traditionally pro tromagnetic wa TTT aT Pe ET] Sel OLY Ee vies of channels have their advantages, the channel concept that has oe aa Most capability for information transmission isthe tee of elec. lectromagnetic radiation and the use of antennas Wes. The concepts of el direct-ray propagation will be heavi x : systems. However, Some of the classical methods Fi Such as surface-wave and sky-wave Propagation—will also be discussed. Objectives After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to: 1. 2, 3, 4. 5. 6. 7. 10. I. 12, . Define radar backscatter cro; State the Friis ‘one-way link equation and discuss the various parameters and their significance, Define effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP). State and apply the decibel forms of the one-way link equation, Define and calculate path loss. Determine the line-of-sight distance between transmit wg and receiving antennas. Determine the minimum obstacle clearance requited to avoid diffraction effects, State the radar or two-way link equation and discuss the Various parameters and their significance. section, . State and apply the decibel form of the two-way link equation, Explain the principle of pulse radar, and how distance is measured, For a pulse radar, determine the maximum unamd uous range and the resolution, Explain the principle of Doppler radar and how velocity is measured, 515, Scanned with CamScanner516 CHAPTER 16 16-1 Friis Link Equation + Communication Link Analysis and Desiary aul vice versa. ne Dapper shit for a lven velo, N's law index of refrain / jon nv ters OF its Propet 12, Determine th 14, State and apply 8 15, Define refraction and Ne 16, Discuss grounad-wave propagall range eatin 1. te sky-ave prog ens oF POPES sties and applicable freq and applicable frequency are now ready to ost important in establishing a re. © ecive power antenna gan and distance between nde betwee various stem Tink pa rae ess for a complete RF communication system, mig antenna, and a dec electromagnetic path witout obstacles between the two an. se ied bythe simple diagram of Figure 16-1. toes not apply 10 the varouy vonoe of indret propagation (suchas sky-wave bounce and topespreric Sten), Such Fee propagation techniques ave depended on empirical data v9 determing Proper oper- sting condition, and such reslls are not alvays reliable, Consideration Of some ofthe varies types of indirect wave propagation will be made Tater in the chapter: “The wend of the future is defintely toward the use of direct-wave propagation, be- cause of its predictability and reliably, Prior to the advent of communication satellites, direct-ray propagation was limited 10a very short range, due 10 the curvature of the earth nd the corresponding difficulty of locating antennas at sufficient heights to utilize direct rays. Following the development of satellite repeater systems, new dimensions for long- range communications became feasible. Direct-ay propagation is now practical between the earth and a satellite, and the signal can then be retransmitted to points around the globe, ‘As we will sce with realistic examples later, the amount of power required for direct-ray propagation is relatively modes, uilizing high-gain antennas and microwave frequencies. in Chapter 15, and w sis range or Tink equation was developed om val in practice. This formula is me ‘consider how it can be Us Tationship between transmitted pows el tranemiter and receiver. ls use permits 2 des Review of the Link Equation Let us now review the parameters in the link equation, utilizing basic units at this point. = wavelength in meters (m) absolute power gain of transmitting antenna (no units) absolute power gain of receiving antenna (no units) transmitter power in watts (W) cd = distance between transmitting and receiving antennas in meters (m) ‘The basic form of the equation is then given by _ BGG mpd (16-1) ‘Transmiter G é ee P _ " —— FIGURE 16-1 Iustation of dree-ray propagation as described by the Friis range equation. Scanned with CamScannerSL 16-1 + friistink Equation — 517 Ay fink equation, Later, we will see that there transmitted to a destination and are “bounced \ number of important dev ebvious, and some of which the neveiveris directly prop Wansmitter antenna, and the Fe more subtle, [nimesk ‘tional tothe prolu ited power, the gain of the tenna, Within limits, these three PaRt- 1g performance, provided thatthe proxtuct ren thinsmitter with a power output of 2 W and same reveived power in the dirs Surpar of 30 W and a gain of 4, As a second example, ing antenna is replaced by one having h ht i fone having half the gain, the original received power could be Tred by citer dublin the transmittal poner eee he ease With one Raving twice the ea ter fowes the transite amen gun, othe reeverancna af would increase te Prctorat oa aehel bs about 3 UB, Increasing either of the preceding parameters by a ‘ould result in an increase of the received signal level by 10 dB. ther the transmits Variation with Respect to Distance ‘The denominator of the link equation indicates that the received power varies inversely With the square ofthe distance d between transmitter and receiver. Thus if the distance be= tween Gansmitter and receiver is doubled, the received power is reduced by a factor of one-fourth, ‘The decitel variation as a result ofthe distance variation is interesting. If the distance benween the antennas is doubled, the received power level is reduced by about 6 dB. Ifthe distance between the antennas is increased by a factor of 10, the received power level is re- duced by 20 dB. The decibel changes in this case are twice as great as for power and an- tenna changes, due to the square-Iaw relationship for distance. Variation with Respect to Wavelength ‘The variation of received power with respect to wavelength 2 is more subtle than the other quantities, and requires interpretation to avoid misleading conclusions. From the link ‘equation, it appears that the reveived power is directly proportional to 22, and this would be tne if all other parameters remained the same. The fallacy is that if the wavelength were increased (corresponding to lowering the frequency), the antennas would need to be replaced with new ones having the same gains as the previous ones. As deduced in the pre- vious chapter, lower frequencies require larger antennas for the same gain, so any change in wavelength would mandate a complete revesign of the system, Therefore, accept the A2 as a factor in the equation, but one that cannot easily be changed without a complete sy: tem overhaul. Losses In its basic form, the Fris transmission formula i valid under a wide range of operating conditions. In general, however, oer factors must be considered ina full systemt design 0 onditions, Fees ing fom atmospheric absompion are important in certain frequency ranges. Such losses are shown as a function of frequency in Figure 16-2. At frequencies thal below 20 GH. water and oxygen loses are very low, Loses due 19 water vapor ab- Soxption are met significant in the vicnites of 28 and 180 GH. Similarly, loses due to Scanned with CamScannerS18 CHAPTER FIGURE 16-2 Effects of water vapor and ‘oxygen on atmospheric attenuation, as a function of frequency. 