LA oe 1 , HUANS VAN DOKKUM fl rien TTL JAKOB PINKSTER eTAuthor Klaas van Dokkum Hans ten Katen Kees Koomen Jakob Pinkscer Lay-out R, Mazereeuw, Ermelo The Netherlands Cover Peres Schorvanger peterschorvangerdogmail Printed by: Giethoom Ten Brink bs, Meppel, ‘The Netherlands Published by: DOKMAR, Maritime Publishers P.O.Box 360 1600 AJ Enkhuizen, The Netherlands © Copyright 2008, 3" edition DOKMAR, Enkhuizen, The Netherlands ISBN 978-90-71500.07-7 i right reserved. No pt ofthis publicaion aay be repoduced, sored in a eel system or eave in any form ob any mean, cluding clecroni, mechanical, by photocopy through recording or otherwise, wichout prio crrten permission of the publisher. Great care has been taken with the investiga tion of prior copy righefal claimane is requested to inform the publishers In case of omission che Great care has been taken on the compilationShip Stability Klaas van Dokkum Hans ten Katen Kees Koomen Jakob Pinkster Third edition Hh } SUNS i i ee ! | | ! Enkhuizen — 2008introduction Just as “Ship Knowledge” was presented in a whole new ‘manner, so £00 is “Ship Seabili Dueto the advances in computer power and sofeware, the authors are able to present the material in a drastically dif ferent form from that of other stability textbooks, includ: ing the order and approach of topics. ‘The subject should interest college and university seu- dents, as well as fishermen and sailors. Lack of knowledge about stability means great risk for the ship, crew; passen- gers and environment. ‘Thus, this comprehensive book suits all levels of naviga- tional and shipbuilding schools. All required topics are addressed and can be easily under- stood with help from the many illustrations. “The t tional usage as much as possible, mean ninology and abbreviations conform to interna- that Maritime English is used The following persons, author! the following chapters: Hoofiistuk 6, del 2,3, Hoofiisuk 9 cach in their 1d, supplied Dike Frans van Walree Da Ir: Herbere Koelman. Photos and other material ‘A number of photographers and shipping concerns have provided photographs for this book. These photos illustrate various topies or have some other relationship co stability The following have my heartfelt thanks for photos and other material Danny Cornelissen (ww:porepicturesn Jan van der Klooster (wwwscheepvaarthock. a Klaas Slot (ww wslormaritimephoto.com) Maren van Engeland, Delitship BV (swwefreeship.org would also like to express my appreciation tothe following shipping concerns and businesses Rotterdam The Netherlands Delfi The Nether Anthony Veder Rederij Drenth nds For a specitic concept, one term and one abbreviation 1s provided, despite the fact chae in practice more words are sometimes used, This provides clarity as soon as the terms become familiar Hydrostatic data for 6 ships are given in the accompany: ing CD. For 3 of the ships, an abbre version of this data is included in the back of the book. ated Each author has practical experience and specialized knowledge edge has resulted in this book, "Ship Seability”. and che fusion of their experience and knowl Functions of the Klaas van Dok: Navigating officer / instructor nautical college publicise’ publishe Hans ten Karen: Naval A hitecr / Senior Surveyor Lloyds Register Consulans for macit Kees Koomen: Marine yachtsman / captain / pilot (instructor nautical college / publics. Jakob Pinkseer: Naval al TU Delf / publics ect / instructor Maritime Technology Editor in-chief Klaas van Dokicum Enkhizen, March 2008 BigLift Amsterdam The Netherlands Gefonzo BV IR Shipping Jumbo Shipping SARC Seatrade c Svitzer Wijsmuller Ijmuiden. The Netherlands Vecre The Netherlands Harlingen The Netherlands Rotterdam The Netherlands Bussum (wwwrsarc.l) The Neth oningen The Netherlands Corrections to text and proof readings Harry Gale Technical Man ser Nautical Instite {wwrwinautinst.ong), London, UK. SARC, Bussum, The Netherlands Lecturer Enkhuizen Nautical College Noordiroek, The Netherlands Marion Godaijn Marijke de Jong, Carmen Koenen-Loos Retired Senior lecturer Nautical English M.LW.B. The Netherlands Retired professor University of Michigan, USA Mimi Kuijper-Heeres nas Lamb ‘Translation: Carol Conover Amersfoort The NethetlandsTable of contents: i rt 12 13 14 15 16 7 2 wu 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 210 2uL 212 203 24 a 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 30 3 4 42 43 44 45 General Sability Definition of ebility Examples of seability Why define stabilicy? ‘The important of Stability Important factors for stability Whois responsible for stabilicy Principal Dimensions Definitions Dimensions Posiions ofthe schip Proportions Volumes and weights ‘The shape of the ship General arangement Derivative quantities Cargo capacity relative to density / stowage factor Relation between the weight of the ship and the displaced water Reserve buoyancy Relationship between buoyaney and gravity Relationship between the observed draft and displacement Corrections to the drat readings ‘Transverse stability General Suabiliy of form and weight Location of point B Location ofthe Metacenter, M Model dara Center of gravity “G" Level ofcapacity The righting arm Carve of statical stability Lise momeneum Viiows topics Longitudinal stability ‘The importance of longitudinal stability ‘The waterline’ Center Of Floatation (COF) ‘Moment to change trim per unie Cileulation of trim Distebution of tim forward and afe were nwa en 10 16 7 7 18 19 B 7 2 28 28 30 30 32 34 35 35 36 38 5 a7 56 R 76 78 78 2B ) 81 5. Damage Stability 5.1 Ship stability in damaged conditions 5.2 Evolving points of view regarding damage stability 53. Caleulation methods for sinking and trim due to damage 54 Determining damage sabilicy 6 Stability while underway 6.1 Ship sabiliy while underway 62 Dynamic stability while underway 63 Lossof quasi-static stability 64 —Lossofdynamic stability 65. Broaching 66 Heavy weather guidance 7. Docking, running aground 7. Ship stability while docking 7.2 Runningaground 8. Special types of ships 8.1 Sailing vessels 8.2. Catamarans / swath 83 Crane ships 8.4 Fishing vessels 85. Supply ships 86 Dredging vesels 87 Submersible pontoon 8.8 Submarines 9. Loading and stability software 9.1 Introduction and history 9.2 Arithmetic functions 9.3. Tools for loading sofeware 94 Standards and requiremenes 9.5 Examples of loading software 10. Hydrostatic particulars 10.1 MY. Enforcer 102 MY. Morgenstond 103 MN. Pride of Br Credits: photogeaphs and illustrations Index Abbreviations 82 84 84 86 89 90 92 5 % 95 96 9 100 102 106 108 m0 105 120 real 122 123 124 125 126 128 128 130 131 BL 132 14 144 161 174 175 1761.1 Stability Stability sa word regularly heard and used in daily life. Examples, among others, ae: ~ the weather is stable ~ the patients stable ~ astable character = the stock exchange is stable. Inall ehe above-mentioned situations the word unstable, which isthe opposie of sa ble, can also be insered. ‘What is meant by the word stable? In populae speech: ‘the person oF si can stand rough handling’ Or in other words, when a person or sieu ation in a stable sieuation experiences a shore-lived disturbance the original state will prevail sooner or later How do the words stable or unstable apply 02 floating object? ‘Theconcept of sable also applies to float- ing object. Icean stand rough treatment. Aloatingobject (ina stable state), chrough internal and/or external forees, can be out ofbbalance fora time when: = a ship is thrust to one side by a wave, as soon asthe wave is gone, it cights itself ~ a sailboat tips on its side in a strong gust of wind and as soon as che wind dis, the boat returns to its original position ~ a rowboat tips when one of two people gets our. When the peeson gets back in, the boat balances itself again, Ione of the above-mentioned floating ob- jects was unstable it would not righe itself and would probably capsize. 