j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .

2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.jmrt.com.br

Review Article

Past and present techniques of self-healing in

cementitious materials: A critical review on
efficiency of implemented treatments

Aamar Danish ∗ , Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah, Muhammad Usama Salim

Civil Engineering Department, Cyprus International University, Nicosia, North Cyprus, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Concrete is being extensively used in construction industry worldwide because of its avail-
Received 24 February 2020 ability and affordability but it is vulnerable to crack formation. Because of cracking concrete’s
Accepted 19 April 2020 durability reduces due to ingression of chloride and water which corrodes rebars in rein-
Available online 6 May 2020 forced concrete. Moreover, frequent inspection and maintenance of concrete structures is
hectic and costly. Therefore, self-healing techniques are known methods to cease cracking
Keywords: and regaining the strength and durability of concrete. This study discusses available self-
Concrete healing techniques and agents/materials by highlighting their applications, criticization and
Crack formation performance in various published studies. Based on this review, geometry and size of cracks
Durability have an important role in selecting self-healing techniques and agents/materials, however,
Maintenance encapsulation of chemical healing agents shows more effective results due to better reaction
Self-healing agents between un-hydrated cement particles and healing agents/materials.
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Aamar Danish secured his bachelors degree (Bronze Medalist)
Civil Engineering from University of Engineering & Technol-
ogy, Taxila Pakistan and currently pursuing his master degree
in Structural Engineering (Construction & Building Materials)
at Cyprus International Engineering. He is working on using
cenosphere as secondary cementitious material in concrete
batching. Alongside his master degree, he is also working as
research associate and course assistant with Assistant Prof.
Dr. Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah. Moreover, he is also work-
ing as Assistant Editor in Sustainable Structure & Material, An
International Journal.
Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah moved to Cyprus in 2011 to
pursue his Ph.D. program in the Civil Engineering Department
at Eastern Mediterranean University with 100% scholarship.
He completed his Ph.D. dissertation entitled “Mechanical char-
acteristics Investigation of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete
using Design of Experiment and Response Surface Method-
ology” in 2016. After graduation, he joined Girne American
University, Girne, Cyprus as a full-time lecturer in fall 2016.
He is now Assistant Professor at Cyprus International Univer-
sity, Nicosia, Cyprus since 2017. He has background of teaching
many undergraduate and graduate courses and advising grad-
uate students. Moreover, several master students have been
graduated under his supervision and many masters and Ph.D.
students are still ongoing. He is interested and motivated to
make research and define new research projects as he pub-
lished many articles in well reputed journals. In 2018, he

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mails: 21806381@student.ciu.edu.tr (A. Danish), mmosaberpanah@ciu.edu.tr (M.A. Mosaberpanah), 21806912@student.ciu.edu.tr (M.
Usama Salim).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.04.053
2238-7854/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
6884 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899

Fig. 1 – Significant causes of deterioration/damage of concrete structures [9].

was invited by Dean of Civil Engineering department of Laval designers and contractors. Cracks formed in concrete can be
University, Quebec City, Canada, and funded by Cyprus Inter- categorize into following states:
national University to conduct two research projects with the
collaboration of construction materials lab researchers at The
(i) Plastic state
University of Laval. Now, Next to academic activities, he is col-
a. Plastic settlement
laborating on several projects with international researchers
from different universities. b. Formwork movement
c. Plastic shrinkage
Muhammad Usama Salim is a final year master student at the (ii) Hardened state
Department of Civil Engineering, Cyprus International Univer-
a. Thermal stress
sity. His main area of interest includes material reactions in
concrete like Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR) and Alkali Car- b. Chemical reaction
bonate Reaction. He is currently researching on slowing down c. Error in detailing and design
above mentioned reactions in concrete by using by-products d. External/overload
of waste materials such as fly ash and cenospheres.
Cracks in concrete might not affect concrete structures at
early stages but can surely effect their lifespan [10]. A con-
siderable amount of money is allocated worldwide to repair
1. Introduction
existing concrete structures annually. Apart from the produc-
tion cost of concrete ($60–80 m–3 ), maintenance and repairing
Concrete is an indispensable construction material, which
cost is estimated to be $147 m–3 . Developed countries like USA,
is being used widely for roads, buildings, tunnels, subways,
Germany, South Korea, etc. are facing significant amounts of
bridges, and other infrastructure construction [1]. Generally,
concrete structures deterioration, which causes them to spend
concrete is composed of water, binder, coarse and fine aggre-
more money on maintenance and repair in contrast to build-
gate [2]. Concrete is a material of choice due to several
ing new structures [11]. The US spends around $18–21 billion
applications and properties like high compressive strength,
on maintenance, repair and replace of deteriorated structures
high durability, cost effectiveness, easy accessibility of its con-
[12]. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) presented a
stituents, compatibility of adjusting with rebars and casting
report stating that in next five years the US and Asian coun-
in different sizes and shapes [3–5]. Unfortunately, concrete is
tries will need approximately $2.2 trillion and $2 trillion for
highly vulnerable to cracking and other kind of damages (like
maintenance of structures respectively [13]. Almost all repair
deterioration) which allows some severe chemicals (acid rain
cases do not increase the life of structure in contrast to the
and salts etc.) to enter in concrete [6]. Cracking is one of the
amount spent on them. Deterioration of structures do not only
important causes of concrete deterioration and reduction in
put a heavy toll on country’s economy but also affect it socially
durability [7,8] as Fig. 1 shows that cracking is one of the main
and environmentally.
cause of structure damage/deterioration reported by clients,
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899 6885

Fig. 2 – No. of publication regarding self-healing concrete 1973–2018 [16].

Fig. 3 – Problems maintenance of structures causes.

In the view of increasing cracking of structures, researchers
invented a method named as self-healing to overcome con-
crete structure deterioration whose popularity can be seen
by increasing number of article publications each year as
shown in Fig. 2. Although, the process of self-healing in
concrete without human intervention (without adding any
material/admixture to fills flanks/cracks) was first discovered
in 1836 [14], but from the past few decades, researchers are
finding different novel methods to functionalize self-healing
of concrete [11]. Self-healing is the best method to reduce
cracking of concrete structures because process of regular
inspection and repair/maintenance is impossible for mas-
sive concrete structures due to large requirement of labor
and cost [15]. Considering mentioned circumstances, self-
healing or automatic repair is an effective process of sealing
harmful cracks without intervening any human effort or cap-
ital investment. Some of the major benefits of self-healing
of concrete is given in Fig. 3. Nowadays, self-healing mech-
anism is being used in variety of structures as shown in
Fig. 4.
6886 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899
Fig. 4 – Application of self-healing in different civil engineering structures [9].
In the view of civil engineering structure’s vulnera-
bility to crack, increasing attention towards self-healing
agents/materials and methods, problems of structural main-
tenance and applications of self-healing techniques requires
a comprehensive study to introduce some novel advance-
ments in enhancing self-healing ability of concrete structures.
Although, a lot of research has been conducted on the prop-
erties and applicability of self-healing agents/materials but
there is no article available which provides extensive study
on the efficiency/performance past and present self-healing
techniques in cementitious materials. Therefore, this arti-
cle discusses past and present techniques of self-healing in
cementitious materials by highlighting their types, properties,
efficiency and triggering mechanism.
The data and information provided in this review arti-
cle was collected from known available sources (like Google
Scholar, Web of Science, Web of Knowledge, ScienceDirect and
Website of Institutes) since 1980. The primary concern was not
just to find and collect the most influential published work
on the mentioned topic but to identify prospects for future
development. Additionally, quantitative content analysis was
implemented on the fragmented data related to efficiency and
performance of self-healing techniques.
2. Taxonomy of self-healing techniques
Several self-healing techniques has been discovered until now
and discussed in several studies (as shown in Fig. 5) are
summarized below. Generally, different types of self-healing
techniques are used in the target environment based on the
characteristics of cracks like length and width as shown in
Table 1.
2.1. Autogenous/natural healing
Almost 20–30% cement in conventional/traditional concrete
remain unhydrated. If concrete starts to crack, unhydrated
cement particles reacts with the ingress water. This reaction
starts hydration process again and make hydration products to
fill the cracks. This inherited self-healing process is known as
autogenous healing [37]. Autogenous healing can be possible
in following ways [26,38] as in Fig. 6a and b.
A. CaCO3 or Ca(OH)2 formation to block cracks.
B. Hydration of unhydrated particles of cement.
C. Blocking of cracks by presence of impurities in water.
D. Expansion/swelling of calcium-silicate hydrate (CSH) gel.
All mentioned processes can occur simultaneously. More-
over, some of the mentioned processes can only fill the cracks
partially and leave the rest. Among all natural healing mech-
anisms formation of CaCO3 and Ca(OH)2 is the most effective,
which can be formed in the following way:
H2 O + CO2 ⇔ H2 CO3 (1)
H2 CO3 ⇔ H+ + HCO3 - (2)
HCO3 - ⇔ 2H+ + CO3 2- (3)
Ca2+ + CO3 2- ⇔ CaCO3 (4)
Ca2+ + HCO3 - ⇔ CaCO3 + H+ (5)
Many studies were carried out to investigate the efficiency
of autogenous healing and factors effecting it [26,40,41]. It has
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899 6887