16 ind Design. + Communication Link Analysis a ry rok Oxygen 10) ‘Attenuation (dB/krm) ou 0s 02 lg 15 20 30405060 80100 = 200 300 Frequency (GH2) ‘oxygen absorption are most significant in the vicinities of 60 and 120 GHz. It is interest- ing, however, that there are certain regions in this general frequency range in which these losses are greatly reduced. Such frequencies are called windows, and two window loca- tions are 33 and 110 GHz. Operation above about 20 GHz is still in somewhat of a devel- ‘opment mode, but such future operation might be forced to utilize these window regions to minimize losses. Other factors that might have to be considered are antenna pointing errors, bending of waves due to atmospheric refraction, attenuation due to rainfall, and multipath fading. ‘Multipath fading results from the successive reinforcement and cancellation of the signal when two or more rays having different path lengths (along with different phase shifts) combine at the receiving antenna. EXAMPLE 16-1 ‘A-communication system has the following parameters: R=5W G,(4B) = 13 dB G,(@B) = 17 4B d=80km J =3GH2 Determine the value of the received power. Scanned with CamScanner16-2 16.2 6 519 Decibel Forms for the One-Way Link Equation SOLUTION ‘The has se Fon oF the Fi will be used in this example Wo ion 16-1 ample, We wven by Equation I gth, which is iis transmission form ‘must determine the wavel 3x 108 ae Xl Derg = Ot m (16-2) ‘The transmitting and rece toaabsolute form, The valu Ving untenna gains are given in decibels, and must be converted es are G, = 108470 pL _ I9.95 (16-3) G, = 10% = 19H — 50,49 (16-4) ‘The units for d must be the same as the units for ‘c,d = 80 x 10? m. Inserting al the preceding values nt gene enced = 80% in the ink equation, we have (0.17(19.95)(50.12) p 1.12)(5) _ 16-5) ; GayBO x Toe = 45: OW “ Even with the “nice” rounded numbers chosen, the computations are quite messy. At the cend of the next section, this example will be worked again using decibel forms throughout the process. om Decibel Forms for the One-Way Link Equation In the example at the end of the previous section, it was evident that the link equation in- volves working with a combination of very small numbers and very large numbers. While modern computational aids certainly make this chore easier than in the early days of com- ‘munications, there has evolved a widespread use of decibel forms to simplify link analysis and interpretation. Anyone who has occasion to search the literature or to review system specifications should be familiar with this approach. In this section, we will show how some of these forms provide a different approach to the analysis. The process may be initiated from the link equation, which is repeated here for convenience. VG.GP , = BGG a Gaya Ce ‘The wavelength may be readily expressed in terms of frequency as 4 = 3 x 108/f, in which case Equation 16-6 may be expressed as 569.93 x 10°G.G,P, Pat where the various constants have been lumped together. Next, a common power reference will be assumed for both transmitted and received power, and the logarithm to the base 10 of both sides will be taken. Both sides can then be multiplied by 10 to give the results in decibel form. This process leads to P,(dBx) = P,(dBx) + G,(dB) + G,(4B) + 147.56 — 20 log f — 20logd (16-8) where dBx represents decibels with respect to any standard reference (¢.g., ABW, dBI, ete). However, it is essential that both P, and P, have the same reference. Note that "20" appears in front of the logarithms of frequency and distance, a result of the squares for those variables in Equation 16-7. Inthe form of Equation 16-8, frequency is measured in hertz. and distance is measured in meters, It is more convenient to work with frequency in either MHz or GHz and to work with distance in kilometers, ‘The equa- tions may be converted to those forms, resulting in certain additional constants. One form, n, is P,(ABx) = (6-7) after some manipuk p(dBx) + GB) + G(dB) — 32. = 20 log f(ME2) ~ 20 og d(km) (16-9) is expressed in km, Note that in this form, frequency is expressed in MHz and distanc Scanned with CamScanner520. CHAPTER 16 in «communication tink Analysis ane besa ated Power tqution 16-1, a term called the effective Effective Isotropic Radi to the ai fm rap) islefined as pine = Gilt 16-10) tirection of rad I be the ma produce t Returning momenta isormpie radiated power (CI ation resulting from the antenna ‘cimum gain. In decibe! form, the his effect, and we can express this will he germs that P i the effective power it th sain in that direction. In many ©2865) first two terms of Equation 16-9 are tl the decibel form of the EIRP as EIRP(ABX) = Pi The EI (aBx) + G(dB) (6-11) ection of radiation resulting from the ne ta eo Fats ofthe link equation and is often specified as a design he effective decibel power evel inthe This i action of the antenna. Fo! uct on the right-hand side of term since itis used in some parameter. Path Loss ‘The last three terms on the right-hand them, This means that they can be inte wwe will denote the one-way path loss 2s a1 (4B) side of Equation 16-9 have negative signs in front of preted as oss terms. Leaving off the negative signs, ), which can be defined as ay (4B) = 201og f (MHz) + 200g dk) 432.44 (16-12) where frequency is expressed in MHz and distance is expressed in km. ‘An alternate form of the path loss is 92.44 (16-13) ‘7\(4B) = 20log f (GHz) + 20logd(km) + were frequency is expressed in GH¥z and distance is expressed in km One-Way Link Equation Using Path Loss Definition preceding definitions is then ‘The form of the one-way link equation using the various P,(dBx) = P,(4Bx) + G(4B) + G,(4B) — a (4B) (16-14) or P:(dBx) = EIRP(ABx) + G,(4B) — «1 (4B) 16:15) where EIRP(ABx) was defined in Equation 16-12. While some of the preceding steps may seem like going around in circles, these final forms put everything in nice litle decibel-form “packages” that simplify the process of communication system analysis and design, especially when investigating the various trade-offs. IM EXAMPLE 16-2 Rework Example 16-1 using the decibel approach developed in this section. SOLUTION First, the transmitted power of 5 W must be converted to a decibel reference form. We