1.2 Definition stability ‘The stability ofa floating object (for exam- ° ples ship) can be defined in various ways ~ All characteristics hat a ship exhibits in state of equilibrium. ~ The ability ofa ship to resist capsizing ‘That is, the ability to righe itself when these forees no longer exist return to equilibrium 1,3. Examples of stabiliey Stabilcy has 3 kinds of distinctions: ~ stable — unstable ~ indifferent In chapter 3.6.1, three kinds of stability are farther explained. ‘What could be said abour the book in front of you? Without mote information it cannot be said whether ie is stable oF not. The book lies lat on the table ina stable state If the circumstances are changed, for example, if wwe stand the same book up chen the book becomes less stable. A small push is all ic takes to knock it over. ‘The book doesn’t change, bur it can be- ‘come stable or unstable, (See drawings 1-8) unstable and will seek its equilibrium stable in she new equilibrium stable neutral equi brian stable- 14 Why define stability? Whyisitimportanethae the shipbuilder be concerned with stability before and during constuction and why must che officers be thoroughly conscious of the degree of sta bility daring the voyage? The fact of the mater is, an unstable ship hasdisstrous consequences. Iteanoe be expected that cach ship has a fied vale. Even for one specific ship in difrenesicuations is greater o¢ lessee sta- bility adraneageous Advantages of increased stability « the ship is better able to resist negative incernal and / or external forces Advantages ofeser stability: = the ship rolls more calmly on waves re- saking in + favorable conditions for passengers + lssjear and tear on eargo lashings 15 Theimporcance of stability Ship sable isan incegral pare of seawor thine. Ships muse have sufficient stability tpsuccesfilly complete their voyage in the wort expected weather conditions. Ar the Iegining of the 18ch century scientists dere aleady studying this mater, and they Tegan co determine the stability of ships authensccally Ships ao can have too much stability. Some experts even go so far as co say chat more ships founder asa result of too much, sxbliry than coo licde stability. The ae ‘elation chat occurs when the ship re fain its equilibrium is then so lage thae the lshings of the cargo become severely ‘nined and che consteuction of the ship ‘analsobe damaged. Moo like stability leads co accidents as ‘el Thus ships sil founder because large | aounts office oating liquids are present ‘nboard. Ships can capsize when they are pled of after grounding. The double-borcom tanks are empried falas to lighten the ship. Once itis | alot, there is c00 lice stability to remain pit. From all these examples, ie appears that fiom one occurrence to the next, stability ust be considered 1.6 Important factors for stability ‘The distribution of weight on the ship is of great importance . ‘Another important factors the form of the submerged part of the hull. For example, if the ship ists due to a gust of wind, ic will right itself. This is largely duc to the ob- lique displacement of the upward pressure caused by the displaced water (upthcust). ‘The magnitude of the oblique displace: mene of the waters upehrust isin eurn, de- termined by the shape of ‘the submerged partof the hull. Thats ic is much larger on the side of che ship chan the other, and iin conjunction with other variables, suficient to ensure stability, The distribution of the upehruse force and also the extent of thar presure on each pare is dependene upon the form of the under svater hull The form ehus plays avery in poreane col in stability ‘The fact that the distribution of upward. force around the ship changes continually, is also important to stability, Examples of such changes ae found: ~ when the aft ship has more draft (due to alload placed aft) ~ fidingon the crese ofa waveasa result of which the distribution of upward force fon the submerged part of the hl causes the ship to capsize. ‘General precautions agains capsizing 2,5.1 Compliance with the stability er- ‘eria does not ensure immunity against ‘capsizing, regardless of thecircumstances, ‘orabsolve the master fom his respoosibi- lies, Masters should therefore exercise pru- dence and good seamanship having regard to the season of the year weather forecasts and the navigational zone and should take the appropriate ation 43 to speed and course warranted by the prevailing dr. cumseances” © Referto the Guidance wo the masts for avoiding dangeroussituasionsin following and quartering seas (MSC/Cine-707) IMO wale” A 74808). (Amended by MSC7S{6) cn on se ity foal ys of shipseoverd by IMO somes. To prevent problems with the previous the center of the combined weight ofthe ship and its eargo must not be too high. This also has limitations, bue will be explained later in the book. Stability may meet all legal requirements but there may still be circumstances where the stabilicy of the ship isin danges. See IMO resolution A.749(18) (Amended by MSC.75 (69)), The ship is pushed tone side by a wave During this period, the upward force i reater nthe starboard than onthe pore vide 1.7 Whois responsible for stability? Based on the forgoing ie appears thar the following factors have a large bearing on the ships stability ~ the shape of the underwater hull, also called caréne. ~ the distribution of weighe (longitudinal, thwart ships and aspecially vertically). ‘The shipbuilder/designer determines the shape of the hull. This is because the ship, under normal operation must always ha positive stability and has eo fulfill all inter: national requirements, In shor, the shipbuilder has to deliver safe ship. . ‘The ship’ officer cannot change the hall form of the ship, only the distribution of weight (cargo, fuel, ballast ee) The officer is required to comply with legal stability regulations thac apply to the par- ticular shipPrincipal DimensionsDefinitions 1 Perpendiculars ndicular to che base line or plane (and the waterline Forward Perpendicular (Fpp of Fy) This line crosses the intersection of the waterline atthe front of the stem. Aft Perpendicular (App of Ap) ‘This line usually aligns wich the cence line of the rudder stock, This isthe im: aginary line arou { which the rudder The perpendiculars are used when the lines plan is made. They are the ends of the ‘block’ on the submerged part ofthe hull (ee definitions block coefficient) Moulded dimensions The distance beeween the inner si ofthe shell Summer freeboard Sommer dr 2.1.2 Waterlines The above-mentioned waterlines 3 an upright ship. There are differene wate lines (i.e. Joadlines) for different loading Light waterline ‘The waterline of ship carryingonly her regula inventory Fully loaded waterline The waterline of maximum load draft in Construction (Scantling) waterline (Cw) The waterline used as the imicco which the various structural components are designed, 2.1.3 Plimsoll Mark The Plimsoll mark or freeboard mark is a symbol indicating the maximal immersion of the ship in the water lesving a minimal freeboard for safer Freeboar! deck ‘The mark consists of a circle with a dia meter of 300 mm, through which hod ontal line is drawn with its upper edge going through the center of the circle This level indicates the minimal frecboard in salt water summer conditions, Beside this circle the loadline mark consists of a number of horizontal lines indicating the minimal freeboard required for other than summer conditions All freeboard lines are 25 mm wide andare connected by a vertical line. The abbreviations used in the marked load lines must be in the language ofthe vessels flag sate, Should the evew consist of more ationality the kangauge used is nglish. than one generally Thisis co ensure che safety ofthe people oa board. The ship may load cargo until che uppet edge of the water level ofthe relevant load line is reached. Explanation of abbreviations: TE: Tropical Fresh (for water with a density of 1000 cm?) Fe Fresh (dito) T: Tropical (for water with a density of 1025 c/m?) S: Summer freeboard (ditto) We Winter cco} WNA: Winter North Atlantic (ditto), only for ships less chan 100 meters GL/LR: Germanischer Ll Lloyds Register The deafe masks and Plimsoll marl hhave to be marked permanently on the shell plating they ate outlined an che plating by bead welding ot by welded pl Usually chis means that“The Plimsoll mark is placed ae half lenght ‘oneach side ofthe ship. The freeboard lines are the direct result of ‘the feeboard calculation, where the sum- ‘ner fecboard in saltwater i established. “Themain parameters ofthe caeulation ate Teng, width (beam), sheer, engeh of su- _perstructure, lengch/deprh ratio, etc. “The minimal operating freeboard depends on: = Ship position ae sea = Thetime of year (summer, winter). 