Adams Tire Models

Tire Models
12 Adams/Tire
Using the Fiala Handling Force Model

This section of the help provides detailed technical reference material for defining tires on a mechanical
system model using Adams/Tire. It assumes that you know how to run Adams/Car, Adams/Solver, or
Adams/Chassis. It also assumes that you have a moderate level of tire-modeling proficiency.
The Fiala tire model is the standard tire model that comes with all Adams/Tire modules. This chapter
contains information for using the Fiala tire model:
• Assumptions
• Inputs
• Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behavior
• Force Evaluation
• Tire Carcass Shape
• Property File Format Example
• Contact Methods
Fiala Tire Assumptions

The background of the Fiala tire model is a physical tire model, where the carcass is modeled as a beam
on an elastic foundation in the lateral direction. Elastic brush elements provide the contact between
carcass and road. Under these assumptions, analytical expressions for the steady-state slip characteristics
can be derived, which are the basis for the calculation of the longitudinal and lateral forces in Adams.
• Rectangular contact patch or footprint.
• Pressure distribution uniform across contact patch.
• No tire relaxation effects are considered.
• Camber angle has no effect on tire forces.
Fiala Tire Inputs

The inputs to the Fiala tire model come from two sources:
• Input parameters from the tire property file (.tir), such as tire undeflected radius, that the tire
references.
• Tire kinematic states, such as slip angle ( α ), which Adams/Tire calculates.
The following table summarizes the input that the Fiala tire model uses to calculate force.
13
Tire Models
Input for Calculating Tire Forces
Quantity: Description: Use by Fiala: Source:

Mt Mass of tire • Damping
• Vertical force (Fz)
Alpha Slip angle Lateral force (Fy) Tire kinematic state from
Adams/Solver
Ss Longitudinal slip ratio Longitudinal force (Fx) Tire kinematic state from
Adams/Solver
pen Penetration (tire deflection) Vertical force (Fz) Tire kinematic state from
Adams/Solver
Vpen d/dt (penetration) Vertical force (Fz) Tire kinematic state from
Adams/Solver
Vertical_damping Vertical damping coefficient • Damping Tire property file (.tir)
• Vertical force (Fz)
Vertical_stiffness Vertical tire stiffness Vertical force (Fz) Tire property file (.tir)
CSLIP Partial derivative of longitudinal Longitudinal force (Fx) Tire property file (.tir)
force (Fx) with respect to
longitudinal slip ratio (S) at zero
longitudinal slip
CALPHA Partial derivative of lateral force Lateral force (Fy) Tire property file (.tir)
(Fy) with respect to slip angle
( α ) at zero slip angle
UMIN Coefficient of friction at zero Fx, Fy, Tz Tire property file (.tir)
slip
UMAX Coefficient of friction when tire Fx, Fy, Tz Tire property file (.tir)
is sliding
Rolling_resistance Rolling resistance coefficient Rolling resistance moment (Ty) Tire property file (.tir)
14 Adams/Tire
Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behavior

Definition of Tire Slip Quantities
Slip Quantities at combined cornering and braking/traction
The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the SAE-axis system is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the
wheel rotational velocity Ω, and the loaded rolling radius Rl: V sx = V x – ΩR l
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road
plane: V sy = Vy
The practical slip quantities κ (longitudinal slip) and α (slip angle) are calculated with these slip
velocities in the contact point:
V sx V sy
κ = – -------- and tan α = ---------
Vx Vx
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle α is limited to 900 and the longitudinal slip κ in
between -1 (locked wheel) and 1.
Lagged longitudinal and lateral slip quantities (transient tire behavior)

In general, the tire rotational speed and lateral slip will change continuously because of the changing
interaction forces in between the tire and the road. Often the tire dynamic response will have an important
role on the overall vehicle response. For modeling this so-called transient tire behavior, a first-order
system is used both for the longitudinal slip ? as the side slip angle, ?. Considering the tire belt as a
stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral springs, the lateral deflection of the belt can
be estimated (see also reference [1]). The figure below shows a top-view of the string model.
15
Tire Models
Stretched String Model for Transient Tire behavior
When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed).
Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string will arise that depends on the slip angle size and the history
of the lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
1 dv 1 -----
v1
following differential equation is valid during braking slip: ------ --------
+ - = tan α + aφ
V x dt σ α
with the relaxation length σ α in the lateral direction. The turnslip φ can be neglected at radii larger than
10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the equation
dv 1
can be transformed to: σ α --------+ V x v 1 = σ α V sy
dt
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal
du 1
direction: σ κ --------
+ V x u 1 = – σ κ V sx
dt
16 Adams/Tire
Now the practical slip quantities, κ' and α' , are defined based on the tire
u1
deformation: κ' = ------ sgn ( V x )
σκ
v
α' = atan -----1-
σ α 
These practical slip quantities κ' and α' are used instead of the usual κ and α definitions for steady-
state tire behavior.
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are read from the tire property file, see Fiala Tire Property
File Format Example
Fiala Tire Force Evaluation

Types of force evaluation:
• Normal Force of Road on Tire
• Longitudinal Force
• Lateral Force
• Rolling Resistance Moment
• Aligning Moment
• Smoothing
Normal Force of Road on Tire

The normal force of a road on a tire at the contact patch in the SAE coordinates (+Z downward) is always
negative (directed upward). The normal force is:
Fz = min (0.0, {Fzk + Fzc})
where:
• Fzk is the normal force due to tire vertical stiffness

• Fzc is the normal force due to tire vertical damping
• Fzk = - vertical_stiffness × pen
• Fzc = - vertical_damping × Vpen
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness, also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined in
the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Property File Format
Example). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datap oints
with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of the tire.
Note that you must specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property file, but it does not play any
role.
17
Tire Models
Longitudinal Force
The longitudinal force depends on the vertical force (Fz), the current coefficient of friction (U), the
longitudinal slip ratio (Ss), and the slip angle (Alpha). The current coefficient of friction depends on the
static (UMAX) and dynamic (UMIN) friction coefficients and the comprehensive slip ratio (SsAlpha).
UMAX specifies the tire/road coefficient of friction at zero slip and represents the static friction
coefficient. This is the y-intercept on the friction coefficient versus slip graph. Note that this value is an
unobtainable maximum friction value, because there is always slip within a footprint. This value is used
in conjunction with UMIN to define a linear friction versus slip relation. UMAX will normally be larger
than UMIN.
UMIN specifies the tire/road coefficient of friction for the full slip case and represents the sliding friction
coefficient. This is the friction coefficient at 100% slip, or pure sliding. This value is used in conjunction
with UMAZ to define a linear friction versus slip relationship.
The comprehensive slip ( S s α ):
2
Ss α = S s + tan 2 ( α )
The current value coefficient of friction (U):
U = U max – ( ( U max – U min ) ⋅S s α )
Fiala defines a critical longitudinal slip ( S critical ):
U ⋅F z
S critical = ------------------------
-
2 ⋅CSLIP
This is the value of longitudinal slip beyond which the tire is sliding.
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State: |Ss| < S_critical
Fx = -CSLIP × Ss
Case 2. Complete Sliding State: |Ss| > S_critical
Fx = -sign(Ss)(Fx1- Fx2)
where:
F x1 = U ⋅F z
( U ⋅F z ) 2
F x2 = -------------------------------------
-
4 ⋅ S s ⋅CSLIP
18 Adams/Tire
Lateral Force
Like the longitudinal force, the lateral force depends on the vertical force (Fz) and the current coefficient
of friction (U). And similar to the longitudinal force calculation, Fiala defines a critical lateral slip
( α critical ):
3 ⋅U ⋅F z
α critical = atan -------------------------
CALPHA
The lateral force peaks at a value equal to U × |Fz| when the slip angle (Alpha) equals the critical slip
angle ( α critical ).
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State: |Alpha| ≤ α critical

Fy = - U × |Fz|× (1-H3) × sign(Alpha)
where:
CALPHA ⋅ tan ( α )
H = 1 – --------------------------------------------------
3 ⋅U ⋅ F z
Case 2. Sliding State: |Alpha| Alpha_critical
Fy = -U|Fz|sign(Alpha)
Rolling Resistance Moment

When the tire is rolling forward: Ty = -rolling_resistance * Fz
When the tire is rolling backward: Ty = rolling_resistance * Fz
Aligning Moment
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State: |Alpha| ≤ α critical
Mz = U × |Fz|× WIDTH × (1-H) × H3 × sign(Alpha)
where:
CALPHA ⋅ tan ( α )
H = 1 – --------------------------------------------------
3 ⋅U ⋅ F z
Case 2. Complete Sliding State: |Alpha| > α critical

Mz= 0.0
19
Tire Models
Smoothing
Adams/Tire can smooth initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation. The
longitudinal force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See
STEP in the Adams/Solver online help).
Longitudinal Force FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force FLat = S*FLat
Aligning Torque Mz = S*Mz
The USE_MODE parameter in the tire property file allows you to switch smoothing on or off:
• USE_MODE = 1, smoothing is off
• USE_MODE = 2, smoothing is on
Fiala Tire Carcass Shape

Using Fiala tire, you can optionally supply a tire carcass cross-sectional shape in the tire property file in
the [SHAPE] block. The 3D-durability, tire-to-road contact algorithm uses this information when
calculating the tire-to-road volume of interference. To learn more about this topic, see Applying the Tire
Carcass Shape. If you omit the [SHAPE] block from a tire property file, the tire carcass cross-section
defaults to the rectangle that the tire radius and width define.
You specify the tire carcass shape by entering points in fractions of the tire radius and width. Because
Adams/Tire assumes that the tire cross-section is symmetrical about the wheel plane, you only specify
points for half the width of the tire. The following apply:
• For width, a value of zero (0) lies in the wheel center plane.
• For width, a value of one (1) lies in the plane of the side wall.
• For radius, a value of one (1) lies on the tread.
For example, suppose your tire has a radius of 300 mm and a width of 185 mm and that the tread is joined
to the side wall with a fillet of 12.5 mm radius. The tread then begins to curve to meet the side wall at
+/- 80 mm from the wheel center plane. If you define the shape table using six points with four points
along the fillet, the resulting table might look like the shape block that is at the end of the following
property format example.
Fiala Tire Property File Format Example

$------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 2.0
FILE_FORMAT = 'ASCII'
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
20 Adams/Tire
'Test Date - XXXXXX'

'Test tire'
'New File Format v2.1'
$----------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'degree'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$-----------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12 11 12
! --------------------------------------------
! smoothingX X
! transient X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'FIALA'
USE_MODE = 11.0
$-------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS = 309.9
WIDTH = 235.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.45
$-------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 310.0
VERTICAL_DAMPING = 3.1
ROLLING_RESISTANCE = 0.0
CSLIP = 1000.0
CALPHA = 800.0
CGAMMA = 0.0
UMIN = 0.9
UMAX = 1.0
RELAX_LENGTH_X = 0.05
RELAX_LENGTH_Y = 0.15
$---------------------------------------------carcass shape
[SHAPE]
{radius width}
1.0000 0.0000
1.0000 0.5000
1.0000 0.8649
0.9944 0.9235
0.9792 0.9819
0.9583 1.0000
$------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ Maximum of 100 points (optional)
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]
{pen fz}
0 0.0
1 212.0
2 428.0
3 648.0
5 1100.0
21
Tire Models
10 2300.0
20 5000.0
30 8100.0
Fiala Tire Contact Methods

The Fiala tire model supports the following roads:
• 2D Roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
• 3D Roads, see Adams/3D Road Model
22 Adams/Tire
Using the PAC2002Tire Model

The PAC2002 Magic-Formula tire model has been developed by MSC.Software according to Tyre and
Vehicle Dynamics by Pacejka [1]. PAC2002 is latest version of a Magic-Formula model available in
Adams/Tire.
Learn about:
• When to Use PAC2002
• Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces
• Axis Systems and Slip Definitions
• Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation
• Basics of Magic Formula
• Steady-State: Magic Formula
• Transient Behavior
• Gyroscopic Couple
• Left and Right Side Tires
• USE_MODES OF PAC2002: from Simple to Complex
• Quality Checks for Tire Model Parameters
• Contact Methods
• Standard Tire Interface (STI)
• Definitions
• References
• Example of PAC2002 Tire Property File
When to Use PAC2002

Magic-Formula (MF) tire models are considered the state-of-the-art for modeling tire-road interaction
forces in vehicle dynamics applications. Since 1987, Pacejka and others have published several versions
of this type of tire model. The PAC2002 contains the latest developments that have been published in
Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics by Pacejka [1].
In general, a MF tire model describes the tire behavior for rather smooth roads (road obstacle
wavelengths longer than the tire radius) up to frequencies of 8 Hz. This makes the tire model applicable
for all generic vehicle handling and stability simulations, including:
• Steady-state cornering
• Single- or double-lane change
• Braking or power-off in a turn
• Split-mu braking tests
• J-turn or other turning maneuvers
• ABS braking, when stopping distance is important (not for tuning ABS control strategies)
23
Tire Models
• Other common vehicle dynamics maneuvers on rather smooth roads (wavelength of road
obstacles must be longer than the tire radius)
For modeling roll-over of a vehicle, you must pay special attention to the overturning moment
characteristics of the tire (Mx) and the loaded radius modeling. The last item may not be sufficiently
accurate in this model.
The PAC2002 model has proven to be applicable for car, truck, and aircraft tires with camber
(inclination) angles to the road not exceeding 15 degrees.
PAC2002 and Previous Magic Formula Models

Compared to previous versions, PAC2002 is backward compatible with all previous versions of
PAC2002, MF-Tyre 5.x tire models, and related tire property files.
New Features
The enhancements for PAC2002 in Adams/Tire 2005 r2 are:
• More advanced tire-transient modeling using a contact mass in the contact point with the road.
This results in more realistic dynamic tire model response at large slip, low speed, and standstill
(usemode > 20).
• Parking torque and turn-slip have been introduced: the torque around the vertical axis due to
turning at standstill or at low speed (no need for extra parameters).
• Extended loaded radius modeling (see Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation) are suitable
for driving under extreme conditions like roll-over events and racing applications.
• The option to use a nonlinear spline for the vertical tire load-deflection instead of a linear tire
stiffness. See Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation.
• Modeling of bottoming of the tire to the road by using another spline for defining the bottoming
forces. Learn more about wheel bottoming.
• Online scaling of the tire properties during a simulation; the scaling factors of the PAC2002 can
now be changed as a function of time, position, or any other variable in your model dataset. See
Online Scaling of Tire Properties.
Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces

For vehicle dynamics applications, an accurate knowledge of tire-road interaction forces is inevitable
because the movements of a vehicle primarily depend on the road forces on the tires. These interaction
forces depend on both road and tire properties, and the motion of the tire with respect to the road.
In the radial direction, the MF tire models consider the tire to behave as a parallel linear spring and linear
damper with one point of contact with the road surface. The contact point is determined by considering
the tire and wheel as a rigid disc. In the contact point between the tire and the road, the contact forces in
longitudinal and lateral direction strongly depend on the slip between the tire patch elements and the
road.
24 Adams/Tire
The figure, Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model, presents the input and output
vectors of the PAC2002 tire model. The tire model subroutine is linked to the Adams/Solver through the
Standard Tire Interface (STI) [3]. The input through the STI consists of:
• Position and velocities of the wheel center
• Orientation of the wheel
• Tire model (MF) parameters
• Road parameters
The tire model routine calculates the vertical load and slip quantities based on the position and speed of
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load (Fz), the
longitudinal and lateral slip ( κ , α ), and inclination angle ( γ ) with the road. The output is the forces (Fx,
Fy) and moments (Mx, My, Mz) in the contact point between the tire and the road. For calculating these
forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing data.
The forces and moments out of the Magic Formula are transferred to the wheel center and returned to
Adams/Solver through STI.
Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model
Axis Systems and Slip Definitions

• Axis Systems
• Units
• Definition of Tire Slip Quantities
25
Tire Models
Axis Systems
The PAC2002 model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions, as described in the
TYDEX-Format [2] and the STI [3].
The STI interface between the PAC2002 model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
model in the C-axis coordinate system. In the tire model itself, a conversion is made to the W-axis system
because all the modeling of the tire behavior as described in this help assumes to deal with the slip
quantities, orientation, forces, and moments in the contact point with the TYDEX W-axis system. Both
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC2002, Source [2]
The C-axis system is fixed to the wheel carrier with the longitudinal xc-axis parallel to the road and in
the wheel plane (xc-zc-plane). The origin of the C-axis system is the wheel center.
The origin of the W-axis system is the road contact-point defined by the intersection of the wheel plane,
the plane through the wheel carrier, and the road tangent plane.
The forces and moments calculated by PAC2002 using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
system. A transformation is made in the source code to return the forces and moments through the STI
to Adams/Solver.
The inclination angle is defined as the angle between the wheel plane and the normal to the road tangent
plane (xw-yw-plane).
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC2002 are according
to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC2002 described in this guide have been developed for
use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire property file. Because
of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have to be changed.
26 Adams/Tire
However, the parameters in the tire property file must always be valid for the TYDEX W-axis system
(ISO oriented). The basic SI units are listed in the table below.
SI Units Used in PAC2002
Variable type: Name: Abbreviation: Unit:

Angle Slip angle α Radians
Inclination angle γ
Force Longitudinal force Fx Newton
Lateral force Fy
Vertical load Fz
Moment Overturning moment Mx Newton.meter
Rolling resistance moment My
Self-aligning moment Mz
Speed Longitudinal speed Vx Meters per second
Lateral speed Vy
Longitudinal slip speed Vsx
Lateral slip speed Vsy

Rotational speed Tire rolling speed ω Radians per second

The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the contact point (W-axis system, see Slip Quantities at Combined
Cornering and Braking/Traction) is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the wheel rotational velocity
ω , and the effective rolling radius Re:
V sx = V x – ΩR e (1)
Slip Quantities at Combined Cornering and Braking/Traction

27
Tire Models
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road plane:
V sy = V y (2)
velocities in the contact point with:
V sx
κ = – -------- (3)
Vx
V sy
tan α = --------- (4)
Vx
The rolling speed Vr is determined using the effective rolling radius Re:
Vr = Re Ω (5)
Turn-slip is one of the two components that form the spin of the tire. Turn-slip φ is calculated using the
·
tire yaw velocity ψ:
·
ψ
W t = ------ (6)
Vx
The total tire spin ϕ is calculated using:

1 ·
ψ 1 = ------ { ψ – ( 1 – εγ)Ωsin γ} (7)
Vx
The total tire spin has contributions of turn-slip and camber. ε denotes the camber reduction factor for
the camber to become comparable with turn-slip.
28 Adams/Tire
Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation

• Contact Point
• Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius
• Wheel Bottoming
Contact Point
In the vertical direction, the tire is modeled as a parallel linear spring and damper having one point of
contact (C) with the road. This is valid for road obstacles with a wavelength larger than the tire radius
(for example, for car tires 1m).
For calculating the kinematics of the tire relative to the road, the road is approximated by its tangent plane
at the road point right below the wheel center (see the figure below).
Contact Point C: Intersection between Road Tangent Plane, Spin Axis Plane, and Wheel Plane
The contact point is determined by the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the road tangent
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane through the wheel
spin axis. The normal load Fz of the tire is calculated with the tire deflection ρ as follows:
29
Tire Models
 Ro F x 2  F y 2 
F z = 1 + q V2 Ω ------ – q Fcxl -------
- – q Fcyl - + q Fcyl γ2 
------- (8)
 Vo  F z0  F z0 
ρ ρ 2 ·
q Fzl ------ + q Fz2 ------ F z0 + K z • ρ
R0 R 0
Using this formula, the vertical tire stiffness increases due to increasing rotational speed ω and
decreases by longitudinal and lateral tire forces. If qFz1 is zero, qFz1 will be CzR0/Fz0.
When you do not provide the coefficients qV2, qFcx, qFcy, qFz1, qFz2 and qFc γ in the tire property
file, the normal load calculation is compatible with previous versions of PAC2002, because, in that case,
the normal load is calculated using the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz and tire damping Kz according to:
(9)
·
F z = C z ρ λ Cz + K z ρ
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz (= qFz1Fz0/R0), you can define an arbitrary tire deflection
- load curve in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Example
of PAC2002 Tire Property File). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load
deflection data points with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the
vertical force of the tire. Note that you must specify Cz in the tire property file, but it does not play any
role.
Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius

With the loaded tire radius Rl defined as the distance of the wheel center to the contact point of the tire
with the road, the tire deflection can be calculated using the free tire radius R0 and a correction for the
tire radius growth due to the rotational tire speed ω:
R0 2
ρ = R 0 – R 1 + q V1 R 0 Ω------ (10)
 V 0
The effective rolling radius Re (at free rolling of the tire), which is used to calculate the rotational speed
of the tire, is defined by:
Vx
R e = ------ (11)
Ω
For radial tires, the effective rolling radius is rather independent of load in its load range of operation
because of the high stiffness of the tire belt circumference. Only at low loads does the effective tire radius
decrease with increasing vertical load due to the tire tread thickness. See the figure below.
30 Adams/Tire
Effective Rolling Radius and Longitudinal Slip
To represent the effective rolling radius Re, a MF-type of equation is used:
ΩR 02 d d
R f = R 0 + q V1 R 0 -----------
 V 0  – R Fz0 [ D Peff arc tan ( B Reff ρ ) + F Reff ρ ] (12)
in which ρ Fz0 is the nominal tire deflection:

31
Tire Models
F z0
ρ Fz0 = ---------------- (13)
C z λ Cz
and ρ is called the dimensionless radial tire deflection, defined by:

d ρ
ρ = --------- (14)
ρ Fz0
Example of Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius as Function of Vertical Load
Normal Load and Rolling Radius Parameters
Name Used in Tire Property

Name: File: Explanation:
Fz0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load
Ro UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tire radius
B BREFF Low load stiffness effective rolling radius
D DREFF Peak value of effective rolling radius
F FREFF High load stiffness effective rolling radius
Cz VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tire vertical stiffness (if qFz1=0)
32 Adams/Tire
Name Used in Tire Property

Name: File: Explanation:
Kz VERTICAL_DAMPING Tire vertical damping
qFz1 QFZ1 Tire vertical stiffness coefficient (linear)
qFz2 QFZ2 Tire vertical stiffness coefficient
(quadratic)
qFcx1 QFCX1 Tire stiffness interaction with Fx
qFcy1 QFCY1 Tire stiffness interaction with Fy
qFc γ1 QFCG1 Tire stiffness interaction with camber
qV1 QV1 Tire radius growth coefficient
qV2 QV2 Tire stiffness variation coefficient with
speed
Wheel Bottoming
You can optionally supply a wheel-bottoming deflection, that is, a load curve in the tire property file in
the [BOTTOMING_CURVE] block. If the deflection of the wheel is so large that the rim will be hit
(defined by the BOTTOMING_RADIUS parameter in the [DIMENSION] section of the tire property
file), the tire vertical load will be increased according to the load curve defined in this section.
Note that the rim-to-road contact algorithm is a simple penetration method (such as the 2D contact) based
on the tire-to-road contact calculation, which is strictly valid for only rather smooth road surfaces (the
length of obstacles should have a wavelength longer than the tire circumference). The rim-to-road contact
algorithm is not based on the 3D-volume penetration method, but can be used in combination with the
3D Contact, which takes into account the volume penetration of the tire itself. If you omit the
[BOTTOMING_CURVE] block from a tire property file, no force due to rim road contact is added to the
tire vertical force.
You can choose a BOTTOMING_RADIUS larger than the rim radius to account for the tire's material
remaining in between the rim and the road, while you can adjust the bottoming load-deflection curve for
the change in stiffness.
33
Tire Models
If (Pentire - (Rtire - Rbottom) - ½·width ·| tan(g) |) < 0, the left or right side of the rim has contact with
the road. Then, the rim deflection Penrim can be calculated using:
δ = max(0 , ½·width ·| tan( γ) | ) + Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottom)

Penrim= δ 2/(2 · width ·| tan( γ) |)
34 Adams/Tire
Srim= ½·width - max(width , δ /| tan( γ) |)/3

with Srim, the lateral offset of the force with respect to the wheel plane.
If the full rim has contact with the road, the rim deflection is:
Penrim = Pentire - (Rtire - Rbottom)
Srim = width2 · | tan( γ) | · /(12 · Penrim)

Using the load - deflection curve defined in the [BOTTOMING_CURVE] section of the tire property file,
the additional vertical force due to the bottoming is calculated, while Srim multiplied by the sign of the
inclination γ is used to calculate the contribution of the bottoming force to the overturning moment.
Further, the increase of the total wheel load Fz due to the bottoming (Fzrim) will not be taken into account
in the calculation for Fx, Fy, My, and Mz. Fzrim will only contribute to the overturning moment Mx using
the Fzrim·Srim.
Note: Rtire is equal to the unloaded tire radius R0; Pentire is similar to effpen (= ρ ).
Basics of the Magic Formula in PAC2002

The Magic Formula is a mathematical formula that is capable of describing the basic tire characteristics
for the interaction forces between the tire and the road under several steady-state operating conditions.
We distinguish:
• Pure cornering slip conditions: cornering with a free rolling tire
• Pure longitudinal slip conditions: braking or driving the tire without cornering
• Combined slip conditions: cornering and longitudinal slip simultaneously
For pure slip conditions, the lateral force Fy as a function of the lateral slip α , respectively, and the
longitudinal force Fx as a function of longitudinal slip κ , have a similar shape (see the figure,
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions). Because of the sine - arctangent
combination, the basic Magic Formula equation is capable of describing this shape:
Y ( x ) = D cos [ Carc tan { Bx – E ( Bx – arc tan ( Bx ) ) } ] (15)
where Y(x) is either Fx with x the longitudinal slip κ , or Fy and x the lateral slip α .
35
Tire Models
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions
The self-aligning moment Mz is calculated as a product of the lateral force Fy and the pneumatic trail t
added with the residual moment Mzr. In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force Fy,
called pneumatic trail t, from the contact point. Because the pneumatic trail t as a function of the lateral
slip a has a cosine shape, a cosine version the Magic Formula is used:
in which Y(x) is the pneumatic trail t as function of slip angle α.

The figure, The Magic Formula and the Meaning of Its Parameters, illustrates the functionality of the B,
C, D, and E factor in the Magic Formula:
• D-factor determines the peak of the characteristic, and is called the peak factor.
• C-factor determines the part used of the sine and, therefore, mainly influences the shape of the
curve (shape factor).
• B-factor stretches the curve and is called the stiffness factor.
• E-factor can modify the characteristic around the peak of the curve (curvature factor).
36 Adams/Tire
The Magic Formula and the Meaning of Its Parameters
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force Fy will decrease due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force Fx will decrease due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip
conditions are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighing functions.
Again, these weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF equation.
The Magic Formula itself only describes steady-state tire behavior. For transient tire behavior (up to 8
Hz), the MF output is used in a stretched string model that considers tire belt deflections instead of slip
velocities to cope with standstill situations (zero speed).
37
Tire Models
Input Variables
The input variables to the Magic Formula are:
Longitudinal slip κ [-]
Slip angle α [rad]
Inclination angle γ [rad]
Normal wheel load Fz [N]
Output Variables
Longitudinal force Fx [N]

Lateral force Fy [N]
Overturning couple Mx [Nm]
Rolling resistance My [Nm]
moment
Aligning moment Mz [Nm]
The output variables are defined in the W-axis system of TYDEX.
Basic Tire Parameters

All tire model parameters of the model are without dimension. The reference parameters for the model
are:
Nominal (rated) load Fz0 [N]

Unloaded tire radius R0 [m]
Tire belt mass mbelt [kg]
As a measure for the vertical load, the normalized vertical load increment dfz is used:
F z – F' z0
df z = -------------------- (17)
F' z0
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor, γΦ z0 ):
F' z0 = F z0 • λ F z0 (18)
38 Adams/Tire
Nomenclature of the Tire Model Parameters

In the subsequent sections, formulas are given with non-dimensional parameters aijk with the following
logic:
Tire Model Parameters
Parameter: Definition:
a= p Force at pure slip
q Moment at pure slip
r Force at combined slip
s Moment at combined slip
i= B Stiffness factor
C Shape factor
D Peak value
E Curvature factor
K Slip stiffness = BCD
H Horizontal shift
V Vertical shift
t Transient tire behavior
j= x Along the longitudinal axis
y Along the lateral axis
z About the vertical axis
k= 1, 2, ...
User Scaling Factors

A set of scaling factors is available to easily examine the influence of changing tire properties without
the need to change one of the real Magic Formula coefficients. The default value of these factors is 1.
You can change the factors in the tire property file. The peak friction scaling factors, l µξ and γµψ ψ ,
are also used for the position-dependent friction in 3D Road Contact and 3D Road. An overview of all
scaling factors is shown in the following tables.
39
Tire Models
Scaling Factor Coefficients for Pure Slip
Name used in tire

Name: property file: Explanation:
λ Fzo LFZO Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
λ Cz LCZ Scale factor of vertical tire stiffness
λ Cx LCX Scale factor of Fx shape factor
λ µx LMUX Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
λ Ex LEX Scale factor of Fx curvature factor
λ Kx LKX Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness
λ Hx LHX Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
λ Vx LVX Scale factor of Fx vertical shift
λ γx LGAX Scale factor of inclination for Fx
λ Cy LCY Scale factor of Fy shape factor
λ µy LMUY Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient
λ Ey LEY Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
λ Ky LKY Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
λ Hy LHY Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
λ Vy LVY Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
λ gy LGAY Scale factor of inclination for Fy
λ t LTR Scale factor of peak of pneumatic trail
λ Mr LRES Scale factor for offset of residual moment
λ γz γz LGAZ Scale factor of inclination for Mz
λ Mx LMX Scale factor of overturning couple
λ VMxMx LVMX Scale factor of Mx vertical shift
λ My LMY Scale factor of rolling resistance moment

40 Adams/Tire
Scaling Factor Coefficients for Combined Slip
Name used in tire

λ xα α LXAL Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
λ yκ κ LYKA Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
λ Vy κ κ LVYKA Scale factor of kappa-induced Fy
λ LS Scale factor of moment arm of Fx

s
Scaling Factor Coefficients for Transient Response
Name used in tire

λ sk LSGKP Scale factor of relaxation length of Fx
λ sa LSGAL Scale factor of relaxation length of Fy
λ gyr LGYR Scale factor of gyroscopic moment
Note that the scaling factors change during the simulation according to any user-introduced function. See
the next section, Online Scaling of Tire Properties.
Online Scaling of Tire Properties

PAC2002 can provide online scaling of tire properties. For each scaling factor, a variable should be
introduced in the Adams .adm dataset. For example:
!lfz0 scaling
! adams_view_name='TR_Front_Tires until wheel_lfz0_var'
VARIABLE/53
, IC = 1
, FUNCTION = 1.0
This lets you change the scaling factor during a simulation as a function of time or any other variable in
your model. Therefore, tire properties can change because of inflation pressure, road friction, road
temperature, and so on.
You can also use the scaling factors in co-simulations in MATLAB/Simulink.
For more detailed information, see Knowledge Base Article 12732.
41
Tire Models
Steady-State: Magic Formula in PAC2002

• Steady-State Pure Slip
• Steady-State Combined Slip
Steady-State Pure Slip

• Longitudinal Force at Pure Slip
• Lateral Force at Pure Slip
• Aligning Moment at Pure Slip
• Turn-slip and Parking
Formulas for the Longitudinal Force at Pure Slip

