POETRY

Poetry is a genre of literature. The different intellectual

giants have defined it differently. Some of the definitions
are mentioned below:
Johnson:
“Poetry is the art of uniting pleasure with truth by
calling imagination to the help of reason”.
Carlyle:
“Poetry is musical thought”.
Shelly:
“Poetry is expression of imagination”.
Coleridge:
“Poetry is antithesis of science having for its
immediate object pleasure not truth”.
Wordsworth:
“Poetry is spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings
recollected in tranquility.”
Arnold:
“Poetry is the criticism of life”.
General Definition:
“Poetry is an imaginative and emotional
interpretation of life”.
A Comprehensive Definition (On My Part): Poetry is a
language of soul, which emerges from the inner vistas of
soul and appeals to the same. Emotions and thoughts are
its contents, imagination its medium and meter its dress.
Its immediate purpose is to teach and delight us. It is an
autobiography of the life, for the life and by the life.
 2. THE ESSENTIALS OF POETRY

1. Thought: It is product of mind.

2. Emotion: It is product of heart.
3. Imagination: The capacity to envisage things.
4. Meter: The selection of rhythm and rhyme for music.
5. Diction: The Choice and arrangements of words.

3. KINDS OF POETRY

The genre of poetry mainly can be divided into two

kinds viz. subjective and objective poetry. The both kinds
can also further be divided into different forms.

(I) SUBJECTIVE POETRY

1. Lyrical Poetry:
The poetry embracing the common universal
emotions, which is to be sung and danced for merriment
and enjoyment.
2. The Elegy:
A kind of poetry written at the eve of somebody’s
death or at a sorrowful occasion.
3. The Ode:
It is written to an object but not for it. In this kind of
poetry, a poet shares his feelings with an object selected
by the poet.
4. Sonnet:
It is also an expression of a poet’s feelings, but it is
always a fourteen-lined poem.

(II) OBJECTIVE POETRY

1. The Ballad: A short story of national interest in

poetry.
2. The Epic: A long-narrative story in verse to pay
homage to the national hero or encompassing a grand
theme.

3. Metrical Romance: A fictitious story in poetry. It

may harbour supernatural and metaphysical elements
to make the reader standstill, amazed and gasping.

PERIODS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

Literary Periods Dates Historical Periods

1. Pre- Chaucerian Period 500-1340AC Anglo-Saxon Period

Medievalism
(Dark Ages)
2. The Age of Chaucer 1340-1400 --------

3. Barren Period 1400-1557 --------

4. The Age of Shakespeare 1557-1624 Elizabethan Period

 (Renaissance Movement.)

5. The Age of Milton. 1625-1660 Protestantism

6. The Age of Dryden 1660-1700 Restoration

7. The Age of Pope 1700-1745 Period
8. The Age of Johnson 1745-1798 Neo-classicism

9. The Age of Wordsworth 1798-1832 The Age Romanticism

10. The Age of Tennyson 1832-1887 The Victorian Period

11. The Age of Hardy 1887-1928

12. The Present Age 1928-1955

4. THE LANGUAGE OF LITERARY CRITICISM

Figurative Language: Imagery is language that produces

pictures in the mind. The term can be used to discuss the
various stylistic devices listed below, especially figures
of speech (= ways of using language to convey or suggest
a meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words).

Metaphor: It is the imaginative use of a word or phrase

to describe something else, to show that the two have the
same qualities:
All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players:
(William Shakespeare, As You Like It)

Simile: It is the comparison between the two things which

is made explicit by the use of the words ‘as’ or ‘like’:
I wandered lonely as a cloud
(William Wordsworth, Daffodils)
Like as the waves make towards the pebbled
shore,
So do our minutes hasten to their end.
(Shakespeare, Sonnet 60)

Metonymy: It is the fact of referring to something by the

name of something else closely connected with it, used
especially as a form of shorthand for something familiar
or obvious, as in ‘I’ve been reading Shakespeare’ instead
of ‘I’ve been reading the plays of Shakespeare’.

Allegory: It is a style of writing in which each character

or event is a symbol representing a particular quality. In
John Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress” Christian escapes
from the City of Destruction, travels through the Slough
of Despond, visits Vanity Fair and finally arrives at the
Celestial City. He meets characters such as the Giant
Despair and Mr. Worldly Wiseman and is accompanied
by Faithful and Hopeful.

Personification: It is the act of representing objects or

qualities as human beings:
Love bade me welcome: yet my soul drew back,
Guilty of dust and sin.
(George Herbert, Love)
Pathetic fallacy: It is the effect produced when animals
and things are shown as having human feelings. For
example, in John Milton’s poem, Lycidas, the flowers are
shown as weeping for the dead shepherd, Lycidas.