214 Deck ine Tn general this isthe extended line from ‘the upperside of the fceboard deck at che shipside ‘The deck line is placed above the Plimsoll mark 90 thatthe freeboard can be easily ‘monitored by the ship crew of other in- terested parties Nocmally the deck line is atthe level of the ‘weather deck, but in case che weather deck docs not correspond with the freeboard deck (eg, RoRo, passenger ships), then iis placed ac che level of that deck. When the distance between the deck line and che mark is impracteally large or the connection deck shell plate is rounded off (tankers, bulk carriers), the reference line is positioned ae a lower level, 2.1.5 Deck cargo of timber ‘When a ship carries a deck cargo ofsimber, and certain requirements are met, ths ship is allowed to have more draft (less free- board). Thisis duc to che additional reserve ‘buoyancy caused by the cargo. To indicare this, the ship has a special freeboard mark for carrying a deck cargo of timber, the so- called timber matk. 2.1.6 Tankers and bulk carriers ‘Tankers carrying liquid eargoes and being completely watertight, also have allowance for less freeboard compared with other cargo ships ofthe same lengeh. Qhertof zones and Seasonal Areas or cone Imig A section of this map* is portmayed The Plonsoll mark indicates the maximum Wocded drafiablowed for a given level. The mark (for example, W, S or T) can be Aeternined with the help ofthe map. During mpage the lowest draft i alusay che most Anportant. For example, ia ship lees in ‘the winter from Northern Spain in a south- col direction, its posible to reach the sur ‘mer cone within a few hours, However, it still must be loaded asift were in the winter On if'a specific W, Sor T zomeis applicable, shen itiswholly based on the average expected winds and height ofthe waves in the area The eydone regions are clearly marked in ilu with the tnses tbc are likly to occu: Note the WNA mark at the bottom of the ‘map for ships of less than 100 meters feo7 Permanent marks on the ship's shell Iris very important that draft mark ately read as easily as possible. Some 10 important as the visibility of che marks and movement of water often makes an accurate read: 1. Drafeco portside fo In Draft to portside fore: 5.17 mete Draft on the seern is given in meters and fet Drafi to starboard aft: 9.35 meter. Drafe midships: 7.00 meters Deck line Plimsoll mark The water level docs not reach the drafe mark below the stem under the transom. Thes marks must be read on the stern to port or star ard. (9) This will actually not be easy du ctr’ shape TThe deafe is visible on the aft perpendicular port. From above to the rudder stock. In prac tice, difficult to read,Ttemme-P sled) GUDRUN ST.JOHN'S2.2 Dimensions Length berwcen perpendiculars (Lp) Distance between the Fore and the Afe Perpendicular Length overall (Ly,) The horizontal distance over the extrem sie, fsom stem to stern Length waterline (Ly) Horizontal distance between fore and aft when the ship is loaded at che summer smark, less the shell. Drafe Forward (Te) Vertical diseance beeween the waterline and the underside of the keel, 8 measured atthe forward perpendicular Drafeat the stern (Tq) The vertical distance beeween the water he underside of che keel ax meas- ued at che aft perpendicular Breadth or beam (By) The greatest molded breadth, measured from side to side at the outside of the frames, but inside the shell Breadth overall (Bo,) ‘The maximal breadth of the ship as meas ured from the outer hull on starboard to the outer hull on pore side, inchuding ru ‘bing bars, permanent fenders etc. Depth (D) The vertical distance between the base line and the upper continuous deck. The depth is measured at half Ly, at the side of the ship, Length overall (Lo) Length between the perpendicular (Ly) “7 1 < ieuk oa Freeboard The distance berween the waterline and the top of the deck ar the side (ar the deck line). The term summer freeboard means the distance from the top of the summer loadtine and the upper edge of the deck line Ai draft The vertical distance between the waterline and the highest poine of the ship. The ait draft is measured from the summer mark. If che ship has less draft one can ballast un- til i reaches the surnmer draft a tain its minimal air dea. 4, Breadth overall (Bo,) 5. Depth 6. Draft Sheer This isthe upward rise of ship’ deck fron ‘mid lengch cowards che bow and stern, Th sheer gives the vessel extra reserve buoyan ‘ey at the stem and the stern, Camber The transverse curvature of the weathe deck. The curvatute helps to ensue suff cient drainage of any water on deck. Baseline Top of the flat keelplave Keel (K) Intersection of the base line and the cene line plane. 7. Frecboard 8. Ovcall height of vessel (air dra)2.3. Positions of the ship List Heeling to one side about the fore and afe D Thee! (K) ise Ine purple) ance intersection ofthe base Rise offloor Gommon to some rypes of vessels like tug. bhoassand fishing boats. This isthe upward deviation from the baseline of the lower edges ofthe floors from the keel towards thebilgs Bilge Radius Gives the bilge radius ofthe ship. ‘Trim (t) The difference between the draft atthe seen and che draft at the stem, the erm fore (G) + the rim aft () Onan even keel, in proper trim The draft of the stern equals the draft ‘ofthe stem, 3.bilge radius 4. rise of floor 2.4 Proportions The ratios of some of the dimensions can be used to obtain information on ress ance, stability and maneuverability of the ship. Some commonly used ratios ae: LB The ratio of lengeh and breadth: L/B can difer quite signifcaney depending on the typeof vessel. Common values Passenger ships 6-8 Freighters 5-7 Tug boars, 3-5 ‘A larger L/B value is favorable for speed, but unfavorable for maneuverability LD ‘The lengeh/depth-ratio. ‘The customary values for L/D vary between 10 and 15 ‘This relaion plays role inthe determina- tion of the freeboard and the longitudinal serength. BT The breadch/drafe-ratio, varies between 2 and 4.5, A larger breadth in relation to the drafe (a larger B/T-value) provides greater initial sability, B/D The breadth/depeh-ratio, varies between I and 2. If this value increase, it will have an unfavorable effect on stability (the deck will be submerged when the vessel heels) and strength ‘Down by the stern: T, more then T,2.5. Volumes and weights General ‘The size ofa ship can be expressed by using terms which describe che characteristics oF the ship. Each term has a specific abbre- viation. The type of ship determines the term to be used. For instance, the size of a container vessel i expressed in the number of containers (TEU) it can carry: a Ro- Reo carrer’ size is given by the total deck surface (lanes) and a passenger ship in the ‘umber of passengers it ean carry Ar the IMO-conference in 1969 the new measurements for the "Gross Tonnage” and "Net Tonnage” were introduced, to establish a world vide standard in caleulat- ing the sizeof ship. In many countries the Gross Tonnage is used to calculate harbor dues and pilotage, or co determine the number of crew members. Register ton (RT) ‘To determine the size ofa ship the RT is used. Itis based on volume where one regis ter ton equals 100 cubic feet, 02.83 mv’ Gross Register Tonnage ‘The Gross Register Tonnage (GRT or GT), usually called Gross Tonnage, is calculated usinga formula that rakes into account the ships volume in cubic meters below the main deck and the enclosed spaces above the main deck. This volume is then mulkiplied by a coef ficient, which results in a non-dimensional rnuimber (chis means no values of T or m> should be placed after the number). All measurements used in the calculation are ‘moulded dimensions. In order to minimize the daily expenses of a ship, the ship owner will keep the GT as low as possible. One way of doing this is by keeping che depth small, so more cargo will be placed on deck. This strategy is in particular used in small container ships (feeders). As a consequence, dangerous situations ean occur as the lesser reserve buoyancy can resul in a leserstabiliey and ‘more ‘water on deck, Net Register Tonnage ‘The Net Register Tonnage is also a non-di- mensional number chat describes the vol- ume of the cargo space. The N'T is derived from the GT by subtracting the volume of space occupied by: ~ navigation equipment ~ the propulsion equipment ~ work stations = balase Gross Tonnage (6 Nett Tonnage ‘The NT may nor be less than 30% of the GT. Underwater volume (carene) (m*) ‘The moulded underwater volume ofa ship isthe displacement in m3 minus the conti tion of the shell, propeller and rudder. Or: the calculated volume of the part of theh which is immersed in the water, on the outside of the frames without extensions influence ofthe shell in weights compensated by the extra displacement. Displacement V (m") “The displacement is the volume of the part ofthe ship below the waterline including shell plating, propeller and rudder and other