For the tire rolling on a straight line with no slip angle, the formulas are:
F x = F x0 ( κ , F z, γ) (19)
F x0 = D x sin ( [ C x arc tan { B x κ x – E x ( B x κ x – arc tan ( B x κ x ) ) } ] + S Vx ) (20)
κ x = κ + S Hx (21)
γx = γ ⋅λ γx (22)
with following coefficients:
C x = p Cx1 ⋅λ Cx (23)
D x = µx ⋅F z ⋅ζ1 (24)
2
µx = ( p Dx1 + p Dx2 df z ) ⋅( 1 – p Dx3 ⋅γ )λ µx (25)
2
E x = ( p Ex1 + p Ex2 df z ) ⋅{ 1 – p Ex4 sgn ( κ x ) } ⋅λ Ex with E x ≤ 1 (26)
the longitudinal slip stiffness:
K x = F z ⋅( p Kx1 + p Kx2 df z ) ⋅ exp ( p Kx3 df z ) ⋅λ Kx (27)
∂ F x0
Kx = Bx Cx Dx = at κ = 0
∂ κx
B x = K x ⁄( C x D x ) (28)
42 Adams/Tire
S Hx = ( p Hx1 + p Hx2 ⋅df z )λ Hx (29)
S Vx = F z ⋅( p Hx1 + p Hx2 ⋅df z )λ Vx ⋅λ Hµx ⋅ζ 1 (30)
Longitudinal Force Coefficients at Pure Slip
Name used in tire

pCx1 PCX1 Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force
pDx1 PDX1 Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
pDx2 PDX2 Variation of friction Mux with load
pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with inclination
pEx1 PEX1 Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
pEx2 PEX2 Variation of curvature Efx with load
pEx3 PEX3 Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
pEx4 PEX4 Factor in curvature Efx while driving
pKx1 PKX1 Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
pKx2 PKX2 Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
pKx3 PKX3 Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
pHx1 PHX1 Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
pHx2 PHX2 Variation of shift Shx with load
pVx1 PVX1 Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
pVx2 PVX2 Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
Formulas for the Lateral Force at Pure Slip

F y = F y0 ( α , γ, F z ) (31)
F y0 = D y sin [ C y arc tan { B y α y – E y ( B y α y – arc tan ( B y α y ) ) } ] + S Vy (32)
α y = α + S Hy (33)
The scaled inclination angle:
γy = γ ⋅λ γy (34)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1 ⋅λ Cy (35)
43
Tire Models
D y = µy ⋅F z ⋅ζ2 (36)
2
µy = ( p Dy1 + p Dy2 df z ) ⋅( 1 – p Dy3 γy ) ⋅λ µy (37)
E y = ( p Ey1 + p Ey2 df z ) ⋅{ 1 – ( p Ey3 + p Ey4 γy ) sgn ( α y ) } ⋅γEy with E y ≤ 1 (38)
The cornering stiffness:
  Fz  
K y0 = P Ky1 ⋅F z0 ⋅ sin  2ac tan ---------------------------  ⋅λ F z0 ⋅λ Ky (39)
 P Ky2 F 0 λ Fz0  
K y = K y0 ⋅( 1 – p Ky3 γy ) ⋅ζ 3 (40)
B y = K y ⁄( C y D y ) (41)
S Hy = ( p Hy1 + p Hy2 df z ) ⋅λ Hy + p Hy3 γy ⋅ζ0 + ζ4 – 1 (42)
S Vy = F z ⋅{ ( p Vy1 + p Vy2 df z ) ⋅λ Vy + ( p Vy3 + p Vy4 df z ) ⋅γy } ⋅λ µy ⋅ζ 4 (43)
The camber stiffness is given by:
K yγ0 = P Hy3 K y0 + F z ( p νy3 + p νy4 df z ) (44)
Lateral Force Coefficients at Pure Slip
Name used in tire

pCy1 PCY1 Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces
pDy1 PDY1 Lateral friction Muy
pDy2 PDY2 Variation of friction Muy with load
pDy3 PDY3 Variation of friction Muy with squared inclination
pEy1 PEY1 Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom
pEy2 PEY2 Variation of curvature Efy with load
pEy3 PEY3 Inclination dependency of curvature Efy
pEy4 PEY4 Variation of curvature Efy with inclination
pKy1 PKY1 Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom
pKy2 PKY2 Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value
pKy3 PKY3 Variation of Kfy/Fznom with inclination
pHy1 PHY1 Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom
44 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

pHy2 PHY2 Variation of shift Shy with load
pHy3 PHY3 Variation of shift Shy with inclination
pVy1 PVY1 Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
pVy2 PVY2 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with load
pVy3 PVY3 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with inclination
pVy4 PVY4 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with inclination and load
Formulas for the Aligning Moment at Pure Slip

M' z = M z0 ( α , γ, F z ) (45)
M z0 = – t ⋅F y0 + M zr
with the pneumatic trail t:
t ( α t ) = D t cos [ C t arc tan { B t α t – E t ( B t α t – arc tan ( B t α t ) ) } ] cos ( α ) (46)
α t = α + S Ht (47)
and the residual moment Mzr:
M zr ( α r ) = D r cos [ C r arc tan ( B r α r ) ] ⋅ cos ( α ) (48)
α r = α + S Hf (49)
S Hf = S Hy + S Vy ⁄K y (50)
γz = γ ⋅λ γz (51)
with coefficients:
2
B t = ( q Bz1 + q Bz2 df z + q Bz3 df z ) ⋅( 1 + q Bz4 γz + q Bz5 γz ) ⋅λ Ky ⁄λ µy (52)
C t = q Cz1 (53)
2 R0
D t = F z ⋅( q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z ) ⋅( 1 + q Dz3 γz + q Dz4 γz ) ⋅-------- ⋅λ t ⋅ζ5 (54)
F z0
45
Tire Models
2
E t = ( q Ez1 + q Ez2 df z + q Ez3 df z ) (55)
 2- ⋅arc tan ( B ⋅C ⋅α )  w ith ( E ≤ 1 )

1 + ( q Ez1 + q Ez2 γz ) --
π t t t  t
 
S Ht = q Hz1 + q Hz2 df z + ( q Hz3 + q Hz4 ⋅df z )γz (56)
λ Ky
Br = 
q Bz9 ⋅ --------- + q Bz10 ⋅B y ⋅C y ⋅ζ6
 (57)
λ µy
Cr = ζ7
D r = F z ⋅[ ( q Dz6 + q Dz7 df z ) ⋅γr + ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z ) ⋅γz ] ⋅R o ⋅λ µγ + ζ8 – 1 (58)
An approximation for the aligning moment stiffness reads:
K z = – t ⋅K y  ≈ – ∂ M at α  = 0 ) (59)
 ∂α z 
Aligning Moment Coefficients at Pure Slip
Name used in tire

qBz1 QBZ1 Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom
qBz2 QBZ2 Variation of slope Bpt with load
qBz3 QBZ3 Variation of slope Bpt with load squared
qBz4 QBZ4 Variation of slope Bpt with inclination
qBz5 QBZ5 Variation of slope Bpt with absolute inclination
qBz9 QBZ9 Slope factor Br of residual moment Mzr
qBz10 QBZ10 Slope factor Br of residual moment Mzr
qCz1 QCZ1 Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail
qDz1 QDZ1 Peak trail Dpt = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
qDz2 QDZ2 Variation of peak Dpt with load
qDz3 QDZ3 Variation of peak Dpt with inclination
qDz4 QDZ4 Variation of peak Dpt with inclination squared.
qDz6 QDZ6 Peak residual moment Dmr = Dmr/ (Fz*R0)
qDz7 QDZ7 Variation of peak factor Dmr with load
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with inclination
46 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of Dmr with inclination and load
qEz1 QEZ1 Trail curvature Ept at Fznom
qEz2 QEZ2 Variation of curvature Ept with load
qEz3 QEZ3 Variation of curvature Ept with load squared
qEz4 QEZ4 Variation of curvature Ept with sign of Alpha-t
qEz5 QEZ5 Variation of Ept with inclination and sign Alpha-t
qHz1 QHZ1 Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom
qHz2 QHZ2 Variation of shift Sht with load
qHz3 QHZ3 Variation of shift Sht with inclination
qHz4 QHZ4 Variation of shift Sht with inclination and load
Turn-slip and Parking

For situations where turn-slip may be neglected and camber remains small, the reduction factors ζ i i that
appear in the equations for steady-state pure slip, are to be set to 1:
ζi = 1 i = 0. 1.… 8
For larger values of spin, the reduction factors are given below.
The weighting function ζ 1 is used to let the longitudinal force diminish with increasing spin, according
to:
ζ i = cos [ arc tan ( B xϕ R 0 ϕ ) ]

with:
B xϕ = p Dxϕ 1 ( 1 + p Dxϕ 2 df z ) cos [ arc tan ( p Dxϕ 3 κ ) ]
The peak side force reduction factor ζ 2 reads:
ζ 2 = cos [ arc tan { B yϕ ( R 0 ϕ + p Dyϕ 4 R0 ϕ ) } ]

with:
B yϕ = p Dxϕ 1 ( 1 + p Dxϕ 2 df z ) cos [ arc tan ( p Dxϕ 3 tan α ) ]
The cornering stiffness reduction factor ζ 3 is given by:

47
Tire Models
2 2
ζ 3 = cos [ arc tan ( p Kyϕ 1 R 0 ϕ ) ]
The horizontal shift of the lateral force due to spin is given by:
S Hyϕ = D Hyϕ sin [ C Hyϕ arc tan { B Hyϕ R o ϕ – E Hyϕ ( B Hyϕ – arc tan ( B Hyϕ R 0 ϕ ) ) } ]
The factors are defined by:
C Hyϕ
= p Hyϕ 1
D Hyϕ = ( p Hyϕ 2 + p Hyϕ 3 df z ) ⋅ sin ( V x )
E Hyϕ = P Hyϕ 4
K yRϕ 0
B Hyϕ = -----------------------
C y D y K y0
The spin force stiffness KyR0 is related to the camber stiffness Ky0:
K yγ0
K yRϕ 0 = -------------
1 – εγ
in which the camber reduction factor is given by:
εγ = p εγϕ 1 ( 1 + p εγϕ 2 df z )
The reduction factors ζ 0 and ζ 4 for the vertical shift of the lateral force are given by:
ζ0 = 0
ζ 4 = 1 + S Hyϕ – S Vyγ ⁄K y
The reduction factor for the residual moment reads:
ζ 8 = 1 + D rϕ
The peak spin torque Dr ϕ is given by:
D rϕ = D Drϕ sin e [ C Drϕ arc tan { B Drϕ R 0 ϕ – E Drϕ ( B Drϕ R 0 ϕ – arc tan ( B Drϕ R 0 ϕ ) ) } ]
The maximum value is given by:
48 Adams/Tire
M zϕ ∞
D Drϕ = -----------------------------
π
sin  ---
2 C Drϕ 

The moment at vanishing wheel speed at constant turning is given by:
M zϕ ∞ = q Crϕ 1 µy R 0 F z F z ⁄F z0
The shape factors are given by:
C Drϕ = q Drϕ 1
E Drϕ = q Drϕ 2
K zγr0
B Drϕ = --------------------------------------------
C Drϕ D Drϕ ( 1 – εy )
in which:
K zγr0 = F z R 0 ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z )
The reduction factor ζ 6 reads:
ζ 6 = cos [ arc tan ( q Brϕ 1 R 0 ϕ ) ]

The spin moment at 90º slip angle is given by:
2
M zϕ 90 = M zϕ ∞ ⋅--- ⋅arc tan ( q Crϕ 2 R 0 ϕ ) ⋅G yx ( κ )
π
The spin moment at 90º slip angle is multiplied by the weighing function Gy to account for the action of
the longitudinal slip (see steady-state combined slip equations).
The reduction factor ζ 7 is given by:
2
ζ 7 = --- ⋅arc cos [ M zϕ 90 ⁄D Drϕ ]
π
49
Tire Models
Turn-Slip and Parking Parameters
Name used in
Name: tire property file: Explanation:
p εϕ 1 PECP1 Camber spin reduction factor parameter in camber stiffness
p εϕ 2 PECP2 Camber spin reduction factor varying with load parameter in
camber stiffness
pDx ϕ 1 PDXP1 Peak Fx reduction due to spin parameter
pDx ϕ 2 PDXP2 Peak Fx reduction due to spin with varying load parameter
pDx ϕ 3 PDXP3 Peak Fx reduction due to spin with kappa parameter
pDy ϕ 1 PDYP1 Peak Fy reduction due to spin parameter
pDy ϕ 2 PDYP2 Peak Fy reduction due to spin with varying load parameter
pDy ϕ 3 PDYP3 Peak Fy reduction due to spin with alpha parameter
pDy ϕ 4 PDYP4 Peak Fy reduction due to square root of spin parameter
pKy ϕ 1 PKYP1 Cornering stiffness reduction due to spin
pHy ϕ 1 PHYP1 Fy-alpha curve lateral shift limitation
pHy ϕ 2 PHYP2 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift parameter
pHy ϕ 3 PHYP3 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift varying with load
parameter
pHy ϕ 4 PHYP4 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift parameter
qDt ϕ 1 QDTP1 Pneumatic trail reduction factor due to turn slip parameter
qBr ϕ 1 QBRP1 Residual (spin) torque reduction factor parameter due to side
slip
qCr ϕ 1 QCRP1 Turning moment at constant turning and zero forward speed
parameter
qCr ϕ 2 QCRP2 Turn slip moment (at alpha=90deg) parameter for increase
with spin
qDr ϕ 1 QDRP1 Turn slip moment peak magnitude parameter
qDr ϕ 2 QDRP2 Turn slip moment peak position parameter
The tire model parameters for turn-slip and parking are estimated automatically. In addition, you can
specify each parameter individually in the tire property file (see example).
Steady-State Combined Slip

PAC2002 has two methods for calculating the combined slip forces and moments. If the user supplies
the coefficients for the combined slip cosine 'weighing' functions, the combined slip is calculated
according to Combined slip with cosine 'weighing' functions (standard method). If no coefficients are
50 Adams/Tire
supplied, the so-called friction ellipse is used to estimate the combined slip forces and moments, see
section Combined Slip with friction ellipse
Combined slip with cosine 'weighing' functions

• Longitudinal Force at Combined Slip
• Lateral Force at Combined Slip
• Aligning Moment at Combined Slip
• Overturning Moment at Pure and Combined Slip
• Rolling Resistance Moment at Pure and Combined Slip
Formulas for the Longitudinal Force at Combined Slip

F x = F x0 ⋅G xα ( α , κ , F z ) (60)
with Gx α the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
F x = D xα cos [ C xα arc tan { B xα α s – E xα ( B xα α s – arc tan ( B xα α s ) ) } ] (61)
α s = α + S Hxα (62)
with coefficients:
B xα = r Bx1 cos [ arc tan { r Bx2 κ } ] ⋅λ xα (63)
C xα (64)
F xo
D xα = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (65)
cos [ C xα arc tan { B xα S Hxα – E xα ( B xα S Hxα – arc tan ( B xα S Hxα ) ) } ]
E xα = r Ex1 + r Ex2 df z with E xα ≤ 1 (66)
S Hxα = r Hx1 (67)
The weighting function follows as:
cos [ C xα arc tan { B xα α s – E xα ( B xα α s – arc tan ( B xα α s ) ) } ]

G xα = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (68)
cos [ C xα arc tan [ B xα S Hxα – E xα ( B xα S Hxα – arc tan ( B xα S Hxα ) ) ] ]
51
Tire Models
Longitudinal Force Coefficients at Combined Slip
Name used in tire

rBx1 RBX1 Slope factor for combined slip Fx reduction
rBx2 RBX2 Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa
rCx1 RCX1 Shape factor for combined slip Fx reduction
rEx1 REX1 Curvature factor of combined Fx
rEx2 REX2 Curvature factor of combined Fx with load
rHx1 RHX1 Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction
Formulas for Lateral Force at Combined Slip

F y = F y0 ⋅G yκ ( α , κ , γ, F z ) (69)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the ' -induced' side force;
therefore, the lateral force can be written as:
F y = D yκ cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ κ s – E yκ ( B yκ κ s – arc tan ( B yκ κ s ) ) } ] + S Vyκ (70)
κ s = κ + S Hyκ (71)
with the coefficients:
B yκ = r By1 cos [ arc tan { r By2 ( α – r By3 ) } ] ⋅λ yκ (72)
C yκ = r Cy1 (73)
F yo
D yκ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (74)
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ S Hyκ – E yκ ( B yκ S Hyκ – arc tan ( B yκ S Hyκ ) ) } ]
E yκ = r Ey1 + r Ey2 df z with E yκ ≤ 1 (75)
S Hyκ = r Hy1 + r Hy2 df z (76)
S Vyκ = D Vyκ sin [ r Vy5 arc tan ( r Vy6 κ ) ] (77)

52 Adams/Tire
D Vyκ = µy F z ⋅( r Vy1 + r Vy2 df z + r Vy3 γ) ⋅ cos [ arc tan ( r Vy4 α ) ] (78)
The weighting function appears is defined as:
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ κ s – E yκ ( B yκ κ s arc tan ( B yκ κ s ) ) } ]

G yκ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (79)
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ S Hyκ – E yκ ( B yκ S Hyκ arc tan ( B yκ S Hyκ ) ) } ]
Lateral Force Coefficients at Combined Slip
Name used in
rBy1 RBY1 Slope factor for combined Fy reduction
rBy2 RBY2 Variation of slope Fy reduction with alpha
rBy3 RBY3 Shift term for alpha in slope Fy reduction
rCy1 RCY1 Shape factor for combined Fy reduction
rEy1 REY1 Curvature factor of combined Fy
rEy2 REY2 Curvature factor of combined Fy with load
rHy1 RHY1 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
rHy2 RHY2 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load
rVy1 RVY1 Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
rVy2 RVY2 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
rVy3 RVY3 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with inclination
rVy4 RVY4 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
rVy5 RVY5 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
rVy6 RVY6 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan (kappa)
Formulas for Aligning Moment at Combined Slip
M' z = – t ⋅F y' + M zr + s ⋅F x (80)
with:
t = t ( α t, eq ) (81)
53
Tire Models
= D t cos [ C t arc tan { B t α t, eq – E t ( B t α t, eq – arc tan ( B t α t, eq ) ) } ] cos ( α ) (82)
F' y, γ = 0 = F y – S Vyκ (83)
M zr = M zr ( α r, eq ) = D r cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] cos ( α ) (84)
t = t ( α t, eq ) (85)
with the arguments:
2 Kx 2 2
α t, eq = arc tan tan α t + ------ κ ⋅ sgn ( α t ) (86)
K y
2 Kx 2 2
α r, eq = arc tan tan α r + ------ κ ⋅ sgn ( α r ) (87)
K y
Aligning Moment Coefficients at Combined Slip
Name used in
ssz1 SSZ1 Nominal value of s/R0 effect of Fx on Mz
ssz2 SSZ2 Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
ssz3 SSZ3 Variation of distance s/R0 with inclination
ssz4 SSZ4 Variation of distance s/R0 with load and inclination
Formulas for Overturning Moment at Pure and Combined Slip

For the overturning moment, the formula reads both for pure and combined slip situations:
 Fy 
M x = R o ⋅F z ⋅q Sx1 λ VMx – q Sx2 ⋅ λ + q Sx3 F -  λ
⋅ ------- Mx (88)
 z0 
54 Adams/Tire
Overturning Moment Coefficients
Name used in tire

qsx1 QSX1 Lateral force induced overturning couple
qsx2 QSX2 Inclination induced overturning couple
qsx3 QSX3 Fy induced overturning couple
Formulas for Rolling Resistance Moment at Pure and Combined Slip

The rolling resistance moment is defined by:
4
M y = R o ⋅F z ⋅{ q Sy1 + q Sy3 F x ⁄F z0 + q Sy3 V x ⁄( V ref ) + q Sy4 V x ⁄( V ref ) } (89)
If qsy1 and qsy2 are both zero and FITTYP is equal to 5 (MF-Tyre 5.0), then the rolling resistance is
calculated according to an old equation:
M y = R 0 ( S Vx + K x ⋅S Hx ) (90)
Rolling Resistance Coefficients
Name used in tire

qsy1 QSY1 Rolling resistance moment coefficient
qsy2 QSY2 Rolling resistance moment depending on Fx
qsy3 QSY3 Rolling resistance moment depending on speed
qsy4 QSY4 Rolling resistance moment depending on speed^4
Vref LONGVL Measurement speed
Combined Slip with friction ellipse

In case the tire property file does not contain the coefficients for the 'standard' combined slip method
(cosine 'weighing functions), the friction ellipse method is used, as described in this section. Note that
the method employed here is not part of one of the Magic Formula publications by Pacejka, but is an in-
house development of MSC.Software.
S Vx
κ c = κ + S Hx + ---------
Kx
55
Tire Models
S Vy
α c = α + S Hy + ---------
Ky
α ∗ = sin ( α c )
 κc 
β = acos -------------------------
 κ 2 + α ∗ 2
c
The following friction coefficients are defined:
F x, 0 – S Vx F y, 0 – S Vy
µx, act = ------------------------- µy, act = -------------------------
Fz Fz
Dx Dy
µx, max = ------ µy, max = ------
Fz Fz
1
µx = ---------------------------------------------------------
1 2 ---------------
------------- tan β -2
+
µx, act µy, max
tan β
µy = ---------------------------------------------------------
1 -2 -------------
--------------- tan β 2
+
µx, max µy, act
The forces corrected for the combined slip conditions are:
µx µy
F x = ------------- F x, 0 F y = ------------- F y, 0
µx, act µy, act
56 Adams/Tire
For aligning moment Mx, rolling resistance My and aligning moment Mz the formulae (76) until and
including (85) are used with S Vyκ =0.
Transient Behavior in PAC2002

The previous Magic Formula equations are valid for steady-state tire behavior. When driving, however,
the tire requires some response time on changes of the inputs. In tire modeling terminology, the low-
frequency behavior (up to 15 Hz) is called transient behavior. PAC2002 provides two methods to model
transient tire behavior:
• Stretched String
• Contact Mass
Stretched String Model

For accurate transient tire behavior, you can use the stretched string tire model (see reference [1]). The
tire belt is modeled as stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral (and longitudinal)
springs. Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior shows a top-view of the string model. When
rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed). Therefore,
a lateral deflection of the string arises that depends on the slip angle size and the history of the lateral
deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior
57
Tire Models
following differential equation is valid:
v1
1 dv 1 -----
------ + - = tan ( α ) + aφ (91)
Vx d t σα
with the relaxation length σ α in the lateral direction. The turnslip φ can be neglected at radii larger
than 10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the
equation can be transformed to:
dv 1
σα + V x v 1 = σ α V sy (92)
dt
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal direction:
du 1
σx + V x u 1 = σ x V sx (93)
dt
Both the longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are defined as of the vertical load:
σ x = F z ⋅( p Tx1 + p Tx2 df z ) ⋅ exp ( p Tx3 df z ) ⋅( R 0 ⁄F z0 )λ σx (94)
 Fz 
σ α = p Ty1 F z0 sin 2arc tan ---------------------------------  ⋅( 1 – p Ky3 γy ) ⋅R 0 λ F z0 ⋅λ σα (95)
( p Ty2 F z0 λ Fz0 ) 
Now the practical slip quantities, κ and α , are defined based on the tire deformation:
u1
κ' = ------ ⋅ sin ( V x ) (96)
σx
v1
α' = atan ------ (97)
σ α 
Using these practical slip quantities, κ and α , the Magic Formula equations can be used to calculate
the tire-road interaction forces and moments:
F x = F x ( α', κ', F z ) (98)

58 Adams/Tire
F y = F y ( α', κ', γ, F z ) (99)
M' z = M' z ( α', κ', γ, F z ) (100)
Coefficients and Transient Response
Name used in tire

pTx1 PTX1 Longitudinal relaxation length at Fznom
pTx2 PTX2 Variation of longitudinal relaxation length with load
pTx3 PTX3 Variation of longitudinal relaxation length with exponent
of load
pTy1 PTY1 Peak value of relaxation length for lateral direction
pTy2 PTY2 Shape factor for lateral relaxation length
qTz1 QTZ1 Gyroscopic moment constant
Mbelt MBELT Belt mass of the wheel
Contact Mass Model

The contact mass model is based on the separation of the contact patch slip properties and the tire carcass
compliance (see reference [1]). Instead of using relaxation lengths to describe compliance effects, the
carcass springs are explicitly incorporated in the model. The contact patch is given some inertia to ensure
computational causality. This modeling approach automatically accounts for the lagged response to slip
and load changes that diminish at higher levels of slip. The contact patch itself uses relaxation lengths to
handle simulations at low speed.
The contact patch can deflect in longitudinal, lateral, and yaw directions with respect to the lower part of
the wheel rim. A mass is attached to the contact patch to enable straightforward computations.
The differential equations that govern the dynamics of the contact patch body are:
·
m c ( V· cx – V cy ψ c ) + k x u· + c x u = F x
·
m c ( V· cy – V cx ψ c ) + k y u· + c y u = F y
·· ·
Jc ψ c + kψ β + cψ β = Mz
The contact patch body with mass mc and inertia Jc is connected to the wheel through springs cx, cy, and
c ψ and dampers kx, ky, and k ψ in longitudinal, lateral, and yaw direction, respectively.
The additional equations for the longitudinal u, lateral v, and yaw β deflections are:
u· = V cx – V sx
59
Tire Models
v· = V cy – V sy
· ·
β = ψc–ψ
·
in which Vcx, Vcy and ψ c are the sliding velocity of the contact body in longitudinal, lateral, and yaw
·
directions, respectively. Vsx, Vsy, and ψ are the corresponding velocities of the lower part of the wheel.
The transient slip equations for side slip, turn-slip, and camber are:
σ c d α' + V x α' = V cy – V x β + V x βst

dt
dα' t
σc + V x α' t = V x α'
dt
dϕ ' c ·
σc + Vx ϕ 'c = ψ γ
dt
dϕ ' F2 ·
σ F2 + V x ϕ ' cF2 = ψ γ
dt
dϕ ' 1 ·
σϕ 1dt + Vx ϕ '1 = ψ γ
dϕ ' 2 ·
σϕ 2dt + Vx ϕ '2 = ψ γ
where the calculated deflection angle has been used:
Mz
β st = -------
cφ
The tire total spin velocity is:
·
ψ γ = ψ c – ( 1 – εγ)Ωsin γ
With the transient slip equations, the composite transient turn-slip quantities are calculated:
ϕ ' F = 2ϕ ' c – ϕ ' F2
ϕ ' M = εϕ ϕ ' c + εϕ 12 ( ϕ ' 1 – ϕ '2 )

60 Adams/Tire
The tire forces are calculated with ϕ ' F and the tire moments with ϕ ' M .
The relaxation lengths are reduced with slip:
σ c = a ⋅( 1 – θζ )
t0
σ 2 = ---- σ c
a
σ F2 = b F2 σ c
σϕ 1 = bϕ 1 σ c
σϕ 2 = bϕ 2 σ c
Here a is half the contact length according to:
 z ρ 
a = p A1 R 0 ρ ------ + p A2 -----z-
 R0 R 0
The composite tire parameter reads:
K y0
θ = ---------------
2µy F x
and the equivalent slip:
2
1 K x02  
ζ = ------------- { α' + aεϕ 12
2
ϕ '1 – ϕ '2 } + ---------  κ' + 2
--- b ϕ ' c 
1 + κ' K y0 3
 
Name used in
mc MC Contact body mass
Ic IC Contact body moment of inertia
kx KX Longitudinal damping
ky KY Lateral damping
kϕ KP Yaw damping
cx CX Longitudinal stiffness
61
Tire Models
Name used in
cy CY Lateral stiffness
cϕ CP Yaw stiffness
pA1 PA1 Half contact length with vertical tire deflection
pA2 PA2 Half contact length with square root of vertical tire
deflection
εϕ EP Composite turn-slip (moment)
εϕ 12 EP12 Composite turn-slip (moment) increment
bF2 BF2 Second relaxation length factor
bϕ 1 BP1 First moment relaxation length factor
bϕ 2 BP2 Second moment relaxation length factor
The remaining contact mass model parameters are estimated automatically based on longitudinal and
lateral stiffness specified in the tire property file.
Gyroscopic Couple in PAC2002

When having fast rotations about the vertical axis in the wheel plane, the inertia of the tire belt may lead
to gyroscopic effects. To cope with this additional moment, the following contribution is added to the
total aligning moment:
dv
M z, gyr = c gyr m belt V rl cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] (101)
dt
with the parameter (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
c gyr = q Tz1 ⋅λ gyr (102)
and:
cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] = 1 (103)
The total aligning moment now becomes:
M z = M' z + M z, gyr (104)

62 Adams/Tire
Name used in
pTx3 PTX3 Variation of longitudinal relaxation length with exponent of
load
Left and Right Side Tires

In general, a tire produces a lateral force and aligning moment at zero slip angle due to the tire
construction, known as conicity and plysteer. In addition, the tire characteristics cannot be symmetric for
positive and negative slip angles.
A tire property file with the parameters for the model results from testing with a tire that is mounted in a
tire test bench comparable either to the left or the right side of a vehicle. If these coefficients are used for
both the left and the right side of the vehicle model, the vehicle does not drive straight at zero steering
wheel angle.
The latest versions of tire property files contain a keyword TYRESIDE in the [MODEL] section that
indicates for which side of the vehicle the tire parameters in that file are valid (TIRESIDE = 'LEFT' or
TIRESIDE = 'RIGHT').
If this keyword is available, Adams/Car corrects for the conicity and plysteer and asymmetry when using
a tire property file on the opposite side of the vehicle. In fact, the tire characteristics are mirrored with
respect to slip angle zero. In Adams/View, this option can only be used when the tire is generated by the
graphical user interface: select Build -> Forces -> Special Force: Tire.
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also set SYMMETRIC: then the tire
characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right side
corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets).Also, when you set the tire property file to
SYMMETRIC, the tire characteristics are changed to symmetric behavior.
Create Wheel and Tire Dialog Box in Adams/View
63
Tire Models
USE_MODES of PAC2002: from Simple to Complex

The parameter USE_MODE in the tire property file allows you to switch the output of the PAC2002 tire
model from very simple (that is, steady-state cornering) to complex (transient combined cornering and
braking).
The options for the USE_MODE and the output of the model have been listed in the table below.
64 Adams/Tire
USE_MODE Values of PAC2002 and Related Tire Model Output
PAC2002 output
(forces and
USE_MODE: State: Slip conditions: moments):
0 Steady state Acts as a vertical spring & 0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
damper
1 Steady state Pure longitudinal slip Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0
2 Steady state Pure lateral (cornering) slip 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
3 Steady state Longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)
4 Steady state Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
11 Transient Pure longitudinal slip Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0
12 Transient Pure lateral (cornering) slip 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
13 Transient Longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)
14 Transient Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
15 Transient Combined slip and Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
21 Advanced transient Pure longitudinal slip Fx, 0, Fz, My, 0
22 Advanced transient Pure lateral (cornering slip) 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
23 Advanced transient Longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)
24 Advanced transient Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
25 Advanced transient Combined slip and Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
Quality Checks for the Tire Model Parameters

Because PAC2002 uses an empirical approach to describe tire - road interaction forces, incorrect
parameters can easily result in non-realistic tire behavior. Below is a list of the most important items to
ensure the quality of the parameters in a tire property file:
• Rolling Resistance
• Camber (Inclination) Effects
• Validity Range of the Tire Model Input
Note: Do not change Fz0 (FNOMIN) and R0 (UNLOADED_RADIUS) in your tire property file.
It will change the complete tire characteristics because these two parameters are used to
make all parameters without dimension.
65
Tire Models
Rolling Resistance
For a realistic rolling resistance, the parameter qsy1 must be positive. For car tires, it can be in the order
of 0.006 - 0.01 (0.6% - 1.0%); for heavy commercial truck tires, it can be around 0.006 (0.6%).
Tire property files with the keyword FITTYP=5 determine the rolling resistance in a different way (see
equation (85)). To avoid the ‘old’ rolling resistance calculation, remove the keyword FITTYP and add a
section like the following:
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1 = 0.01
QSY2 = 0
QSY3 = 0
QSY4 = 0
Camber (Inclination) Effects

Camber stiffness has not been explicitly defined in PAC2002; however, for car tires, positive inclination
should result in a negative lateral force at zero slip angle. If positive inclination results in an increase of
the lateral force, the coefficient may not be valid for the ISO but for the SAE coordinate system. Note
that PAC2002 only uses coefficients for the TYDEX W-axis (ISO) system.
Effect of Positive Camber on the Lateral Force in TYDEX W-axis (ISO) System
The table below lists further checks on the PAC2002 parameters.

