The Devil in Rabbinic Literature

Gottfried Reeg

The common name for the Devil in rabbinic literature is the biblical word
“Satan,” which was translated by the LXX into διάβολος, from which the
English term “Devil” and the German “Teufel” are derived. Only in later
rabbinic writings do we encounter the figure of Sama’el, who is usually
identified with Satan.1
In a private discussion on Satan in Jewish thought Joseph Dan once coined
the phrase “the career of Satan” in order to emphasize the changes that the
figure of Satan underwent in Jewish literature, a career that started as a
marginal figure in rabbinic literature and eventually became a principle of
evil in medieval literature. It is striking that Satan is mentioned in only a few
passages in rabbinic literature from the fifth century onwards. In the textual
corpora, which are ascribed to early rabbinic literature up to the fourth century,
Satan is almost completely absent, and in cases where he is mentioned, the text
is problematic, as for instance the occurence of Satan in the Tosefta2 and in the
halakhic midrashim.3
This poor evidence in rabbinic texts is reflected in the rather poor state of
modern research on Satan in rabbinic literature, where the subject is treated
mostly in the context of New Testament, apocryphal and apocalyptic studies4
as well as in kabbalistic studies.5 The only comprehensive study was presented
by Leo Jung at the beginning of the twentieth century.6 Jung sketched a
picture of Satan by arranging the miscellaneous details scattered in rabbinic
texts without differentiating individual sources. According to Jung Satan is a
“fallen” angel, characterized by the attributes of angels: he is subordinated to
God, lacking free will7 and opposes mankind. He seduces and accuses humans.
However, he is by no means a principle of evil.8
Jung’s approach is common to nearly all research on Satan. However, some
details do not fit together. For instance, the fall of Sama’el in Pirqe deR.
’Eli‘ezer (ed. Higger), chs. 12 and 14, contradicts a tradition in Gen. Rab.
17.5 which states that Satan and Eve were created on the same day. First of
all, Sama’el and Satan are two different figures. The first is typical for Pirqe
deR. ’Eli‘ezer—a work which does not mention Satan at all. Both figures are
present in Genesis Rabbah, even if Sama’el is mentioned only in the story of
the ‘Aqeda.9 Moreover Sama’el exists in Pirqe deR. ’Eli‘ezer before Adam and
Eve were created, so he cannot be created on the same day as Eve; i.e. there
are two different traditions for the creation of Sama’el or Satan respectively.
These differences have to be taken into account when describing the figure of
Satan in rabbinic literature. Even if some features of Sama’el in Pirqe deR.
’Eli‘ezer and of Satan in Genesis Rabbah may coincide, there is a striking
difference between the two which cannot be neglected. According to Genesis
Rabbah Satan is not a “fallen angel.”
In a paper given at the Fifth Congress of Jewish Studies in Copenhagen in
1994 I tried a more detailed analysis by differentiating between two different
groups of rabbinic writings: the Palestinian sources and the Babylonian
Talmud.10 In their respective articles on Sama’el Joseph Dan11 and Günter
Stemberger12 also stress the importance of the individual sources.
The starting-point for almost all research on Satan is a baraita (b. B. Bat.
16a) in which Resh Laqish equates Satan with the accuser, the evil inclination
and the Angel of Death. However, this equation is unique and cannot be
applied to rabbinic literature in general. The role of accuser is common to
all rabbinic sources, while that of seducer is more or less restricted to the
Babylonian Talmud and the Tanh. uma.13 Finally, the role of Satan as “Angel
of Death” does not recur in other texts. In the following, these three functions
will be discussed.
Satan as Accuser
The role of Satan as accuser14 is known to the rabbis from biblical sources
such as the prologue of Job15 or the scene of the heavenly court in Zechariah 3,
where Satan struggles with Michael and Gabriel. This feature is common to all
classical rabbinic sources.16
Satan and the Day of Atonement
In a homily on Ps. 32.1 for the Day of Atonement Satan is described accusing
Israel:

