A COMPARISON OF CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THE THEORIES OF

PAUL HINDEMITH AND FRANZ ALFONS WOLPERT

by

WILLIAM JAMES WATT

B. Mus., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1967

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF MUSIC

i n the Department

of

MUSIC

We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the required

standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

November, 1973
In presenting this thesis i n p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements for

an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that

the Library s h a l l make i t freely available for reference and study.

I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis

for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or

by his representatives. It i s understood that copying or publication

of this thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my

written permission.

Department of

The University of B r i t i s h Columbia

Vancouver 8, Canada
 ABSTRACT

Two t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y music t h e o r i s t s , Paul

Hindemith and Franz A l f o n s W o l p e r t , are unique i n having

i n d e p e n d e n t l y developed t h e i r own systems of chord

classification and p r i n c i p l e s of chord movement or

succession. While H i n d e m i t h 1 s i d e a s on these subjects

are f a m i l i a r among the m a j o r i t y of music theorists,

Wolpert1s theories remain r e l a t i v e l y unknown. It was

decided that since both men had attempted similar tasks

at similar points i n time, that a comparison of both

theorists' i d e a s should be attempted. T h e r e f o r e , both

H i n d e m i t h ' s and W o l p e r t ' s systems of chord classification

and chord c o n n e c t i o n were d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l to attempt

t o determine the r a t i o n a l e behind each t h e o r i s t ' s approach.

Firstly, both systems of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n were

examined and compared. I t was found t h a t a l t h o u g h there

were many d i f f e r e n c e s between H i n d e m i t h 1 s and W o l p e r t ' s

systems of chord g r o u p i n g , both succeeded, each i n h i s own

way, i n a r r a n g i n g a l l p o s s i b l e combinations of pitches

w i t h i n the twelve-note d i v i s i o n of the octave.

Similarly, each t h e o r i s t ' s i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g chord

movement were i n v e s t i g a t e d . While i t was r e a f f i r m e d that

Hindemith's system r e s t e d on concepts which he i n v e n t e d and

i
developed such as "degree p r o g r e s s i o n " and "harmonic

fluctuation," i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t W o l p e r t * s system of

chord movement was more t r a d i t i o n a l l y oriented, and yet

adhered t o some r a t h e r disturbing n o t i o n s about the

desirability of c e r t a i n k i n d s of v o i c e - l e a d i n g , e.g.,

"adhesion," "diversion," etc. Furthermore, while

Hindemith had strong i d e a s about the n e c e s s i t y of tonal

organization, i t was found t h a t Wolpert saw h i s system as

v a l i d f o r both t o n a l and a t o n a l frames of reference.

Finally, i t was r e c o g n i z e d t h a t H i n d e m i t h ' s

theories c o n t a i n e d a u n i t y and c o h e s i v e n e s s through the

extension of h i s system of chord c o n n e c t i o n t o i n c l u d e his

system of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n so t h a t the way chords were

classified i n f l u e n c e d how they were t r e a t e d i n chord

progressions. With Wolpert, however, there is no attempt

t o u n i f y both systems and t h e r e f o r e h i s i d e a s about chord

movement are c o m p l e t e l y d i v o r c e d from h i s system of c h o r d a l

groupings.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER I . INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I I . CHORD CLASSIFICATION 11

A. Hindemith 11

B. Wolpert 20

C. Comparison 37

CHAPTER I I I . CHORD MOVEMENT 51

A. Hindemith 51

B. Wolpert • 65

C. Comparison 85

CHAPTER I V . FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS 92

BIBLIOGRAPHY j.02

APPENDIX I 105

APPENDIX I I 106

APPENDIX I I I 107

iii
 LIST OF MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS

Example Number Page

1. Hindemith s Series 2 1
13

2. W o l p e r t s Three-Note Chord Types

f
23

3. Wolpert* s Concept of C o n t r a c t e d Form 24

4. Wolpert's Comparison w i t h Hindemith's System . 25

5. Wolpert's Four-Note Chord Types. 26

6. Wolpert's Five-Note Chord Types 26

7. Wolpert's Six-Note Chord 27

8. Wolpert's Seven-Note Chord 27

9. Major T r i a d s w i t h the F i f t h S p l i t V a r i o u s Ways 28

20. » II it H II II " II 29
22 II II ti it it it II it 29

12. Summary of S p l i t — I n t e r v a l Terminology 30

13. The Concept of Dimension 31

14. E s s e n t i a l Dissonance . . . . . . 33
(5)

15. Problem of the j j Chord 4 35

16. P o s s i b l e Roots i n a Seven-Tone Chord . . . . . 36

17. Wolpert's C h o r d a l A n a l y s i s 36
18. Chord S p e l l i n g I n f l u e n c i n g C l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n
Wolpert's System 41
19. G r a d u a l v e r s u s N i l Harmonic F l u c t u a t i o n . . . . 53

20. Two Chords from Sub-Group I I whose Roots

are a T r i t o n e A p a r t . . 58

iv
 Page

21. P o s s i b i l i t i e s of V o i c e - P a i r i n g i n W o l p e r t ' s
Examination of Chord C o n n e c t i o n 66

22. Wolpert's "Non-connections" 68

23. Types of S y s t o l e s and D i a s t o l e s 69

24. Chord S p e l l i n g s Determining Number of

Possible Resolutions 71
25. Diversion 72

26. Examination of A l l P o s s i b l e Two-Voice

Frameworks. 73

27. Mixture of Adhesive and Non-Adhesive

V o i c e s i n the Same C o n n e c t i o n 74
28. Bass P r o g r e s s i o n s w i t h Most L i k e l y Upper

V o i c e Movement 75

29. Cadences w i t h S p l i t Chords 77

30. Cadences w i t h S p l i t Chords 78

31. Cadences w i t h S p l i t Chords 78

32. Cadences w i t h S p l i t Chords 79

33. The C r o s s - R e l a t i o n 80

34. "Real" v e r s u s "Sound" C r o s s - R e l a t i o n s . . . 82

35. "Narrow" v e r s u s "Wide" C r o s s - R e l a t i o n s . . . 83

36. C r o s s - R e l a t i o n s w i t h the N e a p o l i t a n Sixth . 83

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish t o express my thanks to my r e s e a r c h

a d v i s o r , D r . Eugene W i l s o n , for h i s constant support

and guidance d u r i n g the w r i t i n g of t h i s t h e s i s . I am

a l s o indebted t o the other members of my committee,

Professor Kathryn B a i l e y and P r o f e s s o r Cortland

Hultberg, for their critical comments and v a l u a b l e

a ssistance.

I would a l s o l i k e to thank Mr. Hans Burndorfer,

Head of the Music L i b r a r y , and Mr. L o u i s Medveczky of

the Department of German, f o r their help i n t r a n s l a t i n g

portions of the Wolpert t r e a t i s e . A l s o , I would l i k e to

e s p e c i a l l y thank Miss Lynne T a y l o r for her a s s i s t a n c e in

preparing and t y p i n g the f i n a l manuscript.

Finally, I would l i k e to thank my w i f e , Linda,

for her p a t i e n c e and encouragement throughout the writing

of the e n t i r e text.
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Music t h e o r y i n the t w e n t i e t h century has been

concerned w i t h a wide v a r i e t y of c r i t e r i a i n what has

been a c o n s c i o u s attempt t o systematize and c l a r i f y all

of the c o n c e i v a b l e raw m a t e r i a l s of m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n .

Twentieth-century t h e o r i s t s have been i n v o l v e d i n some-

times r a t h e r extended a n a l y t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s into

melodic s t r u c t u r e , rhythmic o r g a n i z a t i o n , t i m b r e , formal

logic, dynamics and the v e r y nature of sound i n itself.

However, t h e r e has been a n o t i c e a b l e absence of e f f o r t on

the part of these same t h e o r i s t s t o attempt t o come t o

terms w i t h workable systems of c l a s s i f y i n g chordal material

so as t o i n c l u d e a l l p o s s i b l e arrangements of the sounds

which are present w i t h i n our twelve note d i v i s i o n of the

octave.

This situation is in direct antithesis t o the

activities and i n t e r e s t s of t h e o r i s t s of the n i n e t e e n t h

century, one of whose primary concerns was i n chords and

systems by which they c o u l d be c l a s s i f i e d , arranged and

labelled. During the n i n e t e e n t h and the f i r s t part of the

twentieth centuries all vertical structures were

t r a d i t i o n a l l y compared t o the t r i a d i c frame of reference.

 2

N o t e s w h i c h c o u l d n o t be a c c o u n t e d f o r w i t h i n s u c h a f r a m e

of r e f e r e n c e were l a b e l l e d non-chord t o n e s such as

p a s s i n g t o n e s , a p p o g g i a t u r a s , upper o r l o w e r n e i g h b o u r

tones, or the l i k e , and w e r e n o t r e a l l y c o n s i d e r e d an

i n t e g r a l part of the chord. A s t h e h a r m o n i e s became more

complex this triadic frame o f r e f e r e n c e was t o become

more and more u n w o r k a b l e . T h e r e f o r e , a need f o r the

extension of the t r a d i t i o n a l system t o i n c l u d e the possi-

bilities of more c o m p l e x vertical s t r u c t u r e s became

evident.

T h u s f a r i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a s m a l l number

of systems that could be called chord classification

have been proposed by music t h e o r i s t s . ^ -

Naturally, a l l

o f t h e s e s y s t e m s a r e n o t c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m t h e same point

o f v i e w o r w i t h t h e same p u r p o s e i n m i n d . However, t h e

question of v e r t i c a l s i m u l t a n e i t y i s one w h i c h c o n c e r n s

all composers and t h e o r i s t s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , no

m a t t e r what t h e i r p o i n t o f v i e w o r under what criteria

t h e i r music has been w r i t t e n . Moreover, the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

of v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y depend on t h e

c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e s e sounds a r e employed. Thus, t h e

w r i t i n g s of a l l t h e o r i s t s , whether serialist or n o n - s e r i a l -

ist i n orientation, are s i g n i f i c a n t i n this regard.

1
G e n e r a l l y , i n the twentieth century, "chord" can
be a p p l i e d t o any c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h r e e o r more n o t e s
sounding s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
 3.

Among the former, one may p o i n t to the writings

of B a b b i t t , Chrisman, P e r l e , Rochberg, Hauer, Schoen-

b e r g , H?fba, and G e r h a r d , t o name but a few. In an

article which attempts t o d e s c r i b e the problem of

harmonic o r g a n i z a t i o n i n s e r i a l music, Perle points

out t h a t both l i n e a r and harmonic p r o p e r t i e s and

r e s o u r c e s are a v a i l a b l e i n the d i a t o n i c - t o n a l system

w h i l e i n the twelve-tone system only the l i n e a r order-

i n g of the notes i s specifically defined, it being

possible to v e r t i c a l i z e any number of adjacent elements

3
i n the set i n any way which s u i t s the composer. This

l i m i t i n g of the twelve-tone system t o l i n e a r properties

is perhaps one reason f o r the e a r l i e r noted l a c k of

attempts at the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a l l p o s s i b l e v e r t i c a l

simultaneities. In a s h o r t e r article i n The S c o r e .

P e r l e does l i s t the number of t o t a l possible chords

g i v e n our twelve note d i v i s i o n of the o c t a v e . However,

the o n l y c r i t e r i o n i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n is the number of

distinct permutations being 351.^ A l o i s Haba and Roberto

eorge P e r l e , "The Harmonic Problem i n Twelve-Tone

Music." Music Review. XV (1954), 257-67.

H e r e , B a b b i t t c o u l d be noted as one exception

where v e r t i c a l i z a t i o n s r e t a i n t h e i r " l i n e a r adjacencies."

^Geroge P e r l e , "The P o s s i b l e Chords i n Twelve-Tone

Music," The S c o r e . IX (September, 1954), 54-8.
 4.

Gerhard had proceeded along the same l i n e s p r e v i o u s t o

Perle, but b o t h made e r r o r s i n t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n s which

P e r l e has been q u i c k t o p o i n t out i n h i s a r t i c l e .

H a u e r ' s system of f o r t y - f o u r t r o p e s can be

c o n s i d e r e d a type of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in a limited

sense i n t h a t only s i x note chords (hexachords) are

P.

classified, and these only f o r c o n t e n t . The same can

be s a i d f o r M i l t o n B a b b i t t ' s a l l - c o m b i n a t o r i a l source s e t s (

which are even more l i m i t i n g than H a u e r ' s t r o p e s , as t h e r e

are only s i x b a s i c groups.

•7

George Rochberg's study, among o t h e r t h i n g s , sets

out methods f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g tone rows at l e a s t one of

whose i n v e r s i o n s w i l l not repeat the f i r s t s i x notes of

the o r i g i n a l row: a study s i m i l a r t o B a b b i t t ' s principle

of c o m b i n a t o r i a l i t y . Here a g a i n , the study i s r e a l l y not a

classification unless one i n t e r p r e t s the term i n a r a t h e r

limited sense.

5
K a r l Eschman, Changing Forms i n Modern M u s i c . 2nd
ed. (Boston: E . C . Schirmer Music C o m p a n y , 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 83-
87.

6
M i l t o n B a b b i t t , "Some A s p e c t s of Twelve-Tone
C o m p o s i t i o n , " The S c o r e . X I I (1955), 53-61.

7
George Rochberg. The Hexachord and i t s R e l a t i o n
to the Twelve-Tone Row (Bryn Mawr, P e n n s y l v a n i a : Theodore
P r e s s e r Company, 1955), 40 pp.
 5

Recently, some a l l - i n c l u s i v e systems have been

developed among s e r i a l i s t s , f o r example, those by F o r t e

and C h r i s m a n . These, however, tend to be of a statistical

nature and sometimes are even h i g h l y mathematical, as i n

Q

K a s s l e r ' s study. A t any r a t e , a l l t h r e e of these

s t u d i e s are f a r from resembling systems of chord classifi-

c a t i o n i n the t r a d i t i o n a l n i n e t e e n t h century sense i n t h a t

arrays of numbers are used t o r e p r e s e n t the possibilities

and, apart from the number of notes i n each a r r a y , there

is l i t t l e i n the way of a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a t o further

break down or s i m p l i f y the arrangement. Rather, one is

left with a l i s t of a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s w i t h no f u r t h e r

guide t o t h e i r p r a c t i c a l use. These systems serve as more

of a d e s c r i p t i o n — e n l a r g i n g our concept of the body of

material—than a classification.

Among s o - c a l l e d non-serialists who have developed

systems of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n are men such as Paul H i n d e -

mith and Franz A l f o n s W o l p e r t . U n l i k e a l l of the above

mentioned t h e o r i s t s , Hindemith and Wolpert deal w i t h the

q u e s t i o n of v e r t i c a l s i m u l t a n e i t y i n a manner which

s t r o n g l y resembles the t h e o r i s t s of the p r e c e d i n g century.

8
See: A . F o r t e , "A Theory of Set Complexes f o r
M u s i c , " J o u r n a l of Music T h e o r y . V I I I (1964), 136-83.
R. Chrisman, " I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and C o r r e l a t i o n
of P i t c h S e t s , " J o u r n . a L j ^ ^ i ^ - T h e g j ^ , XV (1970),
58-83.
M. K a s s l e r , "Toward a Theory t h a t i s the
Twelve-Note C l a s s System," P e r s p e c t i v e s of New M u s i c , V ,
(1967), 1-80.
 6.

That i s , they both deal w i t h the question of chords,

chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and chord arrangement i n much the
same way as do t r a d i t i o n a l t o n a l t h e o r i s t s , and, because
of t h i s method of approach, can be d i s t i n c t l y set apart
from many of the other t h e o r i s t s of t h i s century.

Most twentieth-century t h e o r i s t s , when d e a l i n g w i t h

problems of v e r t i c a l s i m u l t a n e i t y , deal w i t h these v e r t i c -
a l s t r u c t u r e s (as we have seen) i n e i t h e r a s t a t i s t i c a l
manner or i n a manner which i s very s t r o n g l y c o n t r o l l e d
by l i n e a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , e.g., the twelve-tone system.
On the other hand, Hindemith and Wolpert are i n v o l v e d
w i t h chords as sound o b j e c t s i n themselves. Since they
are thus among a small group of t h e o r i s t s who deal i n an
extensive way w i t h these new v e r t i c a l i z a t i o n s i n a more or
l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l manner, they form an important l i n k w i t h
the past and o f f e r today's composer and a n a l y s t a means of
understanding these new sound p o s s i b i l i t i e s without neces-
s a r i l y i m p l y i n g or assuming a r e j e c t i o n of past musical
traditions.
Hindemith's system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s presented
i n h i s t r e a t i s e The C r a f t of Musical Composition.^ as

9
Paul Hindemith, The C r a f t of M u s i c a l Composition.
4 t h ed. t r a n s , by Arthur Mendel (New York: Schott Music
C o r p o r a t i o n , 1970), I .
 7.

part of a l a r g e r discussion d i r e c t e d towards the serious

student of composition.

The teacher w i l l f i n d i n t h i s book b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s

of c o m p o s i t i o n d e r i v e d from the n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s of t o n e s , and consequently v a l i d f o r a l l
periods. To the harmony and c o u n t e r p o i n t he has
a l r e a d y l e a r n e d , which have been p u r e l y s t u d i e s i n
the h i s t o r y of s t y l e . . . he must now add a new
t e c h n i q u e , which, proceeding from the f i r m founda-
t i o n of the laws of n a t u r e , w i l l enable him t o make
e x p e d i t i o n s i n t o domains of c o m p o s i t i o n which have
not h i t h e r t o been open t o o r d e r l y p e n e t r a t i o n .
The book makes c l e a r t h a t f o r a w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d
but a r b i t r a r y arrangement of sounds the composer
must s u b s t i t u t e an order which only t o the
u n i n i t i a t e d w i l l seem a r e s t r i c t i o n of the c r e a t i v e
process.i^

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of the C r a f t 1 s c o n t r i b u t i o n to

music t h e o r y and, more s p e c i f i c a l l y , t o chord classifica-

tion, has a l r e a d y been p o i n t e d out by W i l l i a m Thomson.