66 Adams/Tire
Checklist for PAC2002 Parameters and Properties
Parameter/property: Requirement: Explanation:

LONGVL 1 m/s Reference velocity at which parameters are
measured
VXLOW Approximately 1 m/s Threshold for scaling down forces and moments
Dx >0 Peak friction (see equation (22))
pDx1/pDx2 <0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Kx >0 Long slip stiffness (see equation (25))
Dy >0 Peak friction (see equation (34))
pDy1/pDy2 <0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Ky <0 Cornering stiffness (see equation (37))
qsy1 >0 Rolling resistance, in the range of 0.005 - 0.015
Validity Range of the Tire Model Input

In the tire property file, a range of the input variables has been given in which the tire properties are
supposed to be valid. These validity range parameters are (the listed values can be different):
$------------------------------------------------------
long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN
= -1.5
$Minimum valid wheel slip
KPUMAX
= 1.5
$Maximum valid wheel slip
$-----------------------------------------------------
slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN
= -1.5708
$Minimum valid slip angle
ALPMAX
= 1.5708
$Maximum valid slip angle
$-----------------------------------------------
inclination_slip_range
[INCLINATION_ANGLE_RANGE]
CAMMIN
= -0.26181
$Minimum valid camber angle
CAMMAX
= 0.26181
$Maximum valid camber angle
$-------------------------------------------------
vertical_force_range
67
Tire Models
[VERTICAL_FORCE_RANGE]
FZMIN
= 225
$Minimum allowed wheel load
FZMAX
= 10125
$Maximum allowed wheel load
If one of the input parameters exceeds a minimum or maximum validity value, the calculation in the tire
model is performed with the minimum or maximum value of this range to avoid non-realistic tire
behavior. In that case, a message appears warning you that one of the inputs exceeds a validity value.
Standard Tire Interface (STI) for PAC2002

Because all Adams products use the Standard Tire Interface (STI) for linking the tire models to
Adams/Solver, below is a brief background of the STI history (see also reference [4]).
At the First International Colloquium on Tire Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis on October 21-22,
1991, the International Tire Workshop working group was established (TYDEX).
The working group concentrated on tire measurements and tire models used for vehicle simulation
purposes. For most vehicle dynamics studies, people used to develop their own tire models. Because all
car manufacturers and their tire suppliers have the same goal (that is, development of tires to improve
dynamic safety of the vehicle) it aimed for standardization in tire behavior description.
In TYDEX, two expert groups, consisting of participants of vehicle industry (passenger cars and trucks),
tire manufacturers, other suppliers and research laboratories, had been defined with following goals:
• The first expert group's (Tire Measurements - Tire Modeling) main goal was to specify an
interface between tire measurements and tire models. The result was the TYDEX-Format [2] to
describe tire measurement data.
• The second expert group's (Tire Modeling - Vehicle Modeling) main goal was to specify an
interface between tire models and simulation tools, which resulted in the Standard Tire Interface
(STI) [3]. The use of this interface should ensure that a wide range of simulation software can be
linked to a wide range of tire modeling software.
Definitions
• General
• Tire Kinematics
• Slip Quantities
• Force and Moments
68 Adams/Tire
General
General Definitions
Term: Definition:
Road tangent plane Plane with the normal unit vector (tangent to the road) in the tire-road contact
point C.
C-axis system Coordinate system mounted on the wheel carrier at the wheel center
according to TYDEX, ISO orientation.
Wheel plane The plane in the wheel center that is formed by the wheel when considered a
rigid disc with zero width.
Contact point C Contact point between tire and road, defined as the intersection of the wheel
plane and the projection of the wheel axis onto the road plane.
W-axis system Coordinate system at the tire contact point C, according to TYDEX, ISO
orientation.
Tire Kinematics
Tire Kinematics Definitions
Parameter: Definition: Units:

R0 Unloaded tire radius [m]
R Loaded tire radius [m]
Re Effective tire radius [m]
ρ Radial tire deflection [m]
ρd Dimensionless radial tire deflection [-]
ρ Fz0 Radial tire deflection at nominal load [m]
mbelt Tire belt mass [kg]
ω Rotational velocity of the wheel [rads-1]
Slip Quantities
Slip Quantities Definitions

V Vehicle speed [ms-1]
Vsx Slip speed in x direction [ms-1]
Vsy Slip speed in y direction [ms-1]
Vs Resulting slip speed [ms-1]
Vx Rolling speed in x direction [ms-1]
69
Tire Models

Vy Lateral speed of tire contact center [ms-1]
Vr Linear speed of rolling [ms-1]
κ Longitudinal slip [-]
α Slip angle [rad]
γ Inclination angle [rad]
Forces and Moments

Force and Moment Definitions
Abbreviation: Definition: Units:

Fz Vertical wheel load [N]
Fz0 Nominal load [N]
dfz Dimensionless vertical load [-]
Fx Longitudinal force [N]
Fy Lateral force [N]
Mx Overturning moment [Nm]
My Braking/driving moment [Nm]
Mz Aligning moment [Nm]
References
1. H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0 7506 5141 5.
2. H.-J. Unrau, J. Zamow, TYDEX-Format, Description and Reference Manual, Release 1.1,
Initiated by the International Tire Working Group, July 1995.
3. A. Riedel, Standard Tire Interface, Release 1.2, Initiated by the Tire Workgroup, June 1995.
4. J.J.M. van Oosten, H.-J. Unrau, G. Riedel, E. Bakker, TYDEX Workshop: Standardisation of
Data Exchange in Tyre Testing and Tyre Modelling, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis, Vehicle System Dynamics, Volume
27, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam/Lisse, 1996.
Example of PAC2002 Tire Property File

[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE
='tir'
FILE_VERSION
=3.0
FILE_FORMAT
70 Adams/Tire
='ASCII'
! : TIRE_VERSION :
PAC2002
! : COMMENT :
Tire
235/60R16
! : COMMENT :
Manufacturer
! : COMMENT :
Nom. section with
(m)
0.235
! : COMMENT :
Nom. aspect ratio
(-)
60
! : COMMENT :
Infl. pressure
(Pa)
200000
! : COMMENT :
Rim radius
(m)
0.19
! : COMMENT :
Measurement ID
! : COMMENT :
Test speed
(m/s) 16.6
! : COMMENT :
Road surface
! : COMMENT :
Road condition
Dry
! : FILE_FORMAT :
ASCII
! : Copyright MSC.Software, Fri Jan 23 14:30:06 2004
!
! USE_MODE specifies the type of calculation performed:
! 0: Fz only, no Magic Formula evaluation
! 1: Fx,My only
! 2: Fy,Mx,Mz only
! 3: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz uncombined force/moment calculation
! 4: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz combined force/moment calculation
! +10: including relaxation behaviour
! *-1: mirroring of tyre characteristics
!
! example: USE_MODE = -12 implies:
! -calculation of Fy,Mx,Mz only
! -including relaxation effects
! -mirrored tyre characteristics!
$----------------------------------------------------------------
units
[UNITS]
71
Tire Models
LENGTH
='meter'
FORCE
='newton'
ANGLE
='radians'
MASS
='kg'
TIME
='second'
$----------------------------------------------------------------
model
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT='PAC2002'
USE_MODE
= 14
$Tyre use switch (IUSED)
VXLOW
= 1
LONGVL
= 16.6
$Measurement speed
TYRESIDE
= 'LEFT'
$Mounted side of tyre at vehicle/test bench
$-----------------------------------------------------------
dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 0.344
$Free tyre radius
WIDTH
= 0.235
$Nominal section width of the tyre
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.6
$Nominal aspect ratio
RIM_RADIUS
= 0.19
$Nominal rim radius
RIM_WIDTH
= 0.16
$Rim width
$----------------------------------------------------------------
shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.9
72 Adams/Tire
1.0
$------------------------------------------------------------
parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
= 2.1e+005
$Tyre vertical stiffness
VERTICAL_DAMPING
= 50
$Tyre vertical damping
BREFF
= 8.4
$Low load stiffness e.r.r.
DREFF
= 0.27
$Peak value of e.r.r.
FREFF
= 0.07
$High load stiffness e.r.r.
FNOMIN
= 4850
$Nominal wheel load
$-----------------------------------------------------------
load_curve
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness (optional)
$ Maximum of 100 points
{pen
fz}
0.000
0.0
0.001
212.0
0.002
428.0
0.003
648.0
0.005
1100.0
0.010
2300.0
0.020
5000.0
0.030
8100.0
$------------------------------------------------------
long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN
= -1.5
KPUMAX
= 1.5
73
Tire Models
$-----------------------------------------------------
slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN
= -1.5708
ALPMAX
= 1.5708
$-----------------------------------------------
CAMMIN
= -0.26181
CAMMAX
= 0.26181
$-------------------------------------------------
FZMIN
= 225
FZMAX
= 10125
$--------------------------------------------------------------
scaling
[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
LFZO
= 1
$Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
LCX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx shape factor
LMUX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
LEX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx curvature factor
LKX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness
LHX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
LVX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx vertical shift
LGAX
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fx
74 Adams/Tire
LCY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy shape factor
LMUY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient
LEY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
LKY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
LHY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
LVY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
LGAY
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fy
LTR
= 1
$Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic trail
LRES
= 1
$Scale factor for offset of residual torque
LGAZ
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Mz
LXAL
= 1
$Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
LYKA
= 1
LVYKA
= 1
$Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
LS
= 1
$Scale factor of Moment arm of FxL
SGKP
= 1
$Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fx
LSGAL
= 1
$Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fy
LGYR
= 1
$Scale factor of gyroscopic torque
LMX
= 1
$Scale factor of overturning couple
75
Tire Models
LVMX
= 1
$Scale factor of Mx vertical shiftL
MY
= 1
$Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
$---------------------------------------------------------
longitudinal
[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCX1
= 1.6411
$Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force
PDX1
= 1.1739
$Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
PDX2
= -0.16395
$Variation of friction Mux with load
PDX3
= 0
$Variation of friction Mux with camber
PEX1
= 0.46403
$Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
PEX2
= 0.25022
$Variation of curvature Efx with load
PEX3
= 0.067842
$Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
PEX4
= -3.7604e-005
$Factor in curvature Efx while driving
PKX1
= 22.303
$Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
PKX2
= 0.48896
$Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PKX3
= 0.21253
$Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PHX1
= 0.0012297
$Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
PHX2
= 0.0004318
$Variation of shift Shx with load
PVX1
= -8.8098e-006
$Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
PVX2
= 1.862e-005 $Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
RBX1
76 Adams/Tire
= 13.276
$Slope factor for combined slip Fx reduction
RBX2
= -13.778
$Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa
RCX1
= 1.2568
$Shape factor for combined slip Fx reduction
REX1
= 0.65225
$Curvature factor of combined Fx
REX2
= -0.24948
$Curvature factor of combined Fx with load
RHX1
= 0.0050722
$Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction
PTX1
= 2.3657
$Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
PTX2
= 1.4112
$Variation of SigKap0/Fz with load
PTX3
= 0.56626
$Variation of SigKap0/Fz with exponent of load
$----------------------------------------------------------
overturning
[OVERTURNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSX1
= 0
$Lateral force induced overturning moment
QSX2
= 0
$Camber induced overturning couple
QSX3
= 0
$Fy induced overturning couple
$--------------------------------------------------------------
lateral
[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCY1
= 1.3507
$Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces
PDY1
= 1.0489
$Lateral friction Muy
PDY2
= -0.18033
$Variation of friction Muy with load
PDY3
= -2.8821
$Variation of friction Muy with squared camber
PEY1
77
Tire Models
= -0.0074722 $Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom

PEY2
= -0.0063208 $Variation of curvature Efy with load
PEY3
= -9.9935
$Zero order camber dependency of curvature Efy
PEY4
= -760.14
$Variation of curvature Efy with camber
PKY1
= -21.92
$Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom
PKY2
= 2.0012
$Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value
PKY3
= -0.024778
$Variation of Kfy/Fznom with camber
PHY1
= 0.0026747
$Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom
PHY2
= 8.9094e-005$Variation of shift Shy with load
PHY3
= 0.031415
$Variation of shift Shy with camber
PVY1
= 0.037318
$Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
PVY2
= -0.010049
$Variation of shift Svy/Fz with load
PVY3
= -0.32931
$Variation of shift Svy/Fz with camber
PVY4
= -0.69553
$Variation of shift Svy/Fz with camber and load
RBY1
= 7.1433
$Slope factor for combined Fy reduction
RBY2
= 9.1916
$Variation of slope Fy reduction with alpha
RBY3
= -0.027856
$Shift term for alpha in slope Fy reduction
RCY1
= 1.0719
$Shape factor for combined Fy reduction
REY1
= -0.27572
$Curvature factor of combined Fy
REY2
78 Adams/Tire
= 0.32802
$Curvature factor of combined Fy with load
RHY1
= 5.7448e-006$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
RHY2
= -3.1368e-005
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
RVY1
= -0.027825
$Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
RVY2
= 0.053604
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
RVY3
= -0.27568
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber
RVY4
= 12.12
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
RVY5
= 1.9$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
RVY6
= -10.704
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa)
PTY1
= 2.1439
$Peak value of relaxation length SigAlp0/R0
PTY2
= 1.9829
$Value of Fz/Fznom where SigAlp0 is extreme
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1
= 0.01
$Rolling resistance torque coefficient
QSY2
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on Fx
QSY3
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on speed
QSY4
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on speed ^4
$-------------------------------------------------------------
aligning
[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QBZ1
= 10.904
$Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom
QBZ2
= -1.8412
$Variation of slope Bpt with load
79
Tire Models
QBZ3
= -0.52041
$Variation of slope Bpt with load squared
QBZ4
= 0.039211
$Variation of slope Bpt with camber
QBZ5
= 0.41511
$Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber
QBZ9
= 8.9846
$Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
QBZ10
= 0
$Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
QCZ1
= 1.2136
$Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail
QDZ1
= 0.093509
$Peak trail Dpt" = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
QDZ2
= -0.0092183 $Variation of peak Dpt" with load
QDZ3
= -0.057061
$Variation of peak Dpt" with camber
QDZ4
= 0.73954
$Variation of peak Dpt" with camber squared
QDZ6
= -0.0067783 $Peak residual torque Dmr" = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
QDZ7
= 0.0052254
$Variation of peak factor Dmr" with load
QDZ8
= -0.18175
$Variation of peak factor Dmr" with camber
QDZ9
= 0.029952
$Var. of peak factor Dmr" with camber and load
QEZ1
= -1.5697
$Trail curvature Ept at Fznom
QEZ2
= 0.33394
$Variation of curvature Ept with load
QEZ3
= 0
$Variation of curvature Ept with load squared
QEZ4
= 0.26711
$Variation of curvature Ept with sign of Alpha-t
QEZ5
= -3.594
80 Adams/Tire
$Variation of Ept with camber and sign Alpha-t

QHZ1
= 0.0047326
$Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom
QHZ2
= 0.0026687
$Variation of shift Sht with load
QHZ3
= 0.11998
$Variation of shift Sht with camber
QHZ4
= 0.059083
$Variation of shift Sht with camber and load
SSZ1
= 0.033372
$Nominal value of s/R0: effect of Fx on Mz
SSZ2
= 0.0043624
$Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
SSZ3
= 0.56742
$Variation of distance s/R0 with camber
SSZ4
= -0.24116
$Variation of distance s/R0 with load and camber
QTZ1
= 0.2
$Gyration torque constant
MBELT
= 5.4
$Belt mass of the wheel
$-----------------------------------------------turn-slip parameters
[TURNSLIP_COEFFICIENTS]
PECP1
= 0.7
$Camber stiffness reduction factor
PECP2
= 0.0
$Camber stiffness reduction factor with load
PDXP1
= 0.4
$Peak Fx reduction due to spin
PDXP2
= 0.0
$Peak Fx reduction due to spin with load
PDXP3
= 0.0
$Peak Fx reduction due to spin with longitudinal slip
81
Tire Models
PDYP1
= 0.4
$Peak Fy reduction due to spin
PDYP2
= 0.0
$Peak Fy reduction due to spin with load
PDYP3
= 0.0
$Peak Fy reduction due to spin with lateral slip
PDYP4
= 0.0
$Peak Fy reduction with square root of spin
PKYP1
= 1.0
$Cornering stiffness reduction due to spin
PHYP1
= 1.0
$Fy lateral shift shape factor
PHYP2
= 0.15
$Maximum Fy lateral shift
PHYP3
= 0.0
$Maximum Fy lateral shift with load
PHYP4
= -4.0
$Fy lateral shift curvature factor
QDTP1
= 10.0
$Pneumatic trail reduction factor
QBRP1
= 0.1
$Residual torque reduction factor with lateral slip
QCRP1
= 0.2
$Turning moment at constant turning with zero speed
QCRP2
= 0.1
$Turning moment at 90 deg lateral slip
QDRP1
82 Adams/Tire
= 1.0
$Maximum turning moment
QDRP2
= -1.5
$Location of maximum turning moment
$----------------------------------------------contact patch
parameters
[CONTACT_COEFFICIENTS]
PA1
= 0.4147
$Half contact length dependency on Fz)
PA2
= 1.9129
$Half contact length dependency on sqrt(Fz/R0)
$-----------------------------------------------contact patch slip

model
[DYNAMIC_COEFFICIENTS]
MC
= 1.0
$Contact mass
IC
= 0.05
$Contact moment of inertia
KX
= 409.0
$Contact longitudinal damping
KY
= 320.8
$Contact lateral damping
KP
= 11.9
$Contact yaw damping
CX
= 4.350e+005 $Contact longitudinal stiffness
CY
= 1.665e+005 $Contact lateral stiffness
CP
= 20319
$Contact yaw stiffness
83
Tire Models
EP
= 1.0
EP12
= 4.0
BF2
= 0.5
BP1
= 0.5
BP2
= 0.67
$--------------------------------------------------------loaded
radius
[LOADED_RADIUS_COEFFICIENTS]
QV1
= 0.000071
$Tire radius growth coefficient
QV2
= 2.489
$Tire stiffness variation coefficient with speed
QFCX1
= 0.1
$Tire stiffness interaction with Fx
QFCY1
= 0.3
$Tire stiffness interaction with Fy
QFCG1
= 0.0
$Tire stiffness interaction with camber
QFZ1
= 0.0
$Linear stiffness coefficient, if zero, VERTICAL_STIFFNESS is
taken
QFZ2
= 14.35
$Tire vertical stiffness coefficient (quadratic)
Contact Methods
The PAC2002 model supports the following roads:
• 2D Roads, see Using the 2D Road Model
Note that the PAC2002 model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the wavelength of
road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model. In addition, the contact
force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore, the contact point does not
generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such as a cleat or pothole.
84 Adams/Tire
For ride and comfort analyses, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.
85
Tire Models
Using the PAC-TIME Tire Model

The PAC-TIME Magic-Formula tire model has been developed by MSC.Software according to a
publication, A New Tyre Model for TIME Measurement Data, by J.J.M. van Oosten e.a. [5]. PAC-TIME
has improved equations for side force and aligning moment under pure slip conditions. For longitudinal
pure slip and combined slip, the tire model is similar to PAC-TIME.
Learn about:
• When to Use PAC-TIME
• Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces
• Axis Systems and Slip Definitions
• Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation
• Basics of Magic Formula
• Steady-State: Magic Formula
• Transient Behavior
• Gyroscopic Couple
• USE_MODES OF PAC-TIME: from Simple to Complex
• Quality Checks for Tire Model Parameters
• Standard Tire Interface (STI)
• Definitions
• References
• Example of PAC-TIME Tire Property File
• Contact Methods
When to Use PAC-TIME

Magic-Formula (MF) tire models are considered the state-of-the-art for modeling tire-road interaction
forces in vehicle dynamics applications. Since 1987, Pacejka and others have published several versions
of this type of tire model. The PAC-TIME model is similar to PAC2002, but has improved equations for
side force (Fy) and aligning moment (Mz) under pure side slip conditions.
The following is background information about the PAC-TIME tire model, as stated in the paper, A New
Tyre Model for TIME Measurement Data, J.J.M. van Oosten, E. Kuiper, G. Leister, D. Bode, H.
Schindler, J. Tischleder, S. Köhne [5]:
In 1999 a new method for tyre Force and Moment (F&M) testing has been developed by a consortium of
European tyre and vehicle manufacturers: the TIME procedure. For Vehicle Dynamics studies often a
Magic Formula (MF) tyre model is used based upon such F&M data. However when calculating MF
parameters for a standard MF model out of the TIME F&M data, several difficulties are observed. These
are mainly due to the non-uniform distribution of the data points over the slip angle, camber and load
area and the mutual dependency in between the slip angle, camber and load. A new MF model for pure
cornering slip conditions has been developed that allows the calculation of the MF parameters despite
of the dependency of the three input variables in the F&M data and shows better agreement with the
86 Adams/Tire
measured F&M data points. From mathematical point of view the optimisation process for deriving MF
parameters is better conditioned with the new MF-TIME, resulting in less sensitivity to starting values
and better convergence to a global minimum. In addition the MF-TIME has improved extrapolation
performance compared to the standard MF models for areas where no F&M data points are available.
Next to the use for TIME F&M data, the new model is expected to have interesting prospects for
converting ‘on-vehicle’ measured tyre data into a robust set of MF parameters.
In general, an MF tire model describes the tire behavior for rather smooth roads (road obstacle
• Single- or double-lane change
• Other common vehicle dynamics maneuvers on rather smooth roads (wavelength of road
For modeling roll-over of a vehicle, you must pay special attention to the overturning moment
characteristics of the tire (Mx), and the loaded radius modeling. The last item may not be sufficiently
addressed in this model.
The PAC-TIME model has been developed for car tires with camber (inclination) angles to the road not
exceeding 15 degrees.
Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces

For vehicle dynamics applications, an accurate knowledge of tire-road interaction forces is inevitable
forces depend on both road and tire properties, and the motion of the tire with respect to the road.
the tire and wheel as a rigid disc. In the contact point between the tire and the road, the contact forces in
road.
vectors of the PAC2002 tire model. The tire model subroutine is linked to the Adams/Solver through the
Standard Tire Interface (STI) [3]. The input through the STI consists of:
87
Tire Models
• Road parameters
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load (Fz), the
longitudinal and lateral slip ( κ , α ), and inclination angle ( γ) with the road. The output is the forces
(Fx, Fy) and moments (Mx, My, Mz) in the contact point between the tire and the road. For calculating
these forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing data.
Adams/Solver through STI.

• Axis Systems
• Units
Axis Systems
The PAC-TIME model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions, as described in
the TYDEX-Format [2] and the STI [3].
88 Adams/Tire
The STI interface between the MF-TIME model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
because all the modeling of the tire behavior, as described in this help, assumes to deal with the slip
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC-TIME , Source [2]
The forces and moments calculated by PAC-TIME using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
to Adams/Solver.
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC-TIME are
according to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC-TIME described in this guide have been
developed for use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire
property file. Because of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have to be changed.
89
Tire Models
SI Units Used in PAC-TIME
Variable type: Name: Abbreviation: Unit:

Lateral force Fy
Vertical load Fz
Rolling resistance moment My
Self-aligning moment Mz
Lateral speed Vy
Longitudinal slip speed Vsx
Lateral slip speed Vsy


The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the contact point (W-axis system, see Slip Quantities at Combined
Cornering and Braking/Traction) is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the wheel rotational
velocity ω , and the effective rolling radius Re:
90 Adams/Tire
V sx = V x – ΩR e (105)
V sy = V y (106)
V sx
κ = – -------- (107)
Vx
V sy
tan α = --------- (108)
Vx
Vr = Re Ω (109)
Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation

• Contact Point
Contact Point
at the road point right below the wheel center (see the figure below).
91
Tire Models
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane though the wheel spin
axis.
The normal load Fz of the tire is calculated with:
·
F z = C z ρ + K z ⋅ρ (110)
where ρ is the tire deflection and ρ is the deflection rate of the tire.
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz, you can also define an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Example of PAC-TIME
Tire Property File). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection data
points with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of
the tire. Note that you must specify Cz in the tire property file, but it does not play any role.

With the loaded rolling tire radius R defined as the distance of the wheel center to the contact point of
the tire with the road, where ρ is the deflection of the tire, and R0 is the free (unloaded) tire radius, then
the loaded tire radius Rl is:
R1 = R0 – ρ (111)
In this tire model, a constant (linear) vertical tire stiffness Cz is assumed; therefore, the tire deflection ρ
can be calculated using:
92 Adams/Tire
Fz
ρ = ------ (112)
Cz
Vx
R e = ------ (113)
Ω
For radial tires, the effective rolling radius is rather independent of load in its load range of operation
because of the high stiffness of the tire belt circumference. Only at low loads does the effective tire radius
To represent the effective rolling radius Re, an MF type of equation is used:

d d
R e = R 0 – ρ Fz0 ( Darc tan ( Bρ ) + Fρ ) (114)
93
Tire Models

F z0
ρ Fz0 = -------- (115)
Cz
and ρ d is called the dimensionless radial tire deflection, defined by:

ρ
ρ d = --------- (116)
ρ Fz0
Name Used in Tire

Name: Property File: Explanation:
Fz0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load
Ro UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tire radius
94 Adams/Tire
Name Used in Tire

Name: Property File: Explanation:
Cz VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tire vertical stiffness
Kz VERTICAL_DAMPING Tire vertical damping
Basics of the Magic Formula in PAC-TIME

We distinguish:
For pure slip conditions, the lateral force Fy as a function of the lateral slip α , respectively, and the
longitudinal force Fx as a function of longitudinal slip κ , have a similar shape. Because of the sine -
arctangent combination, the basic Magic Formula example is capable of describing this shape:
where Y(x) is either Fx with x the longitudinal slip κ , or Fy and x the lateral slip α .
95
Tire Models
The self-aligning moment Mz is calculated as a product of the lateral force Fy and the pneumatic trail t
added with the residual moment Mzr. In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force Fy,
slip α has a cosine shape, a cosine version the Magic Formula is used:

96 Adams/Tire
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force Fy will decrease due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force Fx will decrease due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip
conditions are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighting functions.
Again, these weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF examples.
Inclination Effects in the Lateral Force

From a historical point of view, the camber stiffness always has been modeled implicit in the Magic
Formulas. For deriving coefficients of a Pacejka tire model usually so-called tire tests with slip angle
sweeps at various values of constant load and inclination are performed. In the resulting Force & Moment
measurement data, the effects of camber on the side force Fy are relatively small compared to side force
97
Tire Models
effects by slip angle, which can easily result in non-realistic camber stiffness properties. Because there
is no explicit definition of the camber stiffness, the effects on camber stiffness cannot be controlled in
the coefficient optimization process.
The TIME measurement procedure guarantees more realistic tire test data, because they are performed
under realistic tire operating conditions and specific parts of the test program concentrate on getting
accurate cornering and camber stiffness. Because the inputs to the test program (side and longitudinal
slip, inclination, and load) are not independent, for the parameter optimization process, a Pacejka tire
model was required that has a better definition of cornering and camber stiffness from mathematical
point of view (for a more detailed explanation, see [5]).
Therefore, the PAC-TIME tire model has an explicit definition of camber effects, similar to the tire
model for motorcycle tires (PAC_MC). The basic Magic Formula sine function for the lateral force Fy
has been extended with an argument for the inclination γ as follows:
F y0 = D y cos [ C y arc tan { B y α y – E y ( B y α y – arc tan ( B y α y ) ) } (119)
+ C γarc tan { B y α γ – E γ( B γα γ – arc tan ( B γα γ) ) } ]
In the PAC-TIME tire model, C γ has been set to ½, and E γ is not used (zero value). This approach
results in an explicit definition of the camber stiffness, because:
F yo
K γ = B γC γD γ = ∂ -------- at α γ = 0 (120)
δγ
Input Variables
Input Variables

Slip angle α [rad]
Output Variables
Its output variables are:
Output Variables.

98 Adams/Tire

Rolling resistance moment My [Nm]

are:

F z – F' z0
df z = -------------------- (121)
F' z0
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor, λ Fz0):
F' z0 = F z0 ⋅λ F z0 (122)

logic:
99
Tire Models
C Shape factor
D Peak value
E Curvature factor
H Horizontal shift
V Vertical shift
k= 1, 2, ...