A Psalm of David. Maschil. Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin

is pardoned. These words are to be considered in the light of a verse from another
Psalm: Thou hast forgiven the iniquity of Thy people, Thou hast pardoned all their
sins. Selah (Ps. 85.3). You find that Satan comes on the Day of Atonement to accuse
Israel and he specifies the iniquities of Israel, saying: Master of the universe, there
are adulterers among the nations of the earth; so, too, among Israel. There are thieves
among the nations of the earth; so, too, among Israel. But the Holy One, blessed
be He, specifies the just deeds of Israel. Then what does He do? He suspends the
beam of the scales and looks to see what the balance or imbalance is between the
iniquities and the just deeds. And as they are weighed—the iniquities against the just
deeds, these against those—the two pans of the scale balance exactly. Thereupon
Satan goes out to fetch more iniquities to put in the pan of iniquities and bring it
down. What does the Holy One, blessed be He, do? Even while Satan is going about
seeking iniquities, the Holy One, blessed be He, takes the iniquities out of the pan
and hides them under His royal purple. Then Satan comes and finds no iniquity on
the scales, as is said The iniquity of Israel shall be sought for, and there shall be none
(Jer. 50.20). When Satan sees there is no iniquity, he cries out before the Holy One,
blessed be He: Master of the universe, Thou hast carried away the iniquity of Thy
people! (Ps. 85.3). When David realized what God does, he said: How mercifully
He carries away iniquity, how mercifully He hides their sin! Thereupon David went
on to praise Israel as Happy is he whose transgression is carried away, whose sin is
hidden (Ps. 32.1).17

Here Satan acts as public prosecutor and advocator of the law, while God lists
the merits of Israel. As debts and credits are evenly balanced, Satan goes away
to bring more accusations. At this moment God takes away the transgressions
of Israel and hides them. Thus Satan does not succeed in accusing Israel. Satan
adopts here the role of the divine attribute of Justice, while God acts as the
divine attribute of Mercy.18 Thus both attributes of God are assigned in this
story to two different personae demonstrating the struggle between the two.
Another well-known Petih. a in Leviticus Rabbah refers to the Day of
Atonement as well:

There are three hundred and sixty-five days in the solar year. The numerical value
of hassat.
an (Satan) is three hundred and sixty-four.19 This alludes to the fact that
during all the days of the year Satan brings accusations, but he does not bring any
accusations on the Day of Atonement. So Israel says to the Holy One, blessed be He:
Though a host of the nations of the world,20 Should encamp against me, my heart
shall not fear, (Ps. 27.3) because Thou hast promised me, With this shall Aaron come
into the holy place (Lev. 16.3).21
At first glance this Petih. a seems to contradict our first homily, because in
Pesiqta Rabbati Satan accuses Israel, while in Leviticus Rabbah he does not
accuse on the Day of Atonement, since his power is restricted to 364 days
of the year. The reason for Satan’s powerlessness, however, originates in the
fact that God promised Israel the possibility of atonement, when Aaron enters
the Temple to sacrifice on the Day of Atonement. Therefore Satan has no
opportunity to harm Israel on that day. Yet atonement is granted by the divine
attribute of Mercy. Thus the concept of the two attributes of God is implied in
the homily of Pesiqta Rabbati as well. Both texts demonstrate how the divine
attribute of Mercy overwhelms the divine attribute of Justice. Both texts focus
on praise of the divine attribute of Mercy rather than on Satan as prosecutor.
The ‘Aqeda—Genesis 22
In various texts interpreting Genesis 22, the ‘Aqeda, Satan is introduced as the
initiator of the temptation by accusing Abraham of being ungrateful toward
God, as is presented in other earlier texts like Jub. 17.22 For example we read
in b. Sanh.:

And it came to pass after these words, that God did tempt Abraham (Gen. 22.1).
What is meant by “after”?—R. Yoh.
anan said on the authority of R. Yose b. Zimra:
After the words of Satan, as it is written, And the child grew, and was weaned: [and
Abraham made a great feast the same day that Isaac was weaned] (Gen. 21.8).
Thereupon Satan said to the Almighty: “Sovereign of the Universe! To this old man
Thou didst graciously vouchsafe the fruit of the womb at the age of a hundred, yet
of all that banquet which he prepared, he did not have one turtle-dove or pigeon to
sacrifice before thee.”
As the story continues Satan is not only the initiator of the temptation but
also tries to hinder Abraham and Isaac from fullfilling the command of God
in the course of the story. So it seems that Satan plays an important role in the
‘Aqeda.
Yet it is remarkable that other reasons explaining why God tempted Abraham
are mentioned too, for example the dispute between Isaac and Ishmael.24 In
Genesis Rabbah on the ‘Aqeda Satan is absent completely, the accusation
against Abraham is uttered by the ministering angels (heavenly court), by the
nations of the world or by Abraham himself, but not by Satan.25 In the course
of the story it is not Satan, but Sama’el trying to stop Abraham and Isaac from
fullfilling the command of God. It seems that this midrash does not want to
make any allusion to Satan in this story, i.e. there is no need for Satan in the
‘Aqeda.

Satan as Accuser in Time of Danger

Satan’s activities are not restricted to specific days or situations like the Day
of Atonement or the ‘Aqeda. In fact, there are other times when Satan is eager
to accuse human beings, above all in times of danger. Therefore they have to
be careful, because if Satan succeeds, the situation will become even more
dangerous and harm or even death will come upon them. Gen. Rab. 91.9
expounds Gen. 42.38 as follows: “If harm befall him by the way (Gen. 42.38).
And could not harm befall him at home! Said R. ’Eli‘ezer: This proves that
Satan accuses only in time of danger.”26
Danger for the traveler is the setting of t. ‘Abod. Zar. 1.17-18 (par. t. Šabb.
17 [18].2-3) as well. Man should travel in the company of righteous rather
than of wicked persons, since good angels attend the righteous, while bad
angels accompany the wicked. The expression ‫ מלאכי סטן‬, however,27 alludes
to accompanying angels harmful to human beings rather than to someone
accusing a person before God. In the statement of Genesis Rabbah Satan’s
dangerousness consists only in accusing. Harm or death can be the results of his
accusations. It may well be that the idea of Satan as accuser is the background
for t. ‘Abod. Zar. 1.17f as well.
The phrase “Satan accuses only in time of danger” is widespread in rabbinic
literature. In the gemara j. Šabb. 2.6 (5b) on m. Šabb. 2.6: “Women die at
the time of their childbirth for three transgressions: Because they have not
been careful in regard to menstruation, in regard to Hallah, and in regard to
the kindling of the lamp.” The halakha serves as proof for this thesis. In the
Mishnah there is a straight line from transgression to death. The Yerushalmi
expands the line by inserting the accusation by Satan.
Remedies against Satan
Humans do not have to face Satan without any protection. On the one hand the
divine attribute of Mercy can protect them in certain circumstances—as shown
above. On the other hand they should not offer Satan any opportunities for
accusations. First of all humans should fullfill the commandments:

Rebbi Yose ben Rebbi ’Abun said: For anyone who immediately slaughters after
leaning, no disqualification will appear regarding his sacrifice.
For anyone who immediately pronounces the benediction after washing his hands,
Satan will not find anything to accuse about at that meal.
For anyone who immediately prays after mentioning redemption, Satan will not
find anything to accuse him of the entire day

The fullfillment of the halakha concerns the negative commandments as well as

the positive ones. If a person does not transgress the commandments, Satan has no
possibility to accuse. Performing the positive commandments grants protection
against Satan. This includes the accurate performance of liturgy as well. By
connecting the fullfillment of two halakhot mentioned above with the protection
against Satan R. Yose b. R. ’Abun stresses the importance of these halakhot.
Second, humbleness protects against accusations of Satan, since a righteous
person boasting about his righteousness will provoke Satan to bring accusations
before God:29 “… since R. Shim‘on b. Laqish said, and so it was taught in
the name of R. Yose: A man should never speak in such a way as to give an
opening to Satan.”30
Prosecutors in Rabbinic Literature
Even though Satan’s main role consists of accusing humans, he is not the only
one prosecuting them before God. There are quite a lot of others: first of all, the
divine attribute of Justice,31 the counterpart to the divine attribute of Mercy;
furthermore Sama’el,32 the ministering angels,33 the nations of the world.34
Everyone can accuse humans before God;35 Satan is just one among many. The
importance of the accusation does not depend on the person bringing it before
God, but lies in the accusation itself.
Satan as Agitator and Disturber
In Genesis Rabbah Satan is described as agitator and disturber:
And they dwelt there (Gen. 11.2). R. Isaac said: Wherever you find dwelling
mentioned, Satan becomes active. R. h.
elbo said: Wherever you find contentment,
Satan brings accusations. R. Levi said: Wherever you find eating and drinking, the
arch-robber [Satan] cuts his capers [is up to mischief].36
The statement “Wherever you find dwelling mentioned, Satan becomes active”
can refer to different stories, for instance to Genesis 11—the story of the Tower
of Babel—or to Genesis 37—the story of Joseph—as both stories begin with
the words “And they dwelt.” In the biblical texts adduced here, of course,
Satan is not mentioned. However, according to the rabbinic view Satan is the
one initiating the course of action by disturbing the idyll, as it is explicitely
described in the prologue to Job. Without Satan there would be no “story.”