One of the most f a r r e a c h i n g i n f l u e n c e s of the

C r a f t has been i t s system of chord a n a l y s i s , which
f o r the f i r s t time o f f e r e d a p o s s i b l e break i n the
stone w a l l of t e r t i a n harmony. Before the C r a f t
t h e r e was no taxonomy of chord s t r u c t u r e except
t h a t i n which any t o n a l aggregate was c l a s s i f i e d
e i t h e r as some form of stacked t h i r d s or e l s e as a
product of d e c o r a t i v e melodic a c t i o n i n c o n j u n c t i o n
with a postulated "chord"

In an a r t i c l e appearing subsequent t o the p u b l i c a t i o n of

the C r a f t Hindemith attempts t o j u s t i f y part of what he

had p r e v i o u s l y set out to accomplish.

10
Ibid.. p. 9.
11
W i l l i a m Thomson, " H i n d e m i t h ' s C o n t r i b u t i o n t o
Music T h e o r y , " J o u r n a l of Music Theory. IX (1965), p . 5 9 .
 8

For the composer as w e l l as f o r the h e a r e r , tones

and t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n s are the b e g i n n i n g and end of
musical a c t i v i t y . Not so f o r the t h e o r i s t . He must
enquire i n t o the nature of the tones and study the
p r i n c i p l e s of t o n a l c o n n e c t i o n . For the f i r s t of
these two t a s k s , he i s almost c o m p l e t e l y independent
of the e x p e r i e n c e s of the p r a c t i c a l m u s i c i a n ; the
second, on the other hand, i s not to be achieved
without a knowledge of c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e , no
matter whether a t h e o r i s t o b t a i n s such knowledge by
means of d e d u c t i o n - the a n a l y s i s of a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g
c o m p o s i t i o n s - or through h i s own c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y . * 2

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , Hindemith speaks of the f e a s i b i l i t y of

a system of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n which every note i n any

c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of p i t c h e s can be i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h i n the

terms of the system.

The p o s t u l a t e of the i n t e r v a l as the harmonic u n i t

• . . may be used t o e x p l a i n every c o n c e i v a b l e c h o r d ,
and the t h e o r i s t w i l l be faced only w i t h the q u e s t i o n
of how t o apply t h i s y a r d s t i c k i n order t o a p p r a i s e
t o n a l c o m b i n a t i o n s , and n o t , as f o r m e r l y , w i t h the
n e c e s s i t y of d i v i d i n g chords i n t o those which can be
measured and those which cannot.^3

Wolpert*s j u s t i f i c a t i o n for his system of chord

classification appears i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the new

e d i t i o n of h i s t r e a t i s e Neue H a r m o n i k . ^ which i s an

expansion of the e a r l i e r (1950) e d i t i o n . He admits at the

o u t s e t t h a t the major part of h i s t r e a t i s e is directed

12
P a u l Hindemith, "Methods of Music T h e o r y , "
M u s i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . XXX (1944), 21-2.

13
Ibid.. 28.
14
Franz A l f o n s W o l p e r t , Neue Harmonik,
(Wilhelmshaven: H e i n r i c h s h a f t e n , 1972), 13-15.
 9.

towards "the m a j o r i t y of m u s i c a l l i s t e n e r s " and i s not

meant t o be an i n n o v a t i v e work apart from " t h e system

of chord t y p e s and t h e i r v a r i a n t s . " Part of Wolpertfs

justification seems t o r e s t on h i s r e j e c t i o n of H i n d e m i t h 1 s

system. He i n s i s t s that H i n d e m i t h ' s method of classifica-

tion is "impossible" since he (Hindemith) r e g a r d s the

tritone as an e s s e n t i a l d i s t i n g u i s h i n g factor and does

not r e c o g n i z e the g e n e r a l n o t i o n of " c h o r d identity"

through i n v e r s i o n . ^ A l s o , Wolpert says t h a t because of

this refusal to recognize the i n v e r s i o n p r i n c i p l e ,

Hindemith i s forced i n t o problems of d e f i n i n g r o o t s for

all p o s s i b l e conglomerations of i n t e r v a l s and t h a t this

g i v e s him e n d l e s s t r o u b l e . Wolpert a l s o argues t h a t

H i n d e m i t h ' s chord chart is incomplete and must always end

w i t h the phrase "and s i m i l a r chords.

Wolpert a s s e r t s t h a t he has s o l v e d these problems

i n h i s system. He r e c o g n i z e s the t r a d i t i o n a l acceptance

of c h o r d a l i n v e r s i o n through h i s " P r i n c i p l e of Identity"

and a v o i d s the c o n f u s i o n of d e f i n i n g chord r o o t s . He

accepts t r a d i t i o n a l r o o t s and r e l a t e s t h e s e t o the notes

15
Hindemith had r e j e c t e d the p r i n c i p l e of c h o r d a l
i n v e r s i o n as a " p u r e l y a r b i t r a r y i n v e n t i o n of Rameau's."
See: "Methods of Music T h e o r y , " p. 27.

16
Wolpert, op. cit
 10

i n the system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n which he develops. His

chart i s complete i n the sense that a l l p o s s i b l e chords
can be reduced t o one of h i s f i f t e e n basic chord types.
As w e l l as c l a s s i f y i n g a l l p o s s i b l e v e r t i c a l
c o n s t r u c t s i n a manner remarkably s i m i l a r to t h e o r i s t s
of the preceding century, both Hindemith and Wolpert
discuss c e r t a i n "rules", " i d e a l s " or " p r i n c i p l e s " t o
which one should attempt t o adhere when connecting a
succession of v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . I t seems only n a t u r a l
that given a new vocabulary of musical sounds i n the form
of " a l l p o s s i b l e chords," new p r i n c i p l e s would be evolved
as a guide i n connecting these sounds.
The basic d i f f e r e n c e s i n the work of the two men
concerns the question of t o n a l i t y . Hindemith b e l i e v e s
that a l l " l o g i c a l " music i s t o n a l (whether or not so
conceived by the composer) and h i s chordal system i s thus
organized i n t o a t o n a l framework. Wolpert, on the other
hand, i n v o l v e s no prejudgements about t o n a l i t y or
17
atonality, and c a r e f u l l y avoids p u t t i n g a t o n a l frame-
work around h i s chordal system.
Because of these d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s i t
was thought a comparison of the systems of Hindemith and
Wolpert would be appropriate.

17
In the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the new e d i t i o n of Neue
Harmonik. Wolpert states that "many composers wrote i n a
very well-sounding a t o n a l i t y . "
 CHAPTER II

CHORD CLASSIFICATION

A . H i n d e m i t h * s System.

H i n d e m i t h * s purpose i n constructing a system of

chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s to expand the l i m i t s of the

c o n v e n t i o n a l theory of harmony.

Three r e s o l u t i o n s are made at the outset:

1. C o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h i r d s must no l o n g e r be the
b a s i c r u l e f o r the e r e c t i o n of c h o r d s .

2. We must s u b s t i t u t e a more a l l - e m b r a c i n g
p r i n c i p l e f o r t h a t of the i n v e r t i b i l i t y of
chords.

3. We must abandon the t h e s i s t h a t chords are

s u s c e p t i b l e t o a v a r i e t y of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

Also, a number of d e f i n i t i o n s and assumptions are

s t a t e d or i m p l i e d :

1. A chord i s defined as a group of at least three

different tones sounding simultaneously.

1
Paul Hindemith, The C r a f t of M u s i c a l C o m p o s i t i o n .
4 t h e d . , t r a n s , by A r t h u r Mendel (New Y o r k : Schott Music
C o r p o r a t i o n , 1970), I , 94-5

2
3M_L.. 95.
 12

2. There i s a basic and e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e

between chords containing one or more t r i t o n e s and those
without.
3. Every chord, w i t h a few exceptions, has a
root. 4

4. Chords i n which the bass tone and root are

not i d e n t i c a l are subordinate i n value t o chords i n which
the root and bass tone c o i n c i d e , other f a c t o r s being
equal.^
Hindemith then sets out t o construct a Table of
Chord Groups i n which a l l v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s p o s s i b l e
w i t h the twelve-note d i v i s i o n of the octave w i l l be
classified. Hindemith s aim i s t o provide a
1

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n which i s more than a mere catalogue. I t

i s a l s o an ordering of the "value" of chords so that the
importance of the sub-groups diminishes as one proceeds
from the f i r s t t o the l a s t . The higher the number of the
sub-group, the higher the t e n s i o n and the lower the value
of the s t r u c t u r e being considered. Conversely, the lower

3
IbM.

4
I b i d . . 96.
5
I b i d . . 99.
 13.

the number of the sub-group, the lower the t e n s i o n and

the higher the value of the chord.

Hindemith o r d e r s h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n on the b a s i s of

the i n t e r v a l s contained i n the chords under consideration.

All possible i n t e r v a l relationships w i t h i n the chord are

taken i n t o account and the r e s u l t i n g intervals are classified

according to "value" on the b a s i s of S e r i e s 2. This Series 2

is d e r i v e d from the theory of combination t o n e s " and repre-

s e n t s , a c c o r d i n g t o H i n d e m i t h , the n a t u r a l classification of
7

the intervals according to value.

Example 1.^

JL JL
O
o 'b^g bo
O
^ o 'fr^ fro

6
Ibid.. 58-64.
7
Ibid.. 96.
8
Some of H i n d e m i t h 1 s assumptions c o n c e r n i n g a c o u s t i c s
i n the d e r i v a t i o n of S e r i e s 2 have been questioned by Cazdun.
(Norman Cazdun, "Hindemith and N a t u r e , " The Music Review.
V o l . XV, 1954, 292.)
"Hindemith i s not i n t e r e s t e d i n r e a l combination tones
at a l l but only i n f i c t i t i o u s ones, though even these
give him e n d l e s s t r o u b l e . D e c l a r i n g without q u a l i f i c a -
t i o n t h a t any two simultaneous tones produce combination
 14.

Generally, chords c o n t a i n i n g i n t e r v a l s f r o m t h e f i r s t

part of the s e r i e s , a c c o r d i n g t o Hindemith, have a h i g h e r

value than chords c o n t a i n i n g i n t e r v a l s f r o m l a t e r i n the

series. H i s system d i v i d e s chords i n t o two groups by the

use of the t r i t o n e as the b a s i c interval in classifying

chords.

. . . the t r i t o n e . . . stamps chords so s t r o n g l y

w i t h i t s own c h a r a c t e r t h a t they a c q u i r e something
of both i t s i n d e f i n i t e n e s s and i t s c h a r a c t e r of
motion towards a g o a l . °

Furthermore, chords have more value i f t h e i r r o o t and bass

note c o i n c i d e .

H i n d e m i t h ' s method f o r determining the r o o t of a

chord i s u n i q u e . It c o n s i s t s i n f i n d i n g the best i n t e r v a l

i n the c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of p i t c h e s a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own

Series 2. The r o o t of each i n t e r v a l of the s e r i e s is

determined, a c c o r d i n g t o H i n d e m i t h , by a c o u s t i c a l laws.

The roots of the p e r f e c t fifth, the t h i r d s and the sevenths

t o n e s , Hindemith f i n d s t h a t they u s u a l l y are so weak

t h a t the s u p e r f i c i a l ear does not p e r c e i v e them, but
t h i s makes them a l l the more important f o r the sub-
c o n s c i o u s ear . . . so Hindemith i s not d e a l i n g w i t h
combination tones t h a t e x i s t , but only w i t h those
present t o the subconscious e a r . In f a c t , t h e i r
n o n - e x i s t e n c e seems t o make them a l l the more import-
ant . . . "

9
Hindemith. op. c i t . , 9 5 .
 15.

are the lower note of the i n t e r v a l while the r o o t s of

the p e r f e c t f o u r t h , the seconds and the s i x t h s are the
upper note of the i n t e r v a l . To f i n d the root of a chord,
one examines the given s t r u c t u r e f o r the best i n t e r v a l
contained t h e r e i n according to S e r i e s 2. I f there i s no
p e r f e c t f i f t h , one proceeds t o look f o r a p e r f e c t f o u r t h ,
then a major t h i r d , and so on. The f i r s t i n t e r v a l one
encounters using t h i s method, i s the best i n t e r v a l and
the root of t h i s i n t e r v a l i s the root of the chord. It
should be emphasized that Hindemith expects a l l i n t e r v a l s
i n the s t r u c t u r e to be considered. Thus, i n three-note
chords, there are three i n t e r v a l s t o consider; i n f o u r -
note chords, there are s i x i n t e r v a l s to consider; i n f i v e -
note chords, ten i n t e r v a l s ; i n six-note chords, f i f t e e n
i n t e r v a l s ; seven-note chords, twenty-one i n t e r v a l s ; and
so on to twelve-note chords, where there would be s i x t y - s i x
i n t e r v a l s to consider.

The f o l l o w i n g should a l s o be noted:

Doubled tones count only once; we use the lowest one
f o r our reckoning. I f the chord contains two or
more equal i n t e r v a l s , and these are the best i n t e r v a l s ,
the root of the lower one i s the root of the chord. 1

Hindemith's scheme gives a l i s t of two chord-groups

which i n c l u d e s i x "chord sub-groups" separated into

10.
97.
 16.

Group A (Sub-groups I,II,V), chords without a t r i t o n e ,

and Group B (Sub-groups I I , I V , V I ) , chords c o n t a i n i n g

one or more t r i t o n e s . In f o u r out of s i x cases the sub-

groups are f u r t h e r sub-divided. In a l l these instances,

chords w i t h r o o t and bass c o i n c i d i n g are i n a h i g h e r sub-

d i v i s i o n than chords i n the same sub-group w i t h the r o o t

above the b a s s .

The o n l y s t r u c t u r e s which s a t i s f y the c o n d i t i o n s

of Group A , sub-group I (or simply " I " ) , that is, chords

without t r i t o n e s and without seconds or sevenths and

containing roots, are the major and minor t r i a d s and what

are t r a d i t i o n a l l y c a l l e d i n v e r s i o n s . T h e chords of

S e c t i o n 1.1. ( t r i a d s i n r o o t p o s i t i o n ) , would be c o n s i d e r e d

h i g h e r i n the s c a l e of v a l u e s than those i n 1.2. (tradi-

t i o n a l l y considered t h e i r inversions) s i n c e the former

are more s t a b l e and l e s s i n need of r e s o l u t i o n .

The c o r r e s p o n d i n g sub-group of Group B i s numbered

I I and c o n t a i n s a l l those chords which have a t r i t o n e but

do not c o n t a i n any minor seconds or major s e v e n t h s . The

reason f o r not e x c l u d i n g the major second and minor seventh,

notes H i n d e m i t h , i s because "the presence of the tritone

11
Here the word " t r a d i t i o n a l " i s used to emphasize
the f a c t t h a t Hindemith does not c o n s i d e r chords t o be
invertible.
 17.

always i n v o l v e s seconds or s e v e n t h s — e x c e p t i n the

12
diminished t r i a d and i t s i n v e r s i o n s , " Accordingly,

i n the f i r s t s e c t i o n under sub-group II ( i l . a . ) , we have

only the dominant seventh w i t h and without the f i f t h i n

the t r a d i t i o n a l root p o s i t i o n . The second section i n

sub-group I I ( i l . b . ) c o n s i s t s of s t r u c t u r e s which

c o n t a i n major seconds or minor sevenths or both, and i s

divided into three categories. In the f i r s t , the r o o t

and bass tones are the samej i n the second the r o o t lies

above the bass and i n the t h i r d , t h e r e i s more than one

t r i t o n e p r e s e n t , w i t h the r o o t being e i t h e r i n the bass

or the upper v o i c e s . Examples of t r a d i t i o n a l chords

common t o t h i s s e c t i o n are chords of the dominant ninth

(il.b.l.), t r a d i t i o n a l i n v e r s i o n s of the dominant seventh

( l l . b . 2 . ) , the s o - c a l l e d " h a l f - d i m i n i s h e d " chords ( i l . b . l . ) ,

the "French" augmented s i x t h ( l l . b . 3 . ) , and similar

structures.

Sub-group I I I of Group A c o n t a i n s chords w i t h

seconds or sevenths, or both, but without t r i t o n e s . This

sub-group i s further s u b - d i v i d e d i n t o l ) s t r u c t u r e s where

the r o o t and bass are i d e n t i c a l , 2) where the r o o t lies

above the bass tone. The chords i n sub-group I I I include

12.
IbJLd., 102. Note Hindemith uses the term
" i n v e r s i o n s " here when i n f a c t he c l a i m s not t o r e c o g n i z e
invertibility.
 18.

the secondary seventh and n i n t h chords ( I I I . 1 . ) and

their t r a d i t i o n a l inversions (III.2.).
The chords of sub-group IV contain any number of
t r i t o n e s plus minor seconds, and/or major sevenths.
Here, a d i s t i n c t i o n might be made between dissonance and
tension. Hindemith considers (by d e f i n i t i o n ) the chords
of sub-groups V and VI as having a higher t e n s i o n f a c t o r
13
than those of sub-group IV. However, from an e m p i r i c a l
point of view, most l i s t e n e r s would f i n d the chords of
sub-group IV, on the whole, more dissonant than those i n
sub-groups V or V I . Thus, t e n s i o n i s not n e c e s s a r i l y the
same as dissonance, according t o Hindemith. A l s o , chords
w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l t e n s i o n have a greater need t o r e s o l v e ,
g e n e r a l l y speaking, than those w i t h l e s s t e n s i o n . As w i t h
sub-group I I I , sub-group IV i s f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o :
1) s t r u c t u r e s where the root and bass are i d e n t i c a l and
2) where the root l i e s above the bass.
In sub-groups V and VI we encounter the exceptions
to assumption 3, that i s , those chords which have no r o o t s .
In the cases examined i n these two sub-groups, Hindemith
m a i n t a i n s ^ there i s no r o o t , but only a "root r e p r e s e n t a t i v e "
the i d e n t i t y of which i s dependant on the context. Thus,

13
I b i d . , 108.
14
Ibid., 101.
 19

i n sub-group V there are only two chords, the augmented

t r i a d and the chord c o n s i s t i n g of two superimposed
perfect fourths.
In sub-group VI there are only four chords, namely,
the diminished chord and i t s two t r a d i t i o n a l i n v e r s i o n s
and the diminished seventh chord. Up to t h i s p o i n t ,
whenever the t r i t o n e has appeared i n a chord (Group B)
i t has subordinated i t s e l f t o the best i n t e r v a l according
to S e r i e s 2. Now, i n sub-group V I , because of the nature
of the chords i n q u e s t i o n , the t r i t o n e predominates.

