X=AX4BU (7.212) eee (7.213) al = x at Cre the ae A is nondiagonal and its eigenvalues are distinct with values “\1)A2---)An. Let us transform the vect ae ouput using the transform ‘ector X into a new state vector Z, eet (72214) where P is a(n x m) nonsingular matrix, Substituting Eq. (7.214) in Eq, (7.212) yields PZ = APZ + BU (7.215) Y= CPZ + DU (7.216) From Eq. (7.215) Z =P APZ +P“ BU (7.211) We desire the transformation to be such that P~! AP is a diagonal matrix. Under this condition, the matrix P is called the diagonalizing matrix. Now Eq. (7.217) may be written as Z= AZ + BU (7.218) and Y =62+ Bu (7.219) where A=P"'AP (1.220) B=P"B (1.221) €=cP (7.222)Let us consider the transfer function of a system bms™ + bm—18™ 1 +... + bis + bo (7.223) | s™ + an_1s"-1+...+4158 +49 4g T(s) The\characteristic equation of the system 7'(s) is defined as ; Stans" +..:4 ais +49 =0 (7.224) = That is, the characteristic equation is obtained by equating the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. Now consider Eq. (7.212) and Eq. (7.213). Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the equation 7.212, we have sX(s) — X(0) = AX(s) + BU(s) = (sI — A)X(s) = X(0) + BU(s) X(s) = (sI — A)~1X(0) + (sf — A)“'BU(s) Substituting this value in Eq.7.213, we have ¥(s) = C(sI — A)-1X(0) + C(sI — A)-1BU(s) + DU(s) Assuming zero initial conditions, we have . Y(s) = C(sI — A)“1BU(s) + DU(s) See er T(s) = Ts) = C(sf - A)1B+D a adj(sI — A) T(s)=C det(sT =A) +D adj(sI — A) a Teron +2 7.225 (sI=A}] a) Setting the denominator of the transfer function to Zero, we get characteristic equation as |sI — Al =0 (7.226) The roots of the characteristic equation are often referred to as the eigenvalues of the matrix A.since |sI — Al is an n"” ord q ny WE : vf a ; n write Eq. (7.226) as ler polynomial in s with roots \1, A2-- +> An> |sI — A] = 5” + Qn—13"! 4, (8 — A1)(s — Ag)... (6 = An) =0 + a8 + a9 = 0 (7.227) I SADECE agiet where A1 a2 An are known as eigenvalues of the matrix A. As A; are roots, we can write [Ai — Al =0 (7.228) 7.6.2 Eigenvectors Any nonzero vector X; that satisfies (it — A)Xi = 0 (7.229) is known as an eigenvector. From Eq. (7.229), we have X; = (Ait — A)~10 __adj(AiI — A) 0 [MI — Al Since X; 4 0, a nonzero solution exists if |\:J — A| = 0 from which, the eigenvalues are found. Once we find the eigenvalues \j, then by using Eq. (7.229) we can find the eigenvectors. 5 ee ee