According to R. h.
elbo Satan brings accusations against humans in their
contentment. In the other two statements, however, the reason why Satan is
disturbing is not apparent; he may act as prosecutor or as tempter.
In Gen. Rab. 84.3 Satan begrudges Israel their life in contentment. On the
one hand he is jealous and hostile against Israel; on the other hand he is acting
like a prosecutor and defender of justice.
Satan as Tempter and Seducer
While in the Palestinian sources Satan is almost all the time described as
prosecutor, in the Babylonian Talmud and in the Tanh. uma, a homiletic midrash
reflecting Palestinian and Babylonian influence, the feature of a tempter or
seducer, known from the Bible, is very common. In 1 Chronicles 21.1 Satan
misleads David to count Israel; in Job 2.3 Satan misleads God—the rabbis
are conscious of the inherent paradox of this phrase: “Said R. Yoh. anan: Were
it not expressly stated in the Scripture, we would not dare to say it. [God is
made to appear] like a man who allows himself to be persuaded against his
judgment.]”37
The Masquerades of Satan
In the stories in the Babylonian Talmud and the Tanh. uma Satan masquerades
himself as best befits the situation: as an old man face to face with Abraham, as
a young man face to face with Isaac,38 as a poor man in the story of Pelimo39 or
as a woman to seduce man.40 He also appears as a river41 or a snake.42 One of
the stories collected at the end of tractate Qiddushin reads as follows:

R. ‘Aqibah used to scoff at transgressors. One day Satan appeared to him as a woman
on the top of a palm tree. Grasping the tree, he went climbing up: but when he
reached half-way up the tree he [Satan] let him go, saying: “Had they not proclaimed
in Heaven, ‘Take heed of R. ‘Aqibah and his learning,’ I would have valued your life
at two ma’ahs.”

No pious man should be overconfident, as everyone can be seduced by Satan.

This warning is reflected also in the dictum “An arrow in Satan’s eyes!” in
the story of Pelimo that directly follows or in the statement of R. Yose: “A
man should never speak in such a way as to give an opening to Satan.”44 In
this story Satan disguises himself as a woman. He visualizes carnal desire and
can therefore be equated with the evil inclination.45 One difference, however,
cannot be ignored: Satan is an independent figure, while the evil inclination is
part of a human being.
Like Satan the evil inclination is not “evil” in principle. On the one hand it
misleads man to do evil; on the other hand it is indispensable for the existence
of humankind and the world. Without the evil inclination Adam and Eve
would live in Gan Eden without any children.46
Satan as Tempter and Prosecutor
In some texts the function of a tempter shades into that of a prosecutor, for
example in Tanh.
uma (ed. Buber) 7 ‫ בלק‬: “This implies that Balaam destroyed
his soul by going, for when a man is on the way to commit a sin Satan dances
encouragingly before him until he completes the transgression; and after he
has destroyed him, he informs him.”47 The dancing Satan48 seduces man to
transgress and waits until he has finished his deed. Then Satan holds up a
mirror in order to reveal what man has done and that he has lost his life.