will choose to use units of dBW as the basis since the power is expressed directly in watts. Hence, , PW) PUBW) = 10 log Ty = I0logS = 6.99 dBW (16-16) Scanned with CamScanner102+ Decibel Foun for th On stiny Line Bunton “IN Nest the pth bm ee qin Hosta ne ea ecaty Ste Freer pve i Ca, te fee Wow [CON 4 Ht rldeany 69244 20H 6 20H 4-07.44 SONS II 4 UDA = 140.04 ats ON) Since the transmittes Uhat form, nd PONCE H expensed in AIS, the fink equation wil bos expend I? PADW) = HAW) 4 Cyc) 4 GCA) — eC) O99 4 INIT = LALO 03.05 UW ai) Conversion of this value back to watt is accomplished a fle Py) ws LOFT HOE 5 49.5 pW O61 grees with the result of Example 16-1, ‘Was this problem any easier to work in decibel form than the basic analysis of Fexann- ple 16-171 probably was not, inthis cave, In fact, it mnay have been even mone unwieldy Wo ‘work it out this way. ‘The true beauty of this approach is best seen when an overall systern containing, many Parts must be designed or analyzed, In such caves, the various trade-off can be mare easily isualized and their effects weighted and compared. Since rmany system conngameent specifi cations are given directly in decibel form, they can he easily adagted wo this form in work ing with a complete system, Additional losses not considered here (st antenna pointing, error, rain attenuation, ete.) may be more easily entered into the analysis when the decibel form is used. In fuct, many system designers utilize a wa-called link budget, in which all of these terms in decibel form may be considered almost in the sarne way as a financial budget, Irrespective of any discussions concerning advantages or disadvantages of working with decibel forms, the fact is that the entire communications industry utilizes this ap- proach, so one must learn to work with such forms in order to deal with system specifica tions, design, and analysis, wh 1 EXAMPLE 16-3 ‘The distance from the earth to the moon is approximately 240,000 miles. Determine the path loss at (a) 100 MHz, (b) 1 GHz, and (c) 10 GHz, (Note: 1 mile = 1.609 km.) SOLUTION First, the distance in miles must be converted to kilometers to use the for- mulas developed. d(km) = 240,000 miles 1.609 km/mile = 386.2 ~ 10? kin (16-20) (a) At 100 MHz, the form of Equation 16-12 will be used. (dB) = 201og f(MHz) + 20logd(ken) + 32.44 20log 100 + 20 log 386.2 % 10" + 32.44 40-4 17 + 32.44 184.1 dB (16-24) (b) At GHz, the form of Equation 16-13 is slightly easier to use, (dB) = 20log f(GH2) + 20logd(km) + 92.44 = 2log | + 20log 386.2 x 10° + 92.44 0+ LT 492.44 = 204.1 dB (16-22) Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 16 HE EEXAMIE 16-4 ink Analysis and Desa” + Communkation ti een of Hagation 16-1 wll used again. il ) 9248 aqany = los (GU a Sotog 10+ DOSS ee LT +O (16-23) ) ALOGHE ry 4 200g (ha 2 x 10" 4924 © pe path toss increases by 2048 for each in- sethin timits, it is easier to build antennas ‘can offset the increasing path losses deduced that Fof 10, However frequency increases, WHICH Brom these results itcan be ea erence ithe Fregueey PY raving a higher gain as the ‘va frequency of 1 GH determine the pamh Tox‘ at the following distances: (3) 1 km, (bY 10m, ann (6) LOO RM. + given in GH, the form of Equation 16-13 i easier SOLUTION Since the frequens wus. {a) Ataddistance of 1 km, the path less #8 “Wlog f(GH2) + 2Ologed (ks) + 924 (16-24) ()) Ata distance of 10 kr, the path loss is 1(4B) = 20log f (GHz) + 20logd{km) + 92.44 2Olog 1 + log 10 +9244 2049244 = 112443 (16-25) © Finally, at a distance of 100 km. the path loss is. (dB) = 20 log f (GHz) + 2Olog d(km) + 92.44 + Wlog 100+ 92.44 (16-26) ‘These results indicate that for each increase in distance by a factor of 10, the path Tess increases by 20 dB. EXAMPLE 16-5, ‘An analog system requires an antenna signal power of SO pW to meet the required detected signal-to-noise ratio. Other system parameters are given as follows: G,(dB) = 3 4B G,(4B) = 44B f = 500 MHz d=S0km en ing direct-ray propagation, determine the minimum value of the transmitted power SOLUTION Once again, we will choose to work in the units of ABW. The value SO pW corresponds 0 2 level in dBW of , ™ POW) P(EBW) = 1Olog = 1Olog 50 x 10-? = —103.01 dBW. (16-27) Scanned with CamScanner162 Decibel Forms for the One-Way Link Equation 523 ‘The path toss is deter wed from Faquaion 16-12 as ena 20 lop FM) + 20 og d¢hin) +3244 = 2010 5004. 2010 80 4.32.44 3.9K + 3K.06 4 32.44 24.48 dB ae Tink equation is Nation is then rearranged to determine the transmitter power as ranw, ‘The PCABW) +7 (AB) ~ Gy(dB) — G (AB) 103.014 124.4834 / 447 0BW aa The power level in watts i then OMAHVIIO _. yytAarrD = glen = 280W (16-30) LE 16-6 i EXAMPI ion system, the average signal carrier power at the receiver terminals for the specified probability of errors required to be 200 f W. For the link portion of the system, assume the following parameters: GB) G(aB) = f=4GHe d = 40,000 km Assuming direct ¥ propa SOLUTION To illustrate a slightly different approach in this problem, the received power will be determined in units of dBf, We have POW) TW ince the frequency is given in GHz, it is simpler to employ the path loss form of Equa- tion 16-13, and the value is (dB) = 20log f (GHz) + 20ogd(km) + 92.44 10log 4 + 200g 40,000 + 92.44 = 12.04 492.04 + 92.44 96.52. dB (16-32) ‘The required transmitted power is P(ABN) = Px(ABN + a1 (4B) ~ G(dB) ~ G,(4B) 23.01 + 196.52 - 30-20 on, determine the required transmitter power. PBN) = 10log = 101og200 = 23.01 dBf (1631) 169.53 dBF = 19.53 6BW coo Notice in the last step thatthe power level in dBF was converted to dBW by subtracting 1504B. ‘The power level in watts is then aw) = 10240 = 1979 9.74 W neon In Example 16-5, we worked with dBW, while in Example 16-6, we worked with 4Bf until patter as long as consistency is maintained in the process, and in rt the last step. It doese be interpreted inthe correct units. the final analysis, the results must Scanned with CamScannerSO S24 CHAPTER 16 © Communication Link Analysis and Design 16-3 Line-of-Sight Propagation which digstawave propagation is Feasible, there are mumeroyy tions whose transmission can be achieved without the benef | fave repeater stations, cell-phone t ral, military ap ion i limited by two major factors, curvature ofthe earth's surface, and natural obstacles such as buildings and moun. ains. The fist effect can be circumvented partially by locating tran and receiving Antennas as high above the earth as possible, The second effect can only be alleviated if the path between transmitter and receiver can be located above potential blocking objecis, | Inthe frequency relatively short of satell sion, public service an wt ns, and many others. Ing two-way 5 eneral this type of transi