You can change the factors in the tire property file. The peak friction scaling factors, factors, λ µξ and
λ γψ ', are also used for the position-dependent friction in 3D Road Contact and Adams/3D Road. An
overview of all scaling factors is shown in the next tables.
Name used in
λ Fzo LFZO Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
λ µξ LMUX Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
λ Hx LHX Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
λ γxx LGAX Scale factor of camber for Fx
λ Cy LCY Scale factor of Fy shape factor for side slip
100 Adams/Tire
Name used in
λ EyEy LEY Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
λ KyKy LKY Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
λ VVy LVY Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
λ HyHyy LHY Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
λ K γK γ LKC Scale factor of camber stiffness (K-factor)
λ γψ LGAY Scale factor of camber force stiffness
λ Mr LRES Scale factor for offset of residual torque
λ γz LGAZ Scale factor of camber torque stiffness
λ VMx LVMX Scale factor of Mx vertical shift
λ My LMY Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
Name used in tire

λ xα LXAL Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
λ yκ LYKA Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
λ Vy κ LVYKA Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
λ s LS Scale factor of moment arm of Fx
Name used in tire

λ σ κκ LSGKP Scale factor of relaxation length of Fx
λ σαα LSGAL Scale factor of relaxation length of Fy
Steady-State: Magic Formula in PAC-TIME

101
Tire Models


F x = F x0 ( κ , F z, γ) (123)
F x0 = D x cos [ C x arc tan { B x κ x – E x ( B x κ x – arc tan ( B x κ s ) ) } ] + S Vx (124)
κ x = κ + S Hx (125)
γx = γ ⋅λ γx (126)
C x = p Cx1 ⋅λ cx (127)
D x = µx ⋅F z (128)
µx = ( p Dx1 + p Dx2 df z ) ⋅1 – ( p Dx3 ⋅γx2 )γµx (129)
E x = ( p Ex1 + p Ex2 df z + p Ex2 df z2 ) ⋅{ 1 – p Ex4 sgn ( κ x ) } ⋅λ Ex with E x ≤ 1 (130)
K x = F z ( p Kx1 + p Kx2 df z ) ⋅ exp ( p Kx3 df z )λ K (131)
∂ F x0
Kx = Bx Cx Dx = at κ x = 0
∂ κx
B x = K x ⁄( C x D x ) (132)
S Hx = ( p Hx1 + p Hx2 df z )λ Hx (133)
S Vx = F z ⋅( p Vx1 + p Vx2 df z ) ⋅λ Vx ⋅λ µx
102 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with inclination

F y = F y0 ( α , γ, F z ) (134)
1
F y0 = D y sin C y arc tan { B y α y – E y ( B y α y – arc tan ( B y α y ) ) } + --- arc tan ( B γγy ) (135)
+ S Vy
2
α y = α + S Hy (136)
γy = γ ⋅λ γy (137)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1 ⋅λ Cy (138)
D y = µy ⋅F z (139)
µy = ( p Dy1 + p Dy2 df z ) ⋅( 1 – p Dy3 γy2 ) ⋅λ µy (140)
E y = { p Ey1 + p Ey2 df z + ( p Ey3 + p Ey4 γy ) sgn ( α y ) } ⋅λ Ey (141)

103
Tire Models
∂ Fy  Fz 
K
() y = = p Ky1 F z0 sin p Ky4 arc tan -------------------------------  ⋅( 1 – p Ky3 γy2 ) ⋅λ Ky λ Fz0 (142)
∂α p Ky2 F z0 λ Fz0 
with p Ky4 ≤ 2
∂ Fy
Kγ = = F z ( p Ky5 + p Ky5 df z ) ⋅λ Ky (143)
∂γ
Ky
B y = ------------- (144)
Cy Dy
2K γ
B γ = --------- (145)
Dy
S Hy = ( p Hy1 + p Hy2 df z ) ⋅λ Hy (146)
S Hy = F z ( p Vy1 + p Vy2 df z ) ⋅λ Vy λ µy (147)
Name used in tire

pDy2 PDY2 Variation of friction Muy with load
pDy3 PDY3 Variation of friction Muy with squared inclination
pEy2 PEY2 Variation of curvature Efy with load
pEy3 PEY3 Inclination dependency of curvature Efy
pEy4 PEY4 Variation of curvature Efy with inclination
pKy2 PKY2 Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value
pKy3 PKY3 Variation of Kfy/Fznom with inclination
pKy4 PKY4 Shape factor of Kfy
pKy5 PKY5 Linear variation of Kg with load
pKy6 PKY6 Quadratic variation of Kg with load
104 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

pHy2 PHY2 Variation of shift Shy with load
pVy1 PVY1 Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
pVy2 PVY2 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with load

M' z = M z0 ( α , γ, F z ) (148)
M z0 = – t ⋅( F y0 – S Vy ) γ = 0 + Mzr
α t = α + S Ht
M zr ( α r ) = D r cos [ arc tan ( B r α r ) ] cos ( α ) (150)
α r = α + S Ht (151)
S Hr = 0 (152)
γz = γ ⋅λ γz (153)
with coefficients:
B t = ( q Bz1 + q Bz2 df z ) ( ( 1 + q Bz4 γz2 + q Bz5 γz ) ⋅λ k ⁄λ µy ) (154)
C t = q Cz1 (155)
D t = F z ( q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z ) ( R 0 ⁄F z0 ) ⋅λ t (156)

105
Tire Models
 2 
E t = ( q Ez1 + q Ez2 df z ) 1 + q Ez4 --- arc tan ( B t C t α t )  (157)
 π 
with E t ≤ 1
S Ht = q Hz1 + q Hz2 df z + ( q Hz3 + q Hz4 df z )γz (158)
Br = λ Kz ⁄λ µy (159)
D r = F z { ( q Dz6 + q Dz7 df z )λ r + ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z )γz } R 0 λ µy (160)
∂ Mz
= – tK y = F z ( q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z ) ( R 0 ⁄F z0 ) ( p Ky5 + p Ky6 df z )F z ⋅λ t λ Ky (161)
∂α
and the aligning stiffness for inclination is:
dM z
= ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z )R 0 F z λ µy (162)
dγ
Name used in tire

qBz4 QBZ4 Variation of slope Bpt with inclination
qBz5 QBZ5 Variation of slope Bpt with absolute inclination
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with inclination
qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of Dmr with inclination and load
106 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

qHz1 QHZ1 Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom
qHz2 QHZ2 Variation of shift Sht with load
qHz3 QHZ3 Variation of shift Sht with inclination
qHz4 QHZ4 Variation of shift Sht with inclination and load

PAC-TIME has two methods for calculating the combined slip forces and moments. If the user supplies


F x = F x0 ⋅G xα ( α , κ , F z ) (163)
with Gx α the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
α s = α + S Hxα (165)
with coefficients:
B xα = r Bx1 cos [ arc tan { r Bx2 κ } ] ⋅λ xα (166)
C xα = r Cx1 (167)
107
Tire Models
F xo
D xα = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (168)
S Hxα = r Hx1 (170)

G xα = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (171)
Name used in tire


F y = F y0 ⋅G yκ ( α , κ , γ, F z ) + S Vyκ (172)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the ' κ -induced' side force;
F y = D yκ cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ κ s – E yκ ( B xα κ s – arc tan ( B yκ κ s ) ) } ] + S Vyκ (173)
κ s = κ + S Hyκ (174)
B yκ = r By1 cos [ arc tan { r By2 ( α – r By3 ) } ] ⋅λ yκ (175)
C yκ = r Cy1 (176)
108 Adams/Tire
F yo
D yκ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (177)
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ S Hyκ – E yκ ( B xα S Hyκ – arc tan ( B yκ S Hyκ ) ) } ]
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ κ s – E yκ ( B xα κ s – arc tan ( B yκ κ s ) ) } ]

G yκ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (181)
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ S Hyκ – E yκ ( B xα S Hyκ – arc tan ( B yκ S Hyκ ) ) } ]
Name used in tire

rVy1 RVY1 Kappa induced side force SVyk/my·Fz at Fznom
rVy2 RVY2 Variation of SVyk/my·Fz with load
rVy3 RVY3 Variation of SVyk/my·Fz with inclination
rVy4 RVY4 Variation of SVyk/my·Fz with a
rVy5 RVY5 Variation of SVyk/my·Fz with k
rVy6 RVY6 Variation of SVyk/my·Fz with atan(k)

M' z = – t ⋅F' y + M zr + s ⋅F x (182)
with:
t = t ( α t, eq ) (183)
109
Tire Models
= D t cos [ C t arc tan { B t α t, eq – E t ( B t α t, eq – arc tan ( B t α t, eq ) ) } ] cos ( α ) (184)
F' y, γ = 0 = F y – S Vyκ (185)
t = t ( α t, eq )
with the arguments:
2 K x2
α t, eq = arc tan tan α t + ------ 2
K y κ ⋅ sgn ( α t ) (187)
2 Kx 2
α r, eq = arc tan tan α r + ------ κ 2 ⋅ sgn ( α r ) (188)
K y
Name used in tire

ssz1 SSZ1 Nominal value of s/R0 effect of Fx on Mz
ssz2 SSZ2 Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
ssz3 SSZ3 Variation of distance s/R0 with inclination
ssz4 SSZ4 Variation of distance s/R0 with load and inclination

 Fy 
M x = R o ⋅F z ⋅q sx1 λ VMx – q sx2 + q sx3 ⋅--------  λ Mx (189)
 F z0 
Name used in tire

qsx1 QSX1 Lateral force induced overturning couple
qsx2 QSX2 Inclination induced overturning couple
qsx3 QSX3 Fy induced overturning couple
110 Adams/Tire

M y = R o ⋅F z ⋅{ q Sy1 + q Sy2 F x ⁄F z0 + q Sy3 V x ⁄( V ref ) q Sy4 ( V x ⁄V ref ) 4 } (190)
Name used in tire

qsy1 QSY1 Rolling resistance moment coefficient
qsy2 QSY2 Rolling resistance moment depending on Fx
qsy3 QSY3 Rolling resistance moment depending on speed
qsy4 QSY4 Rolling resistance moment depending on speed^4

S Vx
κ c = κ + S Hx + ---------
Kx
S Vy
α c = α + S Hy + ---------
Ky
α ∗ = sin ( α c )
 κc 
β = acos -------------------------
 κ 2 + α ∗ 2
c
F x, 0 – S Vx F y, 0 – S Vy
µx, act = ------------------------- µy, act = -------------------------
Fz Fz
Dx Dy
µx, max = ------ µy, max = ------
Fz Fz
111
Tire Models
1
µx = ---------------------------------------------------------
1 2 ---------------
------------- tan β -2
+
tan β
µy = ---------------------------------------------------------
1 -2 -------------
--------------- tan β 2
+
µx µy
F x = ------------- F x, 0 F y = ------------- F y, 0
µx, act µy, act
Transient Behavior in PAC-TIME

The previous Magic Formula equations are valid for steady-state tire behavior. When driving, however,
frequency behavior (up to 8 Hz) is called transient behavior.
For accurate transient tire behavior, you can use the stretched string tire model (see reference [1]). The
tire belt is modeled as stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral (and longitudinal)
springs. Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior shows a top-view of the string model. When
rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed). Therefore,
a lateral deflection of the string arises that depends on the slip angle size and the history of the lateral
deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
112 Adams/Tire
v1
1 dv 1 -----
------ + - = tan ( α ) + aφ (191)
Vx d t σα
dv 1
σα + V x v 1 = σ α V sy (192)
dt
113
Tire Models
du 1
σx + V x u 1 = – σ x V sx (193)
dt
σ x = F z ⋅( p Tx1 + p Tx2 df z ) ⋅ exp ( p Tx3 df z ) ⋅( R 0 ⁄F z0 )λ σκ (194)
 Fz 
σ α = p Ty1 F z0 sin p Ky4 arc tan -----------------------------  ⋅( 1 – p Ky3 γ2 ) ⋅R 0 λ F z0 λ σ α (195)
p Ty2 F z0 λ Fz0 
Now the practical slip quantities, κ' and α' , are defined based on the tire deformation:
u1
κ' = ------ sin ( V x ) (196)
σx
v
α' = atan -----1- (197)
σ α 
Using these practical slip quantities, κ' and α' , the Magic Formula equations can be used to calculate
F x = F x ( α', κ', F z ) (198)
F y = F y ( α', κ', γ, F z ) (199)
M z = M z ( α', κ', γ, F z ) (200)
Gyroscopic Couple in PAC-TIME

dv
M z, gyr = c gyr m belt V r1 cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] (201)
dt
with the parameters (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
and:
114 Adams/Tire
cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] = 1 (203)
M z = M z' + M z, gyr
Name used in tire

pTx3 PTX3 Variation of longitudinal relaxation length with exponent
of load

A tire property file with the parameters for the model results from testing with a tire that is mounted in a
tire test bench comparable either to the left or the right side of a vehicle. If these coefficients are used for
both the left and the right side of the vehicle model, the vehicle does not drive straight at zero steering
wheel angle.
If this keyword is available, Adams/Car corrects for the conicity, plysteer, and asymmetry when using a
tire property file on the opposite side of the vehicle. In fact, the tire characteristics are mirrored with
respect to slip angle zero. In Adams/View, this option can only be used when the tire is generated by the
graphical user interface: select Build -> Forces -> Special Force: Tire, as shown in the figure below.
115
Tire Models
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also set SYMMETRIC: then the tire
characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right side
corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets). Also, when you set the tire property file to
USE_MODES of PAC-TIME: from Simple to Complex

The parameter USE_MODE in the tire property file allows you to switch the output of the PAC-TIME
tire model from very simple (that is, steady-state cornering) to complex (transient combined cornering
and braking).
116 Adams/Tire
The options for the USE_MODE and the output of the model have been listed in the table below.
USE_MODE Values of PAC-TIME and Related Tire Model Output
PAC-TIME output
USE_MODE: State: Slip conditions: (forces and moments):
0 Steady state Acts as a vertical spring and 0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
damper
1 Steady state Pure longitudinal slip Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0
2 Steady state Pure lateral (cornering) slip 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
3 Steady state Longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)
4 Steady state Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
11 Transient Pure longitudinal slip Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0
12 Transient Pure lateral (cornering) slip 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
13 Transient Longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)
14 Transient Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz

Because PAC-TIME uses an empirical approach to describe tire - road interaction forces, incorrect
Rolling Resistance
For a realistic rolling resistance, the parameter qsy1 must be positive. For car tires, it can be in the order
of 0.006 - 0.01 (0.6% - 1.0%).
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
QSY1 = 0.01
QSY2 = 0
QSY3 = 0
117
Tire Models
QSY4 = 0

Camber stiffness has been explicitly defined in PAC-TIME, so camber stiffness can be easily checked
by the tire model parameters itself, see the table, Checklist for PAC-TIME Parameters and Properties,
below. For car tires, positive inclination should result in a negative lateral force at zero slip angle (see
Effect of Positive Camber on the Lateral Force in TYDEX W-axis (ISO) System below). If positive
inclination results in an increase of the lateral force, the coefficient may not be valid for the ISO, but for
the SAE coordinate system. Note that PAC-TIME only uses coefficients for the TYDEX W-axis (ISO)
system.
The following table lists further checks on the PAC-TIME parameters.

Checklist for PAC-TIME Parameters and Properties

LONGVL 1 m/s Reference velocity at which parameters are measured
VXLOW Approximately 1 m/s Threshold for scaling down forces and moments
Dx >0 Peak friction (see equation (22))
118 Adams/Tire

pDx1/pDx2 <0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Kx >0 Long slip stiffness (see equation (25))
Dy >0 Peak friction (see equation (34))
pDy1/pDy2 <0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Ky <0 Cornering stiffness (see equation (37a))
Kg <0 Camber stiffness (see equation (37b))
qsy1 >0 Rolling resistance, in the range of 0.005 - 0.015

$------------------------------------------------------
long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN
= -1.5
KPUMAX
= 1.5
$-----------------------------------------------------
slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN
= -1.5708
ALPMAX
= 1.5708
$-----------------------------------------------
CAMMIN
= -0.26181
CAMMAX
= 0.26181
$-------------------------------------------------
FZMIN
= 225
FZMAX
= 10125
119
Tire Models
model is performed with the minimum or maximum value of this range to avoid non-realistic tire
Standard Tire Interface (STI) for PAC-TIME

Adams/Solver, below is a brief background of the STI history (see reference [4]).
purposes. For most vehicle dynamics studies, people previously developed their own tire models.
Because all car manufacturers and their tire suppliers have the same goal (that is, development of tires
to improve dynamic safety of the vehicle), it aimed for standardization in the tire behavior description.
Definitions
• General
• Tire Kinematics
• Slip Quantities
120 Adams/Tire
General
General Definitions
Term: Definition:
Road tangent plane Plane with the normal unit vector (tangent to the road) in the tire-road contact
point C.
C-axis system Coordinate system mounted on the wheel carrier at the wheel center according to
TYDEX, ISO orientation.
Wheel plane The plane in the wheel center that is formed by the wheel when considered a rigid
disc with zero width.
Contact point C Contact point between tire and road, defined as the intersection of the wheel
plane and the projection of the wheel axis onto the road plane.
W-axis system Coordinate system at the tire contact point C, according to TYDEX, ISO
orientation.
Tire Kinematics

ρd Dimensionless radial tire deflection [-]
ρ Fz0 Radial tire deflection at nominal load [m]
ω Rotational velocity of the wheel [rads-1]
Slip Quantities

121
Tire Models

Vy Lateral speed of tire contact center [ms-1]
α Slip angle [rad]
Forces and Moments


References
5. J.J.M. van Oosten, E. Kuiper, G. Leister, D. Bode, H. Schindler, J. Tischleder, S. Köhne,A new
tyre model for TIME measurement data,Tire Technology Expo 2003, Hannover.
Example of PAC-TIME Tire Property File

[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE
='tir'
122 Adams/Tire
FILE_VERSION
=3.0
FILE_FORMAT
='ASCII'
! : TIRE_VERSION :
PAC-TIME
! : COMMENT :
Tire
205/55 R16 90H
! : COMMENT :
Manufacturer
Continental
! : COMMENT :
Nom. section with
(m)
0.205
! : COMMENT :
Nom. aspect ratio
(-)
55
! : COMMENT :
Infl. pressure
(Pa)
250000
! : COMMENT :
Rim radius
(m)
0.2032
! : COMMENT :
Measurement ID
! : COMMENT :
Test speed
(m/s)
11.11
! : COMMENT :
Road surface
! : COMMENT :
Road condition
! : FILE_FORMAT :
ASCII
! : Copyright MSC.Software, Thu Oct 14 13:52:26 2004
!
! 1: Fx,My only
! 2: Fy,Mx,Mz only
123
Tire Models

!
! -mirrored tyre characteristics
!
$----------------------------------------------------------------
units
[UNITS]
LENGTH
='meter'
FORCE
='newton'
ANGLE
='radians'
MASS
='kg'
TIME
='second'
$----------------------------------------------------------------
model
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT
='PAC-TIME'
USE_MODE
= 14
VXLOW
= 2
LONGVL
= 30
$Measurement speed
TYRESIDE
= 'LEFT'
$-----------------------------------------------------------
dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 0.317
$Free tyre radius
WIDTH
= 0.205
$Nominal section width of the tyre
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.55
$Nominal aspect ratio
RIM_RADIUS
= 0.203
124 Adams/Tire
$Nominal rim radius
RIM_WIDTH
= 0.165
$Rim width
$----------------------------------------------------------------
shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.0
$-----------------------------------------------------------
load_curve
{pen
fz}
0.000
0.0
0.001
212.0
0.002
428.0
0.003
648.0
0.005
1100.0
0.010
2300.0
0.020
5000.0
0.030
8100.0
$------------------------------------------------------------
parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
= 2.648e+005
$Tyre vertical stiffness
VERTICAL_DAMPING
= 500
$Tyre vertical damping
BREFF
= 4.90
125
Tire Models
$Low load stiffness e.r.r.
DREFF
= 0.41
$Peak value of e.r.r.
FREFF
= 0.09
$High load stiffness e.r.r.
FNOMIN
= 4704
$Nominal wheel load

$------------------------------------------------------
long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN
= -1.5
KPUMAX
= 1.5
$-----------------------------------------------------
slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN
= -1.5708
ALPMAX
= 1.5708
$-----------------------------------------------
CAMMIN
= -0.26181
CAMMAX
= 0.26181
$-------------------------------------------------
FZMIN
= 140
126 Adams/Tire
FZMAX
= 10800
$--------------------------------------------------------------
scaling
LFZO
= 1
$Scale factor of nominal load
LCX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx shape factor
LMUX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
LEX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx curvature factor
LKX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness
LHX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
LVX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx vertical shift
LGAX
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fx
LCY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy shape factor
LMUY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient
LEY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
LKY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
127
Tire Models
LHY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
LVY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
LGAY
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fy
LKC
= 1
$Scale factor of camber stiffness
LTR
= 1
$Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic trail
LRES
= 1
$Scale factor of Peak of residual torque
LGAZ
= 1
$Scale factor of camber torque stiffness
LXAL
= 1
LYKA
= 1
$Scale factor of kappa influence on Fy
LVYKA
= 1
$Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
LS
= 1
$Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx
LSGKP
= 1
LSGAL
= 1
LGYR
128 Adams/Tire
= 1
$Scale factor of gyroscopic torque
LMX
= 1
$Scale factor of overturning couple
LVMX
= 1
$Scale factor of Mx vertical shift
LMY
= 1
$Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
$---------------------------------------------------------
longitudinal
PCX1
= 1.3178
$Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force
PDX1
= 1.0455
$Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
PDX2
= 0.063954
$Variation of friction Mux with load
PDX3
= 0
PEX1
= 0.15798
$Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
PEX2
= 0.41141
$Variation of curvature Efx with load
PEX3
= 0.1487
PEX4
= 3.0004
$Factor in curvature Efx while driving
PKX1
= 23.181
129
Tire Models
PKX2
= -0.037391
$Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PKX3
= 0.80348
PHX1
= -0.00058264
$Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
PHX2
= -0.0037992
$Variation of shift Shx with load
PVX1
= 0.045118
$Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
PVX2
= 0.058244
$Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
RBX1
= 13.276
RBX2
= -13.778
$Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa
RCX1
= 1.0
REX1
= 0
$Curvature factor of combined Fx
REX2
= 0
$Curvature factor of combined Fx with load
RHX1
= 0
$Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction
PTX1
= 0.85683
$Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
PTX2
= 0.00011176
130 Adams/Tire
$Variation of SigKap0/Fz with load
PTX3
= -1.3131
$Variation of SigKap0/Fz with exponent of load
$----------------------------------------------------------
overturning
[OVERTURNING_COEFFICIENTS]QSX1
= 0
$Lateral force induced overturning moment
QSX2
= 0
$Camber induced overturning moment
QSX3
= 0
$Fy induced overturning moment
$--------------------------------------------------------------
lateral
PCY1
= 1.18
$Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces
PDY1
= 0.90312
$Lateral friction Muy
PDY2
= -0.17023
$Exponent lateral friction Muy
PDY3
= -0.76512
$Variation of friction Muy with squared camber
PEY1
= -0.57264
$Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom
PEY2
= -0.13945
$Variation of curvature Efy with load
PEY3
= 0.030873
$Zero order camber dependency of curvature Efy
PEY4
= 0
131
Tire Models
PKY1
= -25.128
$Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom
PKY2
= 3.2018
$Load with peak of cornering stiffness
PKY3
= 0
$Variation with camber squared of cornering
stiffness
PKY4
= 1.9998
$Shape factor for cornering stiffness with load
PKY5
= -0.50726
$Camber stiffness/Fznom
PKY6
= 0
$Camber stiffness depending on Fz squared
PHY1
= 0.0031414
$Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom
PHY2
= 0
$Variation of shift Shy with load
PVY1
= 0.0068801
$Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
PVY2
= -0.0051
$Variation of shift Shv with load
RBY1
= 7.1433
$Slope factor for combined Fy reduction
RBY2
= 9.1916
RBY3
= -0.027856
$Shift term for alpha in slope Fy reduction
132 Adams/Tire
RCY1
= 1.0
$Shape factor for combined Fy reduction
REY1
= 0
$Curvature factor of combined Fy
REY2
= 0
$Curvature factor of combined Fy with load
RHY1
= 0
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
RHY2
= 0
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load
RVY1
= 0
$Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
RVY2
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
RVY3
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber
RVY4
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
RVY5
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
RVY6
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa)
PTY1
= 4.1114
$Peak value of relaxation length SigAlp0/R0
PTY2
= 6.1149
$Value of Fz/Fznom where SigAlp0 is extreme
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
133
Tire Models
QSY1
= 0.01
$Rolling resistance torque coefficient
QSY2
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on Fx
QSY3
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on speed
QSY4
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on speed^4
$-------------------------------------------------------------
aligning
QBZ1
= 5.6241
QBZ2
= -2.2687
$Variation of slope Bpt with load
QBZ4
= 6.891
$Variation of slope Bpt with camber
QBZ5
= -0.35587
QCZ1
= 1.0904
$Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail
QDZ1
= 0.082871
$Peak trail Dpt = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
QDZ2
= -0.012677
$Variation of peak Dpt with load
QDZ6
= 0.00038069
$Peak residual torque Dmr = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
QDZ7
= 0.00075331
134 Adams/Tire
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with load
QDZ8
= -0.083385
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber
QDZ9
= 0
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber and load
QEZ1
= -34.759
$Trail curvature Ept at Fznom
QEZ2
= -37.828
QEZ4
= 0.59942
$Variation of curvature Ept with sign of Alpha-t
QHZ1
= 0.0025743
$Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom
QHZ2
= -0.0012175
$Variation of shift Sht with load
QHZ3
= 0.038299
$Variation of shift Sht with camber
QHZ4
= 0.044776
$Variation of shift Sht with camber and load
SSZ1
= 0.0097546
$Nominal value of s/R0: effect of Fx on Mz
SSZ2
= 0.0043624
$Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
SSZ3
= 0
$Variation of distance s/R0 with camber
SSZ4
= 0
$Variation of distance s/R0 with load and camber
135
Tire Models
QTZ1
= 0
$Gyroscopic torque constant
MBELT
= 0
$Belt mass of the wheel -kg-
Contact Methods
The PAC-TIME model supports the following roads:
Note that the PAC-TIME model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the wavelength
of road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model. In addition, the
contact force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore, the contact point does
not generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such as a cleat or pothole.
For ride and comfort analyses, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.
136 Adams/Tire
Using Pacejka '89 and '94 Models

Adams/Tire provides you with the handling force models, Pacejka '89 and Pacejka '94.
• About Pacejka '89 and '94
• Using Pacejka '89 Handling Force Model
• Using Pacejka '94 Handling Force Model
• Combined Slip
• Contact Methods
About Pacejka '89 and '94
The Pacejka '89 and '94 handling models are special versions of the Magic-Formula Tyre model as cited
in the following publications:
• Pacejka '89 - H.B Pacejka, E. Bakker, and L. Lidner. A New Tire Model with an Application in
Vehicle Dynamics Studies, SAE paper 890087, 1989.
• Pacejka '94 - H.B Pacejka and E. Bakker. The Magic Formula Tyre Model. Proceedings of the
1st International Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis, Swets &
Zeitlinger B.V., Amsterdam/Lisse, 1993.
PAC2002 is technically superior, continuously kept up to date with latest Magic Formula developments,
and MSC’s recommended handling model. However, because many Adams/Tire users have pre-existing
tire data or new data from tire suppliers and testing organizations in a format that is compatible with the
Pacejka '89 and '94 models, the Adams/Tire Handling module includes these models in addition to the
PAC2002.
The material in this help is intended to illustrate only the formulas used in the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire
models. For general information on the PAC2002 and the Magic Formula method, see the papers cited
above or the PAC2002 help.
• History of the Pacejka Name in Adams/Tire
• About Coordinate Systems
• Normal Force
History of the Pacejka Name in Adams/Tire

The formulas used in the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models are derived from publications by Dr. H.B.
Pacejka, and are commonly referred to as the Pacejka method in the automotive industry. Dr. Pacejka
himself is not personally associated with the development of these tire models, nor does he endorse them
in any way.
About Coordinate Systems

The coordinate systems used in tire modeling and measurement are sometimes confusing. The coordinate
systems employed in the Pacejka ’89 and ’94 tire models are no exception. They are derived from the
tire-measurement systems that the majority of Adams/Tire customers were using at the time when the
models were originally developed.
137
Tire Models
The Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models were developed before the implementation of the TYDEX STI. As
a result, Pacejka ’89 conforms to a modified SAE-based tire coordinate system and sign conventions,
and Pacejka ’94 conforms to the standard SAE tire coordinate system and sign conventions. MSC
maintains these conventions to ensure file compatibility for Adams/Tire customers.
Future tire models will adhere to one single coordinate system standard, the TYDEX C-axis and W-axis
system. For more information on the TYDEX standard, see Standard Tire Interface (STI).
Normal Force
The normal force Fz is calculated assuming a linear spring (stiffness: kz) and damper (damping constant
·
cz), so the next equation holds: F z = kz ρ + cz ρ
·
If the tire loses contact with the road, the tire deflection ρ and deflection velocity ρ become zero, so the
resulting normal force Fzwill also be zero. For very small positive tire deflections, the value of the
damping constant is reduced and care is taken to ensure that the normal force Fz will not become
negative.
In stead of the linear vertical tire stiffness cz , also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE], see also the example tire
property files, Example of Pacejka ’89 Property File and Example of Pacejka ’94 Property File. If a
section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datapoints with a cubic
spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of the tire. Note that
you must specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property, but it does not play any role.

Slip Quantities at combined cornering and braking/traction
wheel rotational velocity Ω, and the loaded rolling radius Rl:
138 Adams/Tire
V sx = V x – ΩR l
V sy = V y
V sx V sy
κ = – -------- and tan α = ---------
Vx Vx
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle α is limited to 900 and the longitudinal slip κ in

system is used both for the longitudinal slip ? as the side slip angle, ?. Considering the tire belt as a
Stretched String Model for Transient Tire behavior
139
Tire Models
following differential equation is valid during braking slip:
1 dv v
------ --------1 + -----1- = tan α + aφ
V x dt σ α
can be transformed to:
dv 1
σ α -------- + V x v 1 = σ α V sy
dt
du 1
σ κ -------- + V x u 1 = – σ κ V sx
dt
u1
κ' = ------ sgn ( V x )
σκ
v1
α' = atan ------
σ α 
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are estimated with the longitudinal and lateral stiffness of
the non-rolling tire:
BCD x BCD y
σ κ = -------------------------------------------------------- and σ α = -------------------------------------------
longitudinal_stiffness lateral_stiffness
For BCDx and BCDy see section Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka '89 or '94.
In case the longitudinal stiffness is not available in the tire property file the longitudinal stiffness is
estimated with:
140 Adams/Tire
longitudinal_stiffness = 4 × lateral_stiffness
Using Pacejka '89 Handling Force Model
Learn about the Pacejka '89 handling force model:
• Using Correct Coordinate System and Units
• Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka ’89
• Example of Pacejka ’89 Property File
Using Correct Coordinate System and Units in Pacejka '89

The test data and resulting coefficients that come from the Pacejka '89 tire model conform to a modified
SAE tire coordinate system. The standard SAE tire coordinate system is shown next and the modified
sign conventions for Pacejka '89 are described in the table below.
Note: The section [UNITS] in the tire property file does not apply to the Magic Formula
coefficients.
SAE Tire Coordinate System

141
Tire Models
Conventions for Naming Variables
Variable name and abbreviation: Description:

Normal load Fz (kN) Positive when the tire is penetrating the
road.*
Lateral force Fy (N) Positive in a right turn.
Negative in a left turn.
Longitudinal force Fx (N) Positive during traction.
Negative during braking.
Self-aligning torque Mz (Nm) Positive in a left turn.
Negative in a right turn.
Inclination angle γ (deg) Positive when the top of the tire tilts to the
right (when viewing the tire from the
rear).*
Sideslip angle α (deg) Positive in a right turn.*
Longitudinal slip κ (%) Negative in braking (-100%: wheel lock).
Positive in traction.
* Opposite convention to standard SAE coordinate system shown in SAE Tire Coordinate System.
Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka '89

• Longitudinal Force for Pacejka '89
• Lateral Force
• Self-Aligning Torque
• Overturning Moment
• Smoothing
Longitudinal Force for Pacejka '89

C - Shape Factor
C=B0
D - Peak Factor
D=(B1*FZ2+B2*FZ)
BCD
BCD=(B3*FZ2+B4*FZ)*EXP(-B5*FZ)
B - Stiffness Factor
B=BCD/(C*D)
142 Adams/Tire
Horizontal Shift
Sh=B9*FZ+B10
Vertical Shift
Sv=0.0
Composite
X1=(k+Sh)
E Curvature Factor
E=(B6*FZ2+B7*FZ+B8)
FX Equation
FX=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Longitudinal Force
Parameters: Description:
B0 Shape factor
B1, B2 Peak factor
B3, B4, B5 BCD calculation
B6, B,7 B8 Curvature factor
B9, B10 Horizontal shift
Example Longitudinal Force Plot for Pacejka ’89

143
Tire Models
Lateral Force for Pacejka '89

C - Shape Factor
C=A0
D - Peak Factor
D=(A1*FZ2+A2*FZ)
BCD
BCD=A3*SIN(ATAN(FZ/A4)*2.0)*(1.0-A5*ABS(g))
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=A9*FZ+A10+A8*g
Vertical Shift
Sv=A11*FZ*g+A12*FZ+A13
Composite
X1=(a+Sh)
E - Curvature Factor
E=(A6*FZ+A7)
144 Adams/Tire
FY Equation
FY=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Lateral Force
A0 Shape factor
A1, A2 Peak factor
A3, A4, A5 BCD calculation
A6, A7 Curvature factor
A8, A9, A10 Horizontal shift
A11, A12, A13 Vertical shift
Example Lateral Force Plot for Pacejka ’89
Self-Aligning Torque
C - Shape Factor
C=C0
D - Peak Factor
145
Tire Models
D=(C1*FZ2+C2*FZ)
BCD
BCD=(C3*FZ2+C4*FZ)*(1-C6*ABS(g))*EXP(-C5*FZ)
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=C11*g+C12*FZ+C13
Vertical Shift
Sv= (C14*FZ2+C15*FZ)*g+C16*FZ+C17
Composite
X1=(a+Sh)
E=(C7*FZ2+C8*FZ+C9)*(1.0-C10*ABS(g))
MZ Equation
MZ=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Self-Aligning Torque
C0 Shape factor
C1, C2 Peak factor
C3, C4, C5, C6 BCD calculation
C7, C8, C9, C10 Curvature factor
C11, C12, C13 Horizontal shift
C14, C15, C16, C17 Vertical shift
Example Self-Aligning Torque Plot for Pacejka ’89