Fig. 5 – Hierarchical view of self-healing techniques [17–26].

6888 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899

Table 1 – Self-healing techniques applicability with mentioned crack width.

S. No. Techniques Crack width (m)

1 Natural healing <60 × 10−6 [27,28]

2 Encapsulation and bacteria 0.97 × 10−3 [29–33]
3 Supplementary cementitious materials <200 × 10−6 [34,35]
4 Other chemical and biological methods Up to 0.22 × 10−3 [36]

Fig. 6 – (a) Autogenous/natural self-healing methods [26,38]. (b) Autogenous healing due to physical, chemical and
mechanical processes in cementitious materials [39,40]

been found out that mechanisms of autogenous healing are
effective for the small sized cracks, however, sometimes larger
cracks (<200 ␮m) apart from cracks greater than 300 ␮m can
also be cured in water presence. Major factors affecting auto-
genous healing depends on: (i) concrete age and composition,
(ii) water presence (iii) crack shape and size.
2.1.1. Age and composition
Autogenous healing potential depends upon concrete compo-
sition which includes following parameters:
1. Clinker content in cement
Cement type is not that important factor to influence
concrete composition. However, supply of calcium ions is
determined by clinker contents (in cement) which eventu-
ally showcase the ability of matrix to form precipitates of
CaCO3 .
2. Silicate addition
Such addition in concrete mix effects the type of mix
prepared by influencing pozzolanic reactions, healing
mechanism duration and consumption of Ca(OH)2 .
3. Aggregate type
This factor affects pattern of cracking and related healing
process to be initiated.
4. Class of concrete
Concrete class is related to w/c ratio, ease of binder in devel-
oping appreciable quantity of (CSH) gel due to hydration,
binder type and quantity used.
5. Concrete age
Concrete age is vital for healing mechanism. Early age of
concrete is more profound [34] as it has more unhydrated
bonding particles to form new CSH gel. Scanning electron
microscope (SEM) examination revealed that regaining of
strength of cracked concrete submerged in water is due to
the formation of CSH and portlandite while the regain in
concrete stiffness is related to formation of ettringite.
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899
2.1.2. Presence of water
Water submergence is considered best suited for self-healing
exposure. Presence of water is vital for autogenous healing
phenomenon for proceeding chemical reactions and also act
as transporting agent for particles. Different properties (tem-
perature, pressure gradient, alkalinity, pressure and hardness
[42]) of water present also effects healing phenomenon. More-
over, few studies have found that self-healing phenomenon
works perfect in wet and dry cycles as compared to complete
water submerged conditions. This is possible because CaCO3
can easily form due to massive availability of carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) in air.
2.1.3. Crack shape and size
Geometrically, cracks suggest the extent of autogenous heal-
ing by identifying crack dimensions (height, length and width)
and crack pattern (branched or accumulated). Narrower cracks
can be healed easily and quickly also by limiting width of crack
and enhancing healing mechanism. Controlling the crack for-
mation and expansion can also store and transport water
throughout the matrix to enhance hydration (and healing) [43].
Additionally, age of first crack is also important along with
crack geometry for enhancing autogenous healing.
2.2. Autonomic healing
Autonomic concrete healing is an artificial healing process.
Such healing is processed when an appropriate healing agent
is added to concrete, so that healing/blocking of crack can be
done without any external aid at ambient temperature [16].
This type of healing can be achieved by chemical and biological
processes.
2.2.1. Chemical self-healing
An autonomic healing type of concrete carried out by incor-
porating chemical compounds into the cracks. Chemical
self-healing concrete can be made by mixing fresh concrete
with chemical reagent (liquid) such as glue. There are many
processes to accomplish chemical healing of concrete such
as hollow pipette, encapsulation method, etc. There are two
modes for chemical self-healing of concrete, active and pas-
sive mode. There is a difference between two nodes is that
active mode needs external supply of chemical reagent con-
trary to passive mode [24].
2.2.2. Biological self-healing
Biologically healed concrete is an environmentally sound
process that can be achieved by using microorganisms in
designing self-healing concrete [44,45]. The reason behind
choosing microorganisms is that they can grow anywhere
such as in soil, acidic springs, water, oil reservoir, etc. Gen-
erally, there are three types of microorganisms including
bacteria, virus and fungus. Out of the mentioned microorgan-
isms types, bacteria of special strains are the most effective
to be used for self-healing concrete because of its ability
to precipitate certain useful chemical to be used in design-
ing self-healing concrete. In this process microorganisms are
incorporated in concrete through various methods for exam-
ple incorporation of microbial broth in freshly form concrete,
in spores form, immovable form on silica gel, in the form of
6889
encapsulation and by using vascular network method. Growth
of microorganisms is concrete’s environment (PH value, mois-
ture content and temperature) is not appreciable due to which
in most of the cases, spores are used instead of microbial
broth. Moreover, encapsulation method is applicable in harsh
concrete conditions, but this method is quite complex and
expensive. Additionally, vascular network method to expand
microbial broth over cement matrix is a way of protecting bac-
teria from inappropriate concrete conditions but this method
is complex and lacks constructability in view of todays’ tech-
nology.
2.3. Engineered self-healing
Various methods of engineered self-healing of cracks in con-
crete has been explored so far which depends upon crack
width. Apart from engineered self-healing concrete many self-
healing concrete techniques has been explored but a practical
remedy is still unavailable for-example bacterial approach is
effective method but mostly it is very difficult for bacteria to
survive because they get killed during concrete mixing and
placing [25]. Other methods of concrete healing such as vascu-
lar technique can cause pre-maturation of healing agents even
before crack starts forming [41]. While methods of engineered
self-healing, concrete gives better results than mentioned
approaches, such techniques utilize fiber reinforced or engi-
neered cementitious composites. These methods give better
results in real world because they require no special compo-
nents, good at regaining durability and cost effective.
3. Effective self-healing techniques
3.1. Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the most common and effective methods to
ingress healing agent into composite materials such as con-
crete. A variety of materials are available to make healing
agents and capsules depending upon desired efficiency. Suc-
cessful encapsulation technique is possible only if mechanical
resistance of capsules used can overcome internal forces of
concrete mixing [46]. Encapsulation healing techniques are
function of capsule viscosity, shell thickness, diameter and
surface [47]. This technique is capable of extending active
duration and releasing pattern of chemical/biological heal-
ing agents in concrete. A lot of researches suggested that this
process is versatile and effective because of its efficiency to
regain concrete’s properties like mechanical and durability.
Additionally, encapsulation techniques are facing repeatabil-
ity challenge as concrete structures damages for multiple
times and capsules deliver limited amount of healing agents
in the crack of concrete due to which longtime usability is
not possible. However, nowadays researches are focused on
smart release of healing agent suggesting the manufacturing
of capsules through which multi-healing cycles will be possi-
ble [48]. Such study was carried out by using healing material
in tube, but it reduced the recovery of durability properties
each time healing process starts [49,50]. Depending upon loca-
tion for dispersion of capsules, encapsulation techniques are
classified as tabular glass (capsule dispersion at estimated
6890 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899

Table 2 – Summary of encapsulation techniques used.

