reserves of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and
natural gas will last much longer.

Disadvantages of wind power

1.Wind is inconsistent - Wind energy has a lot in common with solar energy in terms
of consistency. Although wind energy qualifies as a renewable resource, wind speeds
fluctuate each day. This can be a big disappointment to wind turbine developers who
will commit every penny and every ounce of energy in the project only to end up
with fluctuating wind patterns.

2.Involves high upfront capital investment- A lot has been done to bring down the
cost of installing turbines; the overall costs, however, remain on the higher side. The
first step to installing a turbine is usually to do a rigorous survey to determine the
winds speed of the location.
3. Noise disturbance – The most hated disadvantage to wind turbines is the noise
they produce. The sound produced by one turbine can be perceived from far
distances. Combine many turbines, and the noise becomes unbearable.

Solar power

Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly

using photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated solar power, or a
combination. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and solar
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.

1. Renewable Energy Source

Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important thing is that solar energy
is a truly renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and is
available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of the other
sources of energy.

2. Reduces Electricity Bills

Since you will be meeting some of your energy needs with the electricity your solar
system has generated, your energy bills will drop. How much you save on your bill
will be dependent on the size of the solar system and your electricity or heat usage.

3. Diverse Applications

Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can generate electricity or heat.
Solar energy can be used to produce electricity in areas without access to the energy
grid, to distill water in regions with limited clean water supplies and to power
satellites in space.

Disadvantages of solar power

1.High initial capital cost - Depending on the company you choose to buy solar panels
from, it could cost an arm and leg. It’s even difficult to quantify the entire cost of
installation without the help of manufacturing companies. Some nations have
introduced rebates and tax credits to enable lots of people to install solar panels.

2.Problem of efficiency - A lot has been documented about the inefficiency of solar
energy. Most people do not understand what efficiency means. People look at 15%
efficiency and think that it’s not good enough.
3.Materials used to make solar panels can use pollution - There is no up-to-date
information on the possibility to recycle PV panels. Although solar panels have
remarkable lifespan of about half a century, disposing of these materials can have
severe impacts on the environment.

Biomass power

Biomass power is carbon neutral electricity generated from renewable organic waste
that would otherwise be dumped in landfills, openly burned, or left as fodder for
forest fires.When burned, the energy in biomass is released as heat. If you have a
fireplace, you already are participating in the use of biomass as the wood you burn in
it is a biomass fuel.

Advantages of biomass

1.Renewable source- Renewable energy sources are those that can be replenished
after use. As a lot of biomass fuels – such as wood and plant life. it is a fuel source
that has the potential to far outlast traditional fossil fuels.

2.Carbon neutrality- The amount of carbon that is released into the atmosphere is a
major contributor to climate change. Biomass reduces this because the fuel is a
natural part of the carbon cycle, unlike oil and other fossil fuels.

3.Les dependency on fossil fuels- The more we use biomass energy, the less we need
to depend on the fossil fuels that are major contributors to climate change and other
environmental issues.

Disadvantages of biomass power

1.Agricultural wastes will not be available if the basic crop is no longer grown.

 2.Additional work is needed in areas such as harvesting methods.

 3.Land used for energy crops maybe in demand for other purposes, such as faming,
conservation, housing, resort or agricultural use.

 4.Some Biomass conversion projects are from animal wastes and are relatively small
and therefore are limited.

 5.Research is needed to reduce the costs of production of Biomass based fuels.

Waste to power
Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is the process of generating
energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste, or
the processing of waste into a fuel source. WtE is a form of energy recovery. Most
WtE processes generate electricity and/or heat directly through combustion, or
produce a combustible fuel commodity. A waste-to-energy - or energy-from-waste -
plant converts municipal and industrial solid waste into electricity and/or heat for
industrial processing and for district heating systems.

Advantages of waste to power

1.Financially More effective: The expense of EFW depends on the technology as well

as location as well as various other aspects. The advantages arise from staying clear
of the expense of trash transportation and landfilling, while at the exact same time
producing power that has monetary value.

2.Saves Natural Resources: EFW stays clear of the consumption of natural deposits

like oil, gas, as well as coal which are or else used to create energy. For example, a
solitary EFW center saves over 200,000 barrels of oil annually.

3. Much Less Influence On Climate: EFW has a variety of ecological advantages. EFW

generates much less greenhouse gas. Methane is a greenhouse gas which is mainly
sent out from the decomposition of the waste stream in landfills.

Disadvantages of waste to power

1.High expenses- Incineration facilities accrue significant costs for site studies,
permits, construction materials, labor, and local infrastructure modification. In the
long run, they may save cities, counties or societies money by reducing the need for
landfills and by helping reduce the environmental impact of garbage disposal.

2. Continued emission of toxic or otherwise hazardous pollutants- Plants have cut

their emissions of heavy metals and toxic poisons like dioxin to a minimum, in
comparison to older incineration facilities that were lax in this area.

CASE STUDY

Roof-Top SPV Systems Catch- Up

A rooftop grid-interactive SPV power system can meet the partial load during peak
demand of a building and supply grid-quality power to the utility when power is not
required on holidays. A typical grid-interactive system comprises SPV modules, which
supply electrical power to the load through a high-quality inverter. The inverter
converts the direct current (DC) generated by SPV to grid-quality alternating current
(AC). When the SPV system produces more power than is needed in the load area,
the excess power can be sold to the utility. 

During 2001-02 five projects with an aggregate capacity of 275 kWp were
commissioned. This brings the total roof- top systems installed up to February 2002
to nine. In addi- tion two rooftop systems are under installation. Among the projects
commissioned during the year are those at the Vidyut Saudha Building in Hyderabad
and at the Bikalp Shakti Bha- van in Kolkata.

