1 Introduction to Distribution Systems ‘The major components of an electric power system are shown in Figure 1.1. Of these components, the distribution system has traditionally been char- acterized as the most unglamorous component. In the last half of the twentieth century the design and operation of the generation and trans- mission components presented many challenges to practicing engin: and researchers. Power plants became larger and larger. Transmission lines crisscrossed the land forming large interconnected networks. The opera- tion of these large interconnected networks required the development of new analysis and operational techniques. Meanwhile, the distribution systems continued to deliver power to the ultimate user’s meter with little or no analysis. As a direct result, distribution systems were typically overdesigned. Times have changed. It has become very important and necessary to oper- ate a distribution system at its maximum capacity. Some of the questions that need to be answered are What is the maximum capacity? How do we determine this capacity? What are the operating limits that must be satisfied? eRe » What can be done to operate the distribution system within the operating limits? 5. What can be done to make the distribution system operate more efficiently? All of these questions can be answered only if the distribution system can be modeled very accurately. The purpose of this text is to develop accurate models for all of the major components of a distribution system. Once the models have been developed, analysis techniques for steady-state and short-circuit conditions will be developed.2 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis O3t_[imerconectes of Buk Power eononton’© | Tarsnisson [subvansmission] —[ Distibuson -P—_ Primary ersten | Sum Substation Network Substaion [Fenders od FIGURE 1.1 ‘Major power system components, ‘Subtransmission Line Disconnect Switch Fuse weee) Pern Transformer Voltage Regulator Motors TT TT cot oeie Primary Feeders FIGURE 1.2 Simple distribution substation. 1.1 The Distribution System The distribution system typically starts with the distribution substation that is fed by one or more subtransmission lines. In some cases the distribution substation is fed directly from a high-voltage transmission line, in which case there is likely no subtransmission system. This varies from company to company. Each distribution substation will serve one or more primary feeders. With a rare exception, the feeders are radial, which means that there is only one path for power to flow from the distribution substation to the user. = _—_!_—— 1.2 Distribution Substations A diagram of a very simple one-line distribution substation is shown in Figure 1.2. Although Figure 1.2 displays the simplest distribution substation, it illustrates the major components that will be found in all substations.Introduction to Distribution Systems 1. High-side and low-side switching: in Figure 1.2 the high-voltage switching is done with a simple switch. More extensive substations may use high-voltage circuit breakers in a variety of high-voltage bus designs. The low-voltage switching in the figure is accom- plished with relay-controlled circuit breakers. In many cases reclos- ers will be used in place of the relay /circuit breaker combination. Some substation designs will include a low-voltage bus circuit breaker in addition to the circuit breakers for each feeder. As is the case with the high-voltage bus, the low-voltage bus can take on a variety of designs. 2. Voltage transformation: the primary function of a distribution sub- station is to reduce the voltage to the distribution voltage level. In Figure 1.2 only one transformer is shown. Other substation designs will call for two or more three-phase transformers. The substation transformers can be three-phase units or three single- phase units connected in a standard connection. There are many “standard” distribution voltage levels. Some of the common ones are 34.5 kV, 23.9 kV, 14.4 kV, 13.2 kV, 12.47 kV, and, in older systems, 4.16 kV. 3. Voltage regulation: as the load on the feeders varies, the voltage drop ‘between the substation and the user will vary. In order to maintain the user’s voltages within an acceptable range, the voltage at the substation needs to change as the load changes. In Figure 1.2 the voltage is regulated by a “step-type” regulator that will alter the volt- age plus or minus 10% on the low-side bus. Sometimes this function is accomplished with a “load tap changing” (LTC) transformer. The LTC changes the taps on the low-voltage windings of the trans- former as the load varies. Many substation transformers will have “fixed taps” on the high-voltage winding. These are used when the source voltage is always either above or below the nominal voltage. The fixed tap settings can alter the voltage plus or minus 5%. Many times, instead of a bus regulator, each feeder will have its own regulator. This can be in the form of a three-phase gang- operated regulator or individual phase regulators that operate independently. 4. Protection: the substation must be protected against the occurrence of short circuits. In the simple design of Figure 1.2, the only auto- matic protection against short circuits inside the substation is by way of the high-side fuses on the transformer. As substation designs become more complex, more extensive protective schemes will be employed to protect the transformer, the high- and low-voltage buses, and any other piece of equipment. Individual feeder circuit breakers or reclosers are used to provide interruption of short circuits that occur outside the substation.4 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis 5. Metering: every substation has some form of metering. This may be as simple as an analog ammeter displaying the present value of substation current, as well as the minimum and maximum currents that have occurred over a specific time period. Digital recording meters are becoming very common. These meters record the min- imum, average, and maximum values of current, voltage, power, power factor, etc. over a specified time range. Typical time ranges are 15 minutes, 30 minutes, and 1 hour. The digital meters may monitor the output of each substation transformer and/or the out- put of each feeder. ‘A more comprehensive substation layout is shown in Figure 1.3. The sub- station in Figure 1.3 has two load-tap changing transformers, serves four distribution feeders, and is fed from two subtransmission lines. Under nor- mal conditions the circuit breakers (CB) are in the following positions: Circuit breakers closed: X, Y, 1,3,4,6 Circuit breakers open: Z, 2,5 With the breakers in their normal positions, each transformer is served from a different subtransmission line and serves two feeders. Should one of the subtransmission lines go out of service, then breaker X or Y is opened and breaker Z is closed. Now both transformers are served from the same subtransmission line. The transformers are sized such that each trans- former can supply all four feeders under an emergency operating condition. For example, if Transformer T-1 is out of service, then breakers X, 1, and 4 are opened and breakers 2 and 5 are closed. With that breaker arrangement, all four feeders are served by transformer T-2. The low-voltage bus arrangement Line 1 Line 2 FD2 FD4 FIGURE 1.3 ‘Twortransformer substation with breaker-and-a-half scheme.