Shell material Encapsulated material Percentage replacement Performance References
with cement weight (%)

Polyurethane/urea Sodium silicate 2.5–5 - Reduces crack width and [51]

formaldehyde transmission of ultrasonic wave
Poly (urea Epoxy 1–4 - Increases flexural strength [52]
formaldehyde)
- Reduces damage index
Urea formaldehyde Epoxy 0–9 - Reduces porosity, chloride [53–58]
diffusion and permeability
-Increases compressive, tensile
strength and dynamic elastic
modulus
Ca(NO3 )2 0.25–2 - Increases elastic modulus and [59–61]
surface resistivity
Sodium silicate 0.5–5 - Increases stiffness [62]
Dicyclopentadiene 0.25 - Increases stiffness
Poly-urea Sodium silicate 0.8 - Reduces capillary absorption [63]
Poly Epoxy 0–2 - Increases fracture energy [64]
styrene-divinylbenzene
- Reduces water absorption
Melamine Epoxy 1–4 - Increases flexural strength [65]
urea–formaldehyde
Microcapsules Bacterial spores 1–5 - Enhances crack healing power [33]
- Reduces water permeability
Silica Epoxy 5–10 - Reduces sorptivity coefficient [66]
Polyvinyl alcohol Calcium sulpho 10 - Increases dynamic elastic [67]
aluminate modulus
Alginate Ag+ 10 - Enhances chloride resistance [68]

failure locations) and microcapsules (dispersion of capsules
in the matrix uniformly). Healing induced by encapsulation
self-healing can be broadly classified as chemical agents and
bacterial precipitation. The encapsulation techniques used in
different researches are given in Table 2.
3.1.1. Chemical agents
Different encapsulation materials for instance polymers,
light-weight aggregates, glass and ceramic tubes, etc. are
being used for development of self-healing phenomenon in
cement matrix. Among mentioned encapsulating materials,
polymeric capsules are being used widely by preparing them
through an oil-in-water dispersion phenomenon of poly-
meric material. In order to make strong Urea (NH2 CON2 ) and
formaldehyde (CH2 O) capsule shell, NH2 CON2 and CH2 O are
generally reacted in liquid phase. The prepolymer formed by
mentioned reaction in liquid phase can be taken out to give
somewhat rough texture to capsules [69–71]. This explained
technique can be used to enhance bonding with cement
matrix. Several other materials for manufacturing/processing
of capsules are polyurethane and melamine-based capsule
material, glass tubes and acrylic tubes (perspex cast), etc. [72].
A variety of healing agents has been introduced in above men-
tioned capsules such as solution of sodium silicate [73,74],
epoxy [64,75], isocyanate prepolymer [49,72], cyanoacrylate
[76] and MMA monomer [76,77]. Design and geometry of cap-
sule used for encapsulating healing agents play an important
role in fulfilling its function. This mechanism is beneficial as
it can come in action in case of multiple cracking with a good
efficiency to restore mechanical properties of concrete but this
technique is not environmental friendly, weaken concrete and
leaves no room for concrete (incorporated with encapsulated
chemical agents) recycling.
3.1.2. Bacterial precipitation
Generally, material used for manufacturing of capsules to
encapsulate microbial species are of different type such as
melamine-based and diatomaceous earth [33,78]. Moreover,
microbial species used in mentioned capsules are of different
types depending upon various factors like crack width, con-
crete type and temperature, etc. These bacteria are generally
Bacillus sphaericus, pseudofirmus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
etc. Mentioned bacteria have been successfully encapsulated
for accompanying self-healing in concrete and had differ-
ent effects on various properties on concrete as listed in
Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The main advantage of using this
technique is that it is environmental friendly and compati-
ble with cement matrix while its main disadvantages include
repeatability issues, performance dependent (mainly on mois-
ture) and costly. The stages to be followed to incorporate
encapsulated bacterial precipitation in concrete are shown in
Fig. 7.
4. Quality of self-healing techniques
In order to quantify the quality of self-healing methods six
criterions are used. Self-healing method should show six crite-
rions to ensure quality of self-healing method’s functionality
and indented role in structures. Apart from using these cri-
terions as quality quantifying tool, they can also be used to
determine advantages and disadvantages/limitations of var-
ious self-healing approaches. These six criterions are shelf
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899 6891

Table 3 – Bacteria encapsulated for self-healing in concrete.

Bacteria used Self-healing formation Summary References

Bacillus sphaericus Ureolytic precipitation of - Reduces permeability [31]

Ca(NO3 )2
- Enhances self-healing phenomenon
- Enhances strength
- Reduces in permeability [32]
- Enhances healing ratio [33]
- Reduces in permeability
- Reduces in water absorption [79]
Bacillus cohnii C6 H10 CaO6 metabolically - Seals larger crack [80]
converted
- Bacteria remain active till 6 months
Bacillus Conversion of source of - Source of calcium affects healing ratio [81]
calcium to carbonate
- Bacteria remain active till 4 months
Bacillus Subtilis C6 H10 CaO6 decomposition - Enhances healing action [82]

Table 4 – Effect of bacteria used as self-healing in concrete on various concrete properties (↑: Increases, ↓: Decreases).
Bacteria Used Sample age (days) Compressive strength Permeability Water absorption References

Sporosarcina 7 ↑ – – [83]
pasteurii
28
28 ↓ [84]
Bacillus cohnii 7 ↑ – – [85]
28
56
Bacillus sphaericus 7 ↑ ↓ – [86]
28
3 ↑ – ↓ [87]
7
21
28 ↓ ↓ – [33]
90
Diaphorobacter 7 ↓ – – [88]
nitroreducens
28
Bacillus 3 ↓ – – [44]
pseudofirmus
7
28

Fig. 7 – Various stages incorporate encapsulated bacterial precipitation in concrete.

6892 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899

Table 5 – Self-healing efficiency criterions vs self-healing methods [11,15].