146 Adams/Tire
Overturning Moment
The lateral stiffness is used to calculate an approximate lateral deflection of the contact patch when there
is a lateral force present:
deflection = Fy / lateral_stiffness
This deflection, in turn, is used to calculate an overturning moment due to the vertical force:
Mx (overturning moment) = -Fz * deflection
And an incremental aligning torque due to longtiudinal force (Fx)
Mz = Mz,Magic Formula + Fx * deflection
Here Mz,Magic Formula is the magic formula for aligning torque and Fx * deflection is the contribution
due to the longitudinal force.
Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance moment My is opposite to the wheel angular velocity. The magnitude is given by:
My = Fz * Lrad * rolling_resistance
Where Fz equals the vertical force and Lrad is the tyre loaded radius. The rolling resistance coefficient
can be entered in the tire property file:
[PARAMETER]
A value of 0.01 introduces a rolling resistance force that is 1% of the vertical load.
147
Tire Models
Smoothing
When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of use mode in the tire property file, Adams/Tire
smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation. The longitudinal force,
lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See STEP in the
Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force
FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force
FLat = S*FLat
Overturning Moment
Mx = S*Mx
Rolling resistance moment
My = S*My
Aligning Torque
Mz = S*Mz
• USE_MODE = 1 or 2, smoothing is off
• USE_MODE = 3 or 4, smoothing is on
Example of Pacejka '89 Property File

$-------------------------------------------------------------
MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 2.0
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------UNITS
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'radians'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------MODEL
148 Adams/Tire
[MODEL]
! use mode 123411121314
! -------------------------------------------------------------------
-----
! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient X X X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'PAC89'
USE_MODE = 12.0
TYRESIDE = 'LEFT'
$-------------------------------------------------------------
DIMENSION
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 245.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.35
$-------------------------------------------------------------
PARAMETER
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 310.0
LATERAL_STIFFNESS = 190.0
$--------------------------------------------------------------------
-LOAD_CURVE
{pen fz}
0 0.0
1 212.0
2 428.0
3 648.0
5 1100.0
10 2300.0
20 5000.0
30 8100.0
$-------------------------------------------------------------
LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS
a0 = 1.65000
a1 = -34.0
a2 = 1250.00
a3 = 3036.00
a4 = 12.80
a5 = 0.00501
a6 = -0.02103
a7 = 0.77394
a8 = 0.0022890
a9 = 0.013442
a10 = 0.003709
a11 = 19.1656
a12 = 1.21356
149
Tire Models
a13 = 6.26206
$-------------------------------------------------------------
longitudinal
b0 = 1.67272
b1 = -9.46000
b2 = 1490.00
b3 = 30.000
b4 = 176.000
b5 = 0.08860
b6 = 0.00402
b7 = -0.06150
b8 = 0.20000
b9 = 0.02990
b10 = -0.17600
$-------------------------------------------------------------
aligning
c0 = 2.34000
c1 = 1.4950
c2 = 6.416654
c3 = -3.57403
c4 = -0.087737
c5 = 0.098410
c6 = 0.0027699
c7 = -0.0001151
c8 = 0.1000
c9 = -1.33329
c10 = 0.025501
c11 = -0.02357
c12 = 0.03027
c13 = -0.0647
c14 = 0.0211329
c15 = 0.89469
c16 = -0.099443
c17 = -3.336941
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.2
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.5
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.7
1.0 0.8
1.0 0.85
1.0 0.9
0.9 1.0
Using Pacejka '94 Handling Force Model

Learn about the Pacejka '94 handling force model:
150 Adams/Tire
• Using Correct Coordinate System and Units

• Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka ’94
• Example of Pacejka ’94 Property File
Using Correct Coordinate System and Units in Pacejka '94

The test data and resulting coefficients that come from the Pacejka '94 tire model conform to the standard
SAE tire coordinate system. The standard SAE coordinates are shown in SAE Tire Coordinate System.
(See also About Coordinate Systems.) The corresponding sign conventions for Pacejka '94 are described
next
Note: The section [UNITS] in the tire property file does not apply to the Magic Formula
coefficients.
Conventions for Naming Variables
Variable name and abbreviation: Description:

Normal load Fz (kN) Positive when the tire is penetrating the road.
Lateral force Fy (N) Positive in a right turn.
Negative in a left turn.
Longitudinal force Fx (N) Positive during traction.
Negative during braking.
Self-aligning torque Mz (Nm) Positive in a left turn.
Negative in a right turn.
Inclination angle γ(deg) Positive when the top of the tire tilts to the right
(when viewing the tire from the rear).
Sideslip angle α (deg) Positive in a left turn.
Longitudinal slip κ (%) Negative in braking (-100%: wheel lock).
Positive in traction.
Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka '94

• Longitudinal Force for Pacejka '94
• Lateral Force for Pacejka '94
• Self-Aligning Torque
• Overturning Moment
• Smoothing
151
Tire Models
Longitudinal Force for Pacejka '94

C - Shape Factor
C=B0
D - Peak Factor
D=(B1*FZ2+B2*FZ) * DLON
BCD
BCD=((B3*FZ2+B4*FZ)*EXP(-B5*FZ)) * BCDLON
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=B9*Fz+B10
Vertical Shift
Sv=B11*FZ+B12
Composite
X1=(k+Sh)
E Curvature Factor
E=((B6*FZ+B7)*FZ+B8)*(1-(B13*SIGN(1,X1))))
FX Equation
FX=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Longitudinal Force
B0 Shape factor
B1, B2 Peak factor
B3, B4, B5 BCD calculation
B6, B7, B8, B13 Curvature factor
B9, B10 Horizontal shift
B11, B12 Vertical shift
DLON, BCDLON Scale factor
Lateral Force for Pacejka '94

C - Shape Factor
C=A0
152 Adams/Tire
D - Peak Factor
D=((A1*FZ+A2) *(1-A15* γ2)*FZ) * DLAT

BCD
BCD=(A3*SIN(ATAN(FZ/A4)*2.0)*(1-A5*ABS( γ)))* BCDLAT

B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=A8*FZ+A9+A10* γ
Vertical Shift
Sv=A11*FZ+A12+(A13*FZ2+A14*FZ)* γ
Composite
X1=(a+Sh)
E=(A6*FZ+A7)*(1-(((A16*g)+A17)*SIGN(1,X1))))
FY Equation
FY=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Lateral Force
A0 Shape factor
A1, A2, A15 Peak factor
A3, A4, A5 BCD calculation
A6, A7, A16, A17 Curvature factor
A8, A9, A10 Horizontal shift
A11, A12, A13, A14 Vertical shift
DLAT, BCDLAT Scale factor
Self-Aligning Torque for Pacejka '94

C - Shape Factor
C=C0
D - Peak Factor
153
Tire Models
D=(C1*FZ2+C2*FZ)*(1-C18* γ2)
BCD
BCD=(C3*FZ2+C4*FZ)*(1-(C6*ABS(g)))*EXP(-C5*FZ)
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=C11*FZ+C12+C13* γ
Vertical Shift
Sv=C14*FZ+C15+(C16*FZ2+C17*FZ)* γ
Composite
X1=( α +Sh)
E=(((C7*FZ2)+(C8*FZ)+C9)*(1-(((C19* γ)+C20)*SIGN(1,X1))))/(1-(C10*ABS( γ)))

MZ Equation
MZ=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Self-Aligning Torque
C0 Shape factor
C1, C2, C18 Peak factor
C3, C4, C5, C6 BCD calculation
C7, C8, C9, C19, C20 Curvature factor
C11, C12, C13 Horizontal shift
C14, C15, C16, C17 Vertical shift
Overturning Moment
The lateral stiffness is used to calculate an approximate lateral deflection of the contact patch when there
is a lateral force present:
deflection = Fy / lateral_stiffness
This deflection, in turn, is used to calculate an overturning moment due to the vertical force:
Mx (overturning moment) = -Fz * deflection
154 Adams/Tire
And an incremental aligning torque due to longtiudinal force (Fx):

Mz = Mz,Magic Formula + Fx * deflection
Here Mz,Magic Formula is the magic formula for aligning torque and Fx * deflection is the contribution
due to the longitudinal force.
Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance moment My is opposite to the wheel angular velocity. The magnitude is given by:
My = Fz * Lrad * rolling_resistance
Where Fz equals the vertical force and Lrad is the tyre loaded radius. The rolling resistance coefficient
can be entered in the tire property file:
[PARAMETER]
A value of 0.01 will introduce a rolling resistance force, which is 1% of the vertical load.
Smoothing
Adams/Tire smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation. The
longitudinal force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See
STEP in the Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force
FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force
FLat = S*FLat
Overturning Moment
Mx = S*Mx
Rolling resistance moment
My = S*My
Aligning Torque
Mz = S*Mz
• USE_MODE = 1 or 2, smoothing is off
• USE_MODE = 3 or 4, smoothing is on
Example of Pacejka '94 Property File

!:FILE_TYPE: tir
!:FILE_VERSION: 2
155
Tire Models
!:TIRE_VERSION: PAC94
!:COMMENT: New File Format v2.1
!:FILE_FORMAT: ASCII
!:TIMESTAMP: 1996/02/15,13:22:12
!:USER: ncos
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'inch'
FORCE = 'pound_force'
ANGLE = 'radians'
MASS = 'pound_mass'
TIME = 'second'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12341234
! ------------------------------------------------------------------
------
! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient X X X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'PAC94'
USE_MODE = 12.0
TYRESIDE = 'LEFT'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
-dimensions
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 10.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.30
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
--parameter
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 2500
LATERAL_STIFFNESS = 1210.0
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
--load_curve
$ Maximum of 100 points (optional)
{pen fz}
0.000 0
0.039 943
0.079 1904
0.118 2882
0.197 4893
0.394 10231
0.787 22241
1.181 36031
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
----scaling
156 Adams/Tire
DLAT = 0.10000E+01
DLON = 0.10000E+01
BCDLAT = 0.10000E+01
BCDLON = 0.10000E+01
$--------------------------------------------------------------------
---lateral
A0 = 1.5535430E+00
A1 = -1.2854474E+01
A2 = -1.1133711E+03
A3 = -4.4104698E+03
A4 = -1.2518279E+01
A5 = -2.4000120E-03
A6 = 6.5642332E-02
A7 = 2.0865589E-01
A8 = -1.5717978E-02
A9 = 5.8287762E-02
A10 = -9.2761963E-02
A11 = 1.8649096E+01
A12 = -1.8642199E+02
A13 = 1.3462023E+00
A14 = -2.0845180E-01
A15 = 2.3183540E-03
A16 = 6.6483573E-01
A17 = 3.5017404E-01
$----------------------------------------------------------------
longitudinal
B0 = 1.4900000E+00
B1 = -2.8808998E+01
B2 = -1.4016957E+03
B3 = 1.0133759E+02
B4 = -1.7259867E+02
B5 = -6.1757933E-02
B6 = 1.5667623E-02
B7 = 1.8554619E-01
B8 = 1.0000000E+00
B9 = 0.0000000E+00
B10 = 0.0000000E+00
B11 = 0.0000000E+00
B12 = 0.0000000E+00
B13 = 0.0000000E+00
$--------------------------------------------------------------------
-aligning
C0 = 2.2300000E+00
C1 = 3.1552342E+00
C2 = -7.1338826E-01
C3 = 8.7134880E+00
C4 = 1.3411892E+01
C5 = -1.0375348E-01
C6 = -5.0880786E-03
C7 = -1.3726071E-02
157
Tire Models
C8 = -1.0000000E-01
C9 = -6.1144302E-01
C10 = 3.6187314E-02
C11 = -2.3679781E-03
C12 = 1.7324400E-01
C13 = -1.7680388E-02
C14 = -3.4007351E-01
C15 = -1.6418691E+00
C16 = 4.1322424E-01
C17 = -2.3573702E-01
C18 = 6.0754417E-03
C19 = -4.2525059E-01
C20 = -2.1503067E-01
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.2
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.5
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.7
1.0 0.8
1.0 0.85
1.0 0.9
0.9 1.0
Combined Slip of Pacejka '89 and '94

The combined slip calculation of the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models is identical. Note that the method
employed here is not part of the Magic Formula as developed by Professor Pacejka, but is an in-house
development of MSC.
Inputs:
• Dimensionless longitudinal slip k (range –1 to 1) and side slip angle a in radians
• Longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy calculated using the Magic Formula
• Horizontal/vertical shifts and peak values of the Magic Formula (Sh, Sv, D)
Output:
• Adjusted longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy to incorporate the reduction due to combined
slip:
κ * = κ + S hx
α * = α + S hy
SAG = sin ( α * )
158 Adams/Tire
 κ* 
β = arc cos ---------------------------------------
 ( κ * ) 2 + SAG 2
Friction coefficients:
F x – S vx F y – S vy
µx, act = -------------------- µy, act = --------------------
Fz Fz
Dx Dy
µx, max = ------ µy, max = ------
Fz Fz
1 tan β
µx = --------------------------------------------------------- µy = ------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 ---------------
------------- tan β -2 1 -2 ---------------
--------------- tan β -2
+ +
µx, act µy, max µx, max µy, max
Forces corrected for combined slip conditions:
µx µy
F x, comb = ------------- ( F x + S vx ) F y, comb = ------------- ( F y + S vy )
µx, act µy, act
Contact Methods
The Pacejka '89 and '94 models support the following roads:
• 2D roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
• 3D roads, see Adams/3D Road Model
These tire models use a one point of contact method; therefore, the wavelength of road obstacles must be
longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model.
159
Tire Models
Using the UA-Tire Model

Learn about using the University of Arizona (UA) tire model:
• Background Information
• Tire Model Parameters
• Force Evaluation
• Operating Mode: USE_MODE
• Tire Carcass Shape
• Property File Format Example
Background Information for UA-Tire

The University of Arizona tire model was originally developed by Drs. P.E. Nikravesh and G. Gim.
Reference documentation: G. Gim, Vehicle Dynamic Simulation with a Comprehensive Model for
Pneumatic Tires, PhD Thesis, University of Arizona, 1988. The UA-Tire model also includes relaxation
effects, both in the longitudinal and lateral direction.
The UA-Tire model calculates the forces at the ground contact point as a function of the tire kinematic
states, see Inputs and Output of the UA-Tire Model. A description of the inputs longitudinal slip k, side
slip a and camber angle γ can be found in About Tire Kinematic and Force Outputs. The tire
·
deflection ρ and deflection velocity ρ are determined using either a point follower or durability contact
model. For more information, see Road Models in Adams/Tire. A description of outputs, longitudinal
force Fx, lateral force Fy, normal force Fz, rolling resistance moment My and self aligning moment Mz
is given in About Tire Kinematic and Force Outputs. The required tire model parameters are described
in Tire Model Parameters.
Inputs and Output of the UA-Tire Model
160 Adams/Tire

161
Tire Models
The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the SAE-axis system is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx,
the wheel rotational velocity ω , and the effective rolling radius Re:
V sx = V x – ΩR e
V sy = V y
V sx V sy
κ = – -------- and tan α = ---------
Vx Vx
When the UA Tire is used for the force calculation the slip quantities during positive Vsx (driving) are
defined as:
V sx V sy
κ = – -------- and tan α = ---------
Vr Vr
Vr = Re Ω
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle α is limited to 45 degrees and the longitudinal slip Ss
(= κ ) in between -1 (locked wheel) and 1.

interaction forces in between the tire and the road. Often the tire dynamic response will have an
important role on the overall vehicle response. For modeling this so-called transient tire behavior, a first-
order system is used both for the longitudinal slip κ as the side slip angle, . Considering the tire belt as
a stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral spring, the lateral deflection of the belt can
162 Adams/Tire
v1
1 dv 1 -----
------ + - = tan ( α ) + aφ
Vx d t σα
dv 1
σα + V x v 1 = σ α V sy
dt
When the UA Tire is used for the force calculations, at positive Vsx (traction) the Vx should be replaced
by Vr in these differential equations.
163
Tire Models
dv 1
σx + V x v 1 = – σ α V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities, κ ’ and α ’, are defined based on the tire deformation:
u1
κ' = ------ – k Vlowx V sx sin ( V x )
σ κ 
v1
α' = atan ------ – k Vlowy v sy
σ α  
state tire behavior. kVlow_x and kVlow_y are the damping rates at low speed applied below the
LOW_SPEED_THRESHOLD speed. For the LOW_SPEED_DAMPING parameter in the tire property
file yields:
kVlow_x= 100 · kVlow_y= LOW_SPEED_DAMPING
Note: If the tire property file's REL_LEN_LON or REL_LEN_LAT = 0, then steady-state tire
behavior is calculated as tire response on change of the slip κ and α .

Definition of Tire Parameters
Name in tire
Symbol: property file: Units*: Description:
r1 UNLOADED_R L Tire unloaded radius
ADIUS
kz VERTICAL_STI F/L Vertical stiffness
FFNESS
cz VERTICAL_DA FT/L Vertical damping
MPING
Cr ROLLING_RES L Rolling resistance parameter
ISTANCE
∂ Fx
Cs CSLIP F Longitudinal slip stiffness,
∂ Fy ∂κ
Cα CALPHA F/A Cornering stiffness, κ=0
∂ F∂y α
Cγ CGAMMA F/A Camber stiffness, α =0
∂ γ γ= 0
UMIN UMIN - Minimum friction coefficient (Sg=1)
164 Adams/Tire
Name in tire
Symbol: property file: Units*: Description:
UMAX UMAX - Maximum friction coefficient (Ssg=0)
σx REL_LEN_LON L Relaxation length in longitudinal direction
σy REL_LEN_LAT L Relaxation length in lateral direction
* L=length, F=force, A=angle, T=time
Force Evaluation in UA-Tire

• Normal Force
• Slip Ratios
• Friction Coefficient
Normal Force
The normal force F z is calculated assuming a linear spring (stiffness: k z ) and damper (damping constant
c z ), so the next equation holds:
·
Fz = kz ρ + cz ρ
·
If the tire loses contact with the road, the tire deflection ρ and deflection velocity ρ become zero so the
resulting normal force F z will also be zero. For very small positive tire deflections the value of the
damping constant is reduced and care is taken to ensure that the normal force Fz will not become
negative.
In stead of the linear vertical tire stiffness cz , also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE], see also the Property File
Format Example. If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection
datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force
of the tire. Note that you must specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property file but it does not
play any role.
Slip Ratios
For the calculation of the slip forces and moments a number of slip ratios will be introduced:
Longitudinal Slip Ratio: Ss

The absolute value of longitudinal slip ratio, Ss, is defined as:
Ss = κ
Where k is limited to be within the range -1 to 1.
165
Tire Models
Lateral Slip Ratios: Sa , Sg , Sag

The lateral slip ratio due to slip angle, S α , is defined as:
tan α during braking

S α* =
( 1 – S s ) tan α during traction
S α = min ( 1.0, S α* )
The lateral slip ratio due to inclination angle, S γ, is defined as:
S γ = sin γ
A combined lateral slip ratio due to slip and inclination angles, S α γ, is defined as:
l sin γ
tan α – ------------ during braking
2r l
S α* =
l sin γ
( 1 – S s ) tan α ------------ during traction
2r l
where l = 8r 1 ρ is the length of the contact patch.
S α γ = min ( 1.0, S * α γ)
Comprehensive Slip Ratio: Ssag

A comprehensive slip ratio due to longitudinal slip, slip angle, and inclination angle may be defined as:
S * sα γ = S s2 + S 2 α γ
S α γ = min ( 1.0, S * α γ)
166 Adams/Tire
Friction Coefficient
The resultant friction coefficient between the tire tread base and the terrain surface is determined as a
function of the resultant slip ratio (Ss α γ) and friction parameters (UMAX and UMIN ). The friction
parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property between the surfaces of
tire tread and the terrain.
A linear relationship between Ss α γ and µ, the corresponding road-tire friction coefficient, is assumed.
The figure below depicts this relationship.
Linear Tire-Terrain Friction Model
This can be analytically described as:

m = UMAX - (UMAX - UMIN) * Ssag
The friction circle concept allows for different values of longitudinal and lateral friction coefficients ( µx
and µy) but limits the maximum value for both coefficients to µ. See the figure below.
Friction Circle Concept
167
Tire Models
The relationship that defines the friction circle follows:

2 µ 2
µ
-----x + -----y = 1
 µ  µ
or µx = µcos β and µy = µsin β

where:
Ss Sα γ
cos β = ---------- and sin β = ----------
S sα γ S sα γ
Slip Forces and Moments

To compute longitudinal force, lateral force, and self-aligning torque in the SAE coordinate system, you
must perform a test to determine the precise operating conditions. The conditions of interest are:
168 Adams/Tire
• Case 1: αγ< 0
• Case 2: α γ ≥ 0 and C α S α γ < C γ S γ
• Case 3: α γ < 0 and C α S α γ < C γ S γ
• Forces and moments at the contact point
The lateral force Fh can be decomposed into two components: Fha and Fhg. The two components are in
the same direction if a· g < 0 and in opposite direction if α γ < 0.
Case 1. ag < 0
Before computing the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, some slip
parameters and a modified lateral friction coefficient should be determined. If a slip ratio due to the
critical inclination angle is denoted by S γc, then it can be evaluated as:
Fz
S γc = µ------
Cγ
If Ssc represents a slip ratio due to the critical (longitudinal) slip ratio, then it can be evaluated as:
Fz
S sc = 3µ-----
Cs
If a slip ratio due to the critical slip angle is denoted by S α c, then it can be determined as:
Cs Sγ
2 – S 2 – 3C ------
S α c = ------- S sc -
Cα s γCα
when Ss ≤ Ssc.
The term critical stands for the maximum value which allows an elastic deformation of a tire during pure
slip due to pure slip ratio, slip angle, or inclination angle. Whenever any slip ratio becomes greater than
its corresponding critical value, an elastic deformation no longer exists, but instead complete sliding state
represents the contact condition between the tire tread base and the terrain surface.
A nondimensional slip ratio Sn is determined as:
B 2 + B 22 – B 1 B 3
S n = -------------------------------------------
B1
where:
169
Tire Models
B 1 = ( 3µF z ) 2 – ( 3C γS γ) 2
B 2 = 2C α S α C γS γ
B3 = –[ ( Cs Ss ) 2 + ( Cα Sα ) 2 ]
A nondimensional contact patch length is determined as:
ln = 1 – Sn
A modified lateral friction coefficient µy( m ) is evaluated as:
C γS γ
µy( m ) = µy – -----------
 Fz 
where µy = µsin β is the available friction as determined by the friction circle.

To determine the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, consider two subcases
separately. The first case is for the elastic deformation state, while the other is for the complete sliding
state without any elastic deformation of a tire. These two subcases are distinguished by slip ratios caused
by the critical values of the slip ratio, the slip angle, and the inclination angle. Specifically, if all of slip
ratios are smaller than those of their corresponding critical values, then there exists an elastic
deformation state, otherwise there exists only complete sliding state between the tire tread base and the
terrain surface.
(i) Elastic Deformation State: S γ < S γc, Ss < Ssc, and S α < Sα c
In the elastic deformation state, the longitudinal force F ξ , the lateral force F τ , and three components
of the self-aligning torque are written as functions of the elastic stiffness and the slip ratio as well as the
normal force and the friction coefficients, such as:
170 Adams/Tire
F ξ = C s S s l n2 + µx F z ( 1 – 3l n2 + 2l n3 )
F η = C α S s l n2 + µy( m ) F z ( 1 – 3l n2 + 2l n3 ) + C γS γ
1 2 3
M zα = C α S α – --- + --- l n + --- µy( m ) F z S n2 ll n2
 2 3  2
2 3µx µy F z2
M zsα = --- C s S s S α l n + ---------------------- ( 1 – 10l n3 + 15l n4 – 6l n5 )
3
3 5C α
M zsγ = η F ξ
where:
• η = S γ r l2 – l' 2 ⁄4 is the offset between the wheel plane center and the tire tread base.
• r l2 – l 2 ⁄4 is set to zero if it is negative.
• l = 8r l ρ the length of the contact patch.
Mz α is the portion of the self-aligning torque generated by the slip angle α . Mzs α and Mzs γ are other
components of the self-aligning torque produced by the longitudinal force, which has an offset between
α and the inclination angle γ,
the wheel center plane and the tire tread base, due to the slip angle
respectively. The self-aligning torque Mz is determined as combinations of Mz α , Mzs α and Mzs γ.
(ii) Complete Sliding State: S γ ≥ S γc, Ss ≥ Ssc, and S α ≥ Sα c

In the complete sliding state, the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and three components of the self-
aligning torque are determined as functions of the normal force and the friction coefficients without any
elastic stiffness and slip ratio as:
171
Tire Models
F ξ = µx F z
F η = µy F z
M zα = 0
3µx µy F z2 l
M zα s = ------------------------
5C α
M zsγ = η F ξ
Case 2: αγ ≥ 0 and C α S α ≥ Cγ Sγ
As in Case 1, a slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip ratio can be obtained as:
Fz
S γc = 3µ------
Cγ
A slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip angle can be found as:
Cs Sγ
2 – S 2 + 3C ------
S α c = ------- S sc
Cα s γC -
α
when Ss ≤ Ssc.
The nondimensional slip ratio Sn, is determined as:
B 2 + B 22 – B 1 B 3
S n = -------------------------------------------
B1
where:
172 Adams/Tire
B 1 = ( 3µF z ) 2 – ( 3C γS γ) 2
B3 = –[ ( Cs Ss ) 2 + ( Cα Sα ) 2 ]
The nondimensional contact patch length ln is found from the equation ln = 1 - Sn, and the modified
lateral friction coefficient µy( m ) is expressed as:
C γS γ
µy( m ) = µy + -----------
 Fz 
For the longitudinal force, the lateral force and the self-aligning torque two subcases should also be
considered separately. A slip ratio due to the critical value of the inclination angle is not needed here since
the required condition for Case 2, C α S α ≥ C γ S γ, replaces the critical condition of the inclination
angle.
(i) Elastic Deformation State: Ss < Ssc and S α < Sac

In the elastic deformation state:
1 2 3
M zα = C α S α – --- + --- l n + --- µy( m ) F z S n2 ll n2
 2 3  2
2 3µx µy F z2
M zsα = --- C s S s S α l n3 + ---------------------- ( 1 – 10l n3 + 15l n4 – 6l n5 )
3 5C α
M zsγ = η F ξ
(ii) Complete Sliding State: Ss ≥ Ssc and S α ≥ Sac

173
Tire Models
F ξ = µx F z
F η = µy F z
M zα = 0
3µx µy F z2 l
M zα s = ------------------------
5C α
M zsγ = η F ξ
Case 3: αγ ≥ 0 and C α S α < Cγ Sγ

Similar to Cases 1 and 2, slip ratios due to the critical values of the inclination angle and the slip ratio
are obtained as:
3µF z + C α S α
S γc = --------------------------------
3C γ
1
S sc = ----- ( 3µF z ) 2 – ( C α S α – 3C γS γ)
Cs
The nondimensional slip ratio Sn, is expressed as:
B 2 + B 22 – B 1 B 3
S n = -------------------------------------------
B1
where:
B 1 = ( 3µF z ) 2 – ( 3C γS γ) 2
B3 = –[ ( Cs Ss ) 2 + ( Cα Sα ) 2 ]
174 Adams/Tire
For the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, two subcases should also be
considered similar to Cases 1 and 2. A slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip angle is not needed
here since the required condition for Case 3, C α S α < C γ S γ , replaces the critical condition of
the slip angle.
(i) Elastic Deformation State: S γ < S γc and Ss < Ssc
In the elastic deformation state, F η and Mz α can be written:
1 2  3 (m)
M zα = C α S α  --- --- --- 2 2
– 2 + 3 l n + 2 µy F z S n ll n
2 3µx µy F z2
M zsα = --- C s S s S α l n3 + ---------------------- ( 1 – 10l n3 + 15l n4 – 6l n5 )
3 5C α
M zsγ = η F ξ
(ii) Complete Sliding State: S γ ≥ S γc and Ss ≥ Ssc
In the complete sliding state, F ξ , F η , Mz α , Mzs α , and Mzs γ can be determined by using:
F ξ = µx F z
F η = µy F z
M zα = 0
3µx µy F z2 l
M zα s = ------------------------
5C α
M zsγ = η F ξ
175
Tire Models
respectively. The longitudinal force F ξ , the lateral force F η , and three components of the self-aligning
torques, Mz α , Mzs α , and Mzs γ, always have positive values, but they can be transformed to have
positive or negative values depending on the slip ratio s, the slip angle α , and the inclination angle γ in
the SAE coordinate system.
Tire Forces and Moments in the SAE Coordinate System

For the general formulations of the longitudinal force Fx, lateral force Fy, and self-aligning torque Mz,
in the SAE coordinate system, the three possible combinations of the slip ratio, the slip angle, and the
inclination angle are also considered.
Longitudinal Force:
Fx = sin(k) F ξ , for all cases

Lateral Force:
Fy = -sin( α ) F η , for cases 1 and 2
Fy = sin( γ) F η , for case 3

Self-aligning Torque:
Mz = sin( α ) Mz α - sin( κ ) [-sin( α ) Mzs α + sin( γ)Mzs γ]

Rolling Resistance Moment:
My = -Cr Fz, for a forward rolling tire.
My = Cr Fz, for a backward rolling tire.
Operating Mode: USE_MODE

You can change the behavior of the tire model through the switch USE_MODE in the [MODEL] section
of the tire property file.
• USE_MODE = 0: Steady-state forces and moments
• The tire forces and moments react instantaneously to changes in the tire kinematic states.
• USE_MODE = 1: Transient tire behavior
• The tire will have a lagged response because of the so-called relaxation length in both
longitudinal and lateral direction. See Lagged Longitudinal and Lateral Slip Quantities
(transient tire behavior).
• The effect of the relaxation lengths will be most pronounced at low forward velocity and/or high
excitation frequencies.
• USE_MODE = 2: Smoothing of forces and moments on startup of the simulation
176 Adams/Tire
• When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of use mode in the tire property file,
Adams/Tire smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation.
The longitudinal force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function
of time. (See STEP in the Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force FLat = S*FLat
Aligning Torque Mz = S*Mz
Tire Carcass Shape

You can optionally supply a tire carcass cross-sectional shape in the tire property file in the [SHAPE]
block. The 3D-durability, tire-to-road contact algorithm uses this information when calculating the tire-
to-road volume of interference. If you omit the [SHAPE] block from a tire property file, the tire carcass
cross-section defaults to the rectangle that the tire radius and width define.
You specify the tire carcass shape by entering points in fractions of the tire radius and width. Because
Adams/Tire assumes that the tire cross-section is symmetrical about the wheel plane, you only specify
points for half the width of the tire. The following apply:
• For width, a value of zero (0) lies in the wheel center plane.
• For width, a value of one (1) lies in the plane of the side wall.
• For radius, a value of one (1) lies on the tread.
For example, suppose your tire has a radius of 300 mm and a width of 185 mm and that the tread is joined
to the side wall with a fillet of 12.5 mm radius. The tread then begins to curve to meet the side wall at
>+/- 80 mm from the wheel center plane. If you define the shape table using six points with four points
along the fillet, the resulting table might look like the shape block that is at the end of the property format
example (see SHAPE).
Property File Format Example