appendages. isplacement Dor A (ton) TThe displacement is the weight of the volume of water displaced by the ship. One also say: the displacement equals the total mass ofthe ship. Lightship weight (ton) ‘This is the weight ofthe ship including the regular inventory, but without any cargo. ‘or crew. The regular inventory includes: anchors, lifesaving equipment, lubricating paint, ete. Deadweight (ton) “This the weight a ship can take on until the maximal allowable immersion i re ‘This isa fixed value, unique to each ship. Through the years there is usually a build-up smd in che ballast ranks, additional lubricating ol is caken on board, and les is ‘There isalso water, which cannotbe pumped out. The total weight of al this, is called ship-constant or dead load, and has to be subtracted from the deadweight. Cargo Capacity () “This is che total weight of cargo a ship is designed to carry ata given time, The: cargo loaded (in tons) is nota fixed amount. I depends on the ship's maximum allo immersion at the relevant season, which will include the capacity (in tons) of Fac, cating oil, provisions and drinking water. For along voyage a large quantity of fucls hast be taken on, which reduces the cargo capacity fon the other hand, che ship efuels( ers) underway, the cargo capacity is larger upon departure, The amount of fuel on ba and the location for refueling depend on many factors, ut in the end the eaptain has fi responsibility for the decision. The eargo capacity sets mainly the income ofa ship.26 The shape of the ship Assured cater, che shape of che ship is bry important for sabiliy Mheform coeicients discussed here ae re ated othe under water form of the ship to thesummerloalne. is doesnot alter che face cha the part of Hbe ship above water is aso important to “sab Hic is importane to know which upward Moree can effect. the pare of the ship still © above water, Bother words: how large is the reserve buoyancy and how is chis distibueed Boughout the ship? (see chapter 2.11) Basinger ship. Note he lange B/T rasio Heiser thacthe amounc of buoyancy (bithan equal ange of hee!) ofa passenger | thipwillbe completely different than chat Ifa supply ship For example on a passen- Bs ship, chs is much larger than on a sup- = Blepeieesucd he pasenger ship. Even so, this does not Bite problem forthe supply ship as long Bite weight distbution and the shape ; below the waterline is sufficient Line coeflicients define the characteristics of the vessel’ shape at and below the waterline. This makes it possible to get an impression of the shape of the underwater body ofa ship without extensive use of any data, However, the line coefficients do not contain any information about che dimensions of the ship and are thus, non-dimensional figures, ~ Waterline coefficient, Cy (2) The waterline coeflicient gives the ratio of the arca of the waterline (A) and the rectangular plane bounded by Ly» and molded breadth (By). A large waterline coefficienc in combination with a small block coeffiient (or coefficient of fineness) is favorable co stability in both transverse and longitu dinal ditection. line coefficient (Cy) = ~ Midship Section coefficient, Cy (2) The midship (main frame) coefficient gives the ratio ofthe atea ofthe midship x) and the area bounded by Byy,. and T. The influence of che midship section coeicent i variable. Ay Bnet Midship coefficient (Cy) =~ Block coefficient, coefficient of fineness, C, (8) The block coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater body (V) and the rectangular block bounded by Lyys Buc) and drafe (T). A vessel wich a small block coef ficient is referred roa ‘fine: tn genera st ships have small block coefficient Customary values for the block eoeficien of several eypes of ese Sips ETT (inknos) | Barge 090 5-10 Bulk carrier 080-085 2-17 Tanker 080-085 12-16 General cargo 055-075 13-22 Container ship 050-070 | 14-26 Ferryboat 050-070 | 15-26 Volume Block efden (Gy) j ~ Prismatic coefficient, C, () ‘The Prismatic Coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater body and the block formed by the area of the Midships Section (Ay, and Lyp The Cy isimportane for resistance and hence, for the necessary power of propulsion (if the Cp decreases, che nec essary propulsion power also becomes stale). The maximal value of all chese coefficients (also for a rectangular block) equals 1, The ‘minimal value is theoretically 0, ‘onRo chip w rage block cuff 2.6.2 Hull-form (Lines plan) When the prineipal dimensions, dsplce ment and hull form coeflcients ate knows, one has an impressive amount of design formation, but nor yet a clear image of th ‘exact geometrical shape of the ship. Th shape is given by the lines plan The shape of a ship can vary in height length and breadeh. In order to represit this complex shape on paper, transvee sections ofthe hull are combined with tv longitudinal sers of parallel planes, cath one perpendicular to the others Waterlines Horizontal sections of the hull are called waterlines, One of these is the design terline, which is the waterline ofthe shipa the level of immersion with a fl ergo, When the watedlines ate projected dlrawn into one view from above, the rel is called a watetline model.Saations Brenly spaced vertical cross-sections in fransyerse direction are called sections (or tints). Usually the ship is divided Wordinates, from che center ofthe rudder seock (ordinate 0) to che intersection of the onsruction waterline and the mould-side ofthe sem (ordinate 20), Theboundaries of these distances are num bred 0r0 20, called the section numbers. {A projection of all ordinates ineo one view isalled a body plan, Seaton: Verticals / Bow and Buttocks Lengthwise sections are called verticals or ow and burtock lines. These longicuinal sections are parallel to the plane of symme- ‘yo the ship. YVericals projected and drawn in one view res in a so-called ongivudinal plan Diagonals Bustock lines ‘par from the rectangular sections, some tines planes running lengthwise are used, bue aan angle ftom the midships plane They ae called diagonals, or sentlines The diagonals are longitudinal sections that inesect withthe hull suface a a cer tain angle. On the longitudinal plan they show upas curves The curvature of the frames (ordinates) wate lines and butcocks are compared tocach other and modified until they are consistent, and develop smoothly in all dizetions. When this proceduce is execu ted, she results can be checked using the diagonal. The most commonly used di onal called che bilge diagonal. deremodation / deck house 2. ear cargo space bulkhs gitudinal bulkhead be 4. tanktop tected 5. forecar bulkhead atanumber ofstationary compo- & nents and spaces. These have an 7. double bottom 12. beam28 Derivative quantities Th addition co che fixed components and spaces refered vo in 2.7, there are also a Jhumber of variables importanc to stability Theseare Further explained in chis chapter. hull he variables are: The location of these variables is depend. “The ship’ weight, among other factors, ene upon: includes: ~ the distribucion of weight on the ship — ~ the distribucion of upward force (buoy: ancy) on the submerged pare of the — the weight ofthe ship when itis empty fuel lubrication ol, drinking water, ee (added cargo) ~ balla Abbreviation] ‘Term Explanation Be«COG | Cense of Gravy mua eemcevigarer bE ies Sa ed aE SE B60, [Connery eee B08 | Cenc of Buoyancy (olme)| —volamesic nner of he abneged part of ial fa Meracenter | % Ik Kee Bor | cense of Fearon axis around which the ship ems COK = center of floatationFurther explanation 2.8.1 Point G All the ship's mass is concentrated in one place, G (=center of gravity). Gis where the ship's to be concentrated (we! ship + cargo + adi tis added, removed he of the emp sd weight). As soon as wel shifted, poine TD oe Nore: normaly. ina moving ship, poine G Se Saaeuage ‘bbrevaion poi | Arenak cleraee | Bap VoG Keel oT Lec 1a papell Longitudinal Centro TOG ea of Keeland Seem | Thavere Cener of 2.8.2 Point B Al upward force on the underwater hull an be concentrated at one point, B (=cent. + of Buoyancy). Point B is the volumetric center of gr the hull and also where the resultant up: ward force is centered. he position of Bin the ship is subsequent y determined by the form of the hil Note: Point B will move as long as the ship {sin motion, This motion can be very slow The position 1 to3 points of reference (for example when loading and / or dis. ASG adom Olme | AREAR MReRGaee charging) or fst (in the event ofa storm). ‘of Buoyancy | Longitudinal Center of B