Line-of-Sight Distance along Smooth Earth Because the natural properties of a perfect sphere can be described possible to precisely predict the possible distance between a transmitting ant ceiving antenna in terms of their heights above the earth's surface, However, the cated by the fact that the mathematical equations derived by the perfect sphere ‘model actually underestimate the distance somewhat, Apparently. early experimenters di covered that some bending of the radio waves occurs, and that the earth acts as if it ha radius about $ of its actual radius (in terms of the Hine-of-sight prediction). In fact, this phenomenon inas been so well rescarched that special graph paper based on an assumption Of # of the carth’s actual radius is available to assist designers of microwave terrestrial systems. Refer to Figure 16-3 for the discussion that follows. Based on the assum sonably smooth earth, and considering the } factor, the distance d(km) in which direct line-of-sight transmission is feasible can be approximated as J VTieton) + J TInt) (16-35) ion of a rea lometers over d(km) where ‘hy(m) = transmitter antenna height in meters ‘hg(m) = receiver antenna height in meters Note that there are mixed units in the equation; that is, the antenna heights are in meters and the distance is in kilometers, Various constants in the development have taken care of the mixed units. ‘An alternate version, in which the distance is measured in miles and the antenna heights are measured in feet, is the following: (wiles) = 2h (feet) + J Zia (feed) (16-36) where ‘+hy(feet) = transmitter antenna height in feet ‘Ag(feet) = receiver antenna height in feet Both ofthese equations should be interpreted as reasonable approximations at best. In fact, the constants have been rounded somewhat, so if you calculate the distance from cither formula and convert the units to the other, slightly different results are obtained. Again, ee aH i } FIGURE 16-3 jrect-ray propagation between two antennas on the earth's surface. _ Scanned with CamScanner6a. 3 Linco sight Propagation 525 164 160 iat signal wee wy 8 Radio Toner Radio Tower these ate based ona pas ron toby qooth cari, and would not be very good approximations Were located on the tops on A Lin the later case, they could be useful ifthe antennas °Ps of Some of he tallest buildings). Diffraction A telatively complex subject tempting to get into the ma the scattering of elecitomagne hhas been determined thatthe ef path clears any object by a dist Fresnel zones are a result of a “in the study of wave theory is that of diffraction. Without at- tical form of the subject, itis a phenomenon that results in ‘nergy when a portion ofa wave encounters an object. It Heels of diffraction are minimized if the electromagnetic mice equal {0 60% ofthe distance tothe frst Fresnel zone. theory known as the Huygens-Fresnel principle, which ‘The direct and refracted waves combine, bu they either reinforce each other or partially cancel each other. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 16-4. Clearance Required ‘The distance in meters r(m) to about 60% of the fist Fresnel zone (i... the distance above 7 which the direct ray between transmitter and receiver should pass) is approximated by the following formula: dy (km)d3 (km) r(m) = (16-37), (om) = 108 Fy ack + de] ddy(km) = distance between object and transmitter in km dds(km) = distance between object and receiver in km J (GHz) = frequeney in GHz where patching antenna located ata height of $0-m. The trucks have pmete7 Aili compan et sim Bved on reasonably smth era, determine the ap- antennas located at heights of proximate range for transmission. SOLUTION The applicable formula is Equation 16:35. We have (kn) = VTThx(om) + Y1Tha(em) = 17x 50+ VITRS = 29.15 +9.22 = 3837 km (16-38) Scanned with CamScanner526 CHAPTER 16 + communication Link Analysis and Desion 16-4 Radar Link Equation sion and ranging. In this section, a deve cream rma is conto (eee aan The ter Fa cada ink ras nl be resented. This fom ment and discussion © : tra ahat power is transnited slong. a direct pat jg the Tink eat timate power level of rests umount that is returned slong the same path in the opposite direction Model for Analysis 1 Figure 16-5. The radu receiver for developing the radar equation is shown Jo for develoning the rate Sion as the eadar transiitter and may share some of The mod picts i ate at sel te ne Pe anmied othe igh ad a Prion ofthe en thesame cri Ie tage bBo id to the left toward the radar receiver. Th sre tot encounters the target i backscatered the left own Ws Plat tne, The ae ay be tempied 1 use the term “flection” desribe ths proces a the term i aaareranly used in casual conversation. Still speaking, however 9 reflected wave has pac meaning in terms of a coherent relationship with the incident wave, The term etcanered wave represents energy that is a combination of both coherent and nonco- herent components, which is the case with most radar signals. Consequently, the term dackecamer wil be used as the basis for discussing the radar return phenomena, The term ‘echo will also be used. ; “The signa returning tothe source location is processed by the radar receiver. Some means must be provided to avoid overloading the low-level receiver by leakage energy from the transmitter. In the simplest classical radar system, the transmitter is tuned off daring the “listen” interval, but other means of isolation are available. In this development, ‘we will assume that the same antenna, by means of appropriate switching or isolation, is used for both transmiting and receiving. Power Density at Target ‘The first part of the development parallels that of the one-way link equation, From the work of Chapter 15, the power density py of the transmitted signal in the vicinity of the target can be expressed as oh 6-39) Pa Foe (16-39) where G is the common antenna gain. (No subscript is required, since there is only one antenna.) ‘Transmiter re 6 _ Fs c a 4 A Receiver FIGURE 16-5 ‘Model used in developing the radar link equation. Scanned with CamScanner16-4 + Radar Link Equation 527 Backscatter Cross Sectioy We now introduce . es the radar ackcater enn seton which fined cr hacks source (W) "Ml power density (Win) 40 Observe 1 ee Ye that o has the units of m2 Mo fsthen determined ag 1% iis an “re” parameter The backscattered power Ton (16-41) oGR, % 16-42) 4nd? ~ Gmpat ‘ ‘The (otal power P, captured by the antenna is, / P= piAc= ooRite (16-43) ‘We may then express A, as AzxG (16-44) a Substitution of Equation 16-44 in Equation 16-43 yielos oxGrR, am cage (16-45) ‘This result isthe radar transmission equation, and it provides an insight into the trade-offs Possible with radar systems. Observe thatthe