hapter 10

ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
SEELEY'S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY, 9TH EDITION.

Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
HORMONES
Hormones are chemical
messengers that are secreted
directly to the blood stream
by endocrine glands or
specialized endocrine cells.
From the blood stream, they
travel to the effectors or
target cells to produce a
response.

Hormones influence their

HORMONES: MAJOR
CATEGORIES
The hormones’ transport,
interaction with its target,
and removal from the body is
dependent to their chemical
structure.
There are two major types of
hormones: lipidsoluble and
water-soluble.
target cells by chemically
binding to specific protein
receptors, a property termed
as selectivity.
In the occurrence of excess
hormones in the blood stream,
the receptors of the target-
cell decreases, a phenomenon
called downregulation that
makes the cell less-sensitive
to the hormone.
Insufficient amount of
hormones in the blood causes
the target-cells’ receptors to
multiply, an effect called up-
regulation which makes the
cell more-sensitive to the
hormones.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. METABOLISM. The endocrine system regulates the rate of metabolism, the
sum of the chemical changes that occur in tissues.
2. CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE AND DIGESTION. The endocrine system
regulates the level of satiety (fullness) and the breakdown of food into
individual nutrients.
3. TISSUE DEVELOPMENT. The endocrine system influences the
development of tissues, such as those of the nervous system.
4. ION REGULATION. The endocrine system regulates the solute
concentration of the blood.
5. WATER BALANCE. The endocrine system regulates water balance by
controlling solutes in the blood.
6. HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION. The endocrine
system helps regulate the heart rate and blood pressure and helps prepare
the body for physical activity.
7. CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE AND OTHER NUTRIENTS. The endocrine
system regulates the levels of blood glucose and other nutrients in the
blood.
8. CONTROL OF REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS. The endocrine system
controls the development and functions of the reproductive systems in
males and females.
9. UTERINE CONTRACTION AND MILK RELEASE. The endocrine system
regulates uterine contractions during delivery and stimulates milk release
from the breasts in lactating females.
10. IMMUNE SYSTEM REGULATION. The endocrine system helps control the
production and functions of immune cells.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION
1. STIMULATION OF HORMONE RELEASE
There are three types of stimuli that result in hormone secretion:
humoral, neural, and hormonal.
A. Humoral stimuli (body fluids): response to certain levels of substance
in the blood.

B. Neural stimuli (neurons): neurons response to an action potential

and release neurotransmitters and/or neuropeptides to stimulate
endocrine cells.
Releasing hormones is a term used for hormones of hypothalamus
because it stimulates hormone secretion of other endocrine cells

C. Hormonal stimuli (hormones): the hormone secreted by an endocrine

gland stimulates the release of other hormones
Tropic hormones are produced from the anterior pituitary gland that
causes other endocrine gland to release hormones
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
2. INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE
A process that occurs to counteract the stimulating effect of three types of
stimuli: humoral, neural, and hormonal.
A. Humoral inhibition: opposes and counteract the effect of humoral
stimulus
B. Neural inhibition: inhibitory neurotransmitters prevents the
endocrine gland from secreting its hormone
C. Hormonal inhibition: certain hormones blocks the release of other
hormones.
Inhibiting hormones are produced by the hypothalamus to prevent
the pituitary gland to release tropic hormones.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
Regulates hormone secretion by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Increased amounts of target gland hormones in the bloodstream
decrease secretion of the same hormone and other hormones that
stimulate its release.

Endocrine glands are ductless glands that directly

secretes their products into the blood stream.
ENDOCRINE Exocrine glands drains their secretions through a
duct to the outside of the body or into a hollow
GLANDS organ (i.e., stomach); such secretions are saliva,
sweat, breast milk, and digestive enzymes.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
HYPOTHALAMUS
WHAT IS IT?
Portion of the diencephalon of the brain, forming the floor and part of the
lateral wall of the third ventricle; region below the thalamus.
Major link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Termed as the endocrine control center of the brain
Major link between the nervous and endocrine systems.

WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?

Termed as the endocrine control center of the brain
Produces nine different hormones.

HOW IT SECRET HORMONE?

The hypothalamus produces hormones when stimulated by the nervous
system or the level of certain hormones present in blood stream.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PITUITARY GLAND
WHAT IS IT?
A pea-shaped structure that measures 1–1.5cm (0.5 in.) in diameter and
lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
A.k.a. hypophysis
Formerly called as the “master gland”

It has two portions: anterior and posterior pituitary gland.

Anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) PRODUCES eight hormones
Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis) STORES two hormones.

WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?

Anterior pituitary gland has five cell types that produce a specific
hormone.
These are the: somatotrophs, thyrotrophs, gonadotrophs, lactotrophs,
and corticotrophs.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?

Posterior pituitary gland stores and release two hormones, produced by
the hypothalamus.
These are: oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin.

THYROID GLAND
WHAT IS IT?
A shield-shaped organs
located inferior to the
larynx.
Typically, it has two
lobes, located laterally
to the trachea.
In 50% of the cases, it
has a third lobe called
pyramidal lobe that
extends superiorly to
the isthmus.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?
Thyroid gland has two types of hormone producing cells.
Follicular cells – T3 and T4 (thyroid hormone)
Parafollicular cells - calcitonin
T3 (Triiodothyronine) – potent thyroxine
T4 (Tetraiodothyronine) – actual thyroxine
Calcitonin – increase calcium absorption by stimulating osteoblasts in
the bones.
Thyroxine has three main functions:
1. Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR)
2. Enhance actions of catecholamines
3. Regulate development of nervous and bone tissues
Calcitonin (CT) decrease the amount of serum calcium by inhibiting the
osteoclast activity and by accelerating the uptake of calcium and
phosphates of the bone tissues.
Thyroid hormones are derived from iodine.
Thyroxine and calcitonin are both regulated by the negative feedback
system.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PARATHYROID GLAND
WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?
Four, small, round structures that are partially embedded in the posterior
surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland.
Chief/principal cells in the parathyroid gland produce the parathyroid
hormone (PTH) or parathormone.

Parathormone is responsible for regulating the serum levels of calcium,

magnesium, and phosphate.
It increases the calcium resorption by stimulating osteoclast activity.
PTH also increases the excretion of phosphate by the kidneys while
decreasing the elimination of calcium and magnesium in the urine.
↑ ↑ ↓
Ca and Mg while HPO4 in the blood.
Moreover, parathyroid hormone stimulates the kindey to produce
calcitriol (active vitamin D) that increases the absorption of calcium by
the intestines.

HOW DOES IT PRODUCE

HORMONE?
PTH and calcitonin have an
antagonistic effect and are
both regulated via negative
feedback system as initiated
by the serum calcium level.
↑ Ca in blood = inhibits PTH
secretion
↓ Ca in blood = stimulates PTH
secretion
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ADRENAL GLAND
WHAT IS IT?
Two, flattened pyramidal glands located superior to each kidneys.
Divided into two portions: adrenal cortex (outer) and adrenal medulla
(inner).

WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?

I. Adrenal cortex has three zones that produces different hormones:
1. Zona glomerulosa = mineralocorticoids
2. Zona fasciculata = glucocorticoids
3. Zona reticulata = androgens
1. Mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone, regulates the homeostasis of
two mineral ions: sodium and potassium.
It also promotes excretion of hydrogen via urination; thereby,
preventing acidosis.
Its secretion is govern by the RAA pathway.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?
I. Adrenal cortex has three zones that produces different hormones:
2. Glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol (hydrocortisone), regulates
metabolism and resistance to stress.
Functions include: protein and lipid breakdown, glucose formation
(gluconeogenesis), stress resistance, anti-inflammatory response, and
immunosuppresion.

3. Androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), stimulates

axillary and pubic hairs formation, female libido, and is responsible for
post-menopausal estrogen production.
All female estrogen comes from androgen.
ACTH governs the regulation of androgens.
II. Adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion of the SNS.
Instead of producing neurotransmitters, the chromaffin cells of the
adrenal medulla secrete hormones: Epinephrine and Norepinephrine.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) has a direct control over the secretion
of epinephrine and norpinephrine that enhance the effect of SNS.
During stressful situation or exercise, the hypothalamus stimulates the
sympathetic preganglionic neurons to stimulate chromaffin cells to
produce epinephrine and norepinephrine.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PANCREAS
WHAT IS IT?
Both endocrine and exocrine gland.
Located in the first curve of the duodenum and is consist of head, tail, and
body.
Endocrine tissues are called endocrine islets which include: A cells, B
cells, D cells, and F cells.

WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?

A (alpha) cells = produce glucagon to increase glucose level in the blood
and to stimulate insulin production.
B (beta) cells = produce insulin to increase glucose uptake of cells;
thereby, lowering blood glucose level. It also inhibits glucagon production.
D (delta) cells = produce somatostatin that inhibits glucagon and insulin
secretion. It also slows down nutrients absorption in the intestines.
F cells = produce pancreatic polypeptide which inhibits somatostatin
secretion.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

GONADS
WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?
Gonads are organs that produce gametes and secretes sex hormones.
Female: ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone
Male: testes synthesize testosterone
Estrogen and progesterone is responsible for development and function of
the female reproductive organs and other female sexual characteristics
Cyclical release of estrogen and progesterone regulates the menstrual
cycle.
These two hormones promotes development of mammary glands and
deposition of adipose tissue in breast, hips, and thighs during puberty.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Testosterone has three main functions:

1. Regulates production of sperm cells
2. Promotes descent of testes before birth
3. Responsible for secondary male characteristics such as broadening
of shoulders, deepening of voice, and beard growth
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PINEAL GLAND
WHAT IS IT?
A small, pinecone-shaped structure located superior and posterior to the
thalamus of the brain.

WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT FOR?

It produces the hormone melatonin.
Melatonin is thought to have two functions:
1. Sleep-wake cycle
2. Inhibits the functions of the reproductive system

THYMUS
WHAT IS IT?
A bilobed gland, roughly triangular in shape,
located in the superior mediastinum, behind the
sternum between the lungs.

WHAT HORMONES DOES IT PRODUCE AND WHAT

FOR?
It produces the hormones: thymosin, thymi
humoral factor (THF), thymic factor (TF), and
thymopoietin. All of which promotes the
maturation of T cells

OTHER HORMONES
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

COMMON ENDOCRINE DISORDER AND

NURSING MANAGEMENT
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
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SUMMARY
PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION
1. The four classes of chemical messengers are autocrine, paracrine, neurotransmitter, and
endocrine.
2. Endocrine chemical messengers are called hormones.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system has 10 major functions that contribute to homeostasis.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. The endocrine system includes glands and specialized endocrine cells that secrete
hormones into the bloodstream.
2. A hormone is a chemical messenger that is secreted into the blood, travels to a distant
target tissue, and binds to specific receptors to produce a coordinated set of events in that
target tissue.

HORMONES
CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES
1. There are two chemical categories of hormones: lipid-soluble and water-soluble.
2. Lipid-soluble hormones include steroids, thyroid hormones, and some fatty acid
derivatives.
3. Water-soluble hormones include proteins, peptides, and amino acid derivatives.
Water-soluble hormones circulate freely in the blood.
Proteases degrade protein and peptide hormones in the circulation; the breakdown
products are then excreted in the urine. However, some water-soluble hormones have
chemical modifications, such as the addition of a carbohydrate group, which prolongs
their lifespan.

CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

STIMULATION OF HORMONE RELEASE
Three types of stimuli result in hormone secretion: humoral, neural, and hormonal.
1. Humoral stimulation is exhibited by hormones that are sensitive to circulating blood
levels of certain molecules, such as glucose or calcium.
2. Neural stimuli cause hormone secretion in direct response to action potentials in
neurons, as occurs during stress or exercise. Hormones from the hypothalamus that
cause the release of other hormones are called releasing hormones.
3. Hormonal stimulation of other hormone secretion is common in the endocrine system.
Hormones from the anterior pituitary that stimulate hormones from other endocrine
glands are called tropic hormones.

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE

Although the stimulus of hormone secretion is important, inhibition is equally important.
1. Humoral substances can inhibit the secretion of hormones.
2. Neural stimuli can prevent hormone secretion.
3. Inhibiting hormones prevent hormone release.
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SUMMARY
REGULATION OF HORMONES IN BLOOD
Two processes regulate the overall blood levels of hormones: negative feedback and
positive feedback.
1. Negative feedback prevents further hormone secretion once a set point is achieved.
2. Positive feedback is a self-promoting system whereby the stimulation of hormone
secretion increases over time.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

1. The endocrine system consists of ductless glands.
2. Some glands of the endocrine system perform more than one function.

PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS

1. . The pituitary is connected to the hypothalamus in the brain by the infundibulum. It is
divided into anterior and posterior portions.
2. Secretions from the anterior pituitary are controlled by hormones that pass through the
hypothalamic-pituitary portal system from the hypothalamus.
3. Hormones secreted from the posterior pituitary are controlled by action potentials
carried by axons that pass from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary.
4. The hormones released from the anterior pituitary are growth hormone (GH), thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone
(LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin, and melanocytestimulating hormone
(MSH).
5. Hormones released from the posterior pituitary include antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and
oxytocin.

THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, which control the metabolic rate of tissues,
and calcitonin, which helps regulate blood Ca2+ levels.

PARATHYROID GLAND
The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which helps regulate blood Ca2+
levels. Active vitamin D also helps regulate blood Ca2+ levels.

ADRENAL GLANDS
1. The adrenal medulla secretes primarily epinephrine and some norepinephrine. These
hormones help prepare the body for physical activity.
2. The adrenal cortex secretes three classes of hormones.
a. Glucocorticoids (cortisol) reduce inflammation and break down proteins and lipids,
making them available as energy sources to other tissues.
b. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) help regulate blood Na+ and K+ levels and water
volume. Renin, secreted by the kidneys, helps regulate blood pressure by increasing
angiotensin II and aldosterone production. These hormones cause blood vessels to
constrict and enhance Na+ and water retention by the kidney.
c. Adrenal androgens increase female sexual drive but normally have little effect in
males.
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SUMMARY
PANCREAS, INSULIN AND DIABETES
1. The pancreas secretes insulin in response to elevated levels of blood glucose and amino
acids. Insulin increases the rate at which many tissues, including adipose tissue, the
liver, and skeletal muscles, take up glucose and amino acids.
2. The pancreas secretes glucagon in response to reduced blood glucose and increases the
rate at which the liver releases glucose into the blood.
3. The pancreas secretes somatostatin in response to food intake. Somatostatin inhibits
insulin and glucagon secretion and gastric tract activity

TESTES AND OVARIES

1. The testes secrete testosterone, and the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone.
These hormones help control reproductive processes.
2. LH and FSH from the pituitary gland control hormone secretion from the ovaries and
testes.

THYMUS
The thymus secretes thymosin, which enhances the function of the immune system.

PINEAL GLAND
The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which may help regulate the onset of puberty by
acting on the hypothalamus.

OTHER HORMONES
1. Hormones secreted by cells in the stomach and intestine help regulate stomach,
pancreatic, and liver secretions.
2. The prostaglandins are hormones that have a local effect, produce numerous effects on
the body, and play a role in inflammation.
3. Erythropoietin from the kidney stimulates red blood cell production.
4. The placenta secretes human chorionic gonadotropin, estrogen, and progesterone, which
are essential to the maintenance of pregnancy.

REFERENCE

Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 9th Edition.

No Copyright Intended.