$--------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir' FILE_VERSION = 2.0
(COMMENTS) {comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'TestDate - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
'New File Format v2.1'
$-------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH
= 'meter'
FORCE
= 'newton'
177
Tire Models
ANGLE
= 'rad'
MASS
= 'kg'
TIME
= 'sec'
$-------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode
1
2
3
! ------------------------------------------
! relaxation lengths
X
! smoothing
X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT
= 'UATIRE'
USE_MODE
= 2
$---------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 0.295
WIDTH
= 0.195
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.55
$---------------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
= 190000
VERTICAL_DAMPING
= 50
ROLLING_RESISTANCE
= 0.003
CSLIP
= 80000
CALPHA
= 60000
CGAMMA
= 3000
UMIN
= 0.8
UMAX
= 1.1
REL_LEN_LON
= 0.6
REL_LEN_LAT
= 0.5
178 Adams/Tire
$-------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.2
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.8
0.9 1.0
$--------------------------------------------------------------------
-load_curve
{pen
fz}
0.000
0.0
0.001
212.0
0.002
428.0
0.003
648.0
0.005
1100.0
0.010
2300.0
0.020
5000.0
0.030
8100.0
Contact Methods
The UA-Tire Model supports the following roads
• 2D roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
• 3D roads, see Adams/3D Road Model
The UA-Tire Model uses a one point of contact method; therefore, the wavelength of road obstacles must
be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model.
179
Tire Models
PAC MC
Learn about using the University of Arizona (UA) tire model:
When to Use PAC Motorcycle

Magic-Formula (MF) tire models are considered the state-of-the-art for modeling of the tire-road
interaction forces in Vehicle Dynamics applications. First versions of the mode that were published by
Pacejka considered tire models for car and truck tires. In his book, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics [1], he
also described a model for motorcycle tires that is backwards compatible with the MF-MCTyre,
previously resold by MSC.Software, and contains the latest developments in this field.
In general, a MF tire model describes the tire behavior for rather smooth roads (road obstacle
• Lane-change maneuvers
• Shimmy and weave phenomena, which can be analyzed when the tire model is used in transient
mode (see USE_MODES of PAC MC: from Simple to Complex)
• All other common vehicle dynamics maneuvers on rather smooth road (wavelength of road
The PAC MC model has proven to be applicable to motorcycle tires with inclination angles to the road
up to 60 degrees. In some cases, it can be used for car tires when exposed to large camber.
PAC MC and Previous Magic Formula Models

Compared to previous versions, PAC MC is backward compatible with all MF-MCTyre 1.x tire models,
generates the same output, and deals with all previous versions of MF-MCTyre property files.
In addition to PAC MC in Adams, the PAC MC in v2 contins a more advanced tire-road contact modeling
method that takes the tire's cross-section shape into account, which plays an important role at large
inclination angles of the wheel with the road. Learn more about the tire cross-section profile contact
method.
Modeling Tire-Road Interaction Forces

For vehicle dynamics applications, accurate knowledge of tire-road interaction forces is inevitable
forces depend on both road and tire properties and the motion of the tire with respect to the road.
180 Adams/Tire
the tire and wheel as a rigid disc. In the contact point between the tire and the road the contact forces in
road.
vectors of the PAC MC tire model. The tire model subroutine is linked to the Adams/Solver through the
Standard Tire Interface (STI) ([3]). The input through the STI consists of the:
• Road parameters
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load ( F z ), the
longitudinal and lateral slip ( κ ,
α ), and inclination angle ( γ) with the road. The output is the forces
( F x , F y ) and moments ( M x , M y , M z ) in the contact point between the tire and the road. For
calculating these forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing
data.
Adams/Solver through the STI.
181
Tire Models

• Axis System
• Units
Axis System
The PAC MC model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions as described in the
TYDEX-Format [2] and the STI [3].
The STI interface between the PAC MC model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
because all the modeling of the tire behavior, as described in this help, assumes to deal with the slip
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have a different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC MC, Source[2]
The forces and moments calculated by PAC MC using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
to Adams/Solver.
182 Adams/Tire
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC MC are according
to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC MC described in this guide have been developed for
use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire property file. Because
of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have units to be changed.
SI Units Used in PAC MC
Variable Type: Name: Abbreviation: Unit:

Lateral force Fy
Vertical load Fz
Rolling resistance My
moment
Mz
Self-aligning moment
Lateral speed Vy
Longitudinal slip speed V sx
Lateral slip speed V sy

183
Tire Models
The longitudinal slip velocity V sx in the contact point (W-axis system, see the figure, Slip Quantities
at Combined Cornering) is defined using the longitudinal speed V x , the wheel rotational velocity ω ,
and the effective rolling radius R e :
V sx = V x – ΩR e (204)
V sy = V y (205)
V sx
κ = – -------- (206)
Vx
V sy
tan ( α ) = --------- (207)
Vx
Vr = Re Ω (208)
Contact-Point and Normal Load Calculation

• Contact Point
Contact Point
184 Adams/Tire
at the road point right below the wheel center (see figure below).
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane though the wheel spin
axis.
The normal load F z of the tire is calculated with:
·
F z = C z ρ + K z ⋅ρ (209)
·
where ρ is the tire deflection and ρ is the deflection rate of the tire.
To take into account the effect of the tire cross-section profile, you can choose a more advanced method
(see the Tire Cross Section Profile Contact Method).
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz, also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]. If a section called
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and
extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of the tire. Note that you must specify C z
in the tire property file, but it does not play any role.
185
Tire Models

With the loaded rolling tire radius R defined as the distance of the wheel center to the contact point of
the tire with the road (see Effective Rolling Radius and Longitudinal Slip), where r is the deflection of
the tire, and R0 is the free (unloaded) tire radius, then the loaded tire radius Rl reads:
R1 = R0 – ρ (210)
In this tire model, a constant (linear) vertical tire stiffness C z is assumed; therefore, the tire deflection
ρ can be calculated using:
Fz
ρ = ------ (211)
Cz
Vx
R e = ------ (212)
Ω
For radial tires, the effective rolling radius is rather independent of load in its load range of operation due
to the high stiffness of the tire belt circumference. Only at low loads does the effective tire radius
186 Adams/Tire
To represent the effective rolling radius Re, a MF-type of equation is used:
R e = R 0 – ρ Fz0 ( D ⋅ atan ( ( Bρ d ) + Fρ d ) ) (213)
F z0
ρ Fz0 = -------- (214)
Cz
and ρ d is called the dimensionless radial tire deflection, defined by:
ρ
ρ d = --------- (215)
ρ Fz0
187
Tire Models
Example of the Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius as a Function of the Vertical Load
Nam Name Used in Tire

e: Property File: Explanation:
F z0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load
R0 UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tire radius
Cz VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tire vertical stiffness
KZ VERTICAL_DAMPING Tire vertical damping
Basics of the Magic Formula in PAC MC

We distinguish:
188 Adams/Tire
For pure slip conditions, the lateral force F y as a function of the lateral slip α , respectively, and the
longitudinal force F x as a function of longitudinal slip κ , have a similar shape (see the figure,
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions). Because of the sine - arctangent
combination, the basic Magic Formula example is capable of describing this shape:
Y ( x ) = D ⋅ cos [ c ⋅ atan ( b x – E ( b x – atan ( b x ) ) ) ] (216)
where Y(x) is either F x with x the longitudinal slip κ , or F y and x the lateral slip α .
The self-aligning moment M z is calculated as a product of the lateral force F y and the pneumatic trail t
added with the residual moment M zr . In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force F y ,
slip α has a cosine shape, a cosine version the Magic Formula is used:
Y ( x ) = D ⋅ cos [ C ⋅ atan ( B x – E ( B x – atan ( B x ) ) ) ] (217)

189
Tire Models
190 Adams/Tire
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force F y decreases due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force F x decreases due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip conditions
191
Tire Models
are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighting functions. Again, these
weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF examples.
Inclination Effects in the Lateral Force

From a historical point of view, the basic Magic Formulas have always been developed for car and truck
tires, which cope with inclinations angles of not more than 10 degrees. To be able to describe the effects
at large inclinations, an extension of the basic Magic Formula for the lateral force Fy has been developed.
A contribution of the inclination γ has also been added within the MF sine function:
F y0 = D y sin [ C y arc tan { B y α y – E y ( B y α y – arc tan ( B y α y ) ) } (218)
+ C γarc tan { B γγy – E γ( B γγy – arc tan ( B γγy ) ) } ]
This elegant formulation has the advantage of an explicit definition of the camber stiffness, because this
results now in:
∂ F yo at αy = 0
K γ = B γC γD γ =
∂γ (219)
Input Variables
Input Variables

Slip angle α [rad]
Output Variables
Its output variables are:
Output Variables

192 Adams/Tire

Rolling resistance moment My [Nm]

are:

F z – F' z0
df z = -------------------- (220)
F' z0
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor, λ F z0 ):
F' z0 = F z0 ⋅λ F z0 (221)

logic:
193
Tire Models
C Shape factor
D Peak value
E Curvature factor
H Horizontal shift
V Vertical shift
k= 1, 2, ...

You can change the factors in the tire property file. The peak friction scaling factors, λ µξ and λ γψ ,
are also used for the position-dependent friction in 3D Road Contact and Adams/3D Road. An overview
of all scaling factors is shown in the next tables.
Name
used in
tire
property
Name: file: Explanation:
λ F z0 LFZO Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
λ µξ LMUX Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
λ γx LGAX Scale factor of camber for Fx
λ Cy LCY Scale factor of Fy shape factor
194 Adams/Tire
Name
used in
tire
property
λ Ey LEY Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
λ Ky LKY Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
λ Cγ LCC Scale factor of camber shape factor
λ Kγ LKC Scale factor of camber stiffness (K-factor)
λ Eγ LEC Scale factor of camber curvature factor
λ Hyy LHY Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
λ γψ LGAY Scale factor of camber force stiffness
λ Mr LRES Scale factor for offset of residual torque
λ gz LGAZ Scale factor of camber torque stiffness
λ VMxMx LVMX Scale factor of Mx vertical shift
λ My LMY Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
Name used in
tire property
λ s LS Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx
Name used in tire

λ s LS Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx
195
Tire Models
Name used in tire

σκ LSGKP Scale factor of relaxation length of Fx
σα LSGAL Scale factor of relaxation length of Fy
Steady-State: Magic Formula for PAC MC



F x = F x0 ( κ , F z, γ) (222)
F x0 = D x sin [ C x arc tan { B x κ x – E x ( B x κ x – arc tan ( B x κ x ) ) } ] + S Vx (223)
κ x = κ + S Hx (224)
γx = γ ⋅λ γx (225)
C x = p Cx1 ⋅λ Cx (226)
D x = µx ⋅F z ⋅ζ1 (227)
µx = ( p Dx1 + p Dx2 df z ) ⋅( 1 – p Dx3 ⋅γx2 )λ µx (228)
E x = ( p Ex1 + p Ex2 df z + p Ex3 df z2 ) ⋅{ 1 – p Ex4 sgn ( κ x ) } ⋅λ Ex with E x ≤ 1 (229)

196 Adams/Tire
K x = F z ⋅( p Kx1 + p Kx2 df z ) ⋅ exp ( p Kx3 df z ) ⋅λ K (230)
∂ F x0
(K x = B x C x D x = at κ x = 0 )
∂ κx
B x = K x ⁄( C x D x ) (231)
S Hx = – ( p sy1 F z λ My + S Vx ) ⁄K x (232)
S Vx = F z ⋅( p Vx1 + p Vx2 df z ) ⋅λ Vx ⋅λ µx ⋅ζ 1 (233)
Name used in tire

pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with camber
pKx3 PKX3 Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
pVx1 PVX1 Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
pVx2 PVX2 Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load

F y = F y0 ( α , γ, F z ) (234)
F y0 = D y sin [ C y arc tan { B y α y – E y ( B y α y – arc tan ( B y α y ) ) } (235)
+ C γarc tan { B γγy – E γ( B γγy – arc tan ( B γγy ) ) } ]

197
Tire Models
α y = α + S Hy ( Cy + Cγ < 2 ) (236)
γy = γ ⋅λ γy (237)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1 ⋅λ Cy (238)
D y = µy ⋅F z ⋅ζ2 (239)
µy = p Dy1 ⋅ exp ( p Dy2 df z ) ⋅( 1 – p Dy3 γy2 ) ⋅λ µy (240)
E y = { p Ey1 + p Ey2 γy2 – ( p Ey3 + p Ey4 γy ) ⋅ sin ( α y ) } ⋅λ Ey with E y ≤ 1 (241)
 Fz 
K y = p Ky1 F zo sin p Ky2 arc tan ----------------------------------------------------------
2
- (242)
( p Ky3 + p Ky4 γy )F zo λ Fzo 
( 1 – p Ky5 γy2 ) ⋅λ Fzo ⋅λ Ky
∂ F yo
(K y = B y C y D y = at α y = 0 )
∂ αy
B y = K y ⁄( C y D y ) (243)
S Hy = p Hy1 ⋅λ Hy (244)
C γ = p Cy2 ⋅λ Cγ (245)
and the explicit camber stiffness:
∂ F yo
K γ = ( p Ky6 + p Ky7 df z ) ⋅F z ⋅λ Kγ (=B γC γD γ = at α y = 0 (246)
∂γ
E γ = p Ey5 ⋅λ Eγ with E γ ≤ 1 (247)
B γ = K γ ⁄( C γD γ) (248)
198 Adams/Tire
Name used in
pCy2 PCY2 Shape factor Cfc for camber forces
pDy2 PDY2 Exponent lateral friction Muy
pDy3 PDY3 Variation of friction Muy with squared camber
pEy2 PEY2 Variation of curvature Efy with camber squared
pEy3 PEY3 Asymmetric curvature Efy at Fznom
pEy4 PEY4 Asymmetric curvature Efy with camber
pEy5 PEY5 Camber curvature Efc
pKy2 PKY2 Curvature of stiffness Kfy
pKy3 PKY3 Peak stiffness factor
pKy4 PKY4 Peak stiffness variation with camber squared
pKy5 PKY5 Lateral stiffness dependency with camber squared
pKy6 PKY6 Camber stiffness factor Kfc
pKy7 PKY7 Vertical load dependency of camber stiffness Kfc

M z' = M z0 ( α , γ, F z )
M z0 = – t ⋅F y0 + M zr (249)
α t = α + S Ht (251)
M zr ( α r ) = D r cos [ C r arc tan ( B r α r ) ] ⋅ cos ( α ) (252)

199
Tire Models
α r = α + S Hr (253)
γz = γ ⋅λ γz (254)
with coefficients:
B t = ( q Bx1 + q Bx2 df z + q Bx3 df z2 ) ⋅{ 1 + q Bx4 γz + q Bz5 γz } ⋅λ Ky ⁄λ µy (255)
C t = q Cz1 (256)
D t = F z ⋅( q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z ) ⋅( 1 + q Dz3 γz + q Dz4 γz2 ) ⋅( R 0 ⁄F z0 ) (257)
E t = ( q Ex1 + q Ex2 df z + q Ex3 df z2 ) (258)
 2- ⋅arc tan ( B ⋅C ⋅α )  with E ≤ 1

1 + ( q Ez4 + q Ez5 γz ) ⋅--
π t t t  t (259)
 
S Ht = 0 (260)
B r = q Bz9 ⋅λ Ky ⁄λ µy (261)
D r = F z [ ( q Dz6 + q Dz7 df z )λ r + ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z )γz + ( q Dz10 + q Dz11 df z ) ( γz ⋅ γz (262)

) ] R0 λ µy
S Hr = q Hz1 + q Hz2 df z + ( q Hz3 + q Hz4 df z )γz (263)
K z = – t ⋅K y  ≈ – dM z at α  = 0 ) (264)
 dα 
Name used in tire

qBz3 qBz3 Variation of slope Bpt with load squared
qBz4 QBZ4 Variation of slope Bpt with camber
qBz5 QBZ5 Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber
200 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

qBz9 QBZ9 Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
qDz3 QDZ3 Variation of peak Dpt with camber
qDz4 QDZ4 Variation of peak Dpt with camber squared.
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber
qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of Dmr with camber and load
qDz10 QDZ10 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber squared
qDz11 QDZ11 Variation of Dmr with camber squared and load
qEz3 QEZ3 Variation of curvature Ept with load squared
qEz5 QEZ5 Variation of Ept with camber and sign Alpha-t
qHz1 QHZ1 Trail horizontal shift Shr at Fznom
qHz2 QHZ2 Variation of shift Shr with load
qHz3 QHZ3 Variation of shift Shr with camber
qHz4 QHZ4 Variation of shift Sht with camber and load

PAC-TIME has two methods for calculating the combined slip forces and moments. If the user supplies

201
Tire Models

F x = F x0 ⋅G xα ( α , κ , F z ) (265)
with Gx α o the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
α s = α + S Hxα (267)
with coefficients:
B xα = ( r Bx1 + r Bx3 γ2 ) cos [ arc tan { r Bx2 κ } ] ⋅λ xα (268)
C xα = r Cx1 (269)
F xo
D xα = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (270)
S Hxα = r Hx1 (272)

G xα = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (273)
Name used in tire property

rBx3 RBX3 Influence of camber on stiffness for Fx reduction
202 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire property


F x = F x0 ⋅G xα ( α , κ , F z ) (274)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the ' κ -induced' side force;
F y = D yκ cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ κ s – E yκ ( B yκ κ s – arc tan ( B yκ κ s ) ) } ] + S Vyκ (275)
κ s = κ + S Hyk (276)
B yκ = ( r By1 + r By4 γ2 ) cos [ arc tan { r By2 ( α – r By3 ) } ] ⋅λ yκ (277)
C yκ = r Cy1 (278)
F yo
D yκ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (279)
S Vyk = D Vyκ sin [ r Vy5 arc tan ( r vy6 κ ) ] ⋅λ Vyκ (282)
cos [ C yκ arc tan { B yκ κ s – E yκ ( B yκ κ s – arc tan ( B yκ κ s ) ) } ]

G yκ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (284)
203
Tire Models
Name used in tire

rVy1 RVY1 Kappa-induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at
Fznom
rVy2 RVY2 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
rVy3 RVY3 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with inclination
rVy4 RVY4 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
rVy5 RVY5 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
rVy6 RVY6 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan (kappa)
M z' = – t ⋅F y' + M zr + s ⋅F x (285)
with:
t = t ( α t, eq ) (286)
= D t cos [ C t arc tan { B t α t, eq – E t ( B t α t, eq – ac tan ( B t α t, eq ) ) } ] cos ( α ) (287)
F' y, γ = 0 = F y – S Vyκ (288)
s = { s sz1 + s sz2 ( F y ⁄F z0 ) + ( s sz3 + s sz4 df z )γ} ⋅R 0 ⋅λ s (290)
with the arguments:

204 Adams/Tire
2 Kx 2
α t, eq = arc tan tan α t + ------ κ 2 ⋅ sgn ( α t ) (291)
K y
2 Kx 2
α r, eq = arc tan tan α r + ------ κ 2 ⋅ sgn ( α r ) (292)
K y
Name used in tire

ssz1 SSZ1 Nominal value of s/R0
effect of Fx on Mz
ssz2 SSZ2 Variation of distance s/R0
with Fy/Fznom
with inclination
with load and inclination

 Fy 
M x = R 0 ⋅F z ⋅q sx1 λ VMx – q sx2 ⋅γ + q sx3 ⋅--------  λ Mx (293)
 F z0 
Name used in tire

qsx1 QSX1 Lateral force-induced
overturning couple
qsx2 QSX2 Inclination-induced
overturning couple
qsx3 QSX3 Fy-induced overturning
couple

205
Tire Models
M y = R 0 ⋅F z ⋅{ q Sy1 + q Sy2 F x ⁄F z0 + q Sy3 V x ⁄V ref + q Sy4 ( V x ⁄V ref ) 4 } (294)
Name used in tire

qsy1 QSY1 Rolling resistance moment
coefficient
depending on Fx
depending on speed
depending on speed^4

S Vx
κ c = κ + S Hx + ---------
Kx
S Vy
α c = α + S Hy + ---------
Ky
α ∗ = sin ( α c )
 κc 
β = acos -------------------------
 κ 2 + α ∗ 2
c
F x, 0 – S Vx F y, 0 – S Vy
µx, act = ------------------------- µy, act = -------------------------
Fz Fz
206 Adams/Tire
Dx Dy
µx, max = ------ µy, max = ------
Fz Fz
1
µx = ---------------------------------------------------------
1 2  tan β 2
------------- + ----------------
tan β
µy = ---------------------------------------------------------
1 2  tan β 2
--------------- - + -------------
µx µy
F x = ------------- F x, 0 F y = ------------- F y, 0
µx, act µy, act
Transient Behavior in PAC MC

The previous Magic Formula examples are valid for steady-state tire behavior. When driving, however,
frequency behavior (up to 8 Hz) is called transient behavior.
207
Tire Models
For accurate transient tire behavior, you can use the "stretched string" tire model (see also reference [1]).
The tire belt is modeled as stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral (and longitudinal)
springs. The figure, Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior, shows a top-view of the string
model. When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding
assumed). Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string arises that depends on the slip angle size and the
history of the lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
v1
1 dv 1 -----
------ + - = tan ( α ) + aφ (295)
Vx d t σα
than 10 m. This differential example cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the
example can be transformed to:
208 Adams/Tire
dv 1
σα + V x v 1 = σ α V sy (296)
dt
du 1
σx + V x u 1 = – σ x V sx (297)
dt
σ x = F z ⋅( p Tx1 + p Tx2 df z ) ⋅ exp ( p Tx3 df z ) ⋅( R 0 ⁄F z0 )λ σκ (298)
 Fz 
-  ( 1 – p Ky5 γ2 ) ⋅R 0 λ
σ α = p Ty1 sin p Ty2 arc tan -------------------------------------------------------- F z0 λ σ α (299)
2
( p Ty3 + p Ky4 γ )F z0 λ Fz0 
u1
κ' = ------ ⋅ sin ( V x ) (300)
σx
v1
α' = atan ------ (301)
σ α 
Using these practical slip quantities, κ' and α' , the Magic Formula examples can be used to calculate
F x' = F x ( α', κ', F z ) (302)
F y' = F y ( α', κ', γ, F z ) (303)
M z' = M z' ( α', κ', γ, F z ) (304)
Gyroscopic Couple in PAC MC

209
Tire Models
dv
M z, gyr = c gyr m belt V r1 cos [ arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) ] (305)
dt
with the parameters (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
and:
cos { arc tan ( B r α r, eq ) } = 1 (307)
M z = M z' + M z, gyr (308)
Name used in tire

pTx1 PTX1 Relaxation length
sigKap0/Fz at Fznom
pTx2 PTX2 Variation of sigKap0/Fz
with load
pTx3 PTX3 Variation of sigKap0/Fz
with exponent of load
pTy1 PTY1 Peak value of relaxation
length Sig_alpha
pTy2 PTY2 Shape factor for lateral
relaxation length
pTy3 PTY3 Load where lateral
relaxation is at maximum
qTz1 QTZ1 Gyroscopic torque constant

A tire property file with the parameters for the model results from testing with a tire that is mounted in
a tire test bench comparable either to the left or the right side of a vehicle. If these coefficients are used
210 Adams/Tire
for both the left and the right side of the vehicle model, the vehicle does not drive straight at zero steering
wheel angle.
If this keyword is available, Adams/Car corrects for the conicity and plysteer and asymmetry when using
a tire property file on the opposite side of the vehicle. In fact, the tire characteristics are mirrored with
respect to slip angle zero.
In Adams/View this option can only be used when the tire is generated by the graphical user interface:
select Build -> Forces -> Special Force: Tire (see figure of dialog box below).
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also select SYMMETRIC: then the
tire characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right
side corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets). Also, when you set the tire property file to
211
Tire Models
USE_MODES of PAC MC: from Simple to Complex

The parameter USE_MODE in the tire property file allows you to switch the output of the PAC MC tire
model from very simple (that is, steady-state cornering) to complex (transient combined cornering and
braking).
The options for USE_MODE and the output of the model are listed in the table below.
212 Adams/Tire
USE_MODE Values of PAC MC and Related Tire Model Output
PAC MC output
(forces and
USE MODE: State: Slip conditions: moments)
0 Steady state Acts as a vertical 0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
spring and damper
1 Steady state Pure longitudinal Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0
slip
2 Steady state Pure lateral 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
(cornering) slip
3 Steady state Longitudinal and Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My,
lateral (not Mz
combined)
4 Steady state Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My,
Mz
11 Transient Pure longitudinal Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0
slip
12 Transient Pure lateral 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
(cornering) slip
13 Transient Longitudinal and Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My,
lateral (not Mz
combined)
14 Transient Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My,
Mz
Contact Methods
The PAC MC model supports the following roads:
By default the PAC-MC uses a one point of contact model similar to all the other Adams/Tire Handling
models. However the PAC-MC has an option to take the tire cross section shape into account:
Tire Cross-Section Profile Contact Method

In combination with the 2D Road Model and the 3D Road Model, you can improve the tire-road contact
calculation method by providing the tire's cross-section profile, which has an important influence on the
wheel center height at large inclination angles with the road.
213
Tire Models
If the tire model reads a section called [SECTION_PROFILE_TABLE] in the tire property file, the cross
section profile will be taken into account for the vertical load calculation of the tire. The method assumes
that the tire deformation will not influence the position of the point with largest penetration (P), which
is valid for motor cycle tires.
The vertical tire load Fz is calculated using the penetration (effpen = ρ ) of the tire through the tangent
road plane in the point C, see Figure above, according to:
·
F z = C z ρ + K z ⋅ρ (309)
Because in this method the tangent to the cross section profile determines the point P, a high accuracy of
the cross section profile is required. The section height y as function of the tire width x must be a
continous and monotone increasing function. To avoid singularities and instability, it is highly
214 Adams/Tire
recommended to fit measured cross section data with a polynom (for example y = a·x2 + b·x4 + c·x6 +
..) and provide the y cross section height data (y) from the polynom in the tire property file up to the
maximum width of the tire. The profile is assumed to be symmetric with respect to the wheel plane.
Note that the PAC MC model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the wavelength of
road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model. In addition, the contact
force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore, the contact point does not
generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such as a cleat or pothole.
For ride and comfort analysis, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.

Because PAC MC uses an empirical approach to describe tire - road interaction forces, incorrect

Camber stiffness has been explicitly defined in PAC MC (see equation (246). For realistic tire behavior,
the sign of the camber stiffness must be negative (TYDEX W-axis (ISO) system). If the sign is positive,
the coefficients may not be valid for the ISO but for the SAE coordinate system. Note that PAC MC only
uses coefficients for the TYDEX W-axis (ISO) system.
215
Tire Models
The table below lists further checks on the PAC MC parameters.

Checklist for PAC MC Parameters and Properties

LONGVL > 1 m/s Reference velocity at which
parameters are measured
VXLOW Approximately 1m/s Threshold for scaling down
forces and moments
Dx >0 Peak friction (see equation
(137))
pDx1/pDx2 < 0 Peak friction Fx must
decrease with increasing
load
Kx < 0 Long slip stiffness (see
equation (140))
Dy >0 Peak friction (see equation
(149))
pDy1/pDy2 < 0 Peak friction Fx must
decrease with increasing
load
216 Adams/Tire

Ky < 0 Cornering stiffness (see
equation (152))
qsy1 < 0 Rolling resistance, should in
range of 0.005 - 0.015
Kγ < 0 Camber stiffness (see
equation (156))

$------------------------------------------------------
long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN
= -1.5
KPUMAX
= 1.5
$-----------------------------------------------------
slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN
= -1.5708
ALPMAX
= 1.5708
$-----------------------------------------------
CAMMIN
= -1.0996
CAMMAX
= 1.0996
$-------------------------------------------------
FZMIN
= 73.75
FZMAX
= 3319.5
217
Tire Models
model will be performed with the minimum or maximum value of this range to avoid non-realistic tire
Standard Tire Interface (STI) for PAC MC

Adams/Solver, below is a brief background of the STI history (see reference [4]).
purposes. For most vehicle dynamics studies, people previously developed their own tire models.
Because all car manufacturers and their tire suppliers have the same goal (that is, development of tires
to improve dynamic safety of the vehicle), it aimed for standardization in tire behavior description.
Definitions
• General
• Tire Kinematics
• Slip Quantities
218 Adams/Tire
General
General Definitions
Term: Definition:
Road tangent plane Plane with the normal unit vector (tangent
to the road) in the tire-road contact point C.
C-axis system Coordinate system mounted on the wheel
carrier at the wheel center according to
TYDEX, ISO orientation.
Wheel plane The plane in the wheel centre that is formed
by the wheel when considered a rigid disc
with zero width.
Contact point C Contact point between tire and road,
defined as the intersection of the wheel
plane and the projection of the wheel axis
onto the road plane.
W-axis system Coordinate system at the tire contact point
C, according to TYDEX, ISO orientation.
Tire Kinematics

ρd Dimensionless radial tire [-]
deflection
ρ Fz0 Radial tire deflection at [m]
nominal load
ω Rotational velocity of the [rads-1]
wheel
219
Tire Models
Slip Quantities

Vy Lateral speed of tire contact [ms-1]
center
α Slip angle [rad]
Forces and Moments