enter of B‘The resuleant (for example, G) is a vector that replaces all other (gravi ting the ship, Guavity is produced by the influence ofthe center of gravity on the mass objece divided. EE by grviy (Gig Note: When we speak aboue VOG, LCG or TCG, che sume poine of the ship is meant, namely, the cencer of gravity G. This also applies co VCB, LCB or TCB in relation to B. All abbreviations used in the book are the English abbreviations used inter: rationally Notes = When the ship is in a state of equilib riuts, poine Bis directly under poine G The line of action of the resultant buoy ancy then coincides with the loadline of Equilibrium can be interrupted, among other thin + During loading or discharging: then the ship immediately repositions ir self + When external circumstances (a wave or guse of wind, for example) distur its equilibrium. The duration of this disturbance can vary from a. few seconds eo a continuously change: able loss of equilibrium during bad weather During loading and/or discharging buoyancy also changes. This increases then ic is being loaded and decreases upon discharge. During bad weather buoyancy doesn't increase or decrease Only the distribution of upward force con the hull changes continuously 2.8.3. Point COF The position of COF is determined relative o one poine of reference on Explanation - ‘Aft perpendicular Lon icudinal Center of Flotation ‘The axes (longicudinal and main trans verse) run through this point on which che ship rolls and cuens The correct draft is the distance bet COF and kee particulars if weight and poine B are speci fied ‘There can be other draft During bad woacher the position of COK and B, ofthe moving ship will change constantly2.84 Point Mand N Wieh a heeling angle up to about assumed chat point M lies at che intersec tion of the vector of buoyancy and the cen- M. Thi sd as With larger lises, point M is de follows ‘The intersection of 2 successive fines of buoyancy wich a very small increase of angle of inclination For example, 0,5° 0 06°(¢ +(9 + 0. ‘Misthen fonnd ourside the vert of symmetry For calculation purposes, we cannot work with M outside the vertical plane of sym ‘metry. Thus, a false metacenter, N, is ued for calculations This also applies to the angles of hee larger than ca. Point N is on the centerline ar she intecsection of the buoyancy loadline and the centetline In eransverse direction: the distance be tween Band M rebtes to che wideh ofthe waterline, As soon as the ship lists (to a certain angle of heel) the width ofthe wa- tele increases, along with the distance fiom M co B, From 0° to an angle of heel ‘ofabou 5° icappears chac with typical ship forms, poine M is near the vertical plane of symetry while atthe same time, the salimose the tance between Band M ren With an upright ship, the distance berween B and M varies (for most ships) from 0.4% bheatm eo 1x beam of the ship. Note: In contrast to G and B, poine M (be ‘cause ies an imaginary point) lies abeam instead of from fore co at, At angle of heel up to about 5°, point M {abeam) can be seen as the reference point in order to detetmine whether the ship is stable. As long as G is beneath M, we talk about positive (initial) stabiliey The distance between G and Mis called stability. i In longitudinal direction: in this cease the distance of M over B is much larger than in chwartshipd ditection, ind is abour the same ot largcr than the ship’ lengeh, “This is because the length is f responsible for che movement ‘of Bina longitudinal direction | while trimming. With changes in trim, the | waterline lengch will hardly change, so M, i can be considered a fixed point |density/stowage factor The amoune of cargo and added cargo de- pends on, among other things ~ the capacity of the space reserved for cargo (a?) ~ the maximum cargo capacity (tonnage) ofthe rade route ~ the travel eime relative to che amount of ful ee = the maximal permissable draft during the voyage ~ the maximum tanktop load (¢/m*) Which ofthe first wo points is imporeant (tonnage or m’), is dependent upon che cargos weight relative co the space requived for the cargo. This relationship (weight/capacity, capac ityhveight) can be expressed in two ways ~ density (Q) indicates how many tons one m of the contents weighs (p= t/m) ~ Stowage factor (sf) indicates how many m one ton occ pies (a= m*/0) Both variables (spand sf) indicate the same thing about the contents They have the following correlation 1 f fy! Thisis the same: isthe reciprocal value ofthe stowage factor ‘of ahomogenous cargo or liquid saying the specific mass Tio similar ships, the Bel sf = 0.167 Ve orp = 6.0m the botiom sip loaded f=60 p ship loaded with i 0.167 t/m org. er 2.10 Relation between the weight of the ship and the displaced water Archimedes’ principle: A body immersed in a liquid will be subjece ‘co an upward thrust equal to the weight of the liquid the body displaces, The weight of the water a floating object displaces is equal to the weight of this ob ject. The ship's weight is called displacement. When che ship is being loaded, displace also, the weight of the amount of displaced water. In face, che weight of the increased dis- placed water, isthe same as the weight of the added car The above principle does not mean that with a particular draft, the ship always has the same displacement. With the same draft and trim, che ship al ways disphices the same amount of m’ of Nore: the displaced water does noe always have the same wig Take a ship displacement ata draft of 244 meters 1164.9 mn? water, If this ship lies in fresh water (p = 1.000 ¢/m’) it chan weighs 1164.9 m? x 1.000 5 = 1164.9 ton A ship with the same draft can Deafe | Displacement | Displacement hhottom keel | seawater | fresh waver im ‘ons tons 2.40 172.1 11435 242 1183.1 11542 2.44 11940 11643 2.46 1205.0 11756 248 | 12160 11863 250 | 12270 1197.0 Take the same ship in sale water (g= 1.025 im) again with a drafe of 244 meters. The ship sill displaces 11649 m? water However, the weight ofthe displaced water and thus, the weight ofthe ship will then be 11649 m? «1.025 5, = 1194.0 on The formula is expressed a A = Vxp A. = displacement, that is, the weight of the ship in cons 4 1000 kg V = volume of the underwater hull (vo ume of displacement) nm p= density ofthe water in c/m’ From the above formula, ic also follows that with a similar displacement, the draft can change ifthe densicy of the water changes, Take a ship passing through a lock, that moves from fresh water to sale water. AS a result of the change to the density of the sea water the draft decreases.2.11 Reserve buoyancy 2.12 Relationship between buoyaney and gravity In spite of the Fac that a watertight (stel) ship is very heavy, it doesnt sink. The reason i, that che hull is hollow. Because ofthe form, the hull has enough buoyancy that it remains afloat. This buoyancy is equivalent to che ship's weight except in reverse direction, Example: A ship weighs 10,000 tons, directed downwards, The buoyancy, according to the Archimedes Principle, then also amounts to 10,000 tons but in opposite ditection. Both forees are perpendicular to the waterline and keep each other in balance (thus, new tralizing each other). Therefore, the resulting net force is nil and the ship isin a sete of equilibrium (vertical) ‘Conclusion: the ship maincains ies draft ic no vertical movement: IF the ship lies in calm water (no waves or tide), equilibrium exists, The eenter of buoyancy (B) lcs on the centerline and in line with G. ‘The upthrust has the same foree as the ship’ weight, These forces originate from hnydrostatic pressure “These work in an upright ship ~ Perpendicular to the sides (pore and starboard) and counterbalance each other. Distribution of upward force on the ship Perpendicular 20 the bottom of the ship. ‘The draft of the ship will increase if 1. the weight ofthe ship is increased due to cargo, ballast, fuel, ete 2. buoyancy decreases HBB che distribution of presure on thek a che resultant The deaft of the ship will decrease if 1. the weight is removed from che ship 2, buoyancy increases ‘As explained earlier, Buoyancy depends on the volume of water displaced by the hull and the density of che water ‘The portion of the elosed volume of the ship above the waterline is called reserve buoy- In general, che larger the reserve buoyancy, the greater the seaworthiness ofthe ship Conditions are set regarding the degree of impermeability of the space above watetine. Ifthe space satisfies che requirements regarding impermeabilty, then these can be included along with the reserve buoyancy. Poine B then is locared on the centerline Examples of watertight spaces are che ship, chrough exeernal fore lists, for ~ enclosed volume ofthe hull above water (frecboard) ‘example to port, then the distribution of ~ enclosed volume ofthe coaming, forecaste and poop (superstructures) pressure to pore and starboard is unequal ~ enclosed volume ofthe deckhouse(s). “The center of buoyancy (B) is then trans ferred to pore. See: ~ Loadline convention, regulation 3(10)(b) — IMO resolution A.749(18) a +B: @ = reserve buoyancy (ifimpermeable) Ship lisced under external pressureThe result is thar: = the buoyancy fore acts theough a new «center of buoyancy (B!) ~ displacement remains ae G. The forces respectively act through points Band G now that this: = remains perpendicular tothe surface of the waeer, | ~ nolongerace inthe cenedtne plane | The buoyancy force with weight, in this situation has a positive correlation, There is (temporarily) no equilibrium. 