I s o l a t e d i n t e r v a l s , says Hindemith, can a l s o be

assigned to the Table of ChQrd Groups. The p e r f e c t f i f t h
and major and minor t h i r d s belong t o I . I . , the p e r f e c t
fourth and major and minor s i x t h s t o 1.2., the seconds to
I I I . 2 . , the sevenths to I I I . l . , and the t r i t o n e to V I .
Hindemith j u s t i f i e s h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by
a s s e r t i n g t h a t i t "does away w i t h a l l ambiguity." Also,
i t i s a l l - i n c l u s i v e i n t h a t "there i s no combination of
i n t e r v a l s which does not f i t i n t o some d i v i s i o n of our
system.

15
Ibid.. 100.
16
Ibid., 105.
 20

B
« W o l p e r t * s System.

W o l p e r t 1 s method of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n consists

of a systematic breakdown of a l l combinations of musical

sounds i n the t r a d i t i o n a l tempered system-^ into fifteen

b a s i c chord t y p e s .

I t i s s e l f e v i d e n t t h a t the f i f t e e n chord types

gained i n t h i s way c o n t a i n a l l p o s s i b l e harmonies f o r
a l l f u t u r e and can be employed by those who use them
from now on, both s y n t h e t i c a l l y and a n a l y t i c a l l y .
Supposed ' n o t yet seen' or e x i s t i n g chords are a l s o ,
without e x c e p t i o n , c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s system.1°

These f i f t e e n b a s i c types c o n s i s t of f i v e d i f f e r e n t three-

note c h o r d s , five different four-note chords, three differ-

ent f i v e - n o t e chords, one s i x - n o t e c h o r d , and one seven-note

chord. Before d e s c r i b i n g these b a s i c types in detail, it

w i l l be necessary t o s t a t e and c l a r i f y some of W o l p e r t ' s

p r i n c i p l e s and assumptions.

Two b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s are s t a t e d at the o u t s e t , namely,

the p r i n c i p l e s of i d e n t i t y ( I d e n t i t a t ) and congruence

(Kongruenz) of chords.

17
Wolpert does not accept a twelve-note d i v i s i o n of
the octave f o r h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , as does Hindemith,
i n t h a t he (Wolpert) regards the s p e l l i n g of a g i v e n chord
tone as a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h a t
chord. See p . 22.

18
Franz A l f o n s W o l p e r t , Neue Harmonik, (Wilhelmshaven:
H e i n r i c h s h a f t e n . 1972), 14 (Unpublished T r a n s l a t i o n ,
L . Medveczky, 5 ) .
 21.

A chord i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h i t s e l f when i t always

c o n t a i n s the same motes, no matter how transposed
or how o f t e n d o u b l e d . x ?

In order t o determine whether two chords are

identical, says W o l p e r t , one c o n t r a c t s the chord to its

closest possible or narrowest position (Kontrakturform).

Obviously, c o n t r a c t i o n can only take place using octave

transposition and the e l i m i n a t i o n of d o u b l i n g s . Finally,

two chords are i d e n t i c a l i f t h e i r c o n t r a c t e d forms are the

same.

C o n c e r n i n g the p r i n c i p l e of congruence:

A chord i s congruent w i t h another i f i t s transposed

c o n t r a c t e d form i s i d e n t i c a l i n q u a l i t y CQualita't} and
q u a n t i t y t Q u a n t i t a t l t o the i n t e r v a l l i c mixture w i t h
the chord t o be compared.20

Quantity, a c c o r d i n g to W o l p e r t , i s more s p e c i f i c than

q u a l i t y when r e f e r r i n g t o i n t e r v a l s . For example, quality

r e f e r s to a l l t h i r d s while quantity s p e c i f i e s the type of

third. Also, two chords are not i d e n t i c a l u n l e s s the notes

i n both chords are spelled e x a c t l y the same. S i m i l a r l y , two

chords are not congruent u n l e s s the i n t e r v a l s p e l l i n g s in

both chords agree e x a c t l y . (e.g. f-a-c is congruent w i t h

eb-g-bb, but not w i t h d#-g-bb. EGB i s i d e n t i c a l with g-b-e1

,21
but not w i t h g-cb-e'.)
At the b e g i n n i n g of h i s s e c t i o n on the f o r m a t i o n of

1 9
Ibid.. 18 ( 7 ) .

2 0
Ibid., 19 ( 7 ) .

2 1
Ibid., 20 (8).
 22.

92
new chord types Wolpert makes i t v e r y c l e a r that the

following c o n t r a c t e d chords a l l belong i n the same

classification, that i s , "sixte ajouteV : 1

1. C,E,G,A. 3. C,Eb,Gb,Ab.

2. C,E,G,Ab. 4. C,E,G#,A.

Naturally, other chords c o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d which would

also belong to.this classification. However, a c h o r d such

a s C,E,G,G# w o u l d not b e l o n g i n t h e above g r o u p , even

though i t sounds t h e same a s number 2.

Although s u c h an e x p l a n a t i o n may seem p r e m a t u r e a t

this point, Wolpert seems t o be p r e p a r i n g us f o r the fact

that h i s system, at the o u t s e t at l e a s t , i s far from

resembling familiar concepts that we may have l e a r n e d i n

traditional harmony. He g o e s on t o state that a l l tradi-

tional triads i n root position belong to another c l a s s i f i c a -

(5)

tion, w h i c h he calls ( ). 3 I t i s important t o note that the

"qualitative" interval structure i n a chord i s what i s

essential in classifying i t according to basic type.

Although Wolpert does not g i v e an e x p l a n a t i o n of

c h o r d r o o t s h e r e , he acknowledges t h a t such r o o t s must

exist, and states "the problem of the r o o t of a chord is in

fact connected w i t h the tonality."^

22
Ibid.., 21 (8).

Ibid., 13 (4).
 23.

24
According to Wolpert, all three-note chords^ can

be c l a s s i f i e d as belonging to one o f five basic types.

Conveniently described, these five types are as follows

(the numerals are put i n parenthesis, says W o l p e r t , to

distinguish them f r o m t h e old thorough-bass numbering):

25
Example 2.

A
f\
ra> . o ..... o

(5) (5) (4) (3)

(3) (2) (3) (2) (2)

Such types as j ^ j and j ^ j a r e n

° t included because one

discovers on i n v e r s i o n t h a t t h e y become j^j anc

* (3)
respectively, and t h e r e f o r e are already contained i n the

system. Further examination reveals the group to be all-

inclusive.

To d e t e r m i n e i n t o which c l a s s i f i c a t i o n any three-

note chord would f a l l , one p r o c e e d s as follows:

1. Reduce t h e chord to its contracted form. Arrange-

ment o f notes must be i n t h e narrowest possible position.

24
A n y g r o u p o f t h r e e o r more n o t e s may be c o n s i d e r e d
a c h o r d , and e v e r y c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h r e e n o t e s i s r e d u c i b l e
t o one o f t h e s e f i v e b a s i c t y p e s , a l w a y s w i t h t h e p r o v i s o
t h a t a c c i d e n t a l s i g n s do n o t a f f e c t t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .

Ibid.. 29
 24

Example 3.26

IT

-Q- i s not or but

2. Transpose the contracted form so that i t s bass

note i s C.
3. A c c i d e n t a l s , f o r the time being, are not
considered—only the q u a l i t a t i v e i n t e r v a l structure i s
considered.
4. Match i t w i t h one of the types ( i 5 ) ,
(3)' (2)'
>4j, . . ) i n the example above.
At t h i s point Wolpert d i g r e s s e s t o d i s c u s s c e r t a i n
s t r u c t u r e s i n Hindemith's system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
chords. The f o l l o w i n g four i l l u s t r a t i o n s of three-note
chords i n Hindemith's system are examined to "make c l e a r
27
the basic d i f f e r e n c e s i n our methods," says Wolpert.

26 ± s
"the symbol f o r the "contracted form o f . "

27
Ibial., 23 ( 9 ) .
 25

Example 4.^8

rl -b-€>—
ff
9! o u
J -9-
i. 2. 3.

Wolpert p o i n t s out t h a t according to Hindemith s method, 1

there e x i s t s between the above four chord forms no

connection t h a t i n any way makes them s i m i l a r . What
Wolpert f a i l s t o mention, however, i s that 1, 3 and 4
a l l f a l l i n the same c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , that i s , I I I . l . The
second belongs t o V, and i t s root i s not d e f i n e d , according
to Hindemith. Wolpert emphasizes that a l l of the above
chords are b a s i c a l l y the same and a l l belong t o the same
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n h i s system. When considered i n their
contracted forms, they a l l reduce t o the b a s i c type of j ^ j .
A c c o r d i n g l y , Wolpert concludes:
. • . because of t h i s , and on the b a s i s of numerous
other examples, chord i d e n t i f i c a t i o n by Hindemith's
method i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible.2"
Wolpert then proceeds with h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
four-note chords. Again, these f a l l i n t o f i v e basic types
and are notated as f o l l o w s :

28.
I b i d . . 23.
29
I b i d . . 23 (10).
 26,
30
Example 5.

te-
( U ) (-2 a)
(I) (?)
The "a" stands f o r "ajoutee" and should be t r a n s l a t e d
l i t e r a l l y as a "piece added on." Wolpert emphasizes t h a t
(6a) should not be thought of as an added s i x t h chord, but
i n the l a r g e r context of a chord type. For example, the
chord w i t h the notes C,Eb,Gb,Ab would f a l l i n t o the type
(6a) but would c e r t a i n l y not sound as an "added s i x t h " chord,
The method f o r determining i n t o which c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a given
four-note chord f a l l s i s the same as that o u t l i n e d above f o r
the three-note chords.
The f i v e - n o t e chords f a l l i n t o only three basic
categories. These are as f o l l o w s :

31
Example 6.

53:

30
I b i d . . 29.

I b i d . Here a v e r t i c a l l i n e i s used t o separate the

numerals from the "ajoute"*e" symbol. I t was not necessary i n
the four-note chords as only one numeral was present.
 27.

A l l six-note chords are r e d u c i b l e t o the same

basic type, according t o Wolpert. This b a s i c type i s
as f o l l o w s :
32
Example 7.'

The same i s true f o r a l l seven-note chords

Example 8.33

A l l of these chord types can be a l t e r e d from t h e i r

above "normal" forms by the use of a c c i d e n t a l s . Again, i t
i s emphasized t h a t t h i s a l t e r a t i o n (unless i t takes place on
the lowest n o t e ) , does not a f f e c t the chord's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
according t o b a s i c type.
When a given chord c o n t a i n s a note w i t h an a c c i d e n t a l
preceding i t and the same note without the a c c i d e n t a l , or

32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
 28.

with a different accidental, it i s termed a " s p l i t chord,"

(Spaltakkorde) according to W o l p e r t . ^ The concept of split

chords i s i n t r o d u c e d by him i n order t o expand the idea of

h i s basic chord types so t h a t the system w i l l include a l l

possible combinations of m u s i c a l p i t c h e s .

If, f o r example, a b a s i c | | | chord whose lowest note

i s C c o n t a i n s both a G and a G#, the chord i s termed a split

chord s i n c e t h e r e are two forms of the note G p r e s e n t . It

i s notated as follows:

Example 9a.

>
The numeral 5 t e l l s us t h a t it i s the G t h a t is split while

the ascending tag on the r i g h t t e l l s us the d i r e c t i o n of

the s p l i t , that is, upward. I f the two s p l i t notes are

more than an octave a p a r t , the s p l i t sign i s preceded by a

"w" ( w e i t ) , as i n the f o l l o w i n g example:

34
Ibid.. 32 (11).
 29

Example 9b.

fc
r
w>

I f , i n the above example, the notes G and G# are reversed,

the symbol used i s : ^ J
I f n e i t h e r of the s p l i t notes i s the n a t u r a l form of the
note, an x or ^ i s used as the t a g , depending on the
arrangement of the notes:

Example 10.
J2_a.

>
I f a Gb and a G are present, the d i r e c t i o n of the s p l i t i s
downward, and i s notated as f o l l o w s :

Example 11.

1
 30

I f , i n the above example, the notes G and Gb are r e v e r s e d ,

the symbol used i s : ^ . l£
This exhausts the combinations with G, G#, and Gb, except
when a l l three are present. Wolpert does not deal w i t h
t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y here.
A summary of the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of the s p l i t chord
symbols f o l l o w s :

Example 12.

H b b
b b b

\ -A -<
w w — w —

(<~)
The above examples e l a b o r a t e only on a basic ^)
chord whose upper note i s s p l i t . S p l i t notes can occur
i n any chord type on any note or notes. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , few
examples are provided by Wolpert at t h i s p o i n t , and, as a
r e s u l t , the concepts are not as c l e a r as would be d e s i r a b l e .
The idea of s p l i t chords leads Wolpert n a t u r a l l y t o
 31.

h i s concept of "dimension" (Di men.qj o p ) - A l t h o u g h a chord

such as t h a t i n the l a s t example c o n t a i n s four different

pitches, its basic form (when a c c i d e n t a l s are ignored) is

c o n s i d e r e d by Wolpert as having e s s e n t i a l l y only three

different notes. In t h i s example, he s a y s , the chord has

four sounds but i s only " t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l . " 3 6 j 0 take

another example, the f o l l o w i n g chord has seven different

sounds, but i s only four d i m e n s i o n a l .

Example 13.

It follows, says W o l p e r t , t h a t the " r o o t form" (that is,

reduction to basic chord type) of a s p l i t chord cannot be

greater than seven d i m e n s i o n s . Also, a chord w i t h twelve

different notes must always be a s p l i t chord.^

Wolpert c o n t i n u e s w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n on "Dissonance

35
Ibid.. 35 (12).
36
Ibid.. 35 (13).
37
One may wonder why Wolpert d i d not s t a t e the more
obvious f a c t t h a t a chord w i t h more than seven d i f f e r e n t
sounds must be a s p l i t c h o r d .
 32.

V a l u e s and D e g r e e s . H e b e g i n s by s t a t i n g that the

traditional major t r i a d i s "the most complete of a l l

sounds p o s s i b l e " and of a l l the t r a d i t i o n a l t r i a d s , it is

the only one he c o n s i d e r s consonant. The other t h r e e triads

are d i s s o n a n t and are arranged i n degrees as follows:

I minor t r i a d least dissonant

II diminished t r i a d medium dissonance

III augmented t r i a d most dissonant

W o l p e r t ' s r a t i o n a l e f o r the above c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of triads

i s the s e n s a t i o n of h e a r i n g :

the ear i s the foremost standard i n the gauging of

dissonance . . . very l i t t l e can be proven
physically.39

L i k e w i s e , w i t h i n t e r v a l s , there are t h r e e degrees

of dissonance:

I Major second, minor seventh - least

II Tritones - medium

III Minor second, major seventh - most

The p e r f e c t f o u r t h i s termed an " a c c i d e n t a l d i s s o n a n c e "

( a k z i d e n t i e l l e Dissonanz) when i t appears o u t s i d e the

context of a major or minor t r i a d , and i s less dissonant

than a l l of the above i n t e r v a l s . Other i n t e r v a l s are

c o n s i d e r e d consonant.

38
Ibid.. 36 (13).
39
Ibid.. 37 (14).
 33.

The above i n t e r v a l s and t r i a d s are what Wolpert

terms " s i m p l e " dissonances (einfache Dissonanzen). Simple

dissonances are d i s t i n g u i s h e d from other types of dissonance

termed " e s s e n t i a l dissonances" ( e s s e n t i e l l e Dissonanzen) , 4 < ^

Essential dissonance i s d e f i n e d by the f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s :

1. Each sounding consonance a r i s i n g from an

alteration is, according to i t s essence, "essentially

dissonant."

2. Each sound d e r i v e d from a simple dissonance is

also essentially dissonant—even if its enharmonic e q u a l i z a -

t i o n appears consonant. 4 -*

The f o l l o w i n g examples w i l l illustrate these

conditions.

Example 14.

(j) hp—— 1
iXJd—KL2 Q 1
^ — ^ — u

1 and 3 - e s s e n t i a l l y dissonant and

unstable

2 and 4 - consonant and s t a b l e

40
Ibid., 38 (14).

41
Ibid., 38-9 (14-15).
 34.

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of the i n t e r v a l of a second

when speaking of dissonance i s noted, since a l l chords
with the exception of t r a d i t i o n a l t r i a d s c o n t a i n some
form of t h i s i n t e r v a l . Wolpert b e l i e v e s that the
smaller the seconds and the greater t h e i r number i n a
given chord, the greater the degree of dissonance. Also,
dissonance i s ameliorated by distance and worsened by
proximity, that i s , g e n e r a l l y , the c l o s e r the notes are
together the greater the dissonance while the greater
t h e i r distance apart, the l e s s the dissonance. Thus,
g e n e r a l l y speaking, sevenths are l e s s dissonant than
seconds. A l s o , consonance i s equated w i t h s t a b i l i t y and
dissonance with i n s t a b i l i t y . Wolpert l a b e l s the minor
second the "diabolus i n musica,"^2 a n c | n o t ^he t r i t o n e ,
as t r a d i t i o n a l l y recognized from medieval music theory.
Both t r i t o n e s as w e l l as p e r f e c t f o u r t h s " l o s e t h e i r
dissonance," says Wolpert, when they appear i n the context
of t r a d i t i o n a l t r i a d s . This concept i s termed "dissonance
Art

according t o c o n d i t i o n . "
Wolpert now sets about t o f i n d the root (G rundton)
of each of h i s basic chord types according t o t r a d i t i o n a l
harmony. He converts h i s f i f t e e n basic types so that they

Ib_id_., 40 (16).