PATTERNS OF SOUND

Alliteration: It is the use of the same letter or sound at

the beginning of words that are close together. It was used
systematically in Old English poetry but in modern
English poetry is generally only used for a particular
effect:
On the bald street breaks the blank day.
(Alfred, Lord Tennyson, In Memoriam)

Assonance: It is the effect created when two syllables in

words that are close together have the same vowel sound
but different consonants, or the same consonants but
different vowels:
It seemed that out of battle I escaped
Down some profound dull tunnel long since
scooped…
(Wilfred Owen, Strange Meeting)

Onomatopoeia: It is the effect produced when the words

used contain similar sounds to the noises they describe:
Murmuring of innumerable bees
 (Tennyson, The Princess)
Irony: It is the use of words that say the opposite of what
you really mean, often in order to make a critical
comment.
Here, under leave of Brutus, and the rest,
(For Brutus is an honourable man}
I come to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
Here the use of the word, “honourable” is ironical.

Hyperbole: It is the use of exaggeration:

An hundred years should go to praise
Thine eyes and on thy forehead gaze
(Andrew Marvell. To His Coy Mistress)

Oxymoron: It is a phrase that combines two words that

seem to be the opposite of each other:
Parting is such sweet sorrow
(Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet)
Paradox: Is a statement that contains two opposite ideas
or seems to be impossible:
The child is father of the Man.
(Wordsworth. ‘My Heart leaps up.’)
It can also be considered as Epigram.

POETRY
Lyric poetry is usually fairly short and expresses thoughts
and feelings. Examples are Wordsworth’s Daffodils and
Dylan Thomas’s Fern Hill.
Epic poetry can be much longer and deals with the
actions of great men and women or the history of nations.
Examples are Homer’s “Iliad” and Virgil’s “Aeneid.”
Narrative poetry tells a story, like Chaucer’s “Canterbury
Tales”, or Coleridge’s “Rime of the Ancient Mariner.”
Dramatic poetry takes the form of a play, and includes
the plays of Shakespeare (which also contain scenes in
prose).
A ballad is a traditional type of narrative poem with short
verses or stanzas and a simple rhyme scheme (=
pattern of rhymes).
An elegy is a type of lyric poem that expresses sadness
for someone who has died Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written
in a Country Churchyard mourns all who lived and died
quietly and never had the chance to be great.
An ode is a lyric poem that addresses a person or thing or
celebrates an event. John Keats wrote five great odes,
including “Ode to a Nightingale”, “Ode on a Grecian
Urn” and “Ode To Autumn.”
Metre is the rhythm of poetry determined by the
arrangement of stressed and unstressed, or long and short,
syllables in each line of the poem.
Prosody is the theory and study of metre.
Iambic pentameter is the most common metre in English
poetry; each line consists of five feet (pentameter), each
containing an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed
syllable (iambic):

/ / / / /
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day
(Gray’s Elegy)
Most lines of iambic pentameter, however, are not
absolutely regular in their pattern of stresses:
/ / / /
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
(Shakespeare, Sonnet 18)
A couplet is a pair of lines of poetry with the same metre,
especially ones that rhyme:
For never was a story of more woe
Than this of Juliet and her Romeo.
(Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet)
A sonnet is a poem of 14 lines, in English written in
iambic pentameter, and with a fixed pattern of rhyme,
often ending with a rhyming couplet.
Blank verse is poetry written in iambic pentameters that
do not rhyme. A lot of Shakespeare’s dramatic verse is in
blank verse, as is Milton’s epic Paradise Lost.
Free verse is poetry without a regular metre or rhyme
scheme. Much twentieth century poetry is written in free
verse, for example T.S Eliot’s The Waste Land.
SONNET COMPOSED UPON WESTMINSTER BRIDGE
Earth has not anything to show more fair:
Dull would he be of soul who could pass by
A sight so touching in its majesty:
This city now doth, like a garment wear
The beauty of the morning; silent, bare,
Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie
Open unto the fields, and to the sky;
All bright and glittering in the smokeless air

Never did sun more beautifully steep

In his first splendour valley, rock, or hill;
Ne’er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep!
The river glideth at his own sweet will;
Dear God! The very houses seem asleep;
And all that mighty heart is lying still!

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 Sonnet has always 14 lines. Each line having ten syllables with five beats. Usually, the
first eight lines (the octave) are marked off from the last six (the sestet) by a change in rhyme
and a shift in the poet’s thought.