2.12.2 The ship on a sloping water sur- face I the ship sails across the swells, ie will sway, There is a dynamie interaction, If wwe frceze the motion of the ship halfway between crest and trough ie will have the same lit as the gradient of the warer, the consequence of the interplay of forces. The hydroscatic pressure to pore and star boar! is again equal bur in reverse direc tion. The resulting buoyancy moves per- pendicula to che ship bortom. The centr of buoyaney moves to the cen- taline. Buoyancy always occurs perpen- dicular to the water surface or table, the waterline ofthe ship. The line of the upward force now runs through the ship’ center of gravity G and ‘there is no positive correlation as in the previous igure. 2.12.3 Surfing of ehe ship ‘The resulting force also causes the ship to sue if it moves with the waves ahead of the Because the resulting pressure moves to the center of gravity G, there is no rotation, only motion from riding the waves, There is no equilibrium, lf we transfer the line of pressure to G, then buoyancy and gravity work together. The same interaction occurs if the ship tides before a tidal wave or travels from the source ofa river to its mouth In that case the drop in the surfs momentum must be heeded. ‘The power of the surfensused thatthe ship had just as much power as i t were pro: pelled. A similar method of propulsion was called surfing2.13 Relationship between the observed draft and displacement Draft has a direct correlation to the dis placement of the ship. ‘Therefore, it is important that the di since each incorrect cen is accurately read neterreadingean sean a displacement difference of several tons. Below are the data of a large tanker about 320 mesers in length and about 54 meters wide 18.40 293310 318 18.41 293628 318 1842 293946 318 2.13.1 Tons/em ‘As shown in the table above, che displace mene can be determined as well as the number of tons per em. This figure in. dicares the number of tons that must be loaded or discharged in order to obtain difference of 1 cm draft Example: Note the displacement in sea wa- ter with adraft of 18.40 meters. Add up the number of tons per em (318). The sum of these Figures must be the same asithe displacement in sea water with a c sim eect)” In trim (cm) (Lp ~ LCF) eam raf correction in em derives from this formula. sadjuscmencto the draft will also have a bearing on displacement, 1. Comrect draft. onder to determine the increase or decrease of displacement, the difference 2, Mean of draft reading fore and af. em has tobe multiplied with ehe eoral e/em for this drat: 3. Correction (C) vo draft. (Positive in difference in tons =¢ (in em) x r/em =... ton. the above drawing) t-1cF) 4. Trim tain ant - 5. App -LCE the above is entered in the formula: the A difeence sin ons: Sim x({ p= LCE) xt/cm Loe Notes: det ~ In the formula, trim is expressed in em Flee because che t/em also applies per em. ~ The waterline changes ifthe ship trims or lists. The value of t/em will no longer agree then with the value provided sn the hydrostatic data. Adjustments ro this are, nevertheless, marginal and are negative adjustment purely applied to a drat suevey lef ~ If che trim adjustment is greater than 2 ‘em then preferably the drafts corrected Lp and with the comrece draft, the A is de- termined. = ‘Trim adjustment must only be applied ‘fa hydrostatic table with a trim of nil isused. lef positive adjustment The mark (postive or negative) is lef. negative adjustment | determined by nu fctrs: ~ the location of COF in relation to 8 Ly zLpp ~ or the ship has a trim by the bow or stern. inition ofthe indication ofthe trim adjustment positive adjustment> bh 2 o vient ”“ y A ‘se g > A c = =3.41 General ‘Transverse stability largely determines the ship’ seaworthiness. Among other things, the location of points G, Band Mean de- termine ifa ship, for example, wll experi- ence problems in bad weather. ‘The shipbuilder can influence the location of through the shape and volume ofthe hull ~ ‘My by the area and shape of the water- plane area. For every ship Band M are ina fixed posi- tion for each particular draft ‘The crew only has control of G by loading, Transverse stability can be divided into: ~ initial stabiliy (angles up to aboue 5") ~ stability with angles of heel greaer than Bs Important for transverse stability are the distances: — KM (and if given, BM), indicative for form stability (see table below). ~ KG is indicative for weight stability. (mnuse be ealeulated) 3.2. Stability of form and weight 3.2.1 Form stability If you have a canoe and a rowboat sitting next to each other, the rowboat will appeas discharging or transferring weight. ‘more stable inthe transverse dection than the canoe because the rowboat is beamiee. Justiflable, because the wider the vessel, the more stable it sas a rule. Why? As soon as a boat list slightly, buoyancy shifts to the lower side ‘Trim = 0.000 m 8200 | 14179.19 | 1453367 | 2336 | 17233 | 66.824 | 63.129 | 9576 8300 | 1440781 | 1476801 | 2353 | 175.89 | 66764 | 62.922 | 9.605 8400 | 1463809 | is00405 | 2370 | 17925 | 66702 | 62.740 | 9.635 sso | 1487001 | 1524176 | 23.86 | 18251 | 66.639 | 62.588 | 9.667 8200 | 1435843 | 1471739 | 2390 | 18473 | 64870 | e171 | 9.712 8300 | 1459218 | 1495698 | 2404 | 18718 | o4sto | 61.039 | 9741 s4oo | 1482724 | 1519792 | 2417 | 189.61 | 64749 | 60925 | 9771 Ars extract from the hydrostatic data of «reefer: This clearly shows that with the same drafi the sri can greatly influence the different values such as ‘Draft displacement, LCB, LCB, LCE: Thisis ds tothe change ofthe surface area and form ofthe wsterline. Actually for very om trim, a table should be made. In general however, any a complete table is repro- duced fora triva of .00, 0.50, 1.00 and 1.50 meters. Trim correction (se p. 33) does not have o be applied ifthe relevant table i also used with ‘the existing brim, The difference with drafts 8.20 m. (1435843 ~ 14179.19) isin fact, the trim correction in tons with a trim of 1SO meters ‘The more beam a vessel has, the more the bbuoyaney (located at B) will shift. The tance over which B moves to the lower side is proportionate to the square of the beant ‘of the ship (se sections 33 and 3.4) Transverse stability is largely dependane ‘upon: ~ beam, ~ drafe (prevents the bilge rising out of the water), ~ freeboard (prevents the deck edge fom going under wate). This is directly related to che shape of the dull, Here we are referring to the influence of form on stability. Definition of form stability. Fora given angle of hecl, point B changes position such that a moment (= force x distance) is created. This moment is equal to the upthrustx the distance berween the worklines of the buoyancy and displace ‘ment force, This moment i called the sta bility moment and works against the angle of heel ic. tiesto return the vessel to her initial position of equilibrium. Examples: rocking char, eumbler, floating ‘cork Pontoon 3.2.2. Weight stability How can 2 relatively nartow ship stl be stable? As soon as the ship list, the center of gravity G, also moves to the lower side vertical position, then the upthrust returns the ship back to her original state of equ- librium, With a relatively narrow ship, B will closer to G than with a beamy ship._— ‘Wich afloat, in which there is almost no sebilty of form, G lies under B. With a smal ist, G moves from the vertical to the higher side, We are referring now to weight sebility: Definition of weight stability ‘Wich regard to weight stability, only che center of gravity moves from