I b i d . . 42-3 (16-17).
 35.

are arranged as superimposed t h i r d s i n the narrowest

possible position. Where t h i r d s are missing, the spaces
are marked w i t h arrows. When one of the b a s i c chord
types i s converted to the narrowest p o s s i b l e t h i r d
arrangement, i t i s said to be i n "fundamental p o s i t i o n "
or "root p o s i t i o n " (Grundakkord) and the root i s the
lowest tone.
With most of Wolpert*s b a s i c chord types, there i s
no problem i n converting to the t r a d i t i o n a l root
(5)
position. One exception occurs with the J 4 J chord,
which has three "narrowest p o s s i b l e " arrangements.

Since s t r i c t l y speaking, there i s no "narrowest p o s s i b l e

arrangement," any of the three examples may be considered i n
root p o s i t i o n . The other exception i s the seven-note chord,
i n which any tone can be considered the root and a s u i t a b l e
s t r u c t u r e of t h i r d s erected.

44
I b i d . . 51
 36

Example 16.

JLZ

etc.

In the f i n a l tabular surveys, all of the b a s i c chord

t y p e s and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g Grundakkorden are presented in

45 Some
two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of o r d e r s of classification,

examples of W o l p e r t ' s method of c h o r d a l a n a l y s i s follow

Example 17.

G i v e n Chord

Contracted

In T h i r d s I
3 f _

Type
—$r~

45
Ibjud.., 53-4.

46
Jkid., 59-63.
 37.

C. Comparison.
Upon examination of both Hindemith s and Wolpert's 1

systems of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , c e r t a i n b a s i c d i f f e r -
ences are immediately evident.
Hindemith, i n h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a l l p o s s i b l e
chords, forms c a t e g o r i e s on the b a s i s of combinations of
i n t e r v a l s and ranks these c a t e g o r i e s i n terms of " t e n s i o n "
and"value". His own h i g h l y evolved system of r o o t s and
the i n t e r v a l of the t r i t o n e play s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e s i n
t h i s ranking.
On the other hand, Wolpert, i n h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of a l l p o s s i b l e chords, forms c a t e g o r i e s on the b a s i s of
numbers of notes and combinations of i n t e r v a l s according
to s p e l l i n g but does not rank h i s c a t e g o r i e s i n terms of
value or t e n s i o n . Furthermore, r o o t s are assigned no
importance i n the c a t e g o r i e s , while the i n t e r v a l s of the
augmented and doubly augmented prime play a r a t h e r c u r i o u s
r o l e and and are involved i n h i s theory of s p l i t chords.
With these basic d i f f e r e n c e s i n mind, the two
systems can be contrasted according to the f o l l o w i n g f i v e
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g areas:
1. Roots.
2. Significant Intervals.
3. Enharmonic s,
4. Number of Notes.
5. Consonance and Dissonance.
 38.

As has already been stated, Wolpert does not

consider r o o t s - - t r a d i t i o n a l or o t h e r w i s e — i n h i s
categorization. However, the f a c t that he does recognize
t r a d i t i o n a l r o o t s i s evident when he converts each of the
categories or basic types i n h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
t o the "narrowest p o s s i b l e t h i r d arrangement" or
Grundakkord. Here the root which he describes corresponds
t o the t r a d i t i o n a l concept of root as the lowest note of a
group of superimposed t h i r d s . Wolpert does not, however,
attempt t o r e l a t e t h i s root t o i t s corresponding note i n
the basic t y p e — a process which might have proven h e l p f u l i n
our o v e r a l l understanding of the system. Instead, he s t a t e s
t h a t when t h i r d s appear i n the Grundakkord a t o n a l r e l a t i o n -
ship i s d e f i n a b l e Just what i s meant by the term t o n a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not elaborated on at t h i s p o i n t . When
t h i r d s do not appear i n the Grundakkord, however, ( f o r
example, when category j^j b u i l t on C i s converted t o a
Grundakkord i t becomes C-G-D, and the missing t h i r d s (E and
B) are marked w i t h arrows), a t o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
undefinable.^

In c o n t r a s t t o Wolpert, Hindemith does not recognize

t r a d i t i o n a l r o o t s , but has evolved h i s own system of r o o t s

47
I b i d . , 50 (19).
48
IbM., 50 (19).
 39 .

both f o r i n t e r v a l s — a n d , as an extension of i n t e r v a l s ,
f o r chords—whereby the root i s derived from the "best
i n t e r v a l " i n h i s S e r i e s 2, which i n t u r n has been derived
from "nature." Hindemith's system of r o o t s bears d i r e c t l y
on h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , so that chords are
separated i n t o categories where a) the root and the bass
tone are i d e n t i c a l and b) the root l i e s above the bass
tone. Furthermore, i n c o n t r a s t t o Wolpert, Hindemith does
not d i s c u s s the t r a d i t i o n a l concept of b u i l d i n g chords i n
49
thirds. Indeed, one of h i s foremost r e s o l u t i o n s was that
the c o n s t r u c t i o n of chords i n t h i r d s should no longer form
the b a s i s f o r any system or d i s c u s s i o n of chord c l a s s i f i c a -
tion.
The second point concerns s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r v a l s and
how they r e l a t e t o each t h e o r i s t ' s system of o r g a n i z a t i o n .
While w i t h Hindemith, the most s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r v a l i s
c e r t a i n l y the t r i t o n e , w i t h Wolpert, i t can be argued that
the augmented and doubly augmented primes play an almost
equally important r o l e . Although Wolpert discusses the
importance of the minor second under "dissonance values
and degrees," the augmented and doubly augmented prime are
50
of great s i g n i f i c a n c e i n h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,
49
Hindemith, op, c i t . , 95.
50
With the d i f f e r e n c e , however, that the augmented and
doubly augmented prime play no r o l e i n assigning of chords
to c a t e g o r i e s , and i n f a c t are ignored i n t h i s process.
 40.

as he b u i l d s h i s e n t i r e unique theory of s p l i t chords

around these i n t e r v a l s . We have already recognized that
a s p l i t chord c o n t a i n s an a l t e r e d note and the same note
unaltered, or w i t h a d i f f e r e n t a c c i d e n t a l . Since i n a l l
s p l i t chords the i n t e r v a l of an augmented or doubly
augmented prime i s i n v o l v e d , these i n t e r v a l s can be
considered t o have s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n Wolpert's
system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , j u s t as the t r i t o n e has i n
Hindemith*s.

Hindemith's r a t i o n a l i n choosing the t r i t o n e as a

s i g n i f i c a n t and t h e r e f o r e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i n t e r v a l has
already been mentioned. The primary d i v i s i o n i n h i s
system of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s based on t h i s d i c t i n c t i o n ,
so that Group A includes a l l chords that have no t r i t o n e
while a l l remaining chords, that i s , those c o n t a i n i n g one
or more t r i t o n e s , are assigned t o Group B. However, i t
should be noted here that both Hindemith and Wolpert
recognize the importance of the t r i t o n e when they come t o
d i s c u s s "harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n " and "chord succession and
connection" respectively.
The next d i s t i n g u i s h i n g characteristic involves
the treatment of what i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as
enharmonics. In Wolpert's system the s p e l l i n g of a chord
effects the category i n t o which i t i s placed. For
example, i n the f o l l o w i n g :

51
See p. 14.
 41

Example 18.

£©5
-e-
(ta)

the f i r s t chord reduces t o the t h r e e - n o t e category

w h i l e the second chord belongs to the f o u r - n o t e category

(6a). Thus when c o n s i d e r i n g h i s system of classification,

Wolpert does not r e c o g n i z e the enharmonic e q u i v a l e n c e of

notes such as g# and a b .

On the other hand, i n H i n d e m i t h ' s system, a twelve-

note d i v i s i o n of the octave i s accepted and enharmonics

such as those above are c o n s i d e r e d e q u i v a l e n t . Thus

Hindemith would c o n s i d e r the chords i n the above example

identical f o r purposes of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and both would

be assigned t o h i s sub-group III.l.

Another b a s i c difference between H i n d e m i t h ' s and

W o l p e r t ' s systems of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n concerns the

number of notes i n g i v e n chords w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c category.

In W o l p e r t ' s system, a l l chords w i t h i n a category always

c o n t a i n the same number of n o t e s . For example, there are

five basic three-note chords, each r e p r e s e n t i n g a category,

five basic f o u r - n o t e c h o r d s , each r e p r e s e n t i n g a category,

and so on, up t o one b a s i c seven-note chord. Therefore,

 42.

each of Wolpert's f i f t e e n c a t e g o r i e s contains a s p e c i f i c

number of notes--three, f o u r , f i v e , s i x or seven.
In Hindemith*s system, however, some of the sub-
groups ( f o r example, I I I ) , c o n t a i n chords which can have
anywhere from three to s i x d i f f e r e n t notes. In t h i s
sense, Hindemith's system i s l e s s o r d e r l y than Wolpert's
i n that he must use the word "etc." f o l l o w i n g sub-groups
i n h i s Table which are n o n - f i n i t e ( f o r example, I I . b . 1 ,
2 and 3; I I I . l and 2; IV.1 and 2 ) . Wolpert merely has
f i f t e e n b a s i c categories t o which a l l p o s s i b l e chords
reduce. He thus avoids presenting endless examples by
simply c l a s s i f y i n g the d i v i s i o n s f o r a l l the p o s s i b l e
combinations.

Perhaps the most c o n t r o v e r s i a l point of d i s t i n c t i o n

i s the l a s t - - t h e problem of consonance and dissonance.
Hindemith does not define e i t h e r term o b j e c t i v e l y . He
does state t h a t the value order l a i d down i n h i s S e r i e s 2
approaches the problem of the consonance and dissonance of
intervals. However, he does not s p e c i f y any point at
which consonance stops and dissonance begins.
The consonant i n t e r v a l s would then appear at the
beginning of S e r i e s 2 and the dissonant a t the end.
But the r a t e a t which the consonance of the i n t e r v a l s
near the beginning decreases and the dissonance of
those near the end increases cannot be determined
exactly. 5 2

52
I b i d . , 85.
 43.

The consonance or dissonance of one i n t e r v a l r e l a t i v e t o

another, then, i s a l l that can be determined by t h i s
series. According t o Hindemith, a major t h i r d may be
dissonant when compared t o a p e r f e c t f i f t h , but i t i s
consonant i n r e l a t i o n t o a minor seventh, and so on. The
t r i t o n e , not included i n S e r i e s 2, i s a s p e c i a l case and
i s neither consonant nor dissonant. In Hindemith's words,
" i t belongs n e i t h e r t o the realm of euphony nor t o that
53
of cacophony."
Hindemith does not extend h i s treatment of consonance
and dissonance of i n t e r v a l s to chords i n the way that he
extended h i s concept of r o o t s from i n t e r v a l s t o chords.
He avoids the use of the term "dissonance" and i n s t e a d , i n
the Table of Chord Groups he arranges chords i n order of
"tension." 5 4

I f one were t o extrapolate from Hindemith's S e r i e s 2

t o t r y t o determine a scale of consonance and dissonance
for chords one might come up w i t h a scale of values
approximating Hindemith's chord t a b l e . However, one would
encounter a l l s o r t s of d i f f i c u l t i e s and ambiguities, partly

53
Ibid.
54
See Chapter I I , p. 17.
 44.

because of the obvious f a c t that there are more chords

than i n t e r v a l s . Hindemith i s very c a r e f u l i n h i s
d i s c u s s i o n of chord types and does not use the word
"consonant" or "dissonant" once i n t h i s s e c t i o n of h i s
discussion. Even though he b e l i e v e s t h a t the "minor
t r i a d should rank higher i n the scheme of t o n a l values
55
than the major," major and minor chords are of equal
value i n h i s t a b l e .
Hindemith acknowledges t h a t the concepts of
consonance and dissonance have never been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
explained and t h a t throughout h i s t o r y the d e f i n i t i o n s have
varied.
At f i r s t t h i r d s were dissonant; l a t e r they became
consonant. A d i s t i n c t i o n was made between p e r f e c t
and imperfect consonances. The wide use of seventh
chords has made the major second and the minor
seventh almost consonant t o our ears. The s i t u a t i o n
of the f o u r t h has never been c l e a r e d up. T h e o r i s t s ,
basing t h e i r reasoning on a c c o u s t i c a l phenomena,
have repeatedly come t o conclusions w h o l l y at
variance w i t h those of p r a c t i c a l musicians. °
As mentioned e a r l i e r , Wolpert's ideas concerning
consonance and dissonance i n v o l v e the ear as being the
u l t i m a t e standard of measurement and he b e l i e v e s t h a t very
l i t t l e about consonance and dissonance can be proven
p h y s i c a l l y . A s a r e s u l t , h i s ideas concerning these

55
Ibid. f 77.
56
I b i d . , 85.

Wolpert, o.p_i_cJLi., 37 U 4 ) .
 45

concepts r e s t mainly on h i s own e m p i r i c a l observations.

He makes no attempt, as Hindemith does, to evolve a
l o g i c a l system, but simply states h i s own s u b j e c t i v e
opinions as having a kind of common sense v a l i d i t y .
Although Wolpert does not go so f a r as to give
a S e r i e s 2 by p i e c i n g together h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , one
i s a c t u a l l y able to come up w i t h a p a r t i a l scale of values
of i n t e r v a l s which proceed from the most consonant t o the
most dissonant, j u s t as i n Hindemith. Wolpert gives three
degrees of dissonance. He a l s o says that g e n e r a l l y seconds
are more dissonant than sevenths. ^ 5
From the i n f o r m a t i o n
he g i v e s , one can construct the f o l l o w i n g s e r i e s :

(Least Dissonant) m7 M2 T M7 m2 (Most Dissonant)

A l s o , the p e r f e c t f o u r t h i s considered an " a c c i d e n t a l "

dissonance when i t does not appear as part of a major or
minor t r i a d . Because i t can be considered e i t h e r consonant
or dissonant, the p e r f e c t f o u r t h a c t s as a kind of bridge
between Wolpert's consonant and dissonant i n t e r v a l s . As
one would expect, the other i n t e r v a l s - - o c t a v e , p e r f e c t
f i f t h , s i x t h s and t h i r d s — a r e a l l considered consonant.
(Here we must assume Wolpert means only the major and minor
t h i r d s and s i x t h s . ) However, no clues are given as to which
consonant i n t e r v a l s are more consonant than others. Since

See p. 32
 46

Wolpert gives us three degrees of dissonant i n t e r v a l s

one wonders why he does not (using h i s ear) give us
three or more degrees of consonant i n t e r v a l s . I f he does
have them i n mind, one can only guess as t o what the
ordering might be. A comparison of the l a t t e r p o r t i o n
of Hindemith's S e r i e s 2 w i t h Wolpert's scale above (both
" s e r i e s " proceding from the more consonant t o the more
dissonant i n t e r v a l s ) shows t h a t :

Hindemith: m3 M6 M2 m7. m2 M7
Wolpert: P4 m7 M2 T M7 m2

1. Wolpert b e l i e v e s the minor seventh l e s s

dissonant than the major second. I n Hindemith s s e r i e s ,
1

the opposite i s t r u e .
2. A l s o , Wolpert b e l i e v e s the major seventh l e s s
dissonant than the minor second. Again, the opposite i s
true i n Hindemith's s e r i e s .
3. While Wolpert b e l i e v e s the t r i t o n e t o be of
medium dissonance (more dissonant than M2 or m7 but l e s s
dissonant than m2 or M7) Hindemith b e l i e v e s i t t o be
unique and n e i t h e r consonant nor dissonant.
4. With Wolpert, the p e r f e c t f o u r t h can be c l a s s i f i e d
as a dissonance and comes a f t e r the t h i r d s and s i x t h s i n
terms of consonance. With Hindemith, however, the p e r f e c t
f o u r t h i s always more consonant than a l l of the t h i r d s and
sixths.
 47.