S. no. Criterion Self-healing technique

Chemical Microorganisms Admixtures Glass tubing Intrinsic healing

encapsulation encapsulation

1 Shelf life Long, depends Spores pertain Depends on Long, depends Long
on encapsulated for at least six additive’s on encapsulated
healing agent months so does reactivity and healing agent
this approach hydration
2 Pervasiveness Yes, as capsules Yes, as capsules Yes, as additives No, tubes can Yes, as they can
can be dispersed having spores are thoroughly only be placed be available
throughout can be dispersed mixed and where the cracks anywhere in
concrete throughout dispersed are anticipated matrix
matrix throughout
matrix
3 Quality Restores Demonstration Demonstration Demonstration Demonstration
mechanical of complete of complete of self-sealing of self-sealing
properties of self-sealing but self-sealing but and restores and restores
matrix, restoration of restoration of mechanical mechanical
self-sealing mechanical mechanical properties properties
property has not properties is less properties has without 100% without 100%
been not been efficiency efficiency
investigated investigated
4 Reliability No sufficient No sufficient No sufficient No sufficient No sufficient
data available for data available for data available for data available for data available for
assessment assessment assessment assessment assessment
5 Versatility Yes, as it is No, as it needs No, as it needs Yes, as it is Yes, as it is
independent of continuous continuous independent of independent of
environment moisture moisture environment environment
exposure exposure
6 Repeatability No sufficient No sufficient No sufficient Not repeatable Yes, but up-to
data available for data available for data available for some extents
assessment assessment assessment

life, perverseness, quality, reliability, versatility and repeata- 4.3. Quality

bility. These criterions have been evaluated with different
self-healing techniques in Table 5. Additionally, there are sev-
eral structural tests that are used to evaluate efficiency of
self-healing approaches as listed in Table 6.
4.1. Shelf life
Civil engineering structures have a certain service life such as
50–100 year or even more (based on the type of structures).
Although, it is not possible to estimate when a concrete struc-
ture will start to damage which implies that self-healing must
also aid in life span of structure which is known as shelf life.
This criterion shows that used self-healing method (chemical,
biological, physical or a combination) must have some shelf
life.
4.2. Perverseness
Since civil engineering structures are quite complex hav-
ing combined environmental (wind, earthquake, etc.) and
mechanical (dead, live, etc.) loadings, it is not possible to esti-
mate from where the crack will occur, it can be anywhere in
a structure irrespective of any specific crack orientation. This
criterion ensures that self-healing method used should be per-
vasive and should not be available in some limited parts of
concrete structure.
On ideal basis, self-healing process should recover transport
(impermeability, infusibility, etc.) and mechanical (strength,
stiffness, ductility, etc.) properties of concrete structure.
However, if self-healing technique only recover transport
properties then the process is only self-sealing not truly
self-healing. This indicator implies that self-healing should
not only seal cracks but also bind crack faces together
chemically.
4.4. Reliability
This indicator refers to self-healing method’s consistency to
recover mechanical and transport properties of concrete. If
any method has large consistency (greater variation coeffi-
cient) then the process lacks reliability.
4.5. Versatility
Civil engineering infrastructure and structures are exposed
to various environments some are continuously wet, and
some are dry or both. Structures can also be exposed
to high chloride/sulphate environment such as struc-
tures in northern areas and coastal regions. Self-healing
method should be versatile if it is applicable to variety of
environments.
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899 6893

Table 6 – Various structural tests to evaluate concrete’s self-healing efficiency.

Test/properties Methods/tests Identification References

Visual inspection Correlation of digital image Cracks tend to close after heat [89]
treatment
Infrared analysis Formation of precipitated [90,91]
products
X-ray tomography/radiography Release of encapsulated [50,92]
self-healing agent
Micromorphology Crystals starts to deposit in [93–95]
crack
SEM Crystals starts to deposit in [44,73,96–98]
crack
ESEM Capsule starts to break [99]
partially
Raman spectroscopy Determination of chemical [96]
composition
X-ray diffraction Determination of crystalline [100]
materials
Image analysis/optical Determination of healing [73,101–103]
microscopy rate/crystal deposition into
cracks
Regaining mechanical strength Compression strength test Regain of stiffness and strength [104,105]
Frame/column deformation [49]
(horizontal)
Impact loading on slab [49]
Bending test (3-point &4-point) [47,50,71,72,77,106–111]
Tensile strength test [28,106]
Frequency analysis Capsule containing healing [112–117]
agent breaks
Regaining compactness Neutron radiography Determination of water uptake [118,119]
by capillary action through
healed cracks
Salt scaling Salt scaling resistance [120]
Low and high pressure Flowing of water/air through [10,31,39,50,114,121–123]
water/air permeability cracks healed
Osmotic pressure Ion ingression resistance [117]
Ultrasonic transmission Continuation of material [100]
technique
Diffusion of chloride Chloride ingression resistance [124,125]
Water uptake through capillary Water uptake by capillary [95,126]
action action through healed crack
Corrosion test Corrosion resistance [74]

4.6. Repeatability various healing techniques to work effectively as listed in

Due to varying loads on a structure, cracks can occur repeat-
edly in the lifespan of structure. Therefore, self-healing
process should not only heal structure’s cracks once but
repeatedly whenever the crack appears. This indicator implies
that self-healing process should remain active during the lifes-
pan of structure.
5. Triggering mechanism of healing agent
There must be some triggering mechanism behind healing
action in concrete to be started. There are three types of
triggering mechanism in self-healing phenomenon of con-
crete namely: (i) ingression of solutions or gasses, (ii) cracking,
(iii) internal and external heating action. All these mecha-
nisms are listed in Table 7. Apart from different triggering
mechanism available, there are some conditions available for
Table 8.
5.1. Ingression of solutions and gasses
Such triggering mechanism can be qualified by submerging
the samples in water or exposing them to cycles (wet/dry) dur-
ing complete healing period. But such practices for practical
structure can never get wet except during rainfall. Apart from
rainfall, water triggered healing mechanism never become
active except for structures containing super absorbent poly-
mers (SAP). Structures containing SAP induce healing action
due to moisture absorption upon high relative humidity
exposure [127]. Moreover, especially for bacterial self-healing,
presence of oxygen and water should be present. Major advan-
tage of this mechanism is that such triggering agents are
widely distributed in matrix. Additionally, such agents will not
6894 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899

Table 7 – Various process responsible for self-healing phenomenon in concrete [32,79,80,129–131].

Triggering mechanism Requirement Explanation

Addition of solutions and gas Solution/gas Self-healing processing

Water Hydration and autogenous healing
Water and CO2 Formation of CaCO3 and autogenous
healing
High relative humidity Expansion of hydrogels used and
autogenous healing
Water and O2 Spores activation and precipitation of
bacterial CaCO3
CO2 Degradation of coating surrounding
expanded clay
Cracking Crack + water Fast action to crack closure
Possibility of capsule breakage (exposure
of healing agent) on crack formation
Ease of injecting healing agent
External heating 150 ◦ C Melting of ethylene-vinyl acetate particles
100 ◦ C Wax coating melting
90 ◦ C + Water Closing of crack by Polyethylene
Terephthalate
Internal heating 48 ◦ C Paraffin coating melts
93 ◦ C Melting of ethylene-vinyl acetate film

Table 8 – Conditions required for working of various healing techniques [132–134].

Sr. No. Self-healing Conditions
techniques

Cracks with water Cracks with CO3 2- Crack width Methods to supply
healing agent

1 Self-healing due to No requirement for Not necessary Depends upon Capsule or vascular
adhesive agent water presence amount of agent system
added small/wide
cracks can be healed
2 Bacterial Continuous Continuous Cracks of width up Immobilization of
self-healing availability of water availability of CO3 2− to 450 ␮m can be bacteria
is required is required healed
3 Autogenous Continuous Presence of CO3 2− is Cracks with width –
self-healing availability of water not necessary but (<50 ␮m) can be
required they can enhance healed
healing efficiency
4 Self-healing due to Continuous Not necessary Cracks of width up Can be added
admixtures availability of water to 450 ␮m can be directly during
is required healed concrete mixing or
by encapsulation