power is proportional to the square of the rere cait Of the common antenna, and is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the distance between the source and the target. The most nebulous quantity in the radar equation isthe radar eross section . While this quantity has the dimensions of area and is treated as such, itis actually a complex function of the surface roughness, surface composition, angle of incidence, and many ‘other factors. Much research has been conducted through the years to establish reasonable estimates of the radar cross section for many different types of surfaces, and several books devoted to this topic have been written. Anyone using the radar equation for system design Would likely need to utilize such information to assist in estimating power return levels. In military applications, stealth airplanes have utilized designs that minimize the ‘cross-section area and maximize the absorption of the wave. This minimizes the probabil- ity of detection by enemy radar systems. Decibel Form of Radar Equation In the same spirit as for the one-way link equation, decibel forms for the two-way radar ‘equation can be readily developed. Without going through all the details in this case, the two-way path loss in decibels will be denoted a>(dB), and may be expressed as (dB) = 20log f (GHz) + 40 log d(km) + 163.43 — 10loga(m?) (16-46) ‘The two-way link equation is then P,(ABx) = P(ABx) + 2G,(dB) ~ a3(dB) (16-47) Note in Equation 16-46 that 40 (rather than 20, as in the one-way link equation) is the mul- tiplier in the decibel distance term in the two-way radar equation, since it is based on an inverse fourth-power variation, Note also that the common antenna gain in decibels is mul. tiplied by 2 in the radar case, since it is used in both directions, Scanned with CamScannerS28 CHAPTER 16 EXAMPLE 16.8 + Communication Link Analysis and Design er — following parameters: “Aeadar syutern observing a target i characterized by the Following MP transmitted power = 10 KW 25aB frequency = 3 GHz distance to target antenna gain sokm. radar eross section = 20 ‘Determine the received power. SOLUTION First: the two-way path loss will be computed using Equation 16-46. ax(€B) = 2010g f(GHe) + 40log d(km) + 163.43 — loge (m') 2Olog3 + 4010g50 + 163.43 ~ 10 lox 20 9.54 + 67.96 + 163.43 ~ 13.01 rh (16-48) “The tansmited power wll be expressed in dBW. (ABW) = 1010g 2D = 10I0g 0" = 40 dBW (16-49) “The received power is then determined as P(aBW) = P\(dBW) + 2G,(AB) — a2(6B) = 40 +2(25) — 227.92 -137.92 dBW (16-50) ‘The absolute power is then potesBvort0 _ yg-792/10 = 16.1 x 10-8 W = 16.1 651) u 16-5 Pulse Radar ‘The oldest and most basic form of radar is called pulse radar, which is used primarily for the measurement of distance. The power is transmitted in short bursts, and the time delay is measured for the retum energy to be detected back at the source location. From a mea- surement of the time delay Ts, the distance d to the object may be computed as 15 x 107% (06-52) The factor of 2 in the denominator of the equation results from the fact that the actual round-trip distance of the signal is 2d, and this net distance must be divided by 2 to yield the actual distance to the object. In radar terminology, the object is often referred to as the “target”, but the designation does not necessarily imply any military significance. ‘There are several important parameters that are significant in determining the perfor- mance of pulse radar. Consider the periodic waveform shown in Figure 16-6. This base- band waveform may be considered the modulating waveform for a high-frequency carrier, usually in the microwave region. Since it would be impossible to show more than a few ¢ cles in the figure, we will skip the RF form altogether and deal only with this gating signal. Just remember that a high frequency RF transmitter is tumed on during the time the pulse is on, and is off for the remainder of the period. Let r represent the width of the RF pulse, and let T represent the period. Thus, the RF {transmitter is turned on for a relatively short time r and is tumed off for an interval T — t- Scanned with CamScanner165 + Pulse Radar 529 Baseband Puke Train FIGURE 16-6 Peviodic baseband gating function for pulse rade During this latter time interval, the receive used to directly determine the distance nec tem, the various waveforms will be u ‘output reading directly in distance unit {ation at a rate that would permit the of “Tistens” for an echo, in which the time can be according to Equation 16-52. In any modern sys~ sed with calibrated instrumentation to produce an 's. Moreover, the antenna may be changing its orien- bservation of a wide field of view. Pulse Repetition Frequency Let fp represent the frequency of the baseband pulse train. It is given by het (16-53) Like most specialty areas, radar has its own terminology. This frequency is often referred ‘os the pulse repetition frequency (prt) or the pulse repetition rate (pr. Maximum Unambiguous Range Any echo observed at the receiver may have originated from the pulse transmitted at the beginning of the particular cycle or it may have originated from a pulse transmitted during a previous cycle. The maximum unambiguous range drux is the greatest distance away from the radar that can be measured within one cycle. This value is Te ae 16-54 dae =F = 35 (16-54) ‘The design and expected performance of the radar must work around this potential ambi- guity. Note that the maximum unambiguous range increases with the period of the base- band gating waveform. Resolution ‘Another parameter is the smallest target that can be measured based on the pulse width, If the pulse is too wide, it wil fil to distinguish two targets that are very close together, and will give a distorted view of the size ofthe target. This value can also represent the closest distance to a target that can be measured, and will be denoted as din. This value is ct din = (16-55) ‘This value is directly proportional to the width t of the gating pulse. Trade-Offs As with most engin f ambiguous range calls for an inc for a shorter pulse width. However, ering systems, there are trade-offs that must be considered. A greater un- easing value of the period. Likewise, finer resolution calls ‘decreasing the pulse width means that the transmission See Scanned with CamScanner5300 CHAPTER 16 EXAMPLE 16-9, I EXAMPLE 16-10 16-6 ation Link Analysis and Design ignal-to-noise ratio, Moreover, in, we the average transmitteg ompromises are sular application, cr be increased, which would dee d Peto crete pulse with wil det power, which wil degrade the inal processing. Therefore, pom the constrains that are most signi not part of the desired target being