Wolpert does not s y s t e m a t i c a l l y extend h i s ideas

of consonance and dissonance t o a l l p o s s i b l e chords or
even the c a t e g o r i e s i n h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,
and apart from d i s c u s s i n g the four t r a d i t i o n a l t r i a d s ,
he goes no f u r t h e r .
Wolpert's d i s c u s s i o n of " e s s e n t i a l dissonances"
as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from "simple dissonances" i n v i t e s
criticism. He b e l i e v e s that even i f an i n t e r v a l which i s
s p e l l e d as a dissonance sounds consonant because of
enharmonic equivalence t o a consonant i n t e r v a l , i t i s s t i l l
" e s s e n t i a l l y dissonant" on account of i t s s p e l l i n g . His
c o n c l u s i o n regarding these " e s s e n t i a l dissonances" i s
that "they are unstable and cannot be used f o r cadence
59
formation." I t would seem that Wolpert i s p e r s i s t e n t
and determined t o d i s t i n g u i s h between enharmonic s p e l l i n g s ,
both i n h i s categories of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and i n h i s t r e a t -
ment of dissonance. However, although he would have us
b e l i e v e that a "g#" f o r example, sounds d i f f e r e n t from an
"ab" he does not s p e c i f i c a l l y make t h i s statement. A l s o ,
i t would seem that the i n t e r v a l C-Eb would be an e s s e n t i a l
dissonance i f a l t e r e d from C-E.^ The group of " e s s e n t i a l l y

59
I b i d . . 38 (14).
60
See p r o p o s i t i o n 1, p. 33.
 48

dissonant i n t e r v a l s , " then, can include a whole v a r i e t y of

types and the concept does not apparently serve any
p r a c t i c a l purpose, at t h i s point at l e a s t , apart from
t e l l i n g us which i n t e r v a l s are "unstable." However, the
i n s t a b i l i t y of some e s s e n t i a l dissonances, as we have seen
with the i n t e r v a l C-Eb, i s questionable. A l s o , Wolpert
has p r e v i o u s l y admitted that even simple dissonances are
61
a l l unstable. I t would seem, then, that the concept of
e s s e n t i a l dissonance i s of l i t t l e value.
We now come t o W o l p e r t s concepts regarding the
f

dissonance of chords. Even though he s p e c i f i c a l l y

discusses only t r i a d s , he seems t o be t r e a d i n g on ground
which Hindemith has c a r e f u l l y a v o i d e d — t h a t of the r e l a t i v e
consonance and dissonance of chords. He b e l i e v e s the major
t r i a d "the most complete" of a l l sounds p o s s i b l e . So
uncompromising i s W o l p e r t s b e l i e f i n the major
1
triad's
supremacy, t h a t he considers i t alone to be the consonant
triad. The other three t r i a d s are a l l considered dissonant
62
i n the degrees p r e v i o u s l y explained. Wolpert sees the
AO
minor t r i a d as a "clouding" of the major, a concept,

61
See p. 32.
62
See p. 32.
63
Ib_Ld,., 36 ( 1 3 ) .
 49.

64
interestingly enough, w i t h which Hindemith agrees.
The augmented t r i a d puzzles Wolpert and he cannot under-
stand why the i n t e r v a l C-G# does not sound dissonant, while
65
the chord C-E-G# has a "very tense sound." This apparent
c o n t r a d i c t i o n , he says, i s "not v a l i d l y e x p l a i n a b l e " and i s
one of the arguments he uses t o j u s t i f y h i s b e l i e f i n the
ear as the f i n a l judge i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g dissonance from
consonance. One wonders why Wolpert does not l a b e l the
diminished t r i a d more dissonant than the augmented t r i a d .
This seems t o be i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the
consonance and dissonance of i n t e r v a l s . The t r i t o n e and
seconds and sevenths have been c l a s s i f i e d as dissonant
intervals, while the t h i r d s and s i x t h s are consonant.
Since the augmented t r i a d contains no i n t e r v a l s which
Wolpert would c a l l dissonant sounding, while the diminished
t r i a d contains the dissonant t r i t o n e , one would expect the
augmented t r i a d t o be more consonant than the diminished
triad. ( I n Hindemith's Table the augmented t r i a d comes
before the diminished.)
The d i f f i c u l t i e s i n attempting t o come t o terms
with b a s i c a l l y s u b j e c t i v e notions of consonance and
dissonance should by now be apparent. There i s disagreement

64
Hindemith, op. c i t . . 78.
65
Wolpert, op. c i t . . 38 (14).
 50.

between Hindemith and Wolpert on almost every point apart

from general b e l i e f s such as the consonance of octaves
and f i f t h s and the dissonance of seconds and sevenths.
Although there are many d i f f e r e n c e s between
Hindemith's and Wolpert's systems, both t h e o r i s t s have
attempted and succeeded i n c l a s s i f y i n g a l l p o s s i b l e
combinations of musical p i t c h e s , i . e . , a l l p o s s i b l e
chords. Obviously the t r a d i t i o n a l method of b u i l d i n g
chords i n t h i r d s has been subordinated i n both c l a s s i f i c a -
t i o n s and does not form the b a s i s of e i t h e r Hindemith's or
Wolpert's systems.
 CHAPTER I I I

CHORD MOVEMENT

A. Hindemith.
Hindemith s study of chord movement i n v o l v e s the
1

examination of three main p o i n t s , a l l of which, when

considered, come t o bear on the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a given
chord progression. These a r e :
1. Harmonic F l u c t u a t i o n
2. Degree Progression
3. The Two-Voice Framework
I t has already been mentioned w i t h respect t o
Hindemith's system of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t h a t chord
value and chord t e n s i o n are i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
one another. The higher the number of the sub-group, the
higher the t e n s i o n and the lower the value of the chord t o
be considered. Conversely, the lower the number of the
sub-group, the lower the t e n s i o n and the higher the value
of the chord.
• . . the t e n s i o n of chords increases from s e c t i o n
to s e c t i o n and from sub-group t o sub-group i n the
same p r o p o r t i o n as the value decreases . . . i t i s
t h i s up and down change of values which we s h a l l
term 'Harmonic F l u c t u a t i o n . ' The f l u c t u a t i o n may
be gradual or sudden according t o the r e l a t i v e values
of the chords that make up the p r o g r e s s i o n . !

1
Hindemith, The C r a f t , op. c i t . . I , 116.
 52.

According t o Hindemith, sudden f l u c t u a t i o n s occur

when the progression s k i p s a sub-group (e.g., 1.1 to I I I . 2
or I l . b . l t o IV.2). On the other hand, gradual f l u c t u a -
t i o n s are those, f o r example, when the progression occurs
w i t h i n one of the sub-groups ( I I . a t o II.b.3) o r , even
between two d i f f e r e n t chords from w i t h i n a s e c t i o n of a
sub-group (e.g., both from I I . b . 2 ) . Between the "sudden"
and the "gradual" f l u c t u a t i o n s are those which move among
consecutive sub-groups ( I I I . 1 t o IV.2 or 1.2 t o I I . b . 3 ) .
These might be termed "medium" f l u c t u a t i o n s .

Hindemith s t a t e s that f o r harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n t o

occur, "chords of d i f f e r e n t value" are r e q u i r e d . To
understand t h i s statement more f u l l y , one should examine
i t s converse. Hindemith s t a t e s : "In the connection of
chords of i d e n t i c a l s t r u c t u r e , there i s no harmonic
f l u c t u a t i o n . T h u s , harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n occurs whenever
a chordal s t r u c t u r e moves t o any other chordal s t r u c t u r e ,
but does not occur when a succession of i d e n t i c a l chordal
s t r u c t u r e s appears. In the example below, (a) c o n s t i t u t e s
a gradual f l u c t u a t i o n while at (b) there i s no harmonic
fluctuation.

2
I b i d . . 117
 53.

Example 19.

[J—, —1
o o
o Q
o o

Hindemith does not appear t o give any d e f i n i t e

r u l e s as t o what c o n s t i t u t e s good harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n ,
apart from the g e n e r a l l y i m p l i e d notion that i n a given
musical passage there should be a gradual r i s e and f a l l
of harmonic t e n s i o n . This apparent l a c k of information
has been n o t i c e d by Herman Hensel:
. . . the information (Hindemith) gives us
r e l a t i v e t o what c o n s t i t u t e s good o r g a n i z a t i o n
of harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n i s rather sparse and at
times ambiguous. . . 3
Hensel a l s o sees Hindemith*s i m p l i c a t i o n of the d e s i r a b i l i t y
of a r i s e and f a l l of harmonic t e n s i o n . However, d i f f i c u l -
t i e s a r i s e when one t r i e s t o r e l a t e harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n t o
phrase s t r u c t u r e :
Hindemith regards the arch type harmonic t e n s i o n -
repose design as one which shows a good o r g a n i z a t i o n .
At t h i s point one cannot be sure whether the arch
should or should not p a r a l l e l the phrase, however.
A l s o , t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n suggests that Hindemith
regards as good a design which i s out of phase with
the other elements, i . e . , a design that b r i n g s about

3
Herman Richard Hensel, "On Paul Hindemith's Harmonic
F l u c t u a t i o n Theory," Unpublished D.M.A. D i s s e r t a t i o n , (Urbana:
U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s , 1964), quoted from a b s t r a c t .
 54.

an e q u i l i b r i u m of tensions as the v a r i o u s elements

of music i n t e r a c t w i t h each o t h e r . 4

In the C r a f t . Hindemith does warn against movement between

c e r t a i n sub-groups, s p e c i f i c a l l y , V or VI and I I I or IV:
. . . as a counterpoise to the s t a b l e and t e n s i o n -
l e s s chords of Group I , a chord from group V or VI
may be u s e f u l ; i t can almost always be s u c c e s s f u l l y
juxtaposed even against chords from group I I . But
i n using i t w i t h chords from groups I I I and IV, care
must be e x e r c i s e d . In the midst of such chords, a
chord of group V or VI o f t e n puts us completely o f f
the t r a c k : i t seems to cause the whole chord
s t r u c t u r e to c o l l a p s e . . . . Progressions of t h i s
type must a c c o r d i n g l y be handled with extreme
• * • •

Apart from t h i s i t seems i t i s l e f t to the composer's

musical i n t u i t i o n to ensure good f l u c t u a t i o n , as no f u r t h e r
s p e c i f i c r u l e s are given.^
Hindemith helps j u s t i f y h i s theory of harmonic
f l u c t u a t i o n by e x p l a i n i n g that only with t h i s theory i s
there an "explanation f o r chords of v a r y i n g harmonic t e n s i o n
-i

upon the same r o o t . " In the f i n a l a n a l y s i s , harmonic

f l u c t u a t i o n can 'be considered as simply an extension of
Hindemith's system of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . I t takes no

4
Ibid..
5
Hindemith, op. c i t . . 119-20.
6
Hindemith i m p l i e s ( C r a f t , I , 123) that i n succes-
sive t r i a d s no t r i t o n e should be evident, e.g., minor
dominant to major t o n i c i n C major, t r i t o n e Bb-E i s present
and should be avoided.
7
Hindemith, op. c i t . . 120.
 55.

account of voice leading or root movement but concerns

i t s e l f simply with the varying tensions i n a chordal
sequence.
In c o n s i d e r i n g the second p o i n t , i . e . , "degree
progression," we s h a l l adopt the view of V i c t o r Landau
i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s term i n the broadest sense t o i n c l u d e
a l l successions of chord r o o t s . Both S e r i e s 1 and S e r i e s
2 are used; the l a t t e r p a r t i c u l a r l y when c o n s i d e r i n g the
r o o t s of adjacent chords i n a progression as r e l a t e d i n
the " t o n a l sphere" or t o a t o n a l centre.

SERIES 1: (Based on Root "C") C,C,G,F,A,E,Eb,Ab,D,Bb,Db,B

SERIES 2: P8, P5, P4, M3, m6, m3, M6, M2, m7, m2 M7

By c o n s i d e r i n g the i n t e r v a l s between the r o o t s of

successive chords (not yet assumed as being r e l a t e d t o a
t o n a l c e n t r e ) , Hindemith comes t o conclusions regarding the
value of c e r t a i n chord progressions: "a progression based
on the i n t e r v a l of a f i f t h between i t s r o o t s n a t u r a l l y has
o
a surer foundation than one based on a minor s i x t h . . . .

8
Landau p o i n t s out t h a t the term " t o n a l amplitude,"
used i n Book I I of Hindemith's T r a d i t i o n a l Harmony and
defined as "the amount of t e n s i o n between the t o n i c chord
and each of the other chords i n a t o n a l sphere which i s
dominated by i t , " describes the above concept i n which
S e r i e s 1 i s used as the determining f a c t o r . See Landau's
a r t i c l e "Hindemith the System B u i l d e r : A C r i t i q u e , "
Music Review XXII (1961), 147.
9
Hindemith, op. c i t . . 122.
 56.

Hindemith*s r a t i o n a l e here again f o l l o w s the l o g i c of

S e r i e s 2. The best progression i s that which i s based
on r o o t s a f i f t h apart, the next, that based on r o o t s a
f o u r t h apart, then that based on roots a major t h i r d apart
and so on through the s e r i e s u n t i l one comes t o the chord
progression based on two r o o t s a t r i t o n e apart, which
Hindemith sees as the " l e a s t valuable of a l l . " - * 0
In a
chord which has no root (Sub-groups V and V I ) , a "root
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " i s chosen which best connects i t (accord-
ing t o S e r i e s 2) t o the r o o t s of the chords preceding and
following it.^"*"

Hindemith p o i n t s out the disadvantage of assessing

the value of chord progressions merely from an examination
of the movement of t h e i r r o o t s . The f a c t that a l a r g e
number of chords can be constructed over the same root
helps t e s t i f y t o t h i s drawback. However, Hindemith
dismisses the l i m i t a t i o n i n one sentence: " . . . here an
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the two-voice framework and the harmonic
f l u c t u a t i o n w i l l c l e a r up a l l ambiguity."-^

Progressions which c o n t a i n t r i t o n e chords are of

10
I b i d . . 123.
11
I b i d . , 125.
12
I b i d . . 123.
 57.

s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o Hindemith and t r e a t e d as separate

cases. In these progressions, a knowledge of Hindemith*s
concept of "guide tones" i s e s s e n t i a l .
A guide-tone i s , i n a chord from group B, that
member of a t r i t o n e which stands i n the best r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
according t o S e r i e s 2, t o the root of the chord i n question
Whenever a chord from group B i s followed by a chord of
group A, Hindemith states "the t r i t o n e i s thereby
resolved. 14 11
I f the r e s o l u t i o n i s t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y ,
the guide-tone must move by a good melodic i n t e r v a l
( p r e f e r a b l y a second) t o the root of the f o l l o w i n g chord.
When successions of several group B chords occur, there
i s no r e s o l u t i o n of the t r i t o n e but instead a prolonging
of the t e n s i o n . This type of succession i s t r e a t e d l i k e
the progressions already discussed except that the
i n t e r v a l made by the guide tone i n the f i r s t chord moving
t o the guide tone i n the second i s considered a secondary
assessment ( a f t e r root progression) of the value of the
chord p r o g r e s s i o n . Hindemith a l s o p o i n t s out the

13
I b i d . . 104.
14
I b i d . . 126.
15
I b i d . . 129-130.
 58.

i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t that i n the succession of two tritone

chords from sub-group I I (only o c c a s i o n a l l y w i t h those
from sub-group IV) whose r o o t s are a t r i t o n e apart there
i s a l s o a t r i t o n e between the guide-tones of the two
chords as w e l l as the f a c t that the t r i t o n e contained i n
the f i r s t chord must a l s o be contained i n the second. This
important observation leads Hindemith t o exclaim: "This
chain of t r i t o n e s l i n k s these two chords so c l o s e l y
together that they seem almost l i k e f r a c t i o n a l p a r t s of the
same chord.

Example 20.

A
j
Roots: D Ab
Common T r i t o n e : C - P# (Gb)
%\\ — Guide Tones
Thus f a r Hindemith has made no attempt to r e l a t e these
concepts of "good" root progression to the concept of
t o n a l centre or t o n a l sphere. Before beginning to discuss
these "harmonic f a m i l y - r e l a t i o n s h i p s , " Hindemith admits
that c e r t a i n rhythmic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are necessary i n

16
Ibid.. 130.
 59.

attempting to d i s c e r n such t o n a l centres. "Duration and

p o s i t i o n i n the measure are of d e c i s i v e importance i n
determining the t o n i c : the stressed p o r t i o n of the
measure, the longest note or the f i n a l note i s needed to
t e l l us which i s the p r i n c i p a l tone of the group."-^
Following t h i s necessary concession, however, there i s no
f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of the element of rhythm i n the section
concerned w i t h chord movement. Instead, two rather signifi-
cant d e f i n i t i o n s are stated regarding the harmonic aspect of
tonal organization. These are:
1. A succession of chords from Group A must c o n s i s t
of at l e a s t three chords i f i t i s to represent a t o n a l
entity.
2. Only one chord from Group B i s needed to produce
a f e e l i n g of t o n a l i t y since the " t r i t o n e i n i t forces the
18

ear to assume a chord of r e s o l u t i o n . "

Here a d i s t i n c t i o n must be made between the terms
"tonal e n t i t y " i n d e f i n i t i o n 1 and " f e e l i n g of t o n a l i t y " i n
d e f i n i t i o n 2. Hindemith s t a t e s that although a " f e e l i n g of
t o n a l i t y " i s created i n the sounding of a s i n g l e chord from
group B, a " t o n a l e n t i t y " (or " t o n a l centre") i s not defined

17
Ibid.. 133.
18
I b i d . . 134-5.
 60

since "the ear does not know i n which d i r e c t i o n to

r e s o l v e the t r i t o n e . " Thus, "the sounding of a s i n g l e
t r i t o n e chord i s enough to create a f e e l i n g of t o n a l i t y ,
but the t o n a l centre i s not defined. Only when the
t r i t o n e i s resolved can one know which chord root i s
the t o n a l c e n t r e . " ^ 9
When a chord from group B r e s o l v e s
to a chord from group A, the root of the l a t t e r i s
considered the t o n a l centre. In a succession of chords
from group B the t o n a l i t y i s not determined u n t i l the
chord of r e s o l u t i o n . However, i n a s e r i e s of unresolved
chords from sub-group I I , the t o n a l centre may be regarded
as the f i f t h below the root of the f i n a l chord i n the
s e r i e s since "the unresolved t r i t o n e of the f i n a l chord
would r e s o l v e most n a t u r a l l y i n t o an i n t e r v a l whose root
would be a f i f t h below the root of the t r i t o n e chord."
Hindemith s summary i n chart form of the number of chords
1

needed f o r determining a t o n a l centre i s reproduced i n

the Appendix.

I t has already been mentioned that S e r i e s 1 i s used

when c o n s i d e r i n g chords r e l a t e d t o a t o n a l centre, although
Hindemith does not f u l l y e x p l a i n h i s r a t i o n a l e i n choosing

19
Ibid.
20
Ibid., 136.
 61

it. As S e r i e s 2 was derived b a s i c a l l y from h i s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n of combination tone curves, so S e r i e s 1 was
derived b a s i c a l l y from h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the overtone
series. Whereas S e r i e s 2 consisted of a row of i n t e r v a l s ,
S e r i e s 1 c o n s i s t s of a row of tones and represents the
degree of r e l a t i o n s h i p these tones have t o a given tone.
The f u r t h e r a tone i s away from the f i r s t tone, the more
d i s t a n t the r e l a t i o n s h i p .