The Creation of Eve and Satan

According to Gen. Rab. 17.6 Satan is not a fallen angel, but was created on
the same day as Eve:

R. H.anina, son of R. ’Adda, said: From the beginning of the Book until here no
samech is written, but as soon as she (Eve) was created, Satan was created with her.
While should one quote, That is it which compasseth—( ‫( ) סובב‬Gen. 2.11) answer
him: the text refers there to rivers.49

This dictum is unique to Genesis Rabbah and not found in other sources. It is
part of a passage dealing with the differences between man and woman and is
considered highly misogynistic.50 It is one of the rare passages in Palestinian
sources which is not dealing with Satan as accuser. Satan represents sexual
desire, which was created together with Eve.
Satan as Adversary
In some texts in addition to the function of tempter and accuser, another aspect
can be found, namely that of an adversary. In the ‘Aqeda, by trying to restrain
Abraham from fullfilling God’s command Satan acts against Abraham. 51
Satan’s hostility can also be found in the passage b. Ned. 31b/32a in a midrash
on Exodus 4.24:

R. Yose said, God forbid that Moses should have been apathetic towards circumcision,
but he reasoned thus: ‘If I circumcise [my son] and [straightway] go forth [on my
mission to Pharaoh], I will endanger his life, as it is written, and it came to pass on
the third day, when they were sore (Gen. 34.25). If I circumcise him, and tarry three
days—but the Holy One, blessed be He, has commanded: Go, return unto Egypt’
(Exod. 4.19). Why then was Moses punished? Because he busied himself first with
the inn, as it is written, And it came to pass by the way, in the inn (Exod. 4.24). R.
Shim‘on b. Gamaliel said: Satan did not seek to slay Moses but the child, for it is
written, [Then Zipporah took a sharp stone, and cut off the foreskin of her son, and
cast it as his feet, and said,] Surely a bloody h. athan art thou to me (Exod. 4.25). Go
forth and see: who is called a h.
athan? Surely the infant [to be circumcised

The biblical text of Exodus 4.24 is cryptic and inconsistent. Who is one to be
killed? Moses or his son? Why did God want to kill Moses, after he had sent
him back to Egypt in order to free his people? In the view of the sages God
cannot act against himself, since such an action would thwart the Exodus.
They thus ascribed this action to someone else, namely Uri’el, 53 the Angel of
Mercy54 or to just an angel.55 According to the Babylonian Talmud it is Satan
who is acting against God’s will to deliver Israel.
Satan, Sama’el, and the Angel of Death
Satan and the Angel of Death
In b. B. Bat. 16a Satan is equated with the Angel of Death:

A Tanna taught: [Satan] comes down to earth and seduces, then ascends to heaven
and awakens wrath; permission is granted to him and he takes away the soul.
And Satan answered the Lord and said, Skin for skin, yea, all that a man hath will
he give for his life… . And the Lord said unto Satan, Behold he is in thine hand: only
spare his life. So Satan went forth from the presence of the Lord and smote Job etc.
(Job 2.4-7). R. Isaac said: Satan’s torment was worse than that of Job; he was like
a servant who is told by his master, “Break the cask but do not let any of the wine
spill.”
Resh Laqish said: Satan, the evil inclination, and the Angel of Death are all one.
He is called Satan, as it is written, “And Satan went forth from the presence of the
Lord” (Job 2.7). He is called the evil inclination: [we know this because] it is written
in another place, “[Every imagination of the thoughts of his heart] was only evil
continually” (Gen. 6.5), and it is written here [in connection with Satan] “Only upon
himself put not forth thine hand” (Job 2.12). The same is also the Angel of Death,
since it says, “Only spare his life” (Job 2.7), which shows that Job’s life belonged
to him.