be able to initiate healing unless liquids and gasses intrude
into the cracks.
5.2. Cracking
Cracking as triggering mechanism of healing is very appre-
ciable because matrix responds very fast. Healing agent is
released into the crack upon cracking and it further depends
upon curing of healing agent. Breakage of capsule during crack
formation depends upon capsule wall brittleness and appre-
ciable adhesion between capsule boundary and the matrix.
But excessive brittleness can break capsule during concrete
mixing. Hence, extensive care and flexible capsule material
should be used to protect capsule during mixing of concrete.
5.3. Internal and external heating
It is not financially feasible to supply heat externally because
it requires structural monitoring for cracks. In the view of
this, structural monitoring can be avoided with the continuous
supply of electric current. But using sensitive strain sensors
and permanent supply of electric current still raises system
cost. Concrete can also deteriorate if the matrix is overheated.
Moreover, at 100 ◦ C available water in concrete begins to vapor-
ize, and at 180 ◦ C dehydration and collapsing of microstructure
occurs [128]. Apart from above-mentioned disadvantages,
this triggering mechanism in self-healing concrete (using
encapsulation technique) overcome the requirement of
using brittle capsule, which eases mixing and casting of
concrete.
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899
Table 9 – Self-healing techniques for various structures and environments.
Sr. No. Self-healing
techniques
Under water
1 Self-healing due to Hardly
adhesive agent recommended
2 Bacterial Recommended
self-healing
3 Autogenous Recommended
self-healing
4 Self-healing due to Recommended
admixtures
Fig. 8 – Cost and performance analysis of concrete with and without healing agents [138].
6. Selection of self-healing techniques
Various localities and environments of structures determine
different self-healing techniques to be used as shown in
Table 9. Bacterial, admixture and autogenous self-healing
need water in the cracks for healing action to proceed, which
makes mentioned healing techniques best suited for struc-
tures under water. But self-healing due to adhesive agent is
not recommended for structures under water because water
present in cracks stops adhesive agent to be released into
cracks and get hardened. Moreover, for underground struc-
tures, all healing techniques can be applied but if water table
is high then self-healing due to adhesive agent is not recom-
mended. Additionally, cracks in underground structures also
undergo wet/dry cycles, which facilitates precipitation of CO2
into crack and makes such conditions for applicability of bac-
terial and autogenous self-healing.
As most of the structures are built in open air having neg-
ligible or no water available in cracks due to which bacterial,
admixture and autogenous self-healing are very difficult to
apply.
7. Expense of self-healing methods
Self-healing of concrete to regain its mechanical properties
is practical solution to obtain concrete’s durability by lower-
ing maintenance and repairing cost of concrete structures.
According to some estimate $5.2 billion is spent on mainte-
nance of bridges. Additionally, repair of structures increases
loss of capital (due to traffic jams) and productivity which is
estimated to be 10 times the cost of constructing a structure
6895
Structure environment
Under ground Open air Indoor elements
Recommended but Recommended Recommended
in absence of water
Recommended Recommended with Hardly
water requirement recommended
Recommended Recommended with Hardly
water requirement recommended
Recommended Recommended with Hardly
water requirement recommended
in USA [135]. Annually $18–21 billion is spent on maintenance,
protection, repairing of concrete structures by their owners
[136]. In USA, ASCE claimed to invest $3.6 trillion to repair and
maintain concrete structures for seven year since 1998 [137].
About 45% investment on construction is spend on inspection,
maintenance and repair while in Europe this expenditure is
50%. Moreover, China spends 250 billion RMB annually to pro-
tect reinforced concrete structures from corrosion. Hence, by
incorporating healing agents in concrete can reduce repair-
ing/maintenance cost of structures and can provide more
sustainable and cheap structures.
Detailed analysis of life cycle for self-healing of concrete
was done by studying concrete mixtures with and without
healing agents [138] as shown in Fig. 5. Conventional concrete
requires repairs after regular intervals to maintain structural
integrity until it requires reconstruction. In Fig. 8, line B shows
regained durability of infrastructure by incorporating healing
agents. Although, higher capital is required but long-term ben-
efits are greater than traditional concrete.
8. Conclusion
This paper discusses various methods self-healing in con-
crete. A comprehensive taxonomy is presented which covers
all possible methods used for designing self-healing concrete
with different healing agents and efficiencies. Encapsulation
of chemical healing agents to manufacture concrete is bet-
ter option because it shows good results of reaction between
un-hydrated cement particles and healing agents. Accord-
ing to available healing technologies, the efficiency of healing
method depends on how much the matrix and healing agent
interact with each other. Geometry and size of crack also plays
6896 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899
and important role in predicting effective results of concrete
being healed for-example healing uniform width cracks can
be different from healing cracks of variable width.
Future recommendations
Future prospective for discussed topic should be further stud-
ied to enhance the client’s and manufacturer’s confidence in
using self-healing concrete instead of going for costly repair
procedures. These recommendations include:
Encapsulation being a standout self-healing technique
should be studied further to make it practically applicable
at commercial level. Such studies should include concrete
mixing strategy to avoid capsule breakage and negatively
influencing mechanical properties.
To be used on commercial level, the efficiency of
self-healing in concrete has to be proven under severe
environmental conditions which includes unideal curing con-
ditions/temperatures, severe weathering conditions (sulphate
or salt attack), freeze and thaw cycles.
Techniques for in situ applicability of self-healing agents
should be researched on. As such techniques depend upon
available budget, hence, cost of such mechanism should be
kept low as compared to the repair cost (direct/indirect).
Authors contribution
Aamar Danish: Concept, data collection and analysis, investi-
gation, original draft composition and editing
Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah: Concept, investigation,
methodology, writing, review and editing
Muhammad Usama Salim: Investigating, methodology,
writing and editing
Conflict of interest
All authors declare no conflict of interest
references
[1] Danish A, Salim MU, Ahmed T. Trends and developments in
green cement “A sustainable approach”. Sustain Struct
Mater In J 2019;2:45–60.
[2] Abdullahi M. Effect of aggregate type on compressive
strength of concrete. Int J Civil Struct Eng 2012;2:782.
[3] Muhammad NZ, Keyvanfar A, Majid MZA, Shafaghat A,
Mirza J. Waterproof performance of concrete: a critical
review on implemented approaches. Constr Build Mater
2015;101:80–90.
[4] Muhammad NZ, Shafaghat A, Keyvanfar A, Majid MZA,