References
220 Adams/Tire
Example of PAC MC Tire Property File

[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE ='tir'
FILE_VERSION =3.0FILE_FORMAT ='ASCII'
! : TIRE_VERSION : PAC Motorcycle
! : COMMENT : Tire 180/55R17
! : COMMENT : Manufacturer $
! : COMMENT : Nom. section with (m) 0.18$
! : COMMENT : Nom. aspect ratio (-) 55
! : COMMENT : Infl. pressure (Pa) 200000
! : COMMENT : Rim radius (m) 0.216$
! : COMMENT : Measurement ID$
! : COMMENT : Test speed (m/s) 16.7$
! : COMMENT : Road surface $
! : COMMENT : Road condition Dry
! : FILE_FORMAT : ASCII
! : Copyright MSC.Software, Mon Oct 20 10:46:57 2003
!
! 1: Fx,My only
! 2: Fy,Mx,Mz only
!
! -mirrored tyre characteristics
!
$----------------------------------------------------------------
units
[UNITS]
LENGTH ='meter'
FORCE
='newton'
ANGLE
='radians'
MASS
='kg'
TIME
='second'
$----------------------------------------------------------------
model
[MODEL]
221
Tire Models
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT ='PAC_MC'
USE_MODE
= 14
VXLOW
= 1
LONGVL
= 16.7
$Longitudinal speed during measurements $
TYRESIDE
= 'SYMMETRIC'
$-----------------------------------------------------------
dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 0.322
$Free tyre radius $
WIDTH
= 0.18
$Nominal section width of the tyre $
RIM_RADIUS
= 0.216
$Nominal rim radius $
RIM_WIDTH
= 0.135
$Rim width $
$----------------------------------------------------------------
shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
0.994 0.211
0.975 0.423
0.947 0.634
0.894 0.845
0.841 1.0
$------------------------------------------------
section_profile_table
$ For taking the tire's cross shape into account (optional), max 100
pnts
[SECTION_PROFILE_TABLE]
{x y }
0.00000
0.0000000
0.00300
0.0000468
0.00600
0.0001877
0.00900
0.0004235
0.01200
0.0007561
0.01500
222 Adams/Tire
0.0011877
0.01800
0.0017216
0.02100
0.0023613
0.02400
0.0031114
0.02700
0.0039770
0.03000
0.0049639
0.03300
0.0060785
0.03600
0.0073282
0.03900
0.0087207
0.04200
0.0102646
0.04500
0.0119694
0.04800
0.0138449
0.05100
0.0159018
0.05400
0.0181517
0.05700
0.0206065
0.06000
0.0232793
0.06300
0.0261836
0.06600
0.0293337
0.06900
0.0327447
0.07200
0.0364323
0.07500
0.0404132
0.07800
0.0447047
0.08100
0.0493248
0.08400
0.0542923
0.08700
0.0596270
$------------------------------------------------------------
parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 2e+005
$Tyre vertical stiffness $
223
Tire Models
VERTICAL_DAMPING = 50
$Tyre vertical damping $
BREFF = 8.4
$Low load stiffness eff. rolling radius $
DREFF = 0.27
$Peak value of eff. rolling radius $
FREFF = 0.07
$High load stiffness eff. rolling radius $
FNOMIN = 1475
$Nominal wheel load
$-----------------------------------------------------------
load_curve
{pen
fz}
0.000
0.0
0.001
212.0
0.002
428.0
0.003
648.0
0.005
1100.0
0.010
2300.0
0.020
5000.0
0.030
8100.0
$------------------------------------------------------
long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN = -1.5
$Minimum valid wheel slip $
KPUMAX = 1.5
$Maximum valid wheel slip $
$-----------------------------------------------------
slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN = -1.5708
$Minimum valid slip angle $
ALPMAX = 1.5708
$Maximum valid slip angle $
$-----------------------------------------------
CAMMIN = -1.0996
$Minimum valid camber angle $
CAMMAX = 1.0996
$Maximum valid camber angle $
224 Adams/Tire
$-------------------------------------------------
FZMIN = 73.75
$Minimum allowed wheel load $
FZMAX = 3319.5
$Maximum allowed wheel load $
$--------------------------------------------------------------
scaling
LFZO = 1
$Scale factor of nominal load $
LCX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx shape factor $
LMUX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx peak friction
coefficient $
LEX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx curvature factor $
LKX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness $
LVX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx vertical shift $
LGAX = 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fx $
LCY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy shape factor $
LMUY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy peak friction
coefficient $
LEY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy curvature factor $
LKY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy cornering
stiffness $
LCC = 1
$Scale factor of camber shape factor $
LKC = 1
$Scale factor of camber stiffness (K-
factor) $
LEC = 1
$Scale factor of camber curvature
factor $
LHY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift $
LGAY = 1
$Scale factor of camber force stiffness
$
LTR = 1
$Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic
trail $
LRES = 1
$Scale factor of Peak of residual
torque $
225
Tire Models
LGAZ = 1
$Scale factor of camber torque
stiffness $
LXAL = 1
$
LYKA = 1
$Scale factor of kappa influence on Fy
$
LVYKA = 1
$Scale factor of kappa induced Fy $
LS = 1
$Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx $
LSGKP = 1
$
LSGAL = 1
$
LGYR = 1
$Scale factor of gyroscopic torque $
LMX = 1
Scale factor of overturning couple $
LVMX = 1
$Scale factor of Mx vertical shift $
LMY = 1
$Scale factor of rolling resistance
torque $
$---------------------------------------------------------
longitudinal
PCX1 = 1.7655
$Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force $
PDX1 = 1.2839
$Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom $
PDX2 = -0.0078226
$Variation of friction Mux with load $
PDX3 = 0
$
PEX1 = 0.4743
$Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom $
PEX2 = 9.3873e-005
$Variation of curvature Efx with load $
PEX3 = 0.066154
$
PEX4 = 0.00011999
$Factor in curvature Efx while driving $
PKX1 = 25.383
$
PKX2 = 1.0978
226 Adams/Tire
$Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with

load $
PKX3 = 0.19775
$
PVX1 = 2.1675e-005
$Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom $
PVX2 = 4.7461e-005
$Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load $
RBX1 = 12.084
$
RBX2 = -8.3959
$Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa $
RBX3 = 2.1971e-009
$Influence of camber on stiffness for Fx combined
$
RCX1 = 1.0648
$
REX1 = 0.0028793
$Curvature factor of combined Fx $
REX2 = -0.00037777
$Curvature factor of combined Fx with load $
RHX1 = 0
$Shift factor for combined slip Fx
reduction $
PTX1 = 0.83
$Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom $
PTX2 = 0.42
$Variation of SigKap0/Fz with load $
PTX3 = 0.21
$Variation of SigKap0/Fz with exponent of
load $
$----------------------------------------------------------
overturning
[OVERTURNING_COEFFICIENTS]QSX1 = 0
$Lateral force induced overturning
moment $
QSX2 = 0.16056
$Camber induced overturning moment $
QSX3 = 0.095298
$Fy induced overturning moment $
$--------------------------------------------------------------
lateral
PCY1 = 1.1086
$Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces $
PCY2 = 0.66464
$Shape factor Cfc for camber forces $
PDY1 = 1.3898
$Lateral friction Muy $
PDY2 = -0.0044718
$Exponent lateral friction Muy $
227
Tire Models
PDY3 = 0.21428
$Variation of friction Muy with squared
camber $
PEY1 = -0.80276
$Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom $
PEY2 = 0.89416
squared $
PEY3 = 0
$Asymmetric curvature Efy at Fznom $
PEY4 = 0
$Asymmetric curvature Efy with camber $
PEY5 = -2.8159
$Camber curvature Efc $
PKY1 = -19.747
$Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom $
PKY2 = 1.3756
$Curvature of stiffness Kfy $
PKY3 = 1.3528
$Peak stiffness factor $
PKY4 = -1.2481
$Peak stiffness variation with camber squared
$
PKY5 = 0.3743
$Lateral stiffness depedency with camber
squared $
PKY6 = -0.91343
$Camber stiffness factor Kfc $
PKY7 = 0.2907
$Vertical load dependency of camber stiffn.
Kfc $
PHY1 = 0
$Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom $
RBY1 = 10.694
$Slope factor for combined Fy reduction $
RBY2 = 8.9413
$
RBY3 = 0
$Shift term for alpha in slope Fy
reduction $
RBY4 = -1.8256e-010
$Influence of camber on stiffness of Fy combined $
RCY1 = 1.0521
$Shape factor for combined Fy reduction $
REY1 = -0.0027402
$Curvature factor of combined Fy $
REY2 = -0.0094269
$Curvature factor of combined Fy with load $
RHY1 = -7.864e-005
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction $
RHY2 = -6.9003e-006
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load
$
228 Adams/Tire
RVY1 = 0
$Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz
at Fznom $
RVY2 = 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load $
RVY3 = -0.00033208
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber $
RVY4 = -4.7907e+015
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha $
RVY5 = 1.9
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa $
RVY6 = -30.082
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa) $
PTY1 = 0.75
$Peak value of relaxation length Sig_alpha
$
PTY2 = 1
$Shape factor for Sig_alpha $
PTY3 = 0.6
$Value of Fz/Fznom where Sig_alpha is
maximum $
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
QSY1 = 0.01
$Rolling resistance torque coefficient $
QSY2 = 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on
Fx $
QSY3 = 0
speed $
QSY4 = 0
speed^4 $
$-------------------------------------------------------------
aligning
QBZ1 = 9.246
$
QBZ2 = -1.4442
$Variation of slope Bpt with load $
QBZ3 = -1.8323
$Variation of slope Bpt with load squared $
QBZ4 = 0
$Variation of slope Bpt with camber $
QBZ5 = 0.15703
$
QBZ9 = 8.3146
$Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr $
QCZ1 = 1.2813
$Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail $
229
Tire Models
QDZ1 = 0.063288
$Peak trail Dpt = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0) $
QDZ2 = -0.015642
$Variation of peak Dpt with load $
QDZ3 = -0.060347
$Variation of peak Dpt with camber $
QDZ4 = -0.45022
$Variation of peak Dpt with camber squared $
QDZ6 = 0
$Peak residual torque Dmr = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
$QDZ7 = 0
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with load
$
QDZ8 = -0.08525
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber $
QDZ9 = -0.081035
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber and
load $
QDZ10 = 0.030766
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber
squared $
QDZ11 = 0.074309
$Variation of Dmr with camber squared and load
$
QEZ1 = -3.261
$Trail curvature Ept at Fznom $
QEZ2 = 0.63036
$Variation of curvature Ept with load $
QEZ3 = 0
squared $
QEZ4 = 0
$Variation of curvature Ept with sign
of Alpha-t $
QEZ5 = 0
$Variation of Ept with camber and sign
Alpha-t $
QHZ1 = 0
$Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom $
QHZ2 = 0
$Variation of shift Sht with load $
QHZ3 = 0
$Variation of shift Sht with camber $
QHZ4 = 0
$Variation of shift Sht with camber and
load $
SSZ1 = 0
$Nominal value of s/R0: effect of Fx on
Mz $
SSZ2 = 0.0033657
$Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom $
SSZ3 = 0.16833
$Variation of distance s/R0 with camber $
SSZ4 = 0.017856
230 Adams/Tire
$Variation of distance s/R0 with load and

camber $
QTZ1 = 0
$Gyroscopic torque constant $
MBELT = 0
$Belt mass of the wheel -kg- $
231
Tire Models
521-Tire Model
Overview
The 521-Tire model is a simple model that requires a small set of parameters or experimental data to
simulate the behavior of tires.
This chapter includes the following sections:
• About 521-Tire
• Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behaviour
• Force Calculations
• Converting Slip Ratio Data to Velocity Data
• Contact Methods
• 521-Tire Tire and Road Property Files
About 521-Tire
The 521-Tire is the first tire model incorporated in Adams. The name “521” (actually “5.2.1”) refers to
the version number of Adams/Tire when it was first released.
The slip forces and moments can be calculated in two ways:
• Using the Equation method
• Using the Interpolation method
Two dedicated contact methods exist for the 521-Tire:
• Point Follower, used for Handling analysis models
• Equivalent Plane Method, used for 3D Contact analysis models
Any combination of force and contact method is allowed.
The road data files used for the 521-Tire are unique and cannot be used in combination with any other
Handling tire model. The 521 road file format is described in Road Data File 521_pnt_follow.rdf.
Note that the capability and generality of the 521-Tire have been superseded by other, newer tire models,
described throughout this guide. We’ve retained the 521-Tire model primarily for backward
compatibility. We recommend that you use other tire models for new work.
Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behaviour

232 Adams/Tire
wheel rotational velocity Ω , and the loaded rolling radius Rl:
V sx = V z – ΩR 1
V sy = V y
V sx V sy
κ = – -------- and tan α = ---------
Vx Vx
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle α is limited to 90 degrees and the longitudinal slip κ in
Lagged longitudinal and lateral slip quantities (transient tire

behavior)
system is used both for the longitudinal slip κ as the side slip angle, α . Considering the tire belt as a
233
Tire Models
1 dv
------
v
--------1 + ------1 = tan ( α ) + aφ
V x dt σ α
can be transformed to:
dv 1
σ α -------- + V x v 1 = – σ κ V sx
dt
du 1
σ α -------- + V x u 1 = – σ κ V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities, κ ′ and α ′ are defined based on the tire deformation:
234 Adams/Tire
u1
κ' = ------ sin ( V x )
σκ
v1
α' = atan ------
σ α 
These practical slip quantities κ ′ and α ′ are used instead of the usual κ and α definitions for steady-
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are read from the tire property file, see Tire Property File
521_equation.tir and 521_interpol.tir
Force Calculations
You can use the 521-Tire model for handling and durability analyses.
Directional Vectors for the Application of Tire Forces and Torques at the Center of the Tire-Road
Surface Contact Patch
The forces act along the directional vectors. From the tire spin vector and various information you supply
in the tire property and the road profile data files, Adams/Tire determines the positions and orientations
of the tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal directional vectors. Figure 3 shows these directional vectors.
The tire vertical force acts along the vertical directional vector, the tire aligning torque acts about the
same vector, the tire lateral force acts along the lateral directional vector, and the tire longitudinal force
acts along the longitudinal directional vector. At this point, Adams/Tire determines the force directions
as if it were going to apply the tire aligning torque and all of the tire forces at the center of the tire-road
surface contact patch.
235
Tire Models
The tire-road surface contact patch may deflect laterally. Adams/Tire calculates the lateral deflection in
the direction (and with the sign) of the lateral force. The magnitude of the deflection is equal to the lateral
force divided by the tire lateral stiffness you provide in the tire property data file.
The tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal forces are forces in the tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal
directions (as determined at the tire-road surface contact patch). The tire aligning torque is a torque about
the tire vertical vector. The vehicle durability force has components in both the tire vertical and the tire
longitudinal directions.
Normal Force
The tire normal force Fz is calculated based on the tire deflection and radial velocity. A progressive
spring and linear damping constant are employed:
F z = F stiff – F damp
where Fstiff is tire stiffness force and Fdamp is tire damping force. The vertical stiffness force is calculated
from:
θ
F stiff = K z δ
where Kz is the tire vertical stiffness, δ is tire deflection, and θ is the stiffness exponent. The tire
damping force is calculated from:
F damp = C z × RadialVelocity
where Cz is the tire damping constant.
The damping constant is reduced for small tire deflections, which are below 5% of the unloaded tire
radius.
The tire vertical stiffness can also be described using a spline function (force versus deflection) in the
Adams dataset. The user array is used to switch between tire property file stiffness and spline stiffness.
If the first value in the user array is equal to '5215', the spline vertical stiffness is used. The second value
of the user array refers to the ID of the spline. The message, 'Using spline data for the vertical spring', is
shown in the message file. If the first value in the user array is not equal to '5215', the tire property file
stiffness is used.
The following is an example of using the spline vertical stiffness:
! adams_view_name='spline_vertical_stiffness'
SPLINE/10
, X = -1,0,10,30
, Y = 0,0,2000,6000
!
! adams_view_name='wheel_user_array'
ARRAY/102
236 Adams/Tire
, NUM=5215,10
Another option for having a non-linear tire stiffness is to introduce a deflection-load table in the tire
property file in a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]. See 521-Tire Tire and Road Property
Files on page 20. If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection
datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force
of the tire.
Longitudinal Force
The tire longitudinal force Fx can have up to three contributions:
• Traction/braking force
• Rolling resistance force
• Durability force (in case of durability contact)
Traction/Braking Force
Traction force is developed if the vehicle is starting to move and a braking force if the vehicle is
beginning to stop. In either case, the absolute magnitude of the force is calculated from:
F x = µF z
where the friction coefficient µis a function of the longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the contact patch.
Note that this is somewhat unusual, since all the other Handling tire models in Adams/Tire assume that
the longitudinal force Fx is a function of the slip ratio.
Schematic of Friction Coefficient Versus Local Slip Velocity
237
Tire Models
The µcurve as a function of longitudinal slip velocity is created using standard Adams STEP functions
(see body 4 on page 10). You have to specify two points on the curve to define this characteristic:
• The coordinates of the curve at µstatic: (velocity µstatic, µstatic)
• The coordinates of the curve at µdynamic: (velocity µdynamic, µdynamic)
The friction values may be available to you as function of slip ratio instead of slip velocity. Converting
Slip Ratio Data to Velocity Data on page 16 explains how the slip ratios can be converted to slip
velocities.
Rolling Resistance Force

Rolling resistance Moment My is calculated from:
M y = coef rr ⋅F z
where coefrr is the rolling resistance coefficient that should be supplied in the tire property data file.
Durability Force
Durability force, sometimes known as radial planar force, is a special kind of tire vertical force. It is the
durability force that resists the action of road bumps. This force acts along the instantaneous vertical
directional vector calculated by Adams/Tire. The Adams/Tire durability tire forces are limited to two-
dimensional forces that lie in the plane of the tire and are directed toward the wheel-center marker.
Adams/Tire superimposes these forces upon any traction or lateral forces developed in the tire-road
surface interaction.
238 Adams/Tire
You must select the Equivalent Plane Method for generating these durability forces.
Lateral Force and Aligning Torque

Two methods exist for calculating the lateral force Fy and self-aligning moment Mz:
• Interpolation Method
• Equation Method
Interpolation Method
The AKIMA spline is employed to calculate Fy and Mz as a function of the slip angle α, camber angle γ,
and vertical load Fz. You should provide the data in the SAE axis system.
Note that the slip angle α and vertical load Fz input for the force and moment calculation of Fx, Fy, Mx,
My, and Mz are limited to minimum and maximum values in the input to avoid unrealistic extrapolated
values.
Equation Method
The Equation Method uses the following equation to generate the lateral force Fy:
–Kα α
F y = – ( µstat F z ⋅( 1 – e ) ⋅sign ( α ) )
where Kα denotes the tire cornering stiffness coefficient.
The aligning moment Mz is calculated using the pneumatic trail t according to:
M z = – t ⋅F y
while the pneumatic trails are calculated with half the contact length a:
1 –K α
t = --- ⋅a ⋅e α
3
2 2
a = R0 – R1
with R0 and Rl are, respectively, the unloaded and loaded tire radius.
Overturning Moment
In both methods, the overturning moment Mx calculation is based on the lateral tire force Fy, the lateral
tire stiffness Ky, and the vertical load:
239
Tire Models
Fy
M x = ------ F z
Ky
Tire Lateral Force as a Function of Slip Angle
• The contribution of the camber γ is disregarded in the Equation Method.

• The cornering stiffness equals – µstat F z K a .
Combined Slip of 5.2.1

The combined slip calculation of the 5.2.1. is using the friction ellipse and is similar to the combined slip
calculation of the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models.
Inputs:
• Dimensionless longitudinal slip κ (range -1 to 1) and side slip angle α in radians

• Longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy calculated using the equations of 521-Tire
• The vertical shift of Fy,a=0 is Fy calculated at zero slip angle
Output:
• Adjusted longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy incorporates the reduction due to combined
slip:
 k 
• β = acos ------------------------------
 k 2 + sin α 2
Friction coefficients:
240 Adams/Tire
Fx F y – F y, α = 0
µx, act = ----- µy, act = ------------------------------
Fz Fz
1 tan β
µx = ---------------------------------------------------- µy = ---------------------------------------------------
1 2 tan β2
------------- 1 2  tan β 2
---------
+ ----------- - + -------------
µx, act µstat  µstat µy, act
Forces corrected for combined slip conditions:
µx µy
F x, comb = ------------- F x F y, comb = ------------- ( F y + F y, α = 0)
µx, act µy, act
Due to the lateral deflection of the tire patch, the aligning moment under combined slip conditions
increases by the effect of the longitudinal force Fx and the lateral tire stiffness Ky:
F y, comb
M z, comb = M z, pure + F x, comb ⋅------------------
Ky
and the overturning moment uses the lateral force for combined slip:
F y, comb
M x, comb = ------------------ F z
Ky
Smoothing
When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of USE_MODE in the tire property file, Adams/Tire
smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of the simulation. The longitudinal
force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See STEP in the
Adams/Solver online help.)
• Longitudinal Force Fx = SFx.
• Lateral Force Fy = SFy
• Overturning moment torque Mx = SMz
• Aligning torque Mz = SMz
Changing the Operating Mode: USE_MODE

You can change the behavior of the tire model by changing the value of USE_MODE in the [MODEL]
section of the tire property file. If USE_MODE equals zero, or when it is absent, the smoothing time
equals 0.001 seconds and the
521-Tire model is compatible with the previous Adams/Solver implementation.
241
Tire Models
By selecting a value of USE_MODE between 1 and 4, smoothing and combined slip correction can be
switched on and off, as shown in Table 1. The smoothing time equals 0.1 seconds for these values of
USE-MODE.
USE_MODE: Smoothing: Combined slip correction:

1 off off
2 off on
3 on off
4 on on
Converting Slip Ratio Data to Velocity Data

Adams/Tire requires that you enter the velocities that correspond to µstatic and µdynamic. You will often
obtain this information as the coefficient of friction versus slip ratio. You can calculate the velocities
required by Adams/Tire from the coefficient of friction versus slip ratio curve in the following way:
ωa – ωf
κ = ------------------
ωf
where:
• κ = Slip ratio
• ωf = Free rolling rotational velocity (no slip)
• ωa = Actual rotational velocity
Kinematic relationships between translational and rotational velocities and the effective rolling radius
give:
V x – V sx
ωa = ---------------------
Re
Vx
ωf = ------
Re
where:
• V sx = Contact patch velocity reletive to road surface

• V x = Actual longitudinal velocity
• R e = Effective rolling radius
242 Adams/Tire
Substituting these relationships into the original slip ratio equation with some cancelling of variables
gives:
V sx
κ = – --------
Vx
Therefore:
V sx = – V x κ
During testing for the coefficient of friction as a function of slip ratio, the longitudinal velocity Vx is held
constant. Therefore, you can obtain Vsx, the relative velocity of the contact patch with respect to the road
surface, from the test data curves for the static and dynamic values of friction.
Contact Methods
For handling analyses (which use a flat road surface profile), the 521-Tire model uses the point-follower
contact method. For durability analyses (which use uneven road surface profiles), the Equivalent Plane
Method yields the instantaneous tire radius directly, while finding the new road surface orientation
vector.
About the Point-Follower Method

The point-follower contact method assumes a single contact point between the tire and road. The contact
point is the point nearest to the wheel center that lies on the line formed by the intersection of the tire
(wheel) plane with the local road plane.
The contact force computed by the point-follower contact method is normal to the road plane. Therefore,
in a simulation of a tire hitting a pothole, the point-follower contact method does not generate the
expected longitudinal force.
About the Equivalent Plane Method

521-Tire uses the Equivalent Plane method to reorient the vertical road surface vector, which gives the
direction of the vertical force, and to calculate the new tire radius. To do this, a new smooth road surface
is generated at an angle calculated such that only the shape of the tire is different (see body 6 on page 18).
Equivalent Plane Method
243
Tire Models
Both the deflected tire area and its centroid remain unchanged. The vector between the deflected area
centroid and the wheel-center marker then determines the orientation of the. vertical vector
perpendicular to the road surface.
The Equivalent Plane method is best suited for relatively large obstacles because it assumes the tire
encompasses the obstacle uniformly. In reality, the pneumatics and the bending stiffness of the tire
carcass prevent this. The result is an uneven pressure distribution and possibly gaps between the tire and
the road. If the obstacle is larger than the tire contact patch (such as a pothole or curb), the uniform
assumption is good. If the obstacle is much smaller than the tire patch, however (such as a tar strip or
expansion joint), the assumption is poor, and the Equivalent Plane method may greatly underestimate the
durability force.
Definition of Equivalent Plane Parameters
244 Adams/Tire
When using the Equivalent Plane method the following parameters need to be specified in the tire
property file:
Equivalent_plane_angle
Specifies the subtended angle (in degrees) bisected by the z-axis of the wheel-center marker, as shown
in Figure 7. This angle determines the extent of the road the tire can envelop. The value of the
equivalent_plane_angle must be between 0 and 180 degrees.
Equivalent_plane_increments
Specifies the number of increments into which the shadow of the tire subtended section is divided, as
shown in Figure 7.
521-Tire Tire and Road Property Files
This section contains four example input data files. For reference, the files are called:
• 521_equation.tir
• 521_interpol.tir
• 521_pnt_follow.rdf
• 521_equiv_plane.rdf
The first two files are tire property files, and the last two are road files. The file 521_equation.tir
illustrates the required format and parameters when you use the Equation method. The file
521_interpol.tir illustrates the Interpolation method. The two *.rdf files show how road data files must
be specified when either of the contact methods is used.
Tire Property File 521_equation.tir and 521_interpol.tir

You can select the method for calculating the normal force by setting the
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD parameter to either POINT_FOLLOWER (for the Point Follower
245
Tire Models
method) or EQUIVALENT_PLANE (for the Equivalent Plane method). See Contact Methods on page
17 for details on these methods.
You can select the method for calculating the lateral force by setting the LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD
parameter to either INTERPOLATION or symbol. See Lateral Force and Aligning Torque on page 11
for details on these calculation methods.
The following table specifies how some of the parameter names used in the tire property file correspond
to parameters introduced in the equations that were presented in the previous sections.
Parameter in file: Used in equation: As parameter:

vertical_stiffness [10] Kz
vertical_damping [11] Cz
lateral_stiffness [18] Ky
cornering_stiffness_coefficient [6] Kα
Mu_Static Figure 4 µstatic
Mu_Dynamic Figure 4 µdynamic
Mu_Static_velocity Figure 4 velocity µstatic
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity Figure 4 velocity µdynamic
rolling_resistance_coefficient [13] coeffrr
vertical_stiffness_exponent [141] Note: If you do not specify
vertical_stiffness_
exponent in the tire
property file, 521-Tire
uses the default value of
1.1.
521-equation.tir
The 521-equation.tir example tire property file starts here.
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
--MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 3.0
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
246 Adams/Tire
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'rad'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'second'
$--------------------------------------------------------------------
-----model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12341234
! -------------------------------------------------------------------
-----
! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient X X X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = '5.2.1'
FUNCTION_NAME = 'TYR913'
USE_MODE = 12
$--------------------------------------------------------------------
-dimension
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 195.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.70
RIM_RADIUS = 195,0
RIM_WIDTH = 139.7
$--------------------------------------------------------------------
-parameters
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD = EQUIVALENT_PLANE
LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD = EQUATION
!
vertical_stiffness = 206.0
vertical_stiffness_exponent = 1.1
vertical_damping = 2.06
!
lateral_stiffness = 50
cornering_stiffness_coefficient = 50
!
Mu_Static = 0.95
Mu_Dynamic = 0.75
Mu_Static_Velocity = 3000
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity = 6000
!
rolling_resistance_coefficient = 0.01
!
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_ANGLE= 100
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_INCREMENTS= 50
!
247
Tire Models
521_equation.tir
The 521-interpol.tir example tire property file starts here. In addition to the file for 521_equation.tir, it
contains data that is used for calculating the lateral force and aligning moment, instead of using formula
6 to 9. Note that the [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] can also be used in the tire property file for the
Equation method.
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
--MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 3.0
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'rad'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'second'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12341234
! ------------------------------------------------------------------
------
! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient X X X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = '5.2.1'
FUNCTION_NAME = 'TYR913'
USE_MODE = 12
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
--dimension
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 195.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.70
RIM_RADIUS = 195,0
RIM_WIDTH = 139.7
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
--parameters
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD = POINT_FOLLOWER ! or EQUIVALENT_PLANE
248 Adams/Tire
LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD = INTERPOLATION ! or EQUATION

!
vertical_stiffness = 206.0
vertical_stiffness_exponent = 1.1
vertical_damping = 2.06
lateral_stiffness = 50
cornering_stiffness_coefficient = 50
!
Mu_Static = 0.95
Mu_Dynamic = 0.75
Mu_Static_Velocity = 3000
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity = 6000
!
rolling_resistance_coefficient = 0.01
!
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_ANGLE= 100
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_INCREMENTS= 50
!
!
!------------------CAMBER ANGLE VALUES-------------------------------
-----------
! Conversion
! No. of pnts factor(D to R) pnt1 pnt2 pnt3 pnt4 pnt5
!
CAMBER_ANGLE_DATA_LIST
5 0.017453292 -3.0 0.0 3.0 6.0 10.0
!
!------------------SLIP ANGLE VALUES---------------------------------
-----------
! Conversion
! No. of pnts factor(D to R) pnt1 ...... pnt9
!
SLIP_ANGLE_DATA_LIST
9 0.017453292 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0
-2.5 0.0 2.5
5.0 10.0 15.0
!
!-----------------VERTICAL FORCE VALUES------------------------------
-----------
! Conversion
! No. of pnts factor
! pnt1 pnt2 pnt3 pnt4 pnt5
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_DATA_LIST
5 4.448
200.0 600.0 1100.0 1500.0 1900.0
!
!-----------------ALLIGNING TORQUE VALUES----------------------------
-----------
! No. of pnts Conversion
! factor
!
249
Tire Models
! pnt1 .... pnt225

!
ALIGNING_TORQUE_DATA_LIST
225 -1355.7504
5.31 6.52 22.88 26.41 30.58

0.11 2.84 5.49 -3.92 -14.04
0.47 -12.44 -37.99 -67.22 -116.07
0.04 -21.38 -69.04 -111.44 -168.11
0.80 -3.70 -27.94 -44.25 -53.74
1.75 17.43 52.20 81.97 145.78
2.54 11.08 40.53 73.54 95.55
-1.28 0.02 14.82 2.93 10.35
1.59 -3.77 -17.17 6.60 -11.91
0.06 14.23 22.93 11.45 15.74

5.95 5.54 13.72 -1.65 -15.64
-1.29 -9.45 -26.98 -57.25 -107.71
-5.05 -17.73 -62.62 -109.03 -161.88
0.46 -2.48 -19.48 -33.54 -49.52
4.71 26.10 60.80 90.85 119.51
4.26 16.60 52.46 93.32 141.34
2.41 4.28 2.21 9.11 30.44
-0.92 0.22 12.61 2.51 -18.77
0.43 -4.62 15.36 7.16 11.70

6.70 15.92 0.14 -4.20 -11.81
-2.20 -5.53 -13.28 -47.48 -92.88
-1.39 -17.28 -52.17 -102.80 -161.71
2.87 -0.38 -14.27 -29.03 -42.42
6.99 24.54 66.06 93.27 126.38
7.10 18.78 58.20 104.51 156.39
1.63 2.91 8.33 20.32 42.09
-0.78 10.13 -9.94 -13.02 -11.95
5.62 4.36 23.16 38.03 8.73

2.31 6.41 14.10 6.03 -11.66
7.87 1.33 -16.31 -40.24 -82.58
1.40 -10.04 -50.94 -93.06 -157.50
2.10 0.56 -16.15 -27.15 -40.13
5.60 26.48 62.92 90.16 122.03
3.56 20.63 60.74 108.26 162.97
-0.08 1.81 14.39 34.98 59.72
1.38 -2.13 -2.42 -4.08 -2.72
3.69 1.71 29.06 10.05 11.38

3.09 7.15 -7.92 13.53 -5.78
6.08 0.38 -2.69 -32.10 -62.17
0.76 -7.65 -37.28 -89.05 -145.09
0.70 4.37 -7.59 -23.71 -28.49
5.92 34.39 72.55 92.88 129.34
4.36 29.81 76.70 118.91 180.59
-2.03 5.94 26.18 53.59 89.76
0.39 -5.52 -6.06 10.16 7.81
250 Adams/Tire
!-----------------LATERAL FORCE VALUES------------------------------

---------
! No. of pnt Conversion
! factor
! pnt1 .... pnt225
!
LATERAL_FORCE_DATA_LIST
225 4.448
234.08 585.56 1000.29 1307.77 1603.78

269.79 628.82 1040.78 1331.72 1624.83
213.70 565.29 974.49 1198.82 1387.74
150.79 452.18 752.21 885.23 960.13
11.52 50.58 199.87 199.50 208.75
-116.75 -367.42 -618.68 -683.16 -857.81
-224.15 -588.24 -1001.01 -1235.88 -1488.88
-242.08 -612.70 -1059.55 -1344.53 -1658.66
-213.99 -597.29 -988.14 -1343.86 -1689.35
234.40 572.75 981.30 1352.37 1698.90

239.27 647.77 1007.37 1357.22 1666.30
252.34 603.75 1033.50 1288.76 1483.64
167.55 481.45 826.41 962.64 1028.74
32.23 78.77 231.31 250.14 254.32
-122.59 -423.13 -552.58 -613.52 -607.61
-208.93 -576.28 -948.45 -1149.44 -1314.69
-261.05 -634.90 -1064.15 -1338.52 -1581.84
-241.50 -607.16 -1021.87 -1322.30 -1598.25
210.20 578.56 968.72 1344.05 1730.40

237.91 600.60 1025.67 1377.57 1733.03
226.60 629.48 1084.97 1354.12 1575.22
154.74 496.21 878.72 1028.03 1095.59
34.37 74.19 240.00 284.42 283.85
-130.29 -339.00 -509.04 -543.75 -555.05
-226.48 -557.52 -884.91 -1083.18 -1175.12
-270.70 -595.22 -1059.76 -1314.74 -1564.43
-254.64 -602.76 -1032.71 -1313.22 -1609.96
238.28 531.25 945.70 1305.28 1786.96