Resh Laqish explains the baraita, which opens the section and is unknown
from any other Tannaitic source by expounding Job 2.4-7: a) Satan is Satan,
because he is called Satan; b) Satan is the evil inclination; the evidence is to
be found in the combination of Gen. 6.5 and Job 2.6 and 1.12;56 c) Satan is the
Angel of Death, because he can take Job’s soul, although he is still restrained
by God.
This text is the starting-point for the equation of Satan, the evil inclination
and the Angel of Death in medieval sources. In rabbinic texts, however, it
is the only occurence. There is no other evidence that Satan is the Angel of
Death.
Satan and Sama’el
Usually Satan is identified with Sama’el57 without questioning this equation.
Yet, only in the late midrash Exodus Rabbah58 or in medieval literature do
both names seem to be interchangeable. It is remarkable that Sama’el appears
in only a very few classical rabbinic texts such as Gen. Rab. 56.4; b. Sot. 10b;
Tanh.
uma 8 ‫ ; וישלח‬Exod. Rab. 18.5; 21.7. Pirqe deR. ’Eli‘ezer (ninth century),
Ber. Rabbati (first half of the eleventh century) and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan
(eighth century) may be added.
The figure of Sama’el is connected to the following three traditions:

Sama’el is the fallen Angel,59 a tradition known from apocryphical texts

Sama’el is the Prince of Rome.61
Sama’el is the Angel of Death in the story of the Death of Moses.62

None of these traditions is connected in any way to Satan. ’Abot deR. Natan A
addition 2 to chapter 9 (a later addition in one manuscript to ’Abot deR.
Natan),63 describes the eviction of Satan from heaven in the context of Job’s
temptation. This story, however, is different from the fall of Sama’el during
the days of creation in Pirqe deR. ’Eli‘ezer. Further details which cannot be
ignored are: Sama’el can be adressed as “wicked” ( 64 (‫ סמאל הרשע‬whereas
Satan is never denoted as such. The name “Sama’el” points to an angel, 65
while we cannot be sure about the status of Satan as an angel. Therefore Satan
and Sama’el are to be seen as independent characters.66 The only feature they
have in common is the role as prosecutor and their struggling with Michael or
Gabriel, as described in Exod. Rab. 18.5; 21.7. This may be the reason why in
the course of time they became synonymous or exchangeable. 67

Summary
In rabbinic literature Satan is only a marginal figure. He is depicted in three
different roles: the one of accuser is common to all sources, while the one of
seducer or tempter is almost exclusively restricted to the Babylonian Talmud
and the Tanh. uma. Satan as the Angel of Death occurs in only one text, namely
in b. B. Bat. 16a.
The sages did not speculate on the origin or the nature of Satan at length.
In rabbinic literature he remains an achromatic figure. He is a celestial being
that can also appear on earth. When masquerading he resembles a demon.
According to Gen. Rab. 17.6 he was created the same day as Eve. It is not clear
whether he belongs to the angels who were created before Adam.68 However,
he shares some features with them.
Satan’s function as prosecutor is connected to the divine attribute of Justice,
the counterpart of the divine attribute of Mercy; his role as seducer or tempter is
associated with the evil inclination, the counterpart of the good inclination. The
evil inclination as well as the attribute of Justice can be regarded as important
concepts in rabbinic thought. For Satan, however, no conceptualization can be
demonstrated. His functions can be taken on by others without any problems.
The figure of Sama’el is to be distinguished from that of Satan. Three
traditions connected with Sama’el are to be mentioned: Sama’el who was cast
out of heaven as a consequence of his revolt against God, Sama’el the Prince
of Rome, and Sama’el as Angel of Death. In contrast to Satan, Sama’el can be
denoted as wicked and as an angel.
The figure of Satan occurs in rabbinic sources from the late fourth or the
early fifth centuries, i.e. from the beginning of the Amoraic period. Sama’el,
however, occurs in texts from the eighth or ninth centuries, with some
exceptions. Exodus Rabbah is the first textual witness for the interchangeability
of Satan and Sama’el in the role of persecutor.
The figure of Satan in rabbinic literature is not connected to, or integrated
into, an apocalyptic concept like Belial in the Qumran texts or Satan in the
Apocalypse of John in the New Testament.
In rabbinic literature Satan is not a principle of evil, even though he, like the
evil inclination, seduces humans to do evil. As they have free will, it depends
on them whether they obey or disobey God. It is humans who do good or evil.
Satan will accuse them when they have transgressed God’s commandments.
Harm and evil which befall humans are the result of their own deeds. Satan,
like the evil inclination, is part of the creation, which is basically good. The
angels oppose God in his wish to create humankind, since they predict that
man will sin. It is not Satan, but humankind, who can preserve or destroy the
world created by God.