measured. There imizing clutter while maximizing the de. ny superfluous return that ed techniques for removing oF mi 1g at 10. GHz, measures an echo 400 js after the pulse is trans. mitted, Determine the distance to the target. SOLUTION The basic relationship of Equation 16-52 is applicable. We have a ys sQhry= 15x10" xM00x 10% =60km (1659 2 d A pulse radar system operates at a frequency of 10 GHz. with a pulse repetition frequency of 2 kHz and a pulse width of 6 ys. Determine (a) the maximum unambiguous range, and (b) the resolution or minimum range. SOLUTION (a) The maximum unambiguous range is determined from Equation 16-54, Te 3x 10% Peon Ly 5! T= OR ~Ixdx we = 74M (16-57) (b) The resolution is determined from Equation 16-55. x 10% x 6 x 10-6 ee (16-58) 2 Doppler Radar Another important type of radar is Doppler radar. While pulse radar is primarily used to ‘measure distance to a target, Doppler radar can be used to measure the speed of a moving object, a capability that may have provided unpleasant experiences for readers who have been caught speeding. The concept will be developed in some detail in this section. Consider the airplane in Figure 16-7, which is moving at a velocity v in the direction foward the receiver on the right. (We will assume, of course, that the plane is far enough away that it poses no danger of collision with the receiver!) Assume thatthe plane is tans- imiting @ sinusoidal signal of cyclic frequency f. and radian frequency we = 2m fe. If the plane were not moving, the voltage signal received by the observer would have the form Asin2n fer (16-59) v(t) = Asinact FIGURE 16-7 Illustration of one-way doppler shift Scanned with CamScannerFOURE 16-8 uration of two-way doppl -way doppler Aiftalong direct path to radar 166 + Doppler radar 531 (Don't contise thes age.) The plane isneunm hase oF the ta hv) representing volt receiver and this a a preate rate than iit were 2, the phase shift de to the plane move- This may actually be ‘ment alone will have expressed as where. isthe dista ) oo NEE tveed fom some abitary beginning reference point Instantaneous Frequency Let us. momentarily return to the concey Chapter 7 on EM. The in O,(¢) of the cosine function i Pt Of instantaneous frequency, as considered in wancous radian frequency on(t) associated with the argument n Equation 16.60 can be expressed as 40,0) a = dx/dt is the velocity of the a= anf hy (16-61) x where : sip The instantaneous eyelicfequency ig Si = 20. htt htfo ce 2 where fo isthe Doppler shift. tn effect, the frequency appears atthe receiver to be higher than the transmitted frequency by the value fp OF course ifthe plane were moving away from the observer, the Doppler shift would be considered negative and the net effect would be to decrease the received frequency, In the form of Equation 16-62, the Doppler shift is fp = v/A. A more convenient form. can be obtained by setting A = ¢/f, and substituting that value in the expression for the Doppler shift. The result forthe one-way Doppler shift then becomes (16-63) This form clearly shows that the Doppler shifts directly proportional tothe velocity of the moving object and the frequency being transmitted. Note, however, that this is a one-way Doppler shift since the signal being transmitted is received ata stationary point and is not returned (o the transmitter Two-Way Doppler Shift ‘Now consider the situation depicted in Figure 16-8. This situation differs from the previous ‘one in that the signal is transmitted from the Doppler radar on the right and is backscattered from the plane on the left back to the Doppler radar receiver. The frequency is measured at (16-64) Doppler Radar Scanned with CamScanner532 CHAPTER 16 © Communication Link Anah Mh EXAMPLE 16-11 IN EXAMPLE 16-12 isis and Design Doppler Rade FIGURE 16-9 IMiostraion of two-way doppler sift at am ane isi onary Dopplr transmitter-receiver on the "isi om tmnt ee yb aeons and the target were moving, the appropriate lOc Equation 16.68 wots ae a ee pet between them. If tey are moving Coward coc UTS" Doppler iit ponies whereas, i they are moving away fom each ole, US DOPPICE shift is hat would be measured at a statio negative. Two-Way Doppler Shift at an Angle i stuation shown in Figure 16-9. The target is moving at velocity v, but consider the situation oy? ect oa straight line between the plane and the radar. ith respect 10 2 mm is now vcos@. The Doppler shiftis Next in the direction of the radar is Tmoving at an angle @ ‘The component of veloct then given by fo = 7 fec0s® 16-65) If @ =0°, Equation 16-65 reduces to Equation 16-64 and the Doppler shift is maximum Conversely, if @ = 90°, there is no Doppler shift. 'A Doppler radar operating at 15 GHz is viewing a target moving directly toward it at a speed of 25 nvs. Determine the Doppler shift. SOLUTION 5 kHz (16-66) 2, 2x25 = = 2500 Hz = fo Seip «510 Hz “The frequency shift is typically determined by multiplying in a mixer the return signal with 4 signal proportional to the signal being transmitted. One of the output components of the mixer is directly proportional to the difference frequency and, after filtering, can be cali- brated directly in terms of the velocity of the target. c ‘A Doppler radar operating at 10 GHz is being used to measure the speed of an automobile ‘moving directly toward it. The frequency shift is 2 kHz. Determine the speed of the auto- mobile in miles per hour. SOLUTION We start with Equation 16-64 and solve for velocity. We have cho = (16-67) We could take several different paths at this point. One way would be to express the speed of light in meters/second, determine the velocity in the same units, and then convert 10 Scanned with CamScanner16-7 + Reflection and Refraction 533, miles per hour. An alte 000 ei 7 AW nale approach is t0 express th we the speed of light as 186,000 miles! ch would m: = wake the result appear i # 3600 secondvtour tne reqs ea i les pee second. By an additional multi- the result wil | HS he Seley neal Ein mils perhour We wl ake the second y= 186,000 x 2 x 10° Dee 19 — = 18.6. 107 mils (16-68) Conversion to milesMhour yields 18.6 x 19> 8.6 x 10 ™ x 3600 (16-69) Watch out for a traffic ticket! 