SERIES 1: (Based on "C") C,C,G,F,A,E,Eb,Ab,D,Bb,Db,B

A degree progression may be r e s t r i c t e d t o the high-ranking

degrees of S e r i e s 1 (Tonic, Dominant and Subdominant) or i t
may c o n s i s t of a v a r i e t y of both high and low ranking
degrees. As the degree of r e l a t i o n s h i p between the chord
r o o t s and the t o n i c chord root v a r i e s , so does the t e n s i o n .
As Landau has pointed out^ * t h i s "tension" i s not the same
-

"tension" used i n d i s c u s s i n g chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . In the

l a t t e r , "tension was inherent i n the s t r u c t u r e of the
22
chord" while w i t h degree progression, " t e n s i o n " r e f e r s t o
. . . the c o n f l i c t between the a u t h o r i t y of the t o n a l
centre and the urge of the i n d i v i d u a l harmonies t o
escape from that a u t h o r i t y . When t h i s urge i s g r a t i -
f i e d , of course, a new t o n a l centre i s e s t a b l i s h e d
and modulation takes place . . . .23

21
Landau, op. c i t . . 150.
22 See p. 18.
23 I b i d .
 62.

Landau summarizes Hindemith's views on the

establishment of t o n a l i t y (or a t o n a l centre) i n a
complete composition:
. . . the p r e v a i l i n g t o n a l i t y i s e s t a b l i s h e d by the
i n t e r p l a y of the same f a c t o r s which serve that
purpose i n a t o n a l sphere, i . e . , r e p e t i t i o n , f i n a l -
i t y , and the confirmation of r e l a t e d tones. Thus,
the t o n a l centre which i s must repeated or which
appears at the end, or which i s s t r o n g l y supported
by i t s dominant and sub-dominant, i s revealed as the
p r i n c i p a l tone of a movement or of an e n t i r e work.24
The t h i r d point to be mentioned w i t h respect to
chord movement i s the two-voice framework, i . e . , the bass
l i n e and the most prominent upper part at a given moment.
Hindemith b e l i e v e s that a chord progression i s a f f e c t e d
very l i t t l e by the inner v o i c e movement. 25
i t is
p r i n c i p a l l y the s e t t i n g of the "two-voice framework" that
the most i n f l u e n t i a l and i t i s to t h i s f a c t o r that he
devotes h i s a t t e n t i o n . " I f w r i t i n g i n s e v e r a l voices i s
t o sound c l e a r and i n t e l l i g i b l e , the contours of i t s two-
v o i c e framework must be c l e a n l y designated and cogently
organized."26

The extent of Hindemith's d e s i r e f o r such s t r i c t

o r g a n i z a t i o n i s evident i n Volume 2 of the C r a f t where a

24
Ibid.
25
Hindemith, op. c i t . . 115.
26
Ibid.. 114.
 63

t o t a l of s i x t y - f i v e r u l e s are l i s t e d as a guide f o r
w r i t i n g the two-voice framework. Many of these r u l e s
have t o do w i t h the c o n s t r u c t i o n of good melodies while
there are only a few which have a d i r e c t bearing on the
p r i n c i p l e s of chord movement or succession. Landau, i n
h i s study, has chosen only twelve f o r reasons which he
s t a t e s below:
Hindemith abrogated . . . r u l e s g r a d u a l l y through-
out Book I I as the student was presumed t o have
exhausted the b e n e f i t s of observing them . . . .
There a r e , however, several r u l e s i n Book I I which
were not rescinded and some which were expressly
reaffirmed.2'
Of the above explained "unrescinded" and "reaffirmed"
r u l e s Landau chooses the f o l l o w i n g :
1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e r v a l s between the v o i c e s
( t h i r d s and s i x t h s should balance seconds and
sevenths)
2. Relative a c t i v i t y : l e s s movement i n bass
3. A l t e r n a t i o n of a c t i v i t y : ( i f one voice moves,
keep other s t i l l )
4. I n t e r v a l root below at beginning, end, import-
ant p o i n t s
5. No c r o s s i n g of Voices
6. No P a r a l l e l Octaves
7. No Delayed P a r a l l e l s
8. No Covered Octaves
9. No Covered 5ths or 4ths
10. No Delayed Covered P a r a l l e l s

V i c t o r Landau, "Hindemith-Case Study i n Theory and

P r a c t i c e " Music Review. V o l . XXI, 1960, 42.
 64.

11. No leaps t o or from 2nds 7ths or the t r i t o n e

(Most v i o l a t e d r u l e i n Landau's study).
12. Upward r e s o l u t i o n of suspensions only t o 2Q
c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l s (See Rule 50, Book I I ) .
In a d d i t i o n t o these, the present w r i t e r f e e l s the
f o l l o w i n g two r u l e s should also be i n c l u d e d , p a r t l y
because of p o s s i b l e comparisons which may be drawn w i t h
Wolpert:
1. Rule 22 The two v o i c e s may not skip i n the
same d i r e c t i o n a t the same time . . . .29
2. Rule 23 Cross R e l a t i o n s must be avoided.30
Book I I of The C r a f t i s only concerned w i t h two-part
w r i t i n g , and Hindemith maintains that the two-voice
3
framework as defined should be governed by these r u l e s .
To f u r t h e r c l a r i f y t h i s p o i n t , Landau maintains that
these r u l e s , however, cannot be applied t o any combina-
t i o n of two v o i c e s i n a structure of three or more p a r t s ,
but rather only t o the two-voice framework as Hindemith

28
Ibid», See i n s e r t p. 46.
29
Hindemith, op. c i t . . I I , 26.
30
I b i d . Hindemith, however, l a t e r permits cross-
r e l a t i o n s (Rule 37, pp. 46-7) i f one of the notes
involved i s passing tone of r e l a t i v e l y short d u r a t i o n
f a l l s on the weak part of the measure.
31
Hindemith, op. c i t . . I , 114.
 65.

has defined i t , i . e . , the bass and most prominent upper

part. 3 2

Furthermore,
On m a t e r i a l s on three part w r i t i n g which Hindemith
d i s t r i b u t e d to h i s students at Y a l e , p a r a l l e l 4ths
were allowed between the top and middle v o i c e s and
between the middle and bottom v o i c e s - a l s o ,
p a r a l l e l 5ths were allowed between top and middle
v o i c e s when the tones i n e i t h e r p a i r of f i f t h s
have d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s (when one i s a non-chord
tone). P a r a l l e l octaves, however, were not
allowed at a l l . 3 3

B. Wolpert.
Throughout W o l p e r t s d i s c u s s i o n of "The
1
Principles
and Hindrances of Chordal Connection and Succession," ^ 3

i t i s i m p l i e d that the connection of chords i s most

s a t i s f a c t o r y when a l l the v o i c e s (with the exception of
the b a s s ) , i f they proceed at a l l , proceed by step.
Wolpert t r e a t s v o i c e movement by second i n a most system-
a t i c and thorough way, yet the other p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
movement i n the upper v o i c e s (by 3rd, 4 t h , etc.) are
hardly d i s c u s s e d . This would seem t o d i s a l l o w , at the

32
Landau, Hindemith. A Case Study . . . , 42.
33
Landau, op. c i t . . 51.
34
Franz A l f o n s Wolpert, Neue Harmonik. (Wilhelmshaven:
H e i n r i c h s h a f t e n , 1972), 65-96, (Unpublished t r a n s l a t i o n ,
L. Medveczky, 22-34.
 66.

o u t s e t , many p o s s i b i l i t i e s of chord movement which even

traditionally one has come t o a c c e p t . Using the "two-voice

framework"3S (Zweistimmigkeit) as a method of i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,

Wolpert examines p o s s i b l e combinations of p a i r e d v o i c e s i n

the c o n n e c t i o n of two c h o r d s . Note that i n the example g i v e n ,

a l l v o i c e s except the bass move by step or remain stationary.

36
Example 21.

- t—
mmm

2E

7J n
i. 2. 3. 5. 75

1. Reihung - p a r a l l e l movement of i n t e r v a l s of e q u a l

quality (thirds, seconds, f i f t h s , e t c . ) by step, ascending

or d e s c e n d i n g .

2. Konstante - one note common i n two chords i n the

same v o i c e .

35
I t should be noted t h a t "two-voice framework" i n
the g e n e r a l sense i s d i f f e r e n t from Hindemith's s p e c i a l
d e f i n i t i o n of the same term d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n S e c t i o n
'A" of t h i s c h a p t e r . Wolpert's d e f i n i t i o n of the term may
apply t o any combination of two v o i c e s .

36
Wolpert, op. c i t . . 65.
 67

3. D i a s t o l e - two voices expanding by step.

4. Systole - two v o i c e s c o n t r a c t i n g by step.
5. Bas-Kadenz - when the bass does not move by step.

(1) Concerning the Reihung. p a r a l l e l t h i r d s , fourths

and s i x t h s are acceptable i n p a r t - w r i t i n g , according t o
Wolpert. Even p a r a l l e l major seconds or minor sevenths are
permitted. However, p a r a l l e l f i f t h s , octaves and "the small
second values and t h e i r i n v e r s i o n s " (aug. prime, dim.
octave, minor second, major seventh) c o n s t i t u t e a hindrance
to agreeable chord movement and are therefore not accept-
able. L a t e r , under the sub-heading "mixtures" (Mixturen),
Wolpert e x p l a i n s that consecutive octaves and f i f t h s do,
however, appear i n music, e s p e c i a l l y i n the i m p r e s s i o n i s t s
(Debussy and Ravel) and i n Reger, but a l s o i n Bartok and
S t r a v i n s k y , and often serve as a " c o l o u r f u l strengthening
of the melody." 38

(2) Concerning the Konstante tone: Wolpert states

two "Laws of I n a c t i v i t y " as f o l l o w s :
1. A tone which i s common i n two chords should
remain i n the same v o i c e .
2. In the connection of two chords, voices should
move the shortest p o s s i b l e distance. 3 9

/ \
I b i d . . 66 (23).
3 7

3 8
Ibid.. 69 (23).

39
I b i < i . , 70 (24).
 68.

Wolpert i m p l i e s , then, that the l e s s a c t i v i t y i n the voice

leading of a chord progression, the b e t t e r . He flatly
states that "jumps ( i n t e r v a l s greater than a second) have a
cumbersome e f f e c t " and goes so f a r as to give the f o l l o w i n g
examples of what he says are "successions which cannot be
c a l l e d connections" because " t h e i r parts are standing f o r
themselves, unconnected" and "no hearing l o g i c i s to be
recognized i n them." 40

41
Example 22.

3£a

Here a d i s t i n c t i o n should be made between the terms "connec-

t i o n " and "succession," although i t appears that Wolpert
does not. A succession can i n v o l v e any s e r i e s of sounds. A
connection, i t would seem from the above, i s a d e s i r a b l e
succession, which, according t o Wolpert, would involve as
l i t t l e voice movement as p o s s i b l e (except f o r the b a s s ) .

I b i d . 70 (24), Aufeinanderfolgen wie die des

f

B e i s p i e l s C22J Kann man wohl n i c h t Verbindungen nennen. Ihre

T e i l e stehen unverbunden f u r s i c h . Ihre Sprunge wirken
s p e r r i g , i h r e Vorzeichen sind w i l l k u r l i c h gewahlt.
41
I b i d . . 71.
 69

"Our t a s k now" he s t a t e s , " i s t o r e a l i z e p o s s i b l e f u t u r e

connections on the b a s i s of these already known l o g i c a l

hearing processes."42

(3,4.) One can now examine the S y s t o l e n and

D i a s t o l e n , which Wolpert d i s c u s s e s as a group. Firstly,

d i s t i n c t i o n s are made among three d i f f e r e n t types of S y s t o l e n

and Diastolen. These are named "complete" (ganze). "half"

( h a l b e ) . and "whole-tone" (ganzton). With complete Systolen/

D i a s t o l e n . the c o n t r a c t i n g / e x p a n d i n g v o i c e s both move by h a l f

step. In the h a l f S y s t o l e n / D i a s t o l e n , o n l y one v o i c e moves

by h a l f step while the other moves by whole s t e p . In the

whole-tone S y s t o l e n / D i a s t o l e n both v o i c e s move by whole step.

Example 23.43

0 So
Systolen 3EE

Piastolen

Complete Half Whole t o n e ^ o "

42
Ibid.

43
Ibid. f 72.
 70.

Next, the concept of "adhesion" (Adhasion) i s

introducedIn simple terms, "adhesion" i s the name used
to describe e i t h e r a complete S y s t o l e or a complete D i a s t o l e .
Thus, whenever two voices both expand or both contract w i t h
a h a l f step movement i n each v o i c e , adhesion i s said t o have
taken p l a c e . I t i s assumed t h a t t h i s "adhesive process" i s
a good q u a l i t y i n chord connection s i n c e , according t o the
"Laws of I n a c t i v i t y " 4 5
h a l f - s t e p movement i s more l i k e l y and
d e s i r a b l e than jumps of a major second or l a r g e r . ^

Adhesion may lead t o e i t h e r a stable or an unstable

ending. 47
When i t leads t o the l a t t e r , i t i s termed
" d i v e r s i o n " ( D i v e r s i o n ) . However, there i s no term which
d e s c r i b e s the opposite of d i v e r s i o n , i . e . , l e a d i n g t o a
stable ending. Moreover, there i s a d i s t i n c t i o n i n t h i s

44
I b i d . . 73 (25).
45
See Chapter I I I , p. 67.
46
In order t h a t adhesion can take place w i t h t r a d i -
t i o n a l l y c o r r e c t voice l e a d i n g the term Umpolung i s invented
by Wolpert (see German t e x t , p. 74). A s p e c i f i c note i s
"transpoled" so t h a t the voice leading i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y
acceptable. This " t r a n s p o l a t i o n " i s nothing more than
enharmonic s u b s t i t u t i o n .
47
Unstable i s the same as "dissonant." See Chapter
I I , p. 34.
 71.

unnamed c l a s s i f i c a t i o n between "ambivalently adhesive"

and "unequivocally adhesive" penultimate intervals,
depending on the s p e l l i n g of t h i s i n t e r v a l .
Two r u l e s are stated regarding adhesion leading
to a stable ending:
1. Unaltered penultimate i n t e r v a l s can resolve
i n two ways. (These are c a l l e d ambivalently adhesive.)
2. A l t e r e d penultimate i n t e r v a l s can r e s o l v e i n
only one d i r e c t i o n . (These are c a l l e d unequivocally
adhesive•)
In simpler terms, some s p e l l i n g s a l l o w one p o s s i b l e
_8
r e s o l u t i o n , w h i l e other s p e l l i n g s allow two. The
f o l l o w i n g example i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s f a c t :
Example 2 4 « 4 9

Unaltered
ff &
Unaltered Altered

48
Ibid.., 73.
49
I b i d . . 74.
 72

A l l adhesive processes which lead to dissonant or

unstable endings are c a l l e d " d i v e r s i v e " - - t h e process
i t s e l f i s called "diversion." Some examples of t h i s
process f o l l o w :

Example 25.50

—o
0
o
•ifo °
-6- -g-

To demonstrate adhesion i n i t s " f u l l efficiency,"

Wolpert g i v e s an example of a four-note chord connection.
There are s i x p o s s i b l e two-voice frameworks and a l l are
examined i n d e t a i l — f i r s t the outer v o i c e s ( p e r i p h e r i e ) ;
next, the two p a i r s of v o i c e s separated by one i n t e r -
mediate v o i c e (ubernachste): and f i n a l l y , the three
p a i r s of adjacent v o i c e s (benachbarte). The following
example w i l l help i l l u s t r a t e Wolpert's procedure:

50
I b i d . , p. 75.
51
I b i d . . p. 76.
 73

Example 26.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

In the above four-note chord connection, four of the s i x

p o s s i b l e two-voice frameworks are adhesive ( s y s t o l e s ) and
non-diversive; they a l l lead t o stable endings. The remain-
ing two p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n v o l v e Reihnngen - #5 being consecu-
t i v e t h i r d values while #6 i n v o l v e s consecutive f o u r t h s .
Here, the second of the "Laws of I n a c t i v i t y " ( i . e . , v o i c e s
moving the s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e distance i n chord connection)
can be seen to operate. For t h i s reason i t can be assumed
t h a t the examples given i l l u s t r a t e good connections.
As one would expect, non-adhesive i n t e r v a l connec-
t i o n s can be mixed w i t h adhesive i n t e r v a l connections as i n
the f o l l o w i n g example. Note that although the lower i n t e r v a l
p a i r i s non-adhesive i t is still systolic.

52
Here s p e l l i n g does not seem to bother Wolpert.
Although he recognized the diminished f o u r t h he regards
i t as a " t h i r d value" (Terzwerte).
 74,

Example 2 7 . 5 3

adhesive

.i

non-adhe sive
(5) One can now t u r n t o Wolpert's d i s c u s s i o n of bass
movement. I t has already been noted that i n chord connection
i t i s most d e s i r a b l e f o r the upper voices t o move the smallest
possible distance. The u l t i m a t e of t h i s i d e a l (apart from
a l l v o i c e s remaining s t a t i o n a r y ) i s manifested i n the concept
of adhesion. However, Wolpert informs us t h a t bass movement
must be considered "fundamentally independent from adhesion"
although when the bass does move by step i t can be considered
54

as part of the adhesive process. I t would seem, then, that

the bass i s t r e a t e d separately from the other voices and i n
f a c t , does not f o l l o w the " r u l e s " l a i d down f o r them. How-
ever, i t does not have i t s own r u l e s . Instead, Wolpert l i s t s
the most f r e q u e n t l y occurring and t h e r e f o r e most d e s i r a b l e
p o s s i b i l i t i e s of upper voice movement r e l a t e d t o the bass.
A f t e r numerous analyses of ' c l a s s i c a l ' and 'modern'
cadences i t was discovered that i n each upper part the
f o l l o w i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s of voice movement i n r e l a t i o n
t o the bass made f o r a s a t i s f a c t o r y c a d e n c e . 55

53
I b i d . . 77.
54
I b i d . , 78 (28).
55
Ibid.., 78 (28). I t i s not mentioned what " c l a s s i c -
a l " and "modern" works were analyzed.
 75.

Example 2 8 . 5 6

* I h 4
l
fh ° o 9 U
° r> /\
u
W—-J

1 2 E

1 _.

56
I b i d . . p. 80-1. I t should be noted that the upper
voice movement i s not always stepwise although not s u r p r i s -
i n g l y i n the majority of cases i t i s . I t might a l s o be
noted that i f a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s of upper voice movement
were t o be l i s t e d , the number f o r each bass movement would
t o t a l 11 X 12 or 132.
 76.

Wolpert thus seems t o imply that the bass voice may

move as other v o i c e s (by s t e p ) , but a l s o , particularly
at c a d e n t i a l p o i n t s , may move by t h i r d , f o u r t h , or
fifth. He i s , i n f a c t , not complete i n the treatment
of the bass v o i c e as he was a l s o not complete i n h i s
treatment of the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of upper voice movement.