Ghoshal S, Yasouj SEM, et al. Tests and methods of
evaluating the self-healing efficiency of concrete: a review.
Constr Build Mater 2016;112:1123–32.
[5] Palanisamy M, Kolandasamy P, Awoyera P, Gobinath R,
Muthusamy S, Krishnasamy TR, et al. Permeability
properties of lightweight self-consolidating concrete made
with coconut shell aggregate. J Mater Res Technol 2020.
[6] Basheer L, Kropp J, Cleland DJ. Assessment of the durability
of concrete from its permeation properties: a review. Constr
Build Mater 2001;15:93–103.
[7] Shaikh FUA. Effect of cracking on corrosion of steel in
concrete. Int J Concr Struct Mater 2018;12:3.
[8] Yoo D-Y, Kim S, Kim M-J, Kim D, Shin H-O. Self-healing
capability of asphalt concrete with carbon-based materials.
J Mater Res Technol 2019;8:827–39.
[9] Gardner D, Lark R, Jefferson T, Davies R. A survey on
problems encountered in current concrete construction
and the potential benefits of self-healing cementitious
materials. Case Stud Constr Mater 2018;8:238–47.
[10] Mihashi H, Nishiwaki T. Development of engineered
self-healing and self-repairing concrete-state-of-the-art
report. J Adv Concr Technol 2012;10:170–84.
[11] Li VC, Herbert E. Robust self-healing concrete for
sustainable infrastructure. J Adv Concr Technol
2012;10:207–18.
[12] Li Z, Leung C, Xi Y. Structural renovation in concrete. CRC
Press; 2014.
[13] Mather B, Warner J. Why do concrete repairs fail. Interview
held at Univ. of Wisconsin, Dept. of Engrg. Professional
Development, MD, WI,
http://aec.engr.wisc.edu/resources/rsrc07.html. Accessed
2019.
[14] Hearn N, Morley C. Self-sealing property of concrete –
experimental evidence. Mater Struct 1997;30:404–11.
[15] Souradeep G, Kua HW. Encapsulation technology and
techniques in self-healing concrete. J Mater Civil Eng
2016;28:04016165.
[16] Sidiq A, Gravina R, Giustozzi F. Is concrete healing really
efficient? A review. Constr Build Mater 2019;205:257–73.
[17] Al-Thawadi SM. Ureolytic bacteria and calcium carbonate
formation as a mechanism of strength enhancement of
sand. J Adv Sci Eng Res 2011;1:98–114.
[18] Chahal N, Rajor A, Siddique R. Calcium carbonate
precipitation by different bacterial strains. Afr J Biotechnol
2011;10:8359–72.
[19] De Muynck W, Cox K, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Bacterial
carbonate precipitation as an alternative surface treatment
for concrete. Constr Build Mater 2008;22:875–85.
[20] Ghosh P, Mandal S, Pal S, Bandyopadhyaya G,
Chattopadhyay B. Development of bioconcrete material
using an enrichment culture of novel thermophilic
anaerobic bacteria. Indian J Exp Biol 2006;44:336–9.
[21] Gollapudi U, Knutson C, Bang S, Islam M. A new method for
controlling leaching through permeable channels.
Chemosphere 1995;30:695–705.
[22] Jonkers HM. Self healing concrete: a biological approach. In:
Self healing materials. Springer; 2007. p. 195–204.
[23] Siddique R, Chahal NK. Effect of ureolytic bacteria on
concrete properties. Constr Build Mater 2011;25:3791–801.
[24] Toohey KS, Sottos NR, Lewis JA, Moore JS, White SR.
Self-healing materials with microvascular networks. Nat
Mater 2007;6:581.
[25] Van Der Zwaag S. Self-healing materials: an alternative
approach to 20 centuries of material science. Delf: Springer;
2007.
[26] Wu M, Johannesson B, Geiker M. A review: self-healing in
cementitious materials and engineered cementitious
composite as a self-healing material. Constr Build Mater
2012;28:571–83.
[27] Parks J, Edwards M, Vikesland P, Dudi A. Effects of bulk
water chemistry on autogenous healing of concrete. J Mater
Civil Eng 2010;22:515–24.
[28] Yang Y, Yang E-H, Li VC. Autogenous healing of engineered
cementitious composites at early age. Cement Concr Res
2011;41:176–83.
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899
[29] Dong B, Han N, Zhang M, Wang X, Cui H, Xing F. A
microcapsule technology based self-healing system for
concrete structures. J Earthquake Tsunami 2013;7:1350014.
[30] Qian CX, Luo M, Ren LF, Wang RX, Li RY, Pan QF, et al.
Self-healing and repairing concrete cracks based on
bio-mineralization. Key Eng Mater 2015:494–503.
[31] Wang J, Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Use of
silica gel or polyurethane immobilized bacteria for
self-healing concrete. Constr Build Mater 2012;26:532–40.
[32] Wang J, Snoeck D, Van Vlierberghe S, Verstraete W, De Belie
N. Application of hydrogel encapsulated carbonate
precipitating bacteria for approaching a realistic
self-healing in concrete. Constr Build Mater 2014;68:110–9.
[33] Wang J, Soens H, Verstraete W, De Belie N. Self-healing
concrete by use of microencapsulated bacterial spores.
Cement Concr Res 2014;56:139–52.
[34] Huang H, Ye G, Damidot D. Effect of blast furnace slag on
self-healing of microcracks in cementitious materials.
Cement Concr Res 2014;60:68–82.
[35] Van Tittelboom K, Gruyaert E, Rahier H, De Belie N.
Influence of mix composition on the extent of autogenous
crack healing by continued hydration or calcium carbonate
formation. Constr Build Mater 2012;37:349–59.
[36] Stuckrath C, Serpell R, Valenzuela LM, Lopez M.
Quantification of chemical and biological calcium
carbonate precipitation: performance of self-healing in
reinforced mortar containing chemical admixtures. Cement
Concr Compos 2014;50:10–5.
[37] Byoungsun P, Young CC. Investigating a new method to
assess the self-healing performance of hardened cement
pastes containing supplementary cementitious materials
and crystalline admixtures. J Mater Res Technol
2019;8:6058–73.
[38] Talaiekhozan A, Keyvanfar A, Shafaghat A, Andalib R, Majid
MA, Fulazzaky MA, et al. A review of self-healing concrete
research development. J Environ Treat Tech 2014;2:1–11.
[39] Aldea C-M, Song W-J, Popovics JS, Shah SP. Extent of healing
of cracked normal strength concrete. J Mater Civil Eng
2000;12:92–6.
[40] De Rooij M, Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N, Schlangen E.
Self-healing phenomena in cement-based materials:
state-of-the-art report of RILEM technical committee
221-SHC: self-Healing phenomena in cement-Based
materials, vol. 11. Springer; 2013.
[41] Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N. Self-healing in cementitious
materials – a review. Materials 2013;6:2182–217.
[42] Ma H, Qian S, Zhang Z. Effect of self-healing on water
permeability and mechanical property of
medium-early-strength engineered cementitious
composites. Constr Build Mater 2014;68:92–101.
[43] Martinelli E, Barros JA, Ferrara L. Recent advances on green
concrete for structural purposes: The contribution of the
EU-FP7 project EnCoRe. Springer; 2017.
[44] Jonkers HM, Thijssen A, Muyzer G, Copuroglu O, Schlangen
E. Application of bacteria as self-healing agent for the
development of sustainable concrete. Ecol Eng
2010;36:230–5.
[45] Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N, De Muynck W, Verstraete W.
Use of bacteria to repair cracks in concrete. Cement Concr
Res 2010;40:157–66.
[46] Han N-X, Xing F. A comprehensive review of the study and
development of microcapsule based self-resilience systems
for concrete structures at Shenzhen University. Materials
2017;10:2.
[47] Joseph C, Jefferson AD, Isaacs B, Lark RJ, Gardner DR.
Experimental investigation of adhesive-based self-healing
of cementitious materials. Magaz Concr Res 2010;62:831–43.
6897
[48] Dong B, Wang Y, Fang G, Han N, Xing F, Lu Y. Smart
releasing behavior of a chemical self-healing microcapsule
in the stimulated concrete pore solution. Cement Concr
Compos 2015;56:46–50.
[49] Thao TDP. Quasi-brittle self-healing materials: numerical
modelling and applications in civil engineering; 2011.