16-7 FIGURE 16-10 Retecion at the boundary of a ‘pea surface, Reflection and Refraction When an electromagnet a etic wave encounters a boundary between two media, some of the energy is reflecte 4 Sra tion aby the boundary while the remaining portion i transmitted into the see- ond medium. This situation is similar tothe transmission tine case, in which the traveling, eo a lin anive at an impedance mismatch. A portion of the wave is ismatch, and the remainin; i it ae 1g portion is transmitted past the impedance ‘The direction of propagation for the plane wave can approach the boundary at any angle. The direction of propagation forthe reflected plane wave is a function of the angle Of the incident wave and the smoothness of the surface of the boundary between the two in terms of the wavelength of the electromagnetic propagation. Perfect Conductor Reflection The reflection from a conductor with a smooth surface is illustrated in Figure 16-10. An incident electromagnetic wave in medium 1 is represented by pi. The angle between the incident wave and the normal line from the surface is called the angle of incidence and is denoted 6). The smooth conducting surface acts like a mirror, and the reflected wave is de- noted p,. The angle between the reflected wave and the normal line from the surface is called the angle of reflection and is denoted @,. For the perfect conductor with a smooth surface, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence; that is, a= (16-70) Mesum 1 | Mediu 2= an | eet » Contactor 4, Scanned with CamScanner534 CHAPTER 16 * Communication Link Analysis and Design Medien FIGURE 16-11 Refraction atthe boundary between two dielectric media. If medium 2 had been a dielectric, some of the energy in the incident wave would have been transmitted into medium 2, and the magnitude of the reflected wave would have been reduced. The angle of reflection, however. would remain the same for a smooth boundary surface. Refraction Consider now the situation depicted in Figure 16-11, containing a smooth interface be- ‘sveen two different dielectric media, Medium 1 contains an incident electromagnetic wave indicated by 7, Some ofthe energy will be reflected, and the angle of reflection will equal the angle of incidence as indicated earlier, but that component is not shown here. Instead, the emphasis in this figure will be directed toward the component that enters medium 2. which is called the refracted wave. As has been the case all along, assume that the permeability in medium 2 is the same a that of medium 1, and that both have the value ofthe free-space permeability suo. How. ¢¥er, assume that the permittivity in medium 1 is ey and the permittivity in medium 2 isc This means thatthe respective velocities of propagation in the two media are 1 Se ae7 and 1 Ts 67 Ir can be shown with geometric optics that the wave will change directions as passes through the boundary. Let @ represent the angle of refraction as illusieted in Fig- je 16-1. (Think ofthe subscript “tas representing “transmitted” wave.) If the velocity in medium 2 is less than the velocity in medium 1, the wave will bend in the direction of the normal, and that isthe situation depicted in the figure. Snell's Law Snell's Jaw Provides the relationship between the angle of incidence @, and the angle of refraction (or transmission) 6,. It can be stated as sin vw sing vy (16-73) Scanned with CamScanner168 + Ground:Wave Propagation 535 Substit ‘und lave Propage ing expressio Hons forthe velocities, Equation 16-73 can be expressed as rs sing foe 7 mee (E- ex (16-74) where the permitivity va cee 8 han , ve been expressed in terms of the dielecirie constant wes, and the comm 10N Value of ¢0 has been cancelled in the last form. Index of Refraction A term used extens extensively in optics is thei is fined a the rat of ie oye is the index of refraction ‘The index of refraction n is de~ ofthe veloc ina parted he stoi of propagaion na vacuum tothe velocity af propagation im. The values i this case are given by m= Jia (16-75) m= fea (16-76) a Jn sin@, ony “m Head of these various fos, itis easy to get mixed up in interpreting the formulas. A wort point wo remember ita he side having the highest velocity will have the largest angle measured from the normal. The equations can then be arranged in the appro~ priate form, “The bending of electromagnetic waves playsa major role in sky-wave radio propagation, ‘as will be discussed in Section 16-9. [tis also important in fiber-optic transmission systems. MM EXAMPLE 16-13 ‘An electromagnetic wave propagating in air encounters a boundary with a material having ‘a dielectric constant of 4. The angle of incidence in ai is 50°. Determine the angle of refraction, SOLUTION We will assume that the index of refraction in air is my = 1. The index of refraction in the second medium is ny = JG =V4=2 (16-78) ‘The angle of refraction is determined as follows: sing om _ it = =5 16-7 sin, m2 (16-79) This leads to sin = Find = ; x sin60° = 0.4330 (16-80) ‘The angle of refraction is then 6 = sin”! 0.4330 = 25.66" (16-81) [Note thatthe wave bends foward the normal in medium 2, a result of the higher index of refraction and lower velocity in that medium. a 16-8 Ground-Wave Propagation axon as predcied byte Frits equation is vey reliable atthe higher fe- Direc wave pos ge andsatlit communications, Howes at lower frequencies, and es- aes rsa eo, neva propagation nied du pound ees Scanned with CamScannerign 536 CHAPTER 16 + Communication Link Analysis and Desis FIGURE 16-12 ‘Space wave consisting of direct wave and reflected wave, in liscussion that follows, the direct wav oa iced son ofthe components of 9space wave duc to commen Ground Wat Direct, Wave er 7 reflected Wave eas predicted by the ve Friis formula will be con- terminology and usage, i gation that travels is commonly refemed tas the electromagnetic propagation tha av rns vanities of ea te Sa oft on without avg the lower poion ofthe eas atmosphere. The ground wave can be vided into a surface wave anda space wave, which wavels inthe lower portion o i cearth’s atmosphere near the surface. The space wave consists of two Components: te direct wave and the indirect or ground-reflected wave. The two waves are illustrated in Figure 16-12. Surface Wave ‘The surface wave is used primarily for vertical polarization propagation below 3 Mltz. The horizontally polarized signal is quickly attenuated, since the electric field vector is parallel to the earth's surface. The vertical polarized surface wave is the propaga tion mode for the standard AM broadcast band. It can provide coverage up to about 100 miles in the ‘AM band during the daytime, At 300 kHz, vertically polarized surface waves can provide coverage to about 500 miles over good conducti ty earth and to 1000 miles over ocean water. The use of the surface wave above 3 MHz is very limited due to its restricted cover- age. At 30 MHz, Space Wave The space wave undergoes a 180 the typical range is 10 miles or less. is very poor for communications below 3 MHz. The reflected wave hase shift when it is reflected from the earth's surface. For antennas located near the earth’s surface and operating at long waveleng! direct and indirect waves travel are essentially the same. Therel receiving site, they will be 180° out of phase and will cancel, Th nal is reflected better than the increased, the path difference i between the direct and indirect waves is less significant. 