The bass possesses the "greatest s t a b i l i z i n g

power" according t o Wolpert, i n cadences where i t moves
by f o u r t h or f i f t h . 5 7
When i t moves down a p e r f e c t
f i f t h or up a p e r f e c t f o u r t h , i t i s considered a
"descending c a d e n t i a l bass" and i s notated L 5-^ or

Conversely, when i t moves down a p e r f e c t

f o u r t h or up a p e r f e c t f i f t h i t i s considered an
4^ or f .
Next, i n examining cadences w i t h s p l i t chords, 58

Wolpert discusses the f o l l o w i n g three simple possibilities

57
I b i d . . 82 (29). Here the word " s t a b i l i z i n g " has
no connection w i t h the e a r l i e r notions of " s t a b i l i t y " and
"consonance" but merely denotes a q u a l i t y inherent i n bass
movement by f o u r t h or f i f t h .

58
I b i d . . 84 (29)
 77.

using many examples. " 3

1. Cadences where the penultimate chord contains

a split fifth.
2. Cadences where the penultimate chord contains
a split third.
3. Cadences i n v o l v i n g m u l t i p l e s p l i t s i n the
penultimate chord.
An example i l l u s t r a t i n g each p o s s i b i l i t y mentioned
i s included:

Example 29. 60

1\>\ ,
i — ?

9C j—k I
2
5—
I j
5 h1-4
1. 2. 3.

Expanding on the above concept, Wolpert illustrates

cadences where the penultimate chord c o n t a i n s a s p l i t
i n t e r v a l and i s r e l a t e d t o a constant bass p r o g r e s s i o n .

59
See Chapter I I , PP. 28-30.
60
I b i d . . 85-6.
 78,
61
Example 30*

a—Q- J>Q Q

bo » E^Q t/o

)—7-A )—7—\

Then i n order t o o b t a i n stable f i f t h s from s p l i t t h i r d s ,

Wolpert presents the f o l l o w i n g s o l u t i o n s : Inherent i s the
problem t h a t i t i s not always p o s s i b l e f o r upper v o i c e s t o
move only i n a stepwise manner.

Example 3 1 .

0
6 2

jlz

c-e->
In "the f i r s t example, i f one s p l i t tone leads upwards by
a h a l f step, the other must f a l l a minor t h i r d ; but i f
one tone moves downward by a h a l f step, the other must

61.
ibid.. 87.
62 I b i d .
 79.

r i s e a minor t h i r d W o l p e r t then takes the above

s p l i t t h i r d s which lead t o stable f i f t h s and works out
a l l the d e s i r a b l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of bass movement .64

Example 32.

t> if b * #
He continues and a s s e r t s that hearing a l o g i c a l
"progression" among adjacent voices i n a chordal connec-
t i o n i s a f f e c t e d by a "penetrating" or "permeating"
q u a l i t y which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the leading-tone
65

movement. In discussing t h i s p e n e t r a b i l i t y ,
Wolpert i m p l i e s that h a l f step movement i s such a
powerful force that i t does not have t o be always i n the

63
I b i d . . 87 (31).
64
I b i d . . 88
65
Here i t must be noted that "leading note" i s not
used i n i t s t r a d i t i o n a l sense but r a t h e r , more g e n e r a l l y ,
implying h a l f step movement ascending or descending i n one
or more v o i c e s .
 80

same voice t o be perceived by the ear as the s i g n i f i c a n t

and penetrating movement. The leading-note (in this
modified sense) seeps through the musical texture,so t o
speak, even though i t may change v o i c e s . Wolpert c i t e s
Orlando d i Lasso, the G a b r i e l i s and Gesualdo as examples
of composers who e a r l y recognized the importance of t h i s
6(
penetrating q u a l i t y and incorporated i t i n t h e i r music.
The f o l l o w i n g short example from Gesualdo i s included as
an i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s p r i n c i p l e :
Example 3 3 . 6 7
-

The " i n d i c a t e s t h a t the Bb a c t s as a "leading-

tone" t o the B. Furthermore, since the movement apparently
i n v o l v e s a change i n v o i c e s , unless i t i s assumed the
v o i c e s cross or s k i p , the leading note i s c a l l e d "transverse"

66
I b i d . . 89 (31).
67
Ibid.
 81.

(querstandiq).^8 T r a d i t i o n a l l y , the above occurrance would

simply be c a l l e d a " c r o s s - r e l a t i o n " or " f a l s e - r e l a t i o n . "
Apel defines t h i s term as:
. . . the appearance i n d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s of two tones
t h a t , owing to t h e i r mutually c o n t r a d i c t o r y character,
would normally be placed as a melodic progression i n
one v o i c e . In other words, c r o s s - r e l a t i o n means the
use i n ' d i a g o n a l p o s i t i o n of what properly i s a
1

' h o r i z o n t a l ' element of musical t e x t u r e . The most

important progression of t h i s kind i s the chromatic
progression, e.g., Eb-E, which i s so s t r i k i n g l y h o r i z -
o n t a l that the ear i s d i s t u r b e d i f i t hears the f i r s t
tone i n one voice and the second i n another.69
From t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , i t i s easy t o see how Wolpert
a r r i v e s at h i s concept of the penetrating q u a l i t y of the
leading-note movement. Indeed, he i s probably speaking of
the same t h i n g that Apel i s d e s c r i b i n g above and does
l a t e r use the German equivalent of " c r o s s - r e l a t i o n "
(Querstand) i n d e s c r i b i n g t h i s process. He then d i g r e s s e s
momentarily t o t a l k about "the master composers since the
beginning of harmonic polyphony i n the Renaissance" as
often d i s r e g a r d i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e against the use
of the c r o s s - r e l a t i o n . He says, moreover, that he
b e l i e v e s i n "the hearing of these Renaissance masters"
and considers the c r o s s - r e l a t i o n and i t s "leading-note-
l i k e q u a l i t y " not only as permitted or even d e s i r a b l e

68 , .
I b i d . , 89 (32).
69
W i l l i A p e l , Harvard D i c t i o n a r y of Music. 2nd ed.,
(Cambridge Mass.: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969), 214.
 82

but as a means of chord connection "without any

reservation."70

A d i s t i n c t i o n i s then made between a " r e a l " or

"pure" c r o s s - r e l a t i o n (echter Querst'and - symbol, "Q")
and a "sound" c r o s s - r e l a t i o n (Klangguerstand - symbol
"q"). The former (see Example 34a below) i n v o l v e s a
s p l i t tone or augmented prime (E-Eb) while the l a t t e r
(Example 34b) i n v o l v e s a minor second (Fb-Eb). A real
c r o s s - r e l a t i o n (Q) must be s p e l l e d as an augmented
prime; a c r o s s - r e l a t i o n " i n sound only" (q) occurs
when the same i n t e r v a l i s s p e l l e d as a minor second.
In both cases, f o r the d e f i n i t i o n of c r o s s - r e l a t i o n t o
h o l d , the notes involved must be i n d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s .
The symbol f o r leading-note, again i n i t s q u a l i f i e d
sense, i s "L" :
71
Example 34.

Q - L = Ef\^Eb q - L = Fb,
/b) Eb

70
Wolpert, op. c i t . . 90 (32).
71
Ibid 91.
 83.

A f u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n i s made between narrow (engen)

c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s and wide (we,iten) c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s . The
former i n v o l v e s a h a l f step while i n the l a t t e r the two
notes under c o n s i d e r a t i o n l i e at l e a s t a diminished
octave away from each o t h e r . 7 2

Example 35.

5
J j — 3
5

L Q (e) L Q (w)
(narrow) (wide)

Wolpert then p o i n t s to the Neapolitan cadence ( i . e . ,

cadence using a neapolitan s i x t h ) as a c l a s s i c a l solution
of leading-tones i n c r o s s - r e l a t i o n .
73
Example 36.
1

= Fflj)F# Q(w)

72
I b i d . . 91.
73
I b i d . . 92.
 84.

This s o l u t i o n , says Wolpert, i s of the g r e a t e s t s i g n i f i -

cance f o r a l l new kinds of chord connections i n v o l v i n g r e a l
and sound c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s . 7 4
He then c i t e s v a r i o u s passages
i n Act I I I of T r i s t a n as c o n t a i n i n g sound c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s (q)
while " b e a u t i f u l examples of r e a l c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s (Q) can be
found i n B a r t o k . " 7 5

Wolpert proceeds w i t h an a n a l y s i s of c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s
7 f\

from a p o r t i o n of Webern's S t r i n g Quartet, Opus 28. He

p o i n t s out t h a t only c e r t a i n extremely wide (greater than an
octave) c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s prove t o be " h o s t i l e to the hearing"
and c i t e s S t r a v i n s k y as an example of a composer who prefers
" h o s t i l e " and "strange" c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s . 7 7
Unfortunately,
no examples from S t r a v i n s k y are given t o j u s t i f y t h i s s t a t e -
ment. The chapter on "Chordal Connection and Succession"
concludes w i t h four statements concerning chord connections
involving cross-relations:
1. When c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s are involved i n the chord
connection, they should be c a r e f u l l y handled.

74
Ibid.., 92. Diese Losung i s t f u r a l l e nevartigen
Akkordverbindungen von der a l l e r c j r o s s t e n Bedeutung, und
zwar f u r Querstande ebenso wie f u r Klangquersta*nde.
75 , .
I b i d . . 92-3 (33).
76 , x
I b i d . . 93 (33).
7 7
I b i d . . 95 (34).
 85.

2. The ear hears a r e a l c r o s s - r e l a t i o n as a

leading tone r e s o l u t i o n even though i t may not be
s p e l l e d as such.
3. Because of the penetrating q u a l i t y of h a l f
step movement, a l l c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s can be used both
i n narrow and wide p o s i t i o n s without obscuring the
tonality.
4. Extremely wide c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s (two octaves
and more) are t o be avoided.

C. Comparison.
While the d i s t i n c t i o n s between Hindemith*s and
Wolpert*s systems of chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n were q u i t e
c l e a r , the d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i r ideas on chord
connection are not as immediately e v i d e n t .
Hindemith's ideas on the connection of adjacent
chords r e s t on the three b a s i c p o i n t s p r e v i o u s l y
d i s c u s s e d , namely, harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n , degree progres-
sion and the two-voice framework. He t r e a t s i n d i v i d u a l
chords as e n t i t i e s and extends h i s t h e o r i e s of c l a s s i f i c a -
t i o n t o h i s t h e o r i e s concerning chord movement.
On the other hand, Wolpert's ideas on chord
connection seem t o be founded on two basic i d e a l s , namely,

78
I b i d . . 95-6 (34)
 86

the smallest p o s s i b l e movement i n the upper voices and

more or l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l bass movements (as e s t a b l i s h e d
i n " c l a s s i c a l " and "modern" music) 7^ Unlike Hindemith,
Wolpert does not t r e a t i n d i v i d u a l chords as i s o l a t e d
e n t i t i e s as he does i n h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
Instead, he breaks them down i n t o t h e i r component p a r t s ,
i . e . , he does not extend h i s system of chord c l a s s i f i c a -
t i o n t o apply a l s o t o chordal connection. This i s a r a t h e r
d i s t u r b i n g omission since i t tends t o d e t r a c t from the
c o n t i n u i t y of the e n t i r e system.

With these basic d i f f e r e n c e s i n mind, one can

examine both systems i n greater d e t a i l according to the
following six points:
1. The "Two-Voice Framework."
2. I n t e r v a l R e s o l u t i o n and Half Step Movement.
3. Root Movement or Degree Progression (Versus
Bass Movement).
4. Enharmonics.
5. Chords as E n t i t i e s .
6. V a r i a t i o n s i n Chordal Tension and T o n a l i t y .
Hindemith considers the two voice framework t o
e x i s t between the bass and the most prominent of the upper
voices. He does not examine other p o s s i b l e two-voice
frameworks and goes so f a r as to state that a chord
progression i s a f f e c t e d very l i t t l e by inner voice

See p. 76 of present t e x t .
 87.

movement. 30
He does, however, mention inner voice
movement w i t h respect t o the "guide tone," but only t o
the extent of saying that i t must move by a good
melodic i n t e r v a l i f the t r i t o n e r e s o l u t i o n i s t o be
Q 1

satisfactory. For Hindemith, then, there i s b a s i c a l l y

only one two-voice framework.
Wolpert, on the other hand, examines a l l p o s s i b l e
two-voice frameworks i n the connection of adjacent chords.
In a p r o g r e s s i o n i n v o l v i n g three v o i c e s , there are three
s i g n i f i c a n t two-voice frameworks, four v o i c e s provide s i x
two-voice frameworks, and so o n . 8 2
i n a d d i t i o n , Wolpert
i s o l a t e s what he found t o be the most common two-voice frame-
works t o occur between the bass and an upper voice i n an
attempt t o suggest d e s i r a b l e cadence procedures w i t h respect
to bass movement.
Regarding the second p o i n t , i . e . , i n t e r v a l r e s o l u -
t i o n and h a l f - s t e p movement, Hindemith's concern i s mainly
w i t h the t r i t o n e . I t s proper r e s o l u t i o n i s most important
i f one i s t o proceed s u c c e s s f u l l y i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a t o n a l
centre. G e n e r a l l y , he c o n s i d e r s the movement of voices by

80
Hindemith, op. c i t . , 115.
81
I b i d . . 127.
82
The number of s i g n i f i c a n t "two-voice frameworks" i n
Wolpert's theory f o l l o w s the same number sequence as i n
Hindemith's c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l l possible i n t e r v a l r e l a t i o n -
ships i n determining the root of a chord. See Chapter I I ,
p. 15.
 88.

h a l f - s t e p to be a d e s i r a b l e q u a l i t y . He states that "£a

p r o g r e s s i o n 3 i n which a l l the tones move i n minor seconds

. . . produces the smoothest and most flowing progressions;

i t acts l i k e a magic formula to make every imaginable chord
progression usable." 83

Wolpert a l s o sees chromatic voice leading as a

d e s i r a b l e occurrance, but h i s enthusiasm takes him beyond
Hindemith, t o the point where almost the e n t i r e chapter
on chord connection i s concerned with h a l f - s t e p movement.
For example, i n h i s "Laws of I n a c t i v i t y , " Wolpert i m p l i e s
that the smaller the movement i n the upper v o i c e s , the
b e t t e r the voice l e a d i n g . In h i s d i s c u s s i o n of s y s t o l e s
and d i a s t o l e s , he develops the concept of adhesion as a
desirable q u a l i t y . His obsession with h a l f - s t e p movement
i s f u r t h e r evident i n h i s extended d i s c u s s i o n on the
s i g n i f i c a n c e of d i f f e r e n t kinds of c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s and
i n h i s assigning a p e n e t r a t i n g - l i k e q u a l i t y to h a l f - s t e p
motion, even when i t occurs between d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s . As
f a r as i n t e r v a l r e s o l u t i o n i s concerned, Wolpert does not
seem to worry. In f a c t , s y s t o l e s and d i a s t o l e s can move
to stable or unstable i n t e r v a l s ; that i s , they can resolve
i n the t r a d i t i o n a l sense, or not, hence the concept of
d i v e r s i o n or adhesion leading to an unstable interval.

83
Ibid.. 124
 89.

Both Hindemith and Wolpert, then, recognize the

importance of h a l f - s t e p movement i n producing good
chord c o n n e c t i o n . However, while Hindemith t r e a t s the
r e s o l u t i o n of the t r i t o n e as a s i g n i f i c a n t aspect of
chord movement, Wolpert accords the t r i t o n e no s p e c i a l
place of importance. Rather, i t s r e s o l u t i o n i s j u s t a
s p e c i a l case i n the l a r g e r d i s c u s s i o n of s y s t o l e s and
diastoles.
Hindemith i s concerned w i t h root movement to the
extent that i t i s perhaps the most important c r i t e r i o n
f o r determining the "value" of a given chord progression:
both among the adjacent chords and i n the l a r g e r framework
of the t o n a l setting.
On the other hand, Wolpert does not consider
the movement of chord r o o t s i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of chord
connection. This i s perhaps a reasonable omission since
he does i n f a c t consider a l l p o s s i b l e two v o i c e frameworks.
Wolpert does consider bass movement (as d i s t i n c t from
root movement) and t a b u l a t e s what he c o n s i d e r s to be the
"most f r e q u e n t l y occurring" or " d e s i r a b l e " upper voice
movements w i t h the few (he considers 5th, 4th and 3rd)
bass movements he d i s c u s s e s . However, root movement as
such i s not touched on.
Concerning s p e l l i n g of notes, Hindemith, as before,
adheres to the twelve-note d i v i s i o n of the octave i n which
 90

enharmonics such as G# and Ab are e q u i v a l e n t , i . e . , the

way a note i s s p e l l e d has nothing to do w i t h the way i t
i n f l u e n c e s chord movement.
Conversely, as with chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , Wolpert
i s concerned w i t h proper s p e l l i n g i n d i s c u s s i n g chord
connection. In the s e c t i o n on adhesion, chord movement
i s a f f e c t e d by the way a note i s s p e l l e d , i . e . , some
s p e l l i n g s a l l o w two r e s o l u t i o n s while others allow only
one. Wolpert even invents h i s own term (Umpolung) t o
e f f e c t proper voice leading ( i . e . , w i t h c o r r e c t s p e l l i n g )
i n adhesion. A l s o , he makes d i s t i n c t i o n s i n h i s
d i s c u s s i o n of c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s w i t h respect to s p e l l i n g
which seem u n e s s e n t i a l to the understanding of the
concept as a whole (e.g., "sound" v s . " r e a l " cross r e l a -
tions) •
Hindemith breaks chords down, so t o speak, i n
presenting h i s t h e o r i e s on the two-voice framework, but
he a l s o c a r r i e s h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n over into
h i s d i s c u s s i o n of chord connection, e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s
treatment of the unique theory of harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n .
Again conversely, and perhaps the most d i s t u r b i n g
point i n Wolpert's d i s c u s s i o n of chord connection, i s
h i s f a i l u r e t o r e l a t e h i s t h e o r i e s t o h i s previous d i s c u s -
sions of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of chords. In d i s c u s s i n g chordal
connection, he breaks chords down i n t o t h e i r component
parts ( f o r example, a l l p o s s i b l e two voice frameworks—
 91.