the vertical postion. Depending on the location of suppor (location of the responding force), the body is then in stable, unstable or neu- tealequilbrium, Example: pendulum Summary In practice, a ships seaworthiness is based ‘on both principles of stability, whereby boch extremes are also reached. An ofthore pontoon thae carries is cargo solely on deck, depends mainly on its form sei, while a submarine depends on its svcghtsabiliy to remain upright. The submarine and the empty pontoon vvillexperience an unpleasanc shore rolling sffec and move stiffly. With other ships. a «combination of weight and form stability ists, bmerged submarine 3.3 Location of poine B B (Center Of Buoyancy = COB) indicates the location of the resulting buoyaney of the displaced seawater. The location of B is dependane upon the hulls form. B is the volumatric center of the hull and conse- quently, the center of buoyancy. Buoyancy is equal to the weight (displacement) of the ship. Withour the equilibrium of these forces the ship would capsize. ‘The resultant (vector) ofall upward pres sure is always perpendicular co the momen: cary waterline. “This means thac the aligment ofthis vec tor in calm water is differen from chat in waves and chur, changes continuously. ‘The results of the forces that move £0 G and B position chemselves in a line, The ship most, therefore, lie neural in the wa- ter and not move around one of its axes (rolling or pitching, et). ‘The resultant of G is downward and is per pendicular to che horizontal surfce atea ‘The resuleant of Bis upward and is perpen- dlicula tothe transitory waterline. Boch results are equal When a ship is sailing in waves, point B continuously changes its location. ‘The re- sulting momene will therefore, continue to attempt to line up B wich G Note: point G remains (with an equivalent ‘weight distribution) a fixed point. If tis unstable the ship will capsize. If che ship loses is equilibrium due to an external force (for example a gust of wind), the distribution of upward forceon the hull changes. The outcome is that the resulting buoyancy (B) will move inthe direction of she largest upward force. ‘The movement of B with an increased list. If the ship’ lise continues to increase, for whatever reason, then B will also move sill further from the vertical plane of symme- ary. Dependingon the shape of the hull, B will continue to return to the vertical plane of symmetry s the ship continues to move. Dependingon the shape of the superstruc- ture, chis will occur a8 soon as the ship turns 180" (up side down). K The location f B with a rectangular and triangular-shaped vesel, respectively Wich most ships, KB is situated berween both values (34 T and %T) 3-4 Location ofthe Metacenter, M ‘The importance of M's location to erans- verse (initial) stability is great. The loca sion of M depends on the location of B. ‘The location of G in relation to Mis main-+ ly decisive forthe stability. Seabilty ean be: ~ positive (G under M) ~ neutral (G at M) ~ unstable (G above M) Up to abour 5° list and/or trim, ie can be assumed that B forms a circle with M as center point. BM is, cherefore, a fixed dis- “The drawings demonstra that with an in- crease in heel, the location of M depends = the shape of the submerged pare of the ship (thereby, the location of B, which changes continuously in a moving ship) ~ the surface area of the waterline where~ by the width ofthe waterline is the most imporsant Factor (this also changes con- ‘tinuously in a moving ship)Ml bevn. The ship has O° list. The alignment ByiMy largely determined by the The ship with a list of 20°, The breadth of the waterlin fare, BM becomes greater The ship with alist of 40 Because the deck merged and the saterline decreases; therefore, BM becomes smaller defined as follows: (in physical terms) che intersection of the line (plane). mioyaney vector and the center ‘60°. The breadth The ship with 90° list. Ae 60 Mis defined as follows: (in physical erm) the intersection of 2 consecutive buoyancy vectors with a slight increase in angle of heel (for example from 05° 10 06 (+(9+0.1%). The length of the waterplane area will be fairly constant with an increasing lis. The width of che warerplane area will in crease inivially and decrease thereafter. Consequently, the BM becomes larger initially wich an increasing list. Ifthe is further increases, the waterline surface area decreases along, with the BM distance (de pending on the draft). The distance of BM is decisive for the See section 36 With larger list, there i a false metacenter (Ny (A ship with an even transverse weight dis tsbuion has no lis) ‘The value BM for transverse angles is sig nificandy differene from M for longitudi- nally angles with BM, being much lager. 3.5. Model data The lines plan accurately represents the hull’ form. Amongse othe lines the water lines are drawn ac constane distances fom baseline tothe design waterline Between the base and waterline 1 wate: line ¥ is marked in order to make adjust rents for iregularities caused by the rise of floor (deadrise) and curve of the bilge ‘With the Simpson Rules (see chapter 3.11.2}, the area of the waterplane as well asthe area of the ordinates (sections) can be cal: culated. The following can also be derived from these rules: ~ the statical moment of the waterlines ia relation to the keel ~ the ordinates in relation to the aft pew pendicular so thar the volume of che hull ean be determined KB and LCB can be found in this way Bonjean curves A line representing the area below the wa terlines a each ordinate gives the posi ity to caleulate displacements coefficiens for agiven trim at each ordinate (section.ordinate 10 ordinate 18 pt See We “om w3 aR w2 3m we et Bonjean curve Bonjean curve 50 100 150m? eee Scotion atea ata deaft'T (Y), 78m, 1: 9.0m, 2006:9.6m S2xUxUIK(Y, + 4¥, 4¥)) Agnaphisdrawn, whereby the draft ean be radon the vertical axis and the area of the fame on the horizontal axis. The 6 ealew- Ind areas ae then given and combined in the gph, Values in berween ean be found by inter polxion, es 10 and 18 ofa ship are reproduced inthe drawing MMe I ian WL ' is 0.75 moter. The widest part ofthe ship is 19.20 mesers. ondiate 10, che following ae the watecline half bread: Sure reat WL 1 Simpson's oe Rules rface area to WL 2 > Simpson's Ist Rule: rea = 29 x1 (YAY, +) =2 616% 15x (044490496) 456m! ‘Suface area to WL3 > Simpson's 2nd Rule: DAW RIX (Yg4 BY, 437, 4%, 24 WX 15% (043% 904 3x96 4956) 150m? = 2 RI KAS (0-44 7849.0) = 20, me? ‘This graph forall the sections is called the "Bonjean Curves Wich the Bonjean curve of each ordinate and the Simpson’ Rules the volume of che hull a each draft and trim can be calculated ‘The so calculated displacemene represents the submerged part ofthe ship without the shell plating, rudder, propellor ete ‘The displacement has to be adjusted ac- cordingly ‘The buoyancy at WL 4 can be found by measuring horizontally the Bonjean curves at the level of waterline 4 foreach section. By combining the areas formed below the watedline drawn on these section values represents che buoyancy. In the cir figure, the draft is7 mexes, the resulting value foran area of 120 m*. The Bonjean data appear in table form in the ship’ specific stability booklet (hydro statie particulars). The following is given for each ordinate and waterline ~ The distance from basis to wacetline for «ach ordinate (section), For each water line, the area of the submerged part of the ordinate. ~ The distance from each ordinate t0 oF dinate 0 (isat perpendicular, ~ The statial moment of area in relation to the baseline. ~ The statical moment of area in relation to ordinate 0. Fach arbitrary draft and trim as well as che volume of the hull, LCB and KB can be calculated from these data, Many more sections can be used to deter- ‘mine not only the ship's displaced volume with each erim but also wich each list, pref erable with a computer's asistance, Ac the same time, ic is possible to caleulate B for the ship on a series of waves. Theaccuracy ofthe calculations rely on the accuracy of the Bonjean curves. New methods of calculation The newest methods involve dividing the shell surface in small elements. For each elee iment the hydrostatic pressure isealculated TTo find the sum, by means ofthe direction and strength ofthe hydrostatie force on all calculated surface elements, the position of Bis determined. The position of B can, in this manner, be calculated for each transi- tory waterline, as well as in complicated wave systems3.6 Center of gravity‘G The assumption is chat the toral weight of the ship (weight of structural parts, ma chinery, outfit, cargo, fuel, ete) is concen: trated at a point G (Center of Gravity CoG). The surmmation and alignment of which, are represented by a vector, the so-called resultant ofall weights for the ship. of extreme distribution Exa that can be directly fluenced by the ship'screw. The crew deter- mines where the different weights (cargo ballas, fc, supplies) are placed onboard Gis the only poi Vector Quanciey hac indicates magnitude as ection, With regard vo stabil ity, ehis means chac the vector indicates: well as a force in tons = the working ditection of his force Resultant: One vector chat repla ofs on the same body a number of functioniny without changing the result g = comer of gr: G = center of gravity of the entice ship, ‘Amongst other things, the crew decides: the amount and sequence in which the loaded /discharged goods are placed where they are placed which fuel, ballast and drinking water tanks are filled or emptied Gis thus, dependent on che magnitude of the ship's weight and where itis located. 