[50] Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N, Van Loo D, Jacobs P.
Self-healing efficiency of cementitious materials containing
tubular capsules filled with healing agent. Cement Concr
Compos 2011;33:497–505.
[51] Grantham M, Basheer PM, Magee B, Soutsos M. Concrete
solutions 2014. CRC Press; 2014.
[52] Li W, Jiang Z, Yang Z. Acoustic characterization of damage
and healing of microencapsulation-based self-healing
cement matrices. Cement Concr Compos 2017;84:48–61.
[53] Wang X, Xing F, Zhang M, Han N, Qian Z. Experimental
study on cementitious composites embedded with organic
microcapsules. Materials 2013;6:4064–81.
[54] Souza L, Al-Tabbaa A. Microfluidic fabrication of
microcapsules tailored for self-healing in cementitious
materials. Constr Build Mater 2018;184:713–22.
[55] Dong B, Ding W, Qin S, Han N, Fang G, Liu Y, et al. Chemical
self-healing system with novel microcapsules for corrosion
inhibition of rebar in concrete. Cement Concr Compos
2018;85:83–91.
[56] Wang X, Sun P, Han N, Xing F. Experimental study on
mechanical properties and porosity of organic
microcapsules based self-healing cementitious composite.
Materials 2017;10:20.
[57] Dong B, Fang G, Ding W, Liu Y, Zhang J, Han N, et al.
Self-healing features in cementitious material with
urea–formaldehyde/epoxy microcapsules. Constr Build
Mater 2016;106:608–17.
[58] Katoueizadeh E, Zebarjad SM, Janghorban K. Investigating
the effect of synthesis conditions on the formation of
urea–formaldehyde microcapsules. J Mater Res Technol
2019;8:541–52.
[59] Milla J, Hassan MM, Rupnow T, Al-Ansari M, Arce G. Effect
of self-healing calcium nitrate microcapsules on concrete
properties. Transport Res Rec 2016;2577:69–77.
[60] Hassan MM, Milla J, Rupnow T, Al-Ansari M, Daly WH.
Microencapsulation of calcium nitrate for concrete
applications. Transport Res Rec 2016;2577:8–16.
[61] Al-Ansari M, Abu-Taqa AG, Hassan MM, Senouci A, Milla J.
Performance of modified self-healing concrete with
calcium nitrate microencapsulation. Constr Build Mater
2017;149:525–34.
[62] Gilford J III, Hassan MM, Rupnow T, Barbato M, Okeil A,
Asadi S. Dicyclopentadiene and sodium silicate
microencapsulation for self-healing of concrete. J Mater
Civil Eng 2013;26:886–96.
[63] Giannaros P, Kanellopoulos A, Al-Tabbaa A. Sealing of
cracks in cement using microencapsulated sodium silicate.
Smart Mater Struct 2016;25:084005.
[64] Li W, Jiang Z, Yang Z, Zhao N, Yuan W. Self-healing
efficiency of cementitious materials containing
microcapsules filled with healing adhesive: mechanical
restoration and healing process monitored by water
absorption. PLOS ONE 2013;8:e81616.
[65] Li W, Zhu X, Zhao N, Jiang Z. Preparation and properties of
melamine urea-formaldehyde microcapsules for
self-healing of cementitious materials. Materials 2016;9:152.
[66] Calvo JG, Pérez G, Carballosa P, Erkizia E, Gaitero J, Guerrero
A. Development of ultra-high performance concretes with
self-healing micro/nano-additions. Constr Build Mater
2017;138:306–15.
6898 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899
[67] Lee Y-S, Ryou J-S. Self healing behavior for crack closing of
expansive agent via granulation/film coating method.
Constr Build Mater 2014;71:188–93.
[68] Xiong W, Tang J, Zhu G, Han N, Schlangen E, Dong B, et al. A
novel capsule-based self-recovery system with a chloride
ion trigger. Sci Rep 2015;5:10866.
[69] Kessler M, Sottos NR, White SR. Self-healing structural
composite materials. Compos Part A: Appl Sci Manuf
2003;34:743–53.
[70] Brown EN, White SR, Sottos NR. Retardation and repair of
fatigue cracks in a microcapsule toughened epoxy
composite–Part II: In situ self-healing. Compos Sci Technol
2005;65:2474–80.
[71] Xing F, Ni Z, Han N, Dong B, Du X, Huang Z, et al.
Self-healing mechanism of a novel cementitious composite
using microcapsules. In: Proceedings of the international
conference on durability of concrete structures, Hangzhou,
China. 2008.
[72] Thao TDP, Johnson TJS, Tong QS, Dai PS. Implementation of
self-healing in concrete–proof of concept. IES J Part A: Civil
Struct Eng 2009;2:116–25.
[73] Huang H, Ye G, Leung C, Wan K. Application of sodium
silicate solution as self-healing agent in cementitious
materials. In: International RILEM conference on advances
in construction materials through science and engineering.
2011. p. 530–6.
[74] Pelletier MM, Brown R, Shukla A, Bose A. Self-healing
concrete with a microencapsulated healing agent.
Technical report of University of Rhode Island, Kingston,
USA, http://energetics.chm.uri.edu/system/files/Self%20
healing%20concrete%20-7-11.pdf. Accessed 2019.
[75] Chowdhury RA, Hosur MV, Nuruddin M, Tcherbi-Narteh A,
Kumar A, Boddu V, et al. Self-healing epoxy composites:
preparation, characterization and healing performance. J
Mater Res Technol 2015;4:33–43.
[76] Dry CM. Repair and prevention of damage due to transverse
shrinkage cracks in bridge decks. In: Smart structures and
materials 1999: Smart systems for bridges, structures, and
highways. 1999. p. 253–7.
[77] Dry C. Matrix cracking repair and filling using active and
passive modes for smart timed release of chemicals from
fibers into cement matrices. Smart Mater Struct 1994;3:118.
[78] Wang J, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Diatomaceous earth as a
protective vehicle for bacteria applied for self-healing
concrete. J Indus Microbiol Biotechnol 2012;39:567–77.
[79] Wang J-Y, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Diatomaceous earth as a
protective vehicle for bacteria applied for self-healing
concrete. J Indus Microbiol Biotechnol 2012;39:567–77.
[80] Jonkers HM. Bacteria-based self-healing concrete. Heron
2011;56:1–12.
[81] Xu J, Yao W. Multiscale mechanical quantification of
self-healing concrete incorporating non-ureolytic
bacteria-based healing agent. Cement Concr Res
2014;64:1–10.
[82] Khaliq W, Ehsan MB. Crack healing in concrete using
various bio influenced self-healing techniques. Constr Build
Mater 2016;102:349–57.
[83] Bang S, Lippert J, Yerra U, Mulukutla S, Ramakrishnan V.
Microbial calcite, a bio-based smart nanomaterial in
concrete remediation. Int J Smart Nano Mater 2010;1:28–39.
[84] Chahal N, Siddique R, Rajor A. Influence of bacteria on the
compressive strength, water absorption and rapid chloride
permeability of fly ash concrete. Constr Build Mater
2012;28:351–6.
[85] Burne RA, Chen Y-YM. Bacterial ureases in infectious
diseases. Microb Infect 2000;2:533–42.
[86] Achal V, Mukerjee A, Reddy MS. Biogenic treatment
improves the durability and remediates the cracks of
concrete structures. Constr Build Mater 2013;48:1–5.
[87] Achal V, Mukherjee A, Reddy MS. Microbial concrete: way to
enhance the durability of building structures. J Mater Civil
Eng 2010;23:730–4.
[88] Erşan YÇ, Da Silva FB, Boon N, Verstraete W, De Belie N.
Screening of bacteria and concrete compatible protection
materials. Constr Build Mater 2015;88:196–203.
[89] Jefferson A, Joseph C, Lark R, Isaacs B, Dunn S, Weager B. A
new system for crack closure of cementitious materials
using shrinkable polymers. Cement Concr Res
2010;40:795–801.
[90] Yuan XZ, Sun W, Zuo XB. Study of feasibility of heat melt
adhesive being used in crack self-healing of cement-based
materials. Appl Mech Mater 2011;99:1087–91.
[91] Wiktor V, Jonkers HM. Quantification of crack-healing in
novel bacteria-based self-healing concrete. Cement Concr
Compos 2011;33:763–70.
[92] Mihashi H, Kaneko Y, Nishiwaki T, Otsuka K. Fundamental
study on development of intelligent concrete characterized
by self-healing capability for strength. Trans Jpn Concr Inst
2001;22:441–50.