s y s t o l e s and d i a s t o l e s — b a s s movement, e t c . ) , but he

f a i l s to d i s c u s s the chord as an i n d i v i d u a l e n t i t y .
Our f i n a l point concerns v a r i a t i o n s i n chordal
t e n s i o n and t o n a l i t y . Beyond h i s e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n on
the consonance and dissonance of i n t e r v a l s and chords,
Wolpert gives no f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n s on these concepts
as they might a f f e c t chord connection. In f a c t , Hinde-
mith's theory of harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n has no counterpart
i n Wolpert and remains as a unique c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
contemporary music theory. The only p o s s i b l e point of
reference i s . that what Hindemith would c a l l zero harmonic
f l u c t u a t i o n , would at the same time be Wolpert's ultimate
i d e a l w i t h respect to h i s "Laws of I n a c t i v i t y . " However,
t h i s i s perhaps s t r e t c h i n g a point simply t o make a
comparison.
In c o n c l u s i o n , as Wolpert i m p l i e s at the beginning
OA

of h i s t r e a t i s e , ^ he does not mean t o suggest a kind of

"harmonic s t y l e " (as does Hindemith). He e v i d e n t l y sees
his system as s u i t a b l e f o r both t o n a l and atonal composi-
t i o n s , and thus, a d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n of chord
o r g a n i z a t i o n , i . e . , t o n a l l o g i c , would be out of p l a c e .
Hindemith, however, does r e l a t e very c l o s e l y h i s
ideas about chord connection t o h i s t h e o r i e s of c l a s s i f i c a -
t i o n , since he has very d e f i n i t e ideas about the n e c e s s i t y
and even i n e v i t a b i l i t y of t o n a l i t y .
84
Wolpert, op. c i t . . 13-15.
 CHAPTER IV

FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS

We have reached the point i n t h i s study where

comparison of Hindemith and Wolpert along s i m i l a r l i n e s
i s no longer p o s s i b l e . Because of h i s strong b e l i e f s
about the n e c e s s i t y of t o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , Hindemith s 1

d i s c u s s i o n s are unwavering. He a s s e r t s that t o n a l i t y " i s

a n a t u r a l f o r c e , l i k e gravity"-* and f l a t l y states that
"there can be no such t h i n g as a t o n a l i t y . " 2
He dismisses
" b i t o n a l i t y " and " p o l y t o n a l i t y " as "catchwords" and i n s i s t s
that "every simultaneous combination of sounds must have
one r o o t , and only one . . . the ear judges the t o t a l sound
and does not ask w i t h what i n t e n t i o n s i t was produced." 3

Hindemith's b e l i e f i n the i n e v i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n of
some sort of t o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i n a l l music n e c e s s i t a t e s
the formulation of a p r i n c i p l e or p r i n c i p l e s d e s c r i b i n g
large scale t o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The term " t o n a l sphere"

1
Paul Hindemith, The C r a f t . I , 152.
2
I b i d . . 155.
3
I b i d . , 156.
 93.

i s used t o describe "the grouping of chord tones (or

root tones) around a t o n a l c e n t r e . " 4
However, t h i s
t o n a l centre may and often does vary i n the course of
a musical composition. To describe t h i s occurrence,
Hindemith r e d e f i n e s the concept of modulation saying
t h a t "when we allow one tone t o usurp the place of
another as t o n a l centre of a degree p r o g r e s s i o n , we
are modulating." 5
Modulation, he continues, can be
determined simply from the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the degree
progression. But, before modulation can take p l a c e , a
" f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d t o n a l centre" must be evident,
otherwise, the modulation w i l l not be e f f e c t i v e . In
other words, "the c l e a r e r the way leading from one
t o n a l centre t o the next, the more s a t i s f a c t o r y the
modulation.

The f a c t t h a t i t i s not always c l e a r at what p o i n t

a given modulation takes place does not seem to bother
Hindemith.
. . . one l i s t e n e r hears the change as occurring at
one p l a c e , another at another. But t h i s i s not a
shortcoming; on the c o n t r a r y , one of the greatest

4
I b i d . . 149. See a l s o Chapter I I I , p. 62
5
Ibid., 149,
6
Ibid.. 151.
 94.

charms of modulation l i e s i n the e x p l o i t a t i o n of

t h i s very u n c e r t a i n t y i n the t r a n s i t i o n a l
passages. 7

Perhaps the most f a r - r e a c h i n g aspect of Hindemith s 1

t h e o r i e s about t o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s the f a c t t h a t a
s i n g l e most important t o n a l centre i n the l a r g e r
framework of a musical composition can be determined.
The t o n a l centres of a l l the t o n a l i t i e s of a
composition produce, when they are connected
without the i n c l u s i o n of any of the i n t e r v e n i n g
tones, a second degree-progression which should
be constructed along the same l i n e s as the f i r s t
one, b u i l t of the r o o t s of a l l the chords. Here
we see the f u l l u n f o l d i n g of the o r g a n i z i n g power
of S e r i e s 1. The e n t i r e harmonic c o n s t r u c t i o n of
a piece msy be perceived i n t h i s way: against
one t o n a l centre chosen from among many r o o t s
others are juxtaposed which e i t h e r support i t or
compete w i t h i t . Here, too, the t o n a l centre
that reappears most o f t e n , or that i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
s t r o n g l y supported by i t s f o u r t h and i t s f i f t h , i s
the most important. As a t o n a l centre of a higher
order, i t dominates a whole movement or a whole
work. 8

Because of h i s acceptance of both t o n a l i t y and

a t o n a l i t y , Wolpert has no need t o expand h i s system
beyond the d i s c u s s i o n of the p r i n c i p l e s of good chord
connection. Therefore, the remainder of h i s book i s
devoted t o other t o p i c s of i n t e r e s t , some of which are
presented below.

7
I b i d . . 151.
8
I b i d . . 151.
 95.

Wolpert's d i s c u s s i o n of scales and r u l e s f o r

scale formation i s i n t e r e s t i n g because of h i s unique
approach. A l l presently recognized modes and scales
are discussed along with p o s s i b l e "new scales" using
seven, e i g h t , nine, t e n and eleven d i f f e r e n t tones.
Wolpert concludes that scale s t r u c t u r e s other than the
ones discussed are not p o s s i b l e i n s t a f f n o t a t i o n , i . e . ,
w i t h a twelve-note d i v i s i o n of the octave.9
Two concepts are defined by Wolpert which a l s o
are i n t e r e s t i n g because of t h e i r uniqueness. The f i r s t
i s the idea of "Personanz":
The e s s e n t i a l notes of a chord continue t o be
e f f e c t i v e i n the ear, even though these notes
are no longer sounding.-^O
Wolpert g i v e s examples from Mozart, Franck and Wagner t o
i l l u s t r a t e t h i s concept of " c o n t i n u a b i l i t y . " Although
t h i s does not e s s e n t i a l l y say anything which would not be
assumed i n t r a d i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , i t i s s t i l l important i n
an attempt t o understand Wolpert's thought processes,
keeping i n mind the f a c t that he was a s e l f - t a u g h t
scholar

F.A. Wolpert. Neue Harmonik. (Wilhelmshaven:

H e i n r i c h s h a f t e n , 1972), 162-7.

l 0
I b i d . , 184.
11
E r i c h V a l e n t i n , "F.A. Wolpert" Die Musik i n
Geschichte und Gegenwart. XIV (1968), 838.
 96.

The second concept, i n no way r e l a t e d t o the

f i r s t , concerns the idea of "Koharenz":
In the connection of two unstable chords - when
there i s a leading note but no adhesion, then
coherence i s said t o e x i s t . 1 2
The simplest example of a coherent connection might be
the V-I cadence where the seventh i s not present i n the
penultimate chord. Here a leading note i s evident but
there i s no adhesive process occurring since there are
no whole s y s t o l e s or d i a s t o l e s i n the connection.
Twenty experiments which f o l l o w i n v o l v i n g the
13
connection of chords i n root p o s i t i o n , conclude the
expanded (1972) v e r s i o n of the t e x t and i l l u s t r a t e the
r u l e s of good chord connection discussed i n Chapter I I I .
The f i r s t nine experiments i l l u s t r a t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s with
a l l the three part chords while experiments t e n t o
s i x t e e n do the same f o r a l l four part chords. The f i n a l
four experiments i l l u s t r a t e connection of three and four
part s p l i t chords.
In attempting t o come t o terms w i t h the p r i n c i p l e s
brought out i n t h i s study, the d i f f i c u l t i e s and l i m i t a -

12
Wolpert, op. c i t . . 198. The term "coherence" i s
discussed here and not i n Chapter I I I because Wolpert
does not include i t i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of chord
connection.
13
I b i d . . 201-23.
 97

t i o n s of d i s c u s s i n g two contemporary German musical

t h e o r i s t s i n a language other than that i n which t h e i r
o r i g i n a l works were w r i t t e n must f i r s t be acknowledged.
Many of the ideas expressed i n the o r i g i n a l German have
not been cogently stated or c l e a r l y expressed because
of the inherent d i f f i c u l t y involved i n t r a n s l a t i o n .
Hindemith and Wolpert have developed systems of
chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and both have succeeded i n c l a s s i f y -
ing a l l p o s s i b l e chordal m a t e r i a l w i t h i n the twelve-note
d i v i s i o n of the octave. In Hindemith s system of
1

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n there i s an attempt to be as o b j e c t i v e as
possible. H i s notions of consonance and dissonance, f o r
example, are derived from the overtone s e r i e s and
combination tone curves and are put forward i n h i s
S e r i e s 1 and 2. Conversely, Wolpert's concern i s subjec-
t i v e , i n t h a t he uses h i s ear t o determine a scale of
dissonance f o r i n t e r v a l s and t r i a d s . Whereas Hindemith's
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s concerned w i t h the p a r t i c u l a r combina-
t i o n s of i n t e r v a l s i n a given chordal s t r u c t u r e , Wolpert*s
b a s i s f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s the number of d i s t i n c t ^ notes
i n the chord as w e l l as the i n t e r v a l combinations produced
when they are reduced t o t h e i r narrowest p o s s i b l e p o s i t i o n .

14
" D i s t i n c t " here r e f e r s to l e t t e r names; f o r
example, G and G# are not d i s t i n c t , whereas G and Ab a r e .
 98.

While Wolpert's system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n g r e a t l y

emphasizes c o r r e c t s p e l l i n g to the point where the
s p e l l i n g of a chord member determines i n t o which
category the chord i s placed, Hindemith's system of
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n does not d i s t i n g u i s h between enharmonics
but regards them as being equivalent f o r purposes of
classification. Whereas Hindemith's l o g i c a l l y evolved
theory of chord r o o t s i s involved i n h i s system of
chord c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o the extent of determining sub-
group d i v i s i o n s , chord r o o t s play no part whatever i n
Wolpert's system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . While Hindemith
uses the t r i t o n e as a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e i n h i s
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n of chords, Wolpert does not, but instead
evolves h i s h i g h l y i n d i v i d u a l theory of s p l i t chords
based on the i n t e r v a l s of the augmented and doubly
augmented primes.
Both men have a l s o developed t h e i r own p r i n c i p l e s
of chord movement. While Hindemith's ideas on the
connection of chords r e s t on three d i s t i n c t criteria—
harmonic f l u c t u a t i o n , degree progression and the two-
voice framework--Wolpert's t h e o r i e s on chord connection
r e s t on two main i d e a l s - - s m a l l e s t p o s s i b l e upper voice
movement and more or l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l bass movement.
Since Wolpert does not extend h i s system of
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o cover chordal connection, there i s a
l a c k of o v e r a l l cohesiveness i n h i s t r e a t i s e . This i s
 99.

i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o Hindemith, whose p r i n c i p l e s of
chord movement are a d i r e c t extension of h i s system of
classification. While Hindemith only considers one
"two-voice framework," Wolpert takes a l l p o s s i b l e "two-
voice frameworks" i n t o account. Whereas Hindemith i s
concerned w i t h t r i t o n e r e s o l u t i o n i n chord movement,
to Wolpert the t r i t o n e i s only a s p e c i a l case i n
adhesive or whole s y s t o l e / d i a s t o l e " r e s o l u t i o n s . " As
w i t h h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , again i n h i s system of
chord movement, Wolpert seems overly concerned w i t h the
way a p a r t i c u l a r note i s s p e l l e d , while w i t h Hindemith
enharmonics are again e q u i v a l e n t . I n d e s c r i b i n g the
adhesive process Wolpert i l l u s t r a t e s how one s p e l l i n g
w i l l allow two r e s o l u t i o n s while another w i l l allow only
one. T h i s concern f o r s p e l l i n g i s again evident i n the
d i s t i n c t i o n s made among the v a r i o u s types of cross-
relations. While Hindemith admonishes against cross-
r e l a t i o n s i n chordal connection, Wolpert strenuously
encourages t h e i r use. While Hindemith s t h e o r i e s of
1

chord connection are based on the movement of r o o t s or

degree progressions and t h e i r d e v i a t i o n and r e t u r n t o a
t o n a l c e n t r e , Wolpert does not consider root movement,
since t o do so might be t o c o n t r a d i c t h i s o r i g i n a l
p o s i t i o n on the acceptance of both t o n a l i t y and a t o n a l i t y
as v a l i d frames of reference.
 100.

On the whole, then, both men succeed i n

c l a s s i f y i n g a l l p o s s i b l e chords w i t h i n the twelve-note
d i v i s i o n of the octave while working from somewhat
opposite p o i n t s of view. On the one hand, Hindemith
works from the o r i g i n a l premise of the i n e v i t a b i l i t y
of t o n a l i t y . He attempts t o b u i l d a l o g i c a l system
s t a r t i n g from nature and progressing through chordal
c o n s t r u c t i o n t o an all-embracing n a t u r a l system.
Wolpert, on the other hand, combines i n t e r e s t
i n l o g i c a l patterns w i t h a r e d e f i n i t i o n of more or
l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l advice and r u l e s and apparently shows
no i n t e r e s t i n developing an o v e r a l l coherent and
cohesive system. H i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of chordal
s t r u c t u r e s i s obviously l o g i c a l r a t h e r than p r a c t i c a l
whereas h i s d i s c u s s i o n of chordal movement i s simply a
restatement of t r a d i t i o n a l procedures and i s not
connected t o h i s system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Accordingly,
h i s chapter on c l a s s i f i c a t i o n seems t o be d i r e c t e d
towards the philosopher or l o g i c i a n whereas h i s s e c t i o n
on chordal progression i s more l i k e a c o l l e c t i o n of
h e l p f u l advice t o the a s p i r i n g composer.
Thus, the two men, using d i f f e r e n t approaches t o
the same problem, both r e a l i z e a complete system of
chordal o r g a n i z a t i o n and progression w i t h i n the twelve-
note d i v i s i o n of the octave. Their conservatism i n
theoretical matters shows a l i n k with past t r a d i t i o n s and
 101.

i d e a l s , y e t , t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n i s both necessary and

appropriate f o r our time, and thus i s of value i n our
o v e r a l l understanding of twentieth-century music
theory.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A p e l , W i l l i . Harvard D i c t i o n a r y of Music. 2nd ed.

Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1969.
A u s t i n , W i l l i a m W. Music i n the Twentieth Century: From
Debussy through S t r a v i n s k y . 1st ed. New York:
W. W. Norton, 1966.
B a b b i t t , M i l t o n . "Some Aspects of Twelve Tone Composition"
The Score. X I I (1955), 53-61.
B r a u n f e l s , Michael. "Franz A l f o n s Wolpert" Neue Z e i t s c h r i f t
fur Musik. CXI (1950), 238-40.
Cazdun, Norman. "Hindemith and Nature" Music Review. XV
(1954), 289-306.
Chrisman, Richard. A Theory of A x i s T o n a l i t y f o r Twentieth
Century Music. Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
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 105.

APPENDIX I

SUMMARY OF HINDEMITH'S
TABLE OF CHORD GROUPS

Group A - Chords Without Tritone Group B - Chords With T r i t o n e

I. A l s o have no 2nds or 7ths II. A l s o have

1. Root and Bass I d e n t i c a l a. m7 only
2. Root above bass b. M2 and/or m7
1. Root and bass
identical
2. Root above bass
3. More than one
tritone
III. A l s o have 2nds and/or 7ths IV. Also have m2 and/or M7
1. Root and Bass I d e n t i c a l 1. Root and Bass
identical
2. Root above bass
2. Root above bass

V. Indeterminate, i . e . no root V I . Indeterminate, t r i t o n e

predominating
 APPENDIX I I

How m a n y c h o r d s a r e n e e d e d to p r o d u c e a tonal center?

H o w is the T o n i c found? '

A Chords without Tritones B Chords containing Tritones

II -i. V-

3 Chords a Chords

c
A

2 Chords The last of a group

TONIC: TONIC: Root of the of chord-roots is
chord of resolution
Principal tone of
the group formed
V the Dominant of a
TONIC lying a
by the chord-roots fifth lower

r \

III

3 Chords g Chords
a Chords
TONIC: TONIC: Root of the TONIC:
chord of resolution
Same as in X Same as in 1

V After determination of the root, to V I After determination of the root, to-

be treated the same as I be treated the same as II

TONIC: TONIC:
Indeterminate Indeterminate
 W7.

APPENDIX III

Wolpert - Sonata No. 1 (Meas. 1-3)

W o l p e r t ' s System H i n d e m i t h ' s System

(f)
J . nr.a
H. m. i
r. ««) IT.fe.i
C IT. fe. c2-
7. nr. i.
1 (t> jr. L a.
r (#») IF. z
to. (f)
//. nr. x
(/;
 APPENDIX III

Hindemith - Sonata No. 1 (Meas. 1-4)

W i t h quiet m o t i o n , i n quarters (J 96)

/p. //. n. /j. /f\

/. Z. 3. ^ 5*. C 7. 8 -

H i n d e m i t h ' s System W o l p e r t ' s System

/. (f)
2. 7JT . 2
J. X , JL —

H- 3L. b. Z tea)
r.
<.
7. o r . <*.
*
—

/o. zzr . i —

//.
zzr . x
2ZT . JL
IF. 2
/*. —