3.6.1 Determination of the location ofG The shipyard estimates the lo £G for the ‘empty ship. The ‘light ship weight’ isthe weight of the ship with only the compulsory i ventory onboard, ‘compulsory equipment’: equipment chat part of the completed ship, such as anchors, life-saving apparatus etc ‘The shipyard can fairly accurately dete rine the light weight of the empty ship based on the materials used. Above the calculations for G (| compulsory inclining experimei performed. (sce 3.6.1e ship) « 1s to be 1 location of G is Found from che inclin ing experiment and adjusted for possible known weights to be added or removed, This is the starting point for the calcula tion of G for any other loading condition, Additionally, the “ligheship weight” is determined at the same time as the in clining experiment as Archimedes law ficse step, using The location of G can be calculated: = by the summation of all weight , mul tiplied by theie relative distance from ‘each weight to baseline or aft perpen ded by the voral weight dicular 6.12) ~ by moving of substancial weights (in clining experiment) (36.1.b)346.1. Law of Moment Equilibrium The location of G above the keel is deter tind by all weights of ship and cargo, bue ako on the position of these weights above thckedl (VE,). Inorderto calculate the VCG the follow inginformation is necessary ~ displacement and VCG of che empty ship = the weight of each added load or cargo ~ thediseance from each additional weight to a poine of reference, usvally the kel force x lever Formula: Moment Fora simple explanation of ‘moment; con- sider a seesaw parent exerts a moment in relation to the pivot point of 80 x 4= 320 kilogram-merer (kgm) andthe child: 20 x4 = 80 kgm Ouicome: equilibrium one end of the see sawissuspended and cannot be moved ‘The moments are not equal es What can be done to bring the seesaw in balace: che moment that parent and child fer must be equal relative to the pivor pine (poine of reference), but in che op- posite direction aig 20g e Tm dm The moment that both now exert relative to the pivot point, isthe same and equilib rium is achieved. The parent exercs a moment relative to the pivot poine at 80 > 1 = 80 kgm and the child, the same moment, namely 20 x 4 = 80 kgm, In principle, the same occurs on a ship, If there is equilibrium between all mo- ‘menesto port and starboard the The axis of rotation is located in the cen- rerline plane. This also applies in che longitudinal sense The ship then turns on the lateral axis through the waterplane Center OF Floatation (COF), Law of Moment equilibrium: Total moment of a number of forces (weight) x levers in relation toa fixed (cho- sen) poine or area is equal tothe summa: tion of all the individual moments in rela- sion tothe same point or area. The magnicude of moment exerted on the ship thus dependant upon the: ~ magnitude of weight (in tons) ~ lever distance (in meters) Explanation of different moments that weight (g) exerts on a ship with the points of reference, distances and abbreviations sed Direction Explained Vertical Transverse | M, | Centesine Vertical Og, | TCg | ‘Transverse Moment Cog Longitidunal M, Langeal| AB perpen] Lg | Longcdial Moment cular CO. Points of reference can be: 1. aft perpendicular 2. fore perpendicular 3. amidships 4. centerline 5. keel (base line). With a few illustrations and sim ple calculations, the concept of Moment is further explained on che following page. NB: for clarification, longieudinal stability is also indicated heres thisis explained later in chaprer 4containers disc 200 sul 800 VCG new = tions and caleula: tions itappeats that a large weight moved a shore dist effect asa small weight moved a long distance. The mo: ‘ment for both is equa ‘Ona ship, the location of G is deter by dividing the toral moment by the « weight From the above illus cehas the sa al ‘Weight 1000 (toa) yoo” 00 (meter oo Weight | aheaion | 000 [700 | <2an0 | onan dichged | 100 [1200 | 1200 anminewhadet | +100 | 400 | + 0 = oon | 6x6 | s1an0 VOGnew= A120 «656m «000 166 [Newco inital stanion | to [3000 | 300000 coninen dished | -100 [3000 | - 200 1500 | + 00 cow [5005 | a015n ibs [CE aa zmainesloaet | + 20 |op00 | + 1980 ole oon [5025 | s01st0 The computer calculates each new change in weight during loading (alter input) so the position of G is known immediately The computer calculates the location of G vertically (VOG) as well as hori (LCG) and transverse (TCG) “ie rea 5000 (ronmeter) | 6.00 (mete) MI 6000 (conmerer) The exact location of G is importa for = sabiliy Lee 70 (meter) 70,000 (onmete36.1 Movement of center of ravity “The movement of G can be quickly made clea i only one (large) weight i relocated on hoard orloaded Gthen moves: ~ inthe movement direction of the weight = seossa distance of GG, = —P—— for the transfer of one ofthe weights A onboard (p) on G PS foc adding weight (p) (ate) (Changing the location of G by cansfering 8 (25 tons) containers 75 meters forward on ship 0f 6000 ron dispac pxa 8 a 25 ton x75 meters 6000 Gonclusion: G moves 2.5 meters forwaed. Avestical ise of G caused by placing a load above G, KG eo,- 2. Atp 200 ton x (kg - KG) {6000 +200 200 ton (12-5) 6000 + 200 23m Conclusion: G chen moves 0.23 me ters upwards =5.23 meters ‘The formulais: GG, Gmoves when a weight is transferred of loaded / discharged p isthe transferred, loaded or discharged weight 2 che displacement of the ship before loading weight 1, Thedistance by which the weight is moved relative to G 2 Loading of weight: obviously the weight is loaded ar G, chen moved to its definitive positions 5 i then the distance between G and the definitive position. 3.6. luc Inclining test The shipbuilder can estimate the displace- ‘ment, KG and GM based on the materials (mostly steel) used in building, Tn order to caleulate the correct GM of the empty ship, the ship must undergo an inclining experimene (stabilicy test) to de- termine KG. The results of the test serve asthe basis for alculations. Should the resales of the stability tese deviate from the ship. builder’ calculations, chen it could be that the weights of the used building materials were incorrectly calculated. The weight of the ‘empey ship’ must be as accurate as possible. During the est = the ship must be free to roll (mooring wires slack, et) = itmuse be calm with no wind = no disturbancy from waves, The tese musebe conducted multiple times both starboard and portside with consist: ant outcome to ensure an accurate result. Aknown weight (1) is moved transversally across a known distance (2) asa result of which the ship lists. (1) the weight must be so large that: «che ship remains within an initial range of stability (max. ist 5*) *# equal ro about 2 % displacement (2) approximately % the breadth. ‘Gé change of location is indicated in the Figure. The ship’ lis due to relocating the weight is accurately measured, This can be done by means of plumb line. Ifa plumb line is used, iis usually suspend- ed in a hold where the weight hangs in a tank of water to stabilize the plumbline. The result is determined by measuring the distance the pendulum moves on a tape line (QR). In practice also a special instru- ment is used that registers the list in frac sions of degrees. After a number of weight moves GM xan becalculated After a substantial conversion, a new in: clining experiment can be requested by Class, usually when edit or removed weight is more than 2% of the light weight