[93] Ter Heide N. Crack healing in hydrating concrete. Delft
University of Technology, Delft; 2005. p. 128.
[94] Sangadji S, Schlangen E. Self healing of concrete
structures-novel approach using porous network concrete. J
Adv Concr Technol 2012;10:185–94.
[95] Sisomphon K, Copuroglu O, Fraaij A. Application of
encapsulated lightweight aggregate impregnated with
sodium monofluorophosphate as a self-healing agent in
blast furnace slag mortar. Heron 2011;56(1/2).
[96] Homma D, Mihashi H, Nishiwaki T. Self-healing capability
of fibre reinforced cementitious composites. J Adv Concr
Technol 2009;7:217–28.
[97] Ahn T-H, Kishi T. Crack self-healing behavior of
cementitious composites incorporating various mineral
admixtures. J Adv Concr Technol 2010;8:171–86.
[98] Nijland TG, Larbi JA, van Hees RP, Lubelli B, de Rooij M. Self
healing phenomena in concretes and masonry mortars: a
microscopic study. In: Proc. 1st Int. Conf. on Self Healing
Materials. 2007. p. 1–9.
[99] Li VC, Lim YM, Chan Y-W. Feasibility study of a passive
smart self-healing cementitious composite. Compos Part B:
Eng 1998;29:819–27.
[100] Haddad R, Bsoul M. Self-healing of polypropylene fiber
reinforced concrete: Pozzolan effect. Irbid, Jordan: Civil
Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science and
Technology; 1999.
[101] Nishiwaki T, Koda M, Yamada M, Mihashi H, Kikuta T.
Experimental study on self-healing capability of FRCC using
different types of synthetic fibers. J Adv Concr Technol
2012;10:195–206.
[102] Sisomphon K, Copuroglu O. Self healing mortars by using
different cementitious materials. In: International
Conference on Advances in Construction Materials through
Science and Engineering. 2011. p. 5–7.
[103] Sisomphon K, Copuroglu O, Koenders E. Surface crack
self-healing behaviour of mortars with expansive additives.
In: 3rd International Conference on Self-healing Materials,
Bath, UK. 2011. p. 44–5.
[104] Yang Z, Hollar J, He X, Shi X. A self-healing cementitious
composite using oil core/silica gel shell microcapsules.
Cement Concr Compos 2011;33:506–12.
[105] Katsuhata T, Ohama Y, Demura K. Investigation of
microcracks self-repair function of polymer-modified
mortars using epoxy resins without hardeners. In:
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6883–6899
Proceedings of 10th international congress on polymers in
concrete. 2001. p. 23–5.
[106] Qian S, Zhou J, Liu H, De Rooij M, Schlangen E, Gard W, et al.
Self-healing cementitious composites under bending loads.
In: Proceedings of 2nd international conference on self
healing materials. 2009.
[107] Sun L, Yu WY, Ge Q. Experimental research on the
self-healing performance of micro-cracks in concrete
bridge. Adv Mater Res 2011:28–32.
[108] Dry C, Corsaw M, Bayer E. A comparison of internal
self-repair with resin injection in repair of concrete. J Adhes
Sci Technol 2003;17:79–89.
[109] Yang Z, Hollar J, He X, Shi X. Laboratory assessment of a
self-healing cementitious composite. Transport Res Rec
2010;2142:9–17.
[110] Kuang Y-c, Ou J-p. Passive smart self-repairing concrete
beams by using shape memory alloy wires and fibers
containing adhesives. J Central South Univ Technol
2008;15:411–7.
[111] ter Heide N, Schlangen E. Self-healing of early age cracks in
concrete. In: First international conference on self healing
materials. 2007. p. 1–12.
[112] Yang Y, Lepech MD, Yang E-H, Li VC. Autogenous healing of
engineered cementitious composites under wet–dry cycles.
Cement Concr Res 2009;39:382–90.
[113] Sahmaran M, Li M, Li VC. Transport properties of
engineered cementitious composites under chloride
exposure. ACI Mater J 2007;104:604.
[114] Nanayakkara A. Self-healing of cracks in concrete subjected
to water pressure. In: Proceedings of conference on new
technologies for urban safety of mega cities in Asia. 2003.
[115] Jacobsen S, Sellevold EJ. Self healing of high strength
concrete after deterioration by freeze/thaw. Cement Concr
Res 1996;26:55–62.
[116] Abd Elmoaty AEM. Self-healing of polymer modified
concrete. Alexandria Eng J 2011;50:171–8.
[117] Song M, Jeon S, Song Y. The change of osmosis pressure by
crack self-healing of cementitious materials. In:
Proceedings of 3rd international conference on self healing
materials. 2011. p. 27–9.
[118] Zhong W, Yao W. Influence of damage degree on
self-healing of concrete. Constr Build Mater
2008;22:1137–42.
[119] Van Tittelboom K, Snoeck D, Vontobel P, Wittmann FH, De
Belie N. Use of neutron radiography and tomography to
visualize the autonomous crack sealing efficiency in
cementitious materials. Mater Struct 2013;46:105–21.
[120] Sisomphon K, Çopuroğlu O, Fraaij A. Durability of
blast-furnace slag mortars subjected to sodium
monofluorophosphate application. Constr Build Mater
2011;25:823–8.
[121] Reinhardt H-W, Jooss M. Permeability and self-healing of
cracked concrete as a function of temperature and crack
width. Cement Concr Res 2003;33:981–5.
6899
[122] Kunieda M, Shimizu K, Eguchi T, Ueda N, Nakamura H.
Fundamental properties of ultra high performance-strain
hardening cementitious composites and usage for repair. J
Jpn Soc Civil Engrs, Ser. E2 (Mater Concr Struct)
2011;67:508–21.
[123] Nishiwaki T, Mihashi H, Jang B-K, Miura K. Development of
self-healing system for concrete with selective heating
around crack. J Adv Concr Technol 2006;4:267–75.
[124] Lee HXD, Wong HS, Buenfeld N. Self-sealing cement-based
materials using superabsorbent polymers. In: Proceedings
of the international RILEM conference on use of
superabsorbent polymers and other new additives in
concrete. 2010. p. 15–8.
[125] Termkhajornkit P, Nawa T, Yamashiro Y, Saito T.
Self-healing ability of fly ash–cement systems. Cement
Concr Compos 2009;31:195–203.
[126] Şahmaran M, Li VC. Durability properties of micro-cracked
ECC containing high volumes fly ash. Cement Concr Res
2009;39:1033–43.
[127] Snoeck D. Self healing concrete by the combination of
microfibres and reactive substances. Ghent, Belgium: Ghent
University; 2011. Master thesis.
[128] Schneider U. Behaviour of concrete at high temperatures:
Ernst; 1982.
[129] Lee H, Wong H, Buenfeld N. Potential of superabsorbent
polymer for self-sealing cracks in concrete. Adv Appl Ceram
2010;109:296–302.
[130] Dejonghe P, De Belie N, Steuperaert S, Snoeck D, Dubruel P.
The behaviour of suberabsorbing polymers as a sealing
agent in concrete: absorption kinetics, degradation and
water permeability. In: 3rd International conference on
self-healing materials (ICSHM 2011). 2011. p. 123–4.
[131] Kim J, Schlangen E. Super absorbent polymers to simulate
self healing in ECC. In: van Breugel K, Ye G, Yuan Y, editors.
2nd international symposium on service life design for
infrastructures. 2010. p. 849–58.
[132] Cao QY, Hao TY, Su B. Crack self-healing properties of
concrete with adhesive. Adv Mater Res 2014:1880–4.
[133] Li VC, Yang E-H. Self healing in concrete materials. In: Self
healing materials. Springer; 2007. p. 161–93.
[134] Choi YC, Park B. Enhanced autogenous healing of ground
granulated blast furnace slag blended cements and
mortars. J Mater Res Technol 2019;8:3443–52.
[135] Freyermuth CL. Life-cycle cost analysis for large bridges.
Concr Int 2001;23:89–95.
[136] Emmons PH, Sordyl DJ. The state of the concrete repair
industry, and a vision for its future. Concr Repair Bull
2006;19:7–14.
[137] Herrmann AW. Asce 2013 report card for america’s
infrastructure. In: IABSE symposium report. 2013. p. 9–10.
[138] Van Breugel K. Is there a market for self-healing
cement-based materials. In: Proceedings of the first
international conference on self-healing materials. 2007. p.
1–9.