The West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agen- cy (WBREDA) has set up the
Kolkata project, which has a capacity of 25 kWp. A bi-directional import-export
energy meter keeps a record of the net energy consumption by the WBREDA and the
electricity charges are based on net energy consumption at Bikalp Shakti Bhawan.

HEATING OF EARTH

Earth was hot when it formed. A lot of Earth’s heat is leftover from when our planet
formed, four-and-a-half billion years ago. Earth is thought to have arisen from a
cloud of gas and dust in space. Solid particles, called “planetesimals” condensed out
of the cloud. They’re thought to have stuck together and created the early Earth.
Bombarding planetesimals heated Earth to a molten state.

Earth makes some of its own heat. Earth is cooling now – but very, very slowly. Earth
is close to a steady temperature state. Over the past several billion years, it might
have cooled a couple of hundred degrees. Earth keeps a nearly steady temperature,
because it makes heat in its interior.

In other words, Earth has been losing heat since it formed, billions of years ago. But
it’s producing almost as much heat as it’s losing. The process by which Earth makes
heat is called radioactive decay. It involves the disintegration of natural radioactive
elements inside Earth – like uranium, for example.

How hot is it inside Earth? No one has come close to exploring Earth’s interior
directly. So not all geophysicists agree on how hot it is at Earth’s core. But the rate of
travel of waves from earthquakes – called “seismic waves” – tells scientists a lot
about what materials make up the planet. Seismic data also reveal whether these
materials are liquid, solid or partially solid. From this evidence, Earth’s core
temperature is estimated to be around 5,000 to 7,000 degrees Celsius. That’s about
as hot as the surface of the sun, but vastly cooler than the sun’s interior.

CIRCULATION OF AIR
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air by which heat is
distributed on the surface of the Earth.The wind belts and the jet streams girdling the
planet are steered by three convection cells: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, and the
Polar cell.While the Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells are major players in global heat
transport, they do not act alone.Disparities in temperature also drive a set of
longitudinal circulation cells, and the overall atmospheric motion is known as the
zonal overturning circulation.

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

1. Solar energy

Sun is a big source of energy. The energy that we get from the Sun is called solar
energy. All the natural phenomenon like the flowing of wind, water
cycle, photosynthesis etc are possible only due to solar energy. Now a day, solar
energy is being used to cook food with the help of solar cookers, heat water, light
streets, pump water for irrigating fields etc.

2. Hydro-Energy

Water is important natural resources. All living organisms need water to live.

Humans need water for many purposes such as drinking, cleaning, cooking and for
growing crops. Water flowing into the river or water stored in a dam is sources
of hydro energy. The Simple method to use hydro energy is to convert it
into electrical energy.

3. Wind energy

Winds are constantly being created in nature. The windmill is a source of electrical
energy. These windmills are generally established only at places where most of the
days in a year experience strong winds. The energy from this wind is used for
grinding grain, pumping water and to produce electricity. In India, many windmills
have been set up in different places.

4. Biogas

Biogas is a type of fuel which is a mixture of gases such as methane, carbon dioxide,

hydrogen etc which is obtained by decomposition of animal and plant wastes like
animal dung, with the help of micro-organisms in the presence of water. It is used as
fuel in gas stove especially in rural areas.

5. Wood

Wood is an ancient and traditional source of energy. It is mainly a mixture of many

carbohydrate compounds. Wood is used to cook food. It leads to deforestation and
pollutes air also. In India, still in many villages, they use wood chullas to cook food
every day. While having ill effects on the environment, it is also harmful to human
health

6. Hydrogen

It is a good source of energy because it does not create pollution and produce

maximum energy on burning. Hydrogen has the potential to be the answer to all our
energy and fuel troubles. Technology is currently being developed to fully utilize
hydrogen efficiency.

7. Alcohol

Alcohol has many commercial and medical purposes. It can use for producing energy.
It can be obtained while making sugar from sugarcane. Thus it is a very cheap source
of energy. A mixture of petrol and alcohol is being used as a fuel in automobiles. This
mixture is called ‘Gasohol’.

8. Air

All living things need air to breathe. Therefore, air is an important natural resource.

9. Water

All living things water in order to survive. And the water cycle means we will
essentially never run out of the water. But we must be careful not to pollute water
and make it unusable. Drinking and clean water are already scarce in the world.

10. Soil
It is an important resource as this is the layer where plants grow. We all need food in
order to survive. We get most of our food from crops grown in the soil.

NON RENEWABLE RESOURCES

1. Fossil fuel

Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum are non-renewable resources. They are found
deep inside the earth and are made by natural processes over many centuries. Their
quantity is limited and they take thousands of years to get renewed. Example of
fossil fuels is coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.

 Coal: It is also known as black diamond. Coal is used as a fuel, to generate

electricity, and in factories and steam engines.
 Natural gas: Natural gas is used as a fuel called Compressed Natural Gas or
CNG. Some wells dug into the earth produce only natural gas. Natural gases
are a good alternative to petrol and diesel and it is used as
Compressed Natural Gas. It burns easily and produces a lot of heat. It is a good
source of hydrogen.
 Petroleum:  Petroleum is also known as mineral oil or crude oil. This liquid
mineral is refined to make fuels such as petrol, diesel, cooking gas and
kerosene. Plastic, cosmetics, and lubricants are also products of petroleum. It
 is found deep inside the Earth or under the sea floor. It is taken out by drilling
wells deep into the Earth or under the seabed.

2. Nuclear energy

In the classification of resources, nuclear energy is classified as non-renewable. The

fuel used for nuclear energy is generally uranium, which is in a limited supply. So we
classify it as non-renewable. Production of electricity from nuclear energy does not
release carbon dioxide. Thus, use of nuclear energy is safe for the environment.