16-9 Sky-Wave Propagation In addition to the. beam or one havi travels through the earth's atmosphere, it encounte tenuated by the ionosphere, the radiation angl ‘mospheric gases at that level ths, the distances that the fore, when arriving at the ie vertically polarized sig- horizontally polarized signal. Also, as the frequency is in terms of wavelength is increased, and the cancellation round wave discussed in the previous section, an antenna with a broad rky wave. As the sky wave 8 a region known as the ionosphere. ng an orientation toward space will radiate a s le from the Scanned with CamScanneroar 16-9 © sky.Wave Propagation 537 certain frequene , back toward the ante: Pically 3 the earth's sus 1030 MH, the signal willbe ref |—that is, bent fae and recived ty that is, bent fregu 4 receiving site on the earth, Ifthe fre ionos nosphee If the fequeny ne? YPEly 3 Miz tw be wuly sted by the through the ionosphere a frequency, typically 30 MHz, it will pass communication satel cies sufficiently high Satellite systems oper Rete is between the earth's surface and the orbits of Satelite communication systems must use frequen- rauulfected by the passage though the ionosphere. ‘wave region at frequencies typically above 3 GHz. enough to be ate in the mi Skip Effect Waves transmitted at ted at the earth, However, ther gn state ill not be bent by a sufficient amount to return fo range can be bent by asuthee ial ansle a which waves in the appropriate frequency tance along the earths sett amount 0 retur to the cath, The skip distance i the dis face from the transmitting ste tothe point on the surface where wave returns. The range betwe ip distance tween ni i th ee the ‘ground wave and the skip distance is the quiet zane, The lonosphere and Its Layers eee J58ion where the pressures are so low that the constituents of the at- crac ans jonized: that is, « molecule loses an electron and becomes a positively reed ion. The region, therefore, consists of both free electrons and ions. With the low pressure, the density of molecules is such that it takes a longer time for recombination to occur. The major source of energy forthe ionization process comes from solar ultraviolet radiation, ahough solar X rays and meteor radiation also play a role. The major ionization Process begins right after sunrise, peaks around local noon, and decays after sunset. During the daytime, the ionization is in four distinct layers, due to the ionization re~ quirements of the different constituents ofthe atmosphere, The ionization peaks at about the midrange of each layer and tapers off both above and below the altitude of each layer's maximum ionization. The lowest ionized layer isthe D layer, which lies between 60 and ‘92 km (about 37 to 57 miles) above the earth's surface. The next ionized layer is the E layer, which lies between 100 and 115 km (about 62 to 71 miles) above the surface. The next ionized layer is the F layer, which lies between 160 and more than 500 km (about 100 to over 310 miles) above the surface. During daytime hours, the F layer breaks into two distinct layers: the FI layer and the F2 layer. After the sun sets, the jonization in the D and E layers ceases due to the fairly rapid recombination of electrons and ions, and these layers disappear. The Fl layer, which is lower and weaker than the F2 layer also disappears at night, and the F2 layer drops in al- titude, The F2 layer is slow to recombine and, therefore, lasts throughout the night, reach- ing a minimum sometime after midnight. ‘The use of the ionosphere to “bounce” electromagnetic radiation back tothe earth is a technique that requires a great deal of information about a large number of factors. These factors include location on the earth of both te transmitting and receiving stations, time of day, season of the year, and degree of solar activity. Maximum Usable Frequency the frequeney afte electomaen eration isimpoant othe sue i unication link. There is a frequency that is defined as the cessful completion of eo a vale Feeney tansmiters sed raat an Secwomagoeto “Jeve straight up (at.a90° angle) the highest fequency thas reflected back fo the earth for that layer in te ionosphere isthe vertical in ace critical frequency. The ‘MUF is the vertical incidence critica frequency for a Iye. ie MUF is a variable that changes significantly as 2 function of the time of day, solar activity, propagation path ‘The proper choice of Scanned with CamScannerS38 CHAPTER 16 FIGURE 16-13 Mefile program link Lm. 16-10 Link Analysis and Desig” ving stations. For example, + Communication emitting and rece distance, ant propagation pall reve ea ng ECC MTZ 1070 Mite F between he eastern United Stat . on of the propagation: the MUFF th ee the tion ofthe propagation pth, pecause of these vara fr ely seer agencies wrlvide Yen of the frequency. Therefore, udtime of radiation re oe ily radiates att consti ring cana El Te ste the dane ween th arr that propagation path the skip distance is an receiver the tower the MUF wil nese usable frequency (LUF. If the frequency of ihe losses due to absomption in the frequency at which these losses refore, it is de- jon will allow. Lowest Usable Frequency 'A second important Frequency is thee the electromagnetic radiation js lowered from the an i" f aoe nere will incrvase as the frequency decreases, TX Sree ae eae the background noise is the LUF. The lable frequency alloca cause the signal strength to f karo Sirable to operate as close «0 the MUF as the aval nigpe of communication system is restricted 9 operate in specified frequency al- from the LUF to the MUF is so narrow that jency range Since band for successful location bands, sometimes the frequ there will be no allocated frequency communications. MATLAB® Examples (Optional) II be on the use of two programs 10 assist in link analysis ves the computation of parameters in a typical one-way emitter to receiver. The second program link2.m is based ‘The emphasis in this section wil fh from a source to a target and the return signal ‘The first program linkl.m invol ‘communication system from tran on a radar link analysis, with transmissio long the same path. A brief description of each program follows. link1.m This program is based on the one-way link analysis of Section 16-3; the MATLAB code is shown in Figure 16-13. ‘Transmitter output power Transmitting antenna gain Receiver antenna gain Frequency Distance between transmitter and receiver Input: Output: One-way path loss Received power Sa fprintt('\n') fprint£('Alternately, the received power is tg dBf.\n\n', Prdbf) Scanned with CamScanner