227.13 594.51 1038.87 1365.33 1733.29
221.76 633.49 1135.31 1375.28 1619.82
195.50 505.90 899.88 1059.92 1135.28
28.51 68.59 241.99 311.15 331.84
-145.10 -319.56 -464.11 -499.27 -500.83
-230.33 -548.99 -815.88 -991.78 -1108.36
-230.62 -597.10 -1009.76 -1261.43 -1504.09
-218.36 -570.13 -1049.72 -1344.94 -1589.60
228.49 564.69 954.06 1332.84 1687.50

221.19 595.52 1019.74 1378.35 1749.40
224.63 590.58 1108.01 1408.87 1707.09
178.96 474.70 918.87 1125.97 1242.75
42.58 65.26 230.69 306.58 428.45
251
Tire Models
-144.43 -290.91 -368.02 -398.98 -394.66

-224.99 -494.65 -761.78 -886.03 -941.20
-246.51 -563.13 -980.33 -1249.57 -1462.88
-239.34 -567.10 -1050.56 -1348.66 -1611.11
$-------------------------------------------------------------------
--
load_curve
{pen fz}
0.0 0.0
1.0 212.0
2.0 428.0
3.0 648.0
5.0 1100.0
10.0 2300.0
20.0 5000.0
30.0 8100.0
521-Tire Road Data Files

The road data files used with the 521-Tire are unique and cannot be used with any other tire model. The
data files are fully described by the following two examples.
Road Data File 521_pnt_follow.rdf

This example file shows that, if you use the Point Follower method and indicate it in the associated tire
property file, the road_profile_type parameter must be set to FLAT.
1. $-----------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
2. FILE_TYPE = ’rdf’
3. FILE_VERSION = 2.0
4. FILE_FORMAT = ’ASCII’
5. (COMMENTS)
6. {comment_string}
7. ’Example of 521-Tire, point follower flat road’
8. $----------------------------------------------------------------units
9. [UNITS]
10. LENGTH = ’mm’
11. FORCE = ’newton’
12. ANGLE = ’radians’
13. MASS = ’kg’
14. TIME = ’sec’
15. $-----------------------------------------------------------definition
252 Adams/Tire
16. [MODEL]
17. METHOD = ’5.2.1’
18. $-----------------------------------------------------------parameters
19. road_profile_type = FLAT
20. initial_height = 0
21. Road Data File 521_equiv_plane.rdf
The following example shows which data the road data file must contain if the Equivalent Plane method
is used and specified in the associated tire property file. The main difference with the road data file used
in association with the Point Follower method is that here the ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE parameter is set
to INPUT and a ROAD_INPUT_DATA_LIST is specified.
22. $---------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
23. FILE_TYPE = ’rdf’
24. FILE_VERSION = 2.0
25. FILE_FORMAT = ’ASCII’
26. (COMMENTS)
27. {comment_string}
28. ’Example of 521-Tire, equivalent plane method 2-D road’
29. $--------------------------------------------------------------units
30. [UNITS]
31. LENGTH = ’mm’
32. FORCE = ’newton’
33. ANGLE = ’radians’
34. MASS = ’kg’
35. TIME = ’sec’
36. $---------------------------------------------------------definition
37. [MODEL]
38. METHOD = ’5.2.1’
39. $---------------------------------------------------------parameters
40. ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE = INPUT ! or FLAT
41. INITIAL_HEIGHT = 0.000
42. !
43. ! if "ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE = INPUT" the road must be specified with a table
44. !
45. ROAD_INPUT_DATA_LIST
46. 23, 1
253
Tire Models
47. -10000.00, 0.00

48. 1740.00, 0.00
49. 1740.94, 1.92
50. (.... a number of columns were removed here for clarity)
51. 1892.40, 0.00
52. 40000.00, 0.00
254 Adams/Tire
Using FTire Tire Model

Learn about:
• About FTire
• Modeling Approach
• Using FTire with Road Models
• Using FTire with Adams
• Parameters
• About FTire Parameters
• Procedure for Parameterizing FTire
• List of FTire Parameters
• About the Tire Data File
• Choosing Operating Conditions
This help describes the Flexible Ring Tire Model (FTire)™, as it is invoked from Adams.
© Michael Gipser, Cosin Consulting
About FTire
The tire model, FTire (Flexible ring tire model), is a sophisticated tire force element. You can use it in
MBS-models for vehicle-ride comfort investigations and other vehicle dynamics simulations on even or
uneven roadways.
255
Tire Models
The main benefits of FTire are:

• Fully nonlinear.
• Valid in frequency domain up to 120 Hz, and beyond.
• Valid for obstacle wave lengths up to half the length of the contact patch, and less.
• Parameters, among others, are the natural frequencies and damping factors of the linearized
model, and easy-to-obtain global static properties.
• Models both the in-plane and out-of-plane forces and moments.
• Computational effort no more than 5 to 20 times real time, depending on platform and model
level.
• High accuracy when passing single obstacles, such as cleats and potholes.
• Applicable in extreme situations like many kinds of tire misuse and sudden pressure loss.
• Sufficiently accurate in predicting steady-state tire characteristics.
In contrast to other tire models, FTire does not need any complicated road data preprocessing. Rather, it
takes and resolves road irregularities, and even extremely high and sharp-edged obstacles, just as they
are defined.
We recommend that you visit www.ftire.com, to learn more about FTire theory, validation, data supply,
and application. Also, at the FTire Web site, you will be kept informed about the latest FTire
improvements, and how to receive them. In the download section, you will find a set of auxiliary
programs, called FTire/tools for Windows™. These tools help to analyze and parameterize an FTire
256 Adams/Tire
Model. FTire/tools is free for FTire licensees. It comprises static, steady-date, and modal analysis,
linearization, data estimation, identification and validation tools, road data visualization, and more. In the
site's documentation section, you will find a more detailed and permanently updated FTire
documentation, together with as some additional literature.
Modeling Approach
FTire uses the following modeling approach:
• The tire belt is described as an extensible and flexible ring carrying bending stiffnesses,
elastically founded on the rim by distributed, partially dynamic stiffnesses in radial, tangential,
and lateral directions. The degrees of freedom of the ring are such that rim in-plane as well as
out-of-plane movements are possible. The ring is numerically approximated by a finite number
of discrete masses, the belt elements. These belt elements are coupled with their direct neighbors
by stiff springs and by bending stiffnesses both in-plane and out-of-plane.
Belt In-Plane and Out-Of-Plane Bending Stiffness outlines in-plane and out-of-plane bending
stiffness placing. In-plane bending stiffness is realized by means of torsional springs about the
lateral axis. The torsional deflection of these springs is determined by the angle between three
consecutive belt elements, projected onto the rim mid-plane. Similarly, the out-of-plane bending
stiffness is described by means of torsional springs about the radial axis. Here, the torsional
deflection is determined by the angle between three consecutive belt elements, projected onto the
belt tangential plane. Note that in the figure, the yellow plates do not represent the belt elements
themselves, but rather the connecting lines between the elements.
Belt In-Plane (left) and Out-Of-Plane (right) Bending Stiffness
• FTire calculates all stiffnesses, bending stiffnesses, and damping factors during preprocessing,
fitting the prescribed modal properties (see list of data below).
257
Tire Models
• A number of massless tread blocks (5 to 50, for example) are associated with every belt element.
These blocks carry nonlinear stiffness and damping properties in the radial, tangential, and
lateral direction. The radial deflections of the blocks depend on the road profile, focus, and
orientation of the associated belt elements. FTire determines tangential and lateral deflections
using the sliding velocity on the ground and the local values of the sliding coefficient. The latter
depends on ground pressure and sliding velocity.
Note: Radial, tangential, and lateral are relative to the orientation of the belt element,
whereas sliding velocity is the block end-point velocity projected onto the road
profile tangent plane. By polynomial interpolation, certain precautions have been
taken not to let the ground pressure distribution mirror the polygonal shape of the
belt chain.
• FTire calculates all six components of tire forces and moments acting on the rim by integrating
the forces in the elastic foundation of the belt.
Because of this modeling approach, the resulting overall tire model is accurate up to relatively high
frequencies both in longitudinal and in lateral directions. There are few restrictions in its applicability
with respect to longitudinal, lateral, and vertical vehicle dynamics situations. FTire deals with large-
and/or short-wave-length obstacles. It works out of, and up to, a complete standstill, with no additional
computing effort nor any model switching. Finally, it is applicable with high accuracy in such delicate
simulations as ABS braking on extremely uneven roadways, and so on.
In a full 3D variant, FTire additionally takes into account belt element rotation and bending about the
circumferential axis. These new degrees of freedom enable FTire to use contact elements that are
distributed not only along a single line, but over the whole contact patch. You can choose the
arrangement of the contact elements to be either randomly distributed, or distributed along several
parallel lines.
In the full 3D variant, belt torsion about the circumferential axis is described by:
• Torsional stiffnesses between belt elements and rim, about circumferential axis (represented by
red torsion springs in the left side of the figure, Belt).
• Torsional stiffnesses between adjacent belt elements, about circumferential axis (represented by
blue torsion springs in the left side of figure, Belt).
The right side of the figure, Belt outlines the belt bending stiffness about the circumferential axis. This
is done in a somewhat simplified manner. Actually, lateral belt bending is taken into account by
introducing a parabolic shape function for each belt element. The curvature of this shape function is
treated as a belt elements’ additional degree of freedom.
Belt Torsional and Twisting Stiffness, and Belt Lateral Bending Stiffness
258 Adams/Tire
You should chose the full 3D variant, which takes about 30% more computing time, in situations where
a considerable excitation of tire vibrations in lateral direction is expected. This, for example, will happen
when the tire runs over cleats that are placed in an oblique direction relative to the tire rolling direction.
Similarly, such an excitation will happen when the tire is running over obstacles with large camber angle.
Optionally, FTire can take into account tire non-uniformity, that is, a harmonic variation of vertical or
longitudinal stiffness, as well as static and dynamic imbalance, conicity, ply-steer, and geometrical run-
out.
All stiffness values may depend on the actual inflation pressure. To take full advantage of that option, it
is necessary to provide basic FTire input data, such as radial stiffness data and natural frequencies at two
different pressure values. Actual inflation pressure is one of the ‘operating conditions variables,’ which
can be made time-dependent, and therefore, can be changed even during a simulation.
There are two more operating conditions: tread depth and model level. The latter signal allows you to
switch between the reduced variant of FTire (all contact elements are arranged in one single line near the
rim mid-plane), and the full 3D variant (contact elements cover the whole contact patch).
The kernel of the FTire implementation is an implicit integration algorithm (BDF) that calculates the belt
shape. The integrator runs parallel but synchronized with the Adams main integrator. By using this
specialized implicit BDF integrator, you can choose the belt extensibility so it is extremely small. This
also allows the simulation of an inextensible belt without any numerical drawbacks.
Using FTire with Road Models

FTire supports all MSC road definitions, including Motorsports and all 3D roads. It also supports several
customer-specific and third-party roads. For more information about available road descriptions, please
contact info@ftire.com.
259
Tire Models
Using FTire with Adams

FTire is a high-resolution tire model, with respect to road irregularities and tire vibration modes. To take
full advantage of that precision, we recommend that you choose a small step size for the Adams
integrator. There should be a minimum of 1,000 steps per one second simulation time (that is, an output
time step of 1 ms or less).
Controlling integrator step size in:
• Adams/Car
• Adams/Chassis
• Adams/View
• Adams/Solver
Controlling Integrator Step Size in Adams/Car

In Adams/Car, you can control the integrator step size by selecting:
Settings → Solver → Dynamics
and entering 1ms in the Hmax text box.
Alternatively, you can edit the driver control file (.dcf) that Adams/Car automatically generates when
performing a new dynamic maneuver. In that file, override the integrator step size, which is defined in
[EXPERIMENT] block, by entering the value 0.001 or less. After editing the file, you can launch
subsequent simulation experiments with the same driver's control (and, of course, the new integrator step
size) by selecting the following from Adams/Car:
Simulate → Full-Vehicle Analysis → DCF Driven → Driver Control Files → Browse
and selecting the .dcf you just edited.
Controlling Integrator Step Size in Adams/Chassis

In Adams/Chassis, you can control the integrator step size by setting the HMAX value to 0.001 or less.
HMAX is defined by selecting the following from Adams/Chassis:
System file → Properties → system_parameters → solver → hmax
Controlling Integrator Step Size in Adams/View

In Adams/View, you can control the integrator step size by checking:
Settings → Solver → Dynamics → Customized Settings
size, Min Step Size, and Max Step Size.
Controlling Integrator Step Size in Adams/Solver

In Adams/Solver, you can control the integrator step size by setting INTEGRATOR/HMAX to the
desired value in the Adams dataset (adm).
260 Adams/Tire
FTire Parameters
• About FTire Parameters
• Procedure for Parameterizing FTire
• Listing of FTire Parameters
About FTire Parameters

FTire parameters can be divided into several groups. There are parameters that define:
• Tire size and geometry
• Stiffness, damping, and mass distribution of the belt/sidewall structure
• Tire imperfections (non-uniformity, imbalance, conicity, and so on)
• Stiffness and damping properties of the tread rubber
• Friction characteristics of the tread rubber
• Numerical properties of the model
For convenience, FTire tries to use data that can be measured as easy as possible. As a consequence, the
number of basic data might be larger than the number of internal parameters defined by these basic
parameters.
For example, the following four parameters together, after preprocessing, actually result in only two
values used in FTire: compression and shear stiffness of the idealized blocks that represent tread rubber:
• tread_depth
• tread_base_height
• stiffness_tread_rubber
• tread_positive
Also, sometimes different combinations of parameters are possible. This is true especially for data of the
second group, which determine the structural stiffness and damping properties of FTire. Your choice of
which combination of parameters to supply depends on the types of measurements that are available and
their accuracy.
Moreover, it is possible to prescribe over-determined subsets of parameters. For example, you may define
the belt in-plane bending stiffness by prescribing the frequency of the first bending mode, and at the same
time the radial stiffness on a transversal cleat. Both parameters are strongly influenced by the bending
stiffness, but might contradict each other.
In such a case, FTire automatically recognizes that the system of equations to be solved is over-
determined, and applies an appropriate solver (Householder QR factorization) to determine the solution
in the sense of least squares fit. That means, FTire is looking for a compromise to meet both conditions
as much as possible. Users can control the compromise by optionally defining weights for the
contradicting conditions.
261
Tire Models
Note that, among others, FTire uses modal data to calculate internal structural stiffness and damping
coefficients. They are processed in such a way that the mathematical model, for small excitations, shows
exactly the measured behavior in the frequency domain. FTire is not a modal model, nor is it linear.
First Six Vibration Modes Of An Unloaded Tire With Fixed Rim
When parametrizing FTire, the bending mode frequencies rather sensitively influence the respective
bending stiffness. As an alternative, determining the radial stiffness both on a flat surface and on a short
obstacle (cleat) is an inexpensive and very accurate way to get both the vertical stiffness between belt
nodes and rim and the in-plane bending stiffness.
Other ways to determine the bending stiffness (and other data, as well) are to use the software tools
FTire/fit (time- and frequency-domain parameter identification) and FTire/estim (qualified parameter
estimation by comparison with a reference tire). For more information, see www.ftire.com.
Unfortunately, there is no direct analogy of the ‘radial stiffness on cleat’ measuring procedure to get the
out-of-plane bending stiffness. But this parameter does not seem to be as relevant as the in-plane bending
stiffness for ride comfort and durability. An indirect, but also very accurate, way to validate the out-of-
plane bending stiffness is to check resulting side-force and self-aligning characteristic. The cornering
stiffness, the pneumatic trail, as well as the difference between maximum side force and side force for
very large side-slip angles, are very sensitively determined both by the tread rubber friction characteristic
and by the out-of-plane bending stiffness. Similarly, the fourth mode (see figure, First Six Vibration
Modes Of An Unloaded Tire With Fixed Rim), being itself determined by the stiffness between belt nodes
and rim in lateral direction, very strongly influences the side-slip angle where maximum side force
occurs.
Procedure for Parameterizing FTire

A typical procedure to parametrize FTire might be:
1. Either from tire data sheets, by some simple and inexpensive measurements, or directly from the
tire supplier, obtain:
• Tire size, load index, and speed symbol
• Rolling circumference
• Rim diameter
• Tread width
• Tire mass
262 Adams/Tire
• Tread depth
• Rubber height over steel belt
• Shore-A stiffness or Young's modulus of tread rubber
• Tread pattern positive
2. Determine the natural frequencies and damping moduli of the first six modes, for an unloaded,
inflated tire, where the rim is fixed. Normally, you do this by exciting the tire structure with an
impulse hammer, measuring the time histories of at least four acceleration sensors in all three
directions, distributed along the tire circumference, and processing these using an FFT signal
analyzer. Optionally, repeat this step for a second inflation pressure value.
3. Determine the tire radial stiffness on a flat surface and on a short obstacle, for one or two inflation
pressure value(s).
4. Determine (or estimate) the lateral belt curvature radius from the unloaded tire's cross-section.
Determine the belt lateral bending stiffness to get a reasonable pressure distribution in the lateral
direction.
5. Determine (or estimate) tread rubber adhesion and sliding friction coefficients for ground
pressure values 0.5 bar, 2 bar, and 10 bar.
6. Take natural frequencies and damping moduli of modes 1, 2, and 4, together with the radial
stiffness on flat surface and on a cleat, for one or two inflation pressure value(s), as well as the
remaining basic data. These values result in a first, complete FTire input file for the basic variant
(belt circumferential rotation, twisting, and bending not taken in to account; all contact elements
are arranged in one line).
7. Let FTire preprocess these data. Compare the resulting additional modal properties of the model
with the modal data that are not used so far (modes 3, 5, and 6). If necessary, adjust the
preprocessed data to find a compromise with respect to accuracy.
8. If respective measurements are available, validate the data determined so far by means of side
force and aligning torque characteristics, and by measurements of vertical and longitudinal
force variations induced during rolling over cleats both with low and high speed. The validation
can be extended to a full parameter fitting procedure by using TIRE/fit, as mentioned earlier.
9. Estimate the following additional data that are only relevant for 'out-of-plane' excitation:
• Belt element torsional stiffness relative to rim (represented by red torsion springs between
yellow belt elements and gray rim in the figure, Belt)
• Belt twisting stiffness (represented by blue torsion springs between adjacent yellow belt
elements in the figure, Belt)
• Belt bending stiffness/damping about circumferential direction
• Belt lateral curvature radius
• Coupling coefficient between belt lateral displacement and belt rotation.
Start with the respective values of the sample data file. Then, adjust the values by fitting the model's
response to obliquely oriented cleats and handling characteristics for large camber angles at the same
time. This identification procedure can be made easier by using the the additional tool FTire/fit.
263
Tire Models
Clearly, the performance of this procedure is not very easy in practice. On the other hand, every tire
model that is accurate enough for ride comfort and durability calculations will need as much or even
more data.
List of FTire Parameters

The following is a comprehensive list of all mandatory and optional FTire parameters. However, many
items are explained in greater detail in the extended documentation to be downloaded from the restricted
area in www.ftire.com. You will receive your pass-code from info@ftire.com.
FTIRE_DATA Section Parameters
The parameter: Means:

tire_section_width Tire section width as specified in the tire
size designation (using length unit as
specified in the [UNITS] section).
tire_aspect_ratio Tire aspect ratio as specified in the tire size
designation. Unit is %.
rim_diameter Rim diameter as specified in the tire size
designation (using length unit as specified
in the [UNITS] section).
rim_width Inner distance between the two rim flanges.
load_index Load index of tire, as displayed in tire
service description.
tread_width Width of tread that comes into contact with
the road under normal running conditions
at LI load, without camber angle.
rolling_circumference Rolling circumference of tire under the
following running conditions:
Free rolling at v = 60 km/h and zero camber

angle
Vertically loaded by half of the maximum

load
The circumference is the distance traveled

with one complete wheel revolution.
tire_mass Overall tire mass.
inflation_pressure Inflation pressure, at which tire data
measurements have been taken.
264 Adams/Tire

inflation_pressure_2 Second inflation pressure, at which tire data
measurements have been taken (optional).
stat_wheel_load_at_10mm_defl Static wheel load of the inflated tire, when
it is deflected by 10 mm, with zero camber
angle, on a flat surface, during stand-still, at
very low friction value.
stat_wheel_load_at_20mm_defl Static wheel load of the inflated tire, when
angle, on a flat surface, during stand-still, at
very low friction value.
Note: Instead of using:
stat_wheel_load_at_10mm_defl
and
Note: You can equally define:
and
stat_wheel_load_at_40mm_defl.
Note: This will better fit typical
operating conditions of truck
tires. For extremely heavy
vehicles, there are even more
pairs of deflection values
predefined. These can be found at
the extended documentation at
www.ftire.com.
dynamical_stiffening Increase of the overall radial stiffness at
high speed as compared to radial stiffness
during standstill. Unit is %.
speed_at_half_dyn_stiffening Running speed at which dynamic stiffening
reaches half of the final value.
belt_extension_at_200_kmh Percentage of rolling circumference growth
at a running speed of 200 km/h = 55.55 m/s
= 124.3 mph, compared to low speed.
interior_volume Interior tire volume when the tire is
mounted on the rim and inflated with
inflation_pressure.
Note: This parameter is only needed if
you specify the next parameter
(volume_gradient) and it is
nonzero.
265
Tire Models

volume_gradient Relative decrease in volume, of a small tire
segment, when that segment is deflected
vertically.
Note: This parameter is optional and
only marginally affects the
model’s behavior.
rel_long_belt_memb_tension The percentage by which inflation pressure
forces in the belt region are compensated
with membrane tension in longitudinal
direction, as compared to the total
compensation in lateral and longitudinal
direction.
Note: This parameter is optional, and
can only be calculated using a
finite-element (FE) model, or
estimated by parameter
identification. A value of 70 to
80% seems to be appropriate for
many tires. The value will
increase with increasing belt
lateral curvature radius.
f1 First natural frequency: in-plane, rigid-
body rotation around wheel spin axis. Rim
is fixed. See the figure, First Six Vibration
Modes.
f2 Second natural frequency: rigid-body
movement in fore-aft direction. Rim is
fixed. See the figure, First Six Vibration
Modes.
f4 Fourth natural frequency: out-of-plane,
rigid-body rotation around road normal
axis. Rim is fixed. See the figure, First Six
Vibration Modes.
Note: f3 (out-of-plane, rigid-body
movement) is not needed because
it is closely related to f4.
At least one of:
f5 Fifth natural frequency: first in-plane
bending mode (quadrilateral-shaped). Rim
is fixed.
266 Adams/Tire

belt_in_plane_bend_stiffn In-plane bending stiffness of the belt ring of
deflated and unloaded tire.
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_cleat Static wheel load of the inflated tire, when
angle, on a cleat as specified below, during
stand-still. Cleat must be high enough that
the tire does not touch the ground apart
from the cleat. The cleat is oriented in the
lateral direction, perpendicular to the tire’s
rolling direction.
Note: For truck tires, you can specify
wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_
cleat, as well.
weight_f5 If you provide at least two of the data on the
weight_in_plane_bend_stiffn previous page to define the in-plane
weight_wheel_load_cleat bending stiffness, they constitute an over-
determined system of equations for the
respective FTire's internal stiffness values.
FTire will try to find a compromise. You
can control this compromise by setting
these weight values. Their relative size
controls, in a least-squares approach, the
contribution of the respective parameter. If
a weight is set to zero, the related parameter
is completely ignored.
Note: The weights are optional. Default
value is 1.
cleat_width Width of cleat that was used to determine
all parameters that require a cleat:
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cleat
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cl_lo
and so on.
Note: Parameter is optional. Default
value is 20 mm.
267
Tire Models

cleat_bevel_edge_width Bevel edge width (measured after
projection to x-y-plane) of cleat that was
used to determine all parameters that
require a cleat:
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cleat
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cl_lo
and so on.
Note: Parameter is optional. Default
value is 0 mm.
At least one of:
f6 Sixth natural frequency: first out-of-plane
bending mode (banana-shaped).
belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiffn Out-of-plane bending stiffness of the belt
ring of inflated but unloaded tire.
weight_f6 If you provide both data above (f6 and
weight_out_of_plane_bend_st belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiff) to define the
out-of-plane bending stiffness, they
constitute an over-determined system of
equations for the respective FTire's internal
stiffness values. FTire will try to find a
compromise. You can control the
compromise by setting these weight values.
Their relative size controls, in a least-
squares approach, the contribution of the
respective parameter. If a weight is set to
zero, the related parameter is completely
ignored.
value is 1.
D1 Damping of f1, between 0 and 1:
0 = undamped, ..., 1 = aperiodic limit case

D2 Damping of f2.
D4 Damping of f4.
Note: D5 and D6 cannot be prescribed,
but result from D1, D2, and D4.
268 Adams/Tire

belt_twist_stiffn Belt-twisting stiffness: if the mean torsion
angle relative to the rim is 0, the value is the
moment in longitudinal direction per 1
degree twist angle for a unit length belt
segment. This value is independent on the
number of belt segments.
Note: Only needed for full 3D variant.
Unit is force*length2/angle.
belt_torsion_stiffn Belt-torsional stiffness: if twist angle is 0,
the value is the moment in longitudinal
direction per 1 degree torsion angle relative
to rim, for a unit-length belt segment. This
value is independent on the number of belt
segments.
Note: Only needed for full 3D
variant.Unit is force/angle.
belt_torsion_lat_displ_coupl If belt twist angle is 0, value is the
kinematic belt torsion angle at 1 mm lateral
belt displacement.
Note: Optional, and only needed for full
3D variant. Unit is angle/length.
Default value is 0.
belt_lat_curvature_radius Curvature radius of belt cross section
perpendicular to mid-plane.
3D variant. Default value is
(nearly) infinity.
belt_lat_bend_stiffn Bending stiffness of belt elements about
circumferential direction.
3D variant. Unit is force*length2.
Default value is (nearly) infinity.
269
Tire Models

wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_lo_cl Wheel load at 10 mm deflection on
longitudinal cleat. Static wheel load of the
inflated tire, when it is deflected by 10 mm,
with zero camber angle, on a cleat as
specified above, during stand-still. Cleat
must be high enough that the tire does not
touch the ground apart from the cleat. The
cleat is oriented in longitudinal direction,
along foot-print centerline.
Note: This parameter is optional and
you can specify it instead of, or in
addition to, belt_lat_bend_stiffn.
For truck tires, if you specify
wheel_load_at_40_mm, FTire
looks for
wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_
lo_cl instead.
weight_lat_bend_st If you provide both data on the previous
weight_wheel_load_lo_cl page (belt_lat_bend_stiffn and
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_lo_cl) to
define the lateral belt bending stiffness,
they constitute an over-determined system
of equations for the respective FTire's
internal stiffness values. FTire will try to
find a compromise. You can control the
compromise by setting these weight values.
Their relative size controls, in a least-
squares approach, the contribution of the
related parameter. If a weight is set to zero,
the respective parameter is completely
ignored.
value is 1.
belt_lat_bend_damp Quotient of bending damping and bending
stiffness of belt elements about
circumferential direction.
3D variant. Unit is time. Default
value is 1 ms.
270 Adams/Tire

f1_p2 If measurements for a second inflation
f2_p2 pressure (inflation_pressure_2) are
f4_p2 available, these are the respective values of
f5_p2 the following taken at that pressure:
f6_p2
• f1
D1_p2
D2_p2 • f2
D4_p2 • f4
belt_in_plane_bend_st_p2
• f5
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_cl_p2
wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_cl_p2 • f6
belt_out_of_plane_bend_st_p2 • D1
belt_lat_bend_stiffn_p2
• D2
belt_twist_st_p2
belt_torsion_st_p2 • D4
• belt_in_plane_bend_stiffn
• wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_cleat
• wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_cleat
• belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiffn
• belt_lat_bend_stiffn
• belt_twist_stiffn
• belt_torsion_stiffn
Note: These data are optional.
tread_depth Mean groove depth in tread.
tread_base_height Rubber height over steel belt for zero tread
depth, which is the distance between steel
belt and grooves.
stiffness_tread_rubber Stiffness of tread rubber in Shore-A units.
tread_positive Percentage of gross tread contact area with
respect to overall footprint area (tread
pattern positive).
271
Tire Models

damping_tread_rubber Quotient of tread rubber damping modulus
and tread rubber elasticity modulus.
Note: Deflection/force phase-lag of
elastomers is often assumed to be
independent of excitation
frequency. This behavior is not
yet implemented in FTire;
instead, viscous damping is used.
The parameter
damping_tread_rubber is nothing
but the quotient of damper
coefficient and spring stiffness of
the coupling of blocks and belt.
For that reason, the parameter
carries the unit time.
sliding_velocity The sliding velocity of a tread rubber block,
when its friction coefficient reaches the
my_sliding values.
blocking_velocity The sliding velocity of a tread rubber block,
when its friction coefficient reaches the
my_blocking values.
low_ground_pressure The first of three ground-pressure values
that defines the pressure dependency of the
friction coefficient. Default value is 0.1 bar.
med_ground_pressure The second of three ground-pressure values
friction coefficient. Default value is 2 bar.
high_ground_pressure The third of three ground-pressure values
friction coefficient. Default value is 10 bar.
my_adhesion_at_low_p Coefficient of adhesion friction (which is
equal to static friction) between tread
rubber and road, at first ground pressure
value.
Note: For this parameter and the
parameters in the following eight
rows, you can still use the
parameter names
my_..._at_..._bar, used in the
previous FTire version. To avoid
confusion with the actual ground
pressure values, however, we
recommend you use the more
general names.
272 Adams/Tire

my_sliding_at_low_p Coefficient of sliding friction, at a sliding
velocity defined by parameter
sliding_velocity, between tread rubber and
road, at first ground pressure value.
my_blocking_at_low_p Coefficient of sliding friction, at a sliding
blocking_velocity, between tread rubber
and road, at first ground pressure value.
my_adhesion_at_med_p Coefficient of adhesion friction (which is
equal to static friction) between tread
rubber and road, at second ground pressure
value.
my_sliding_at_med_p Coefficient of sliding friction, at a sliding
sliding_velocity, between tread rubber and
road, at second ground pressure value.
static_balance_weight Weight that would have put up on the rim
horn for static balancing.
Note: Parameter is optional.
static_balance_ang_position The angular position at the rim where the
static balance weight would have been
placed.
dynamic_balance_weight One of the two equal weights that would
have been placed on the rim outer and inner
horns for dynamic balancing.
dynamic_balance_ang_position The angular position at the rim where the
left dynamic balance weight would have
been placed.
Note: This parameter is optional.
radial_non_uniformity Amplitude of the harmonic radial stiffness
variation as percentage of the mean radial
stiffness.
radial_non_unif_ang_position Angular position where radial stiffness
reaches its maximum.
Note: This parameter is optional.
273
Tire Models

tang_non_uniformity Amplitude of the harmonic tangential
stiffness variation as percentage of the
mean tangential stiffness.
tang_non_unif_ang_position Angular position where tangential stiffness
reaches its maximum.
conicity Small rotation angle of belt elements at
zero moment, about circumferential axis,
resulting in a conical shape of the unloaded
belt.
Note: Parameter is optional and can
only be used with the full 3D
variant. Nonzero conicity will
cause a small side-force without
side-slip angle. The sign of that
force is independent of the tire’s
rolling direction.
ply_steer_percentage Percentage of lateral belt displacement
relative to radial belt displacement, when a
radial force is applied.
Note: Ply-steer, besides conicity, is one
of the reasons for nonzero side
forces at zero side-slip angle. In
contrast to the conicity side-force,
this residual side force changes
sign when the tire rolling
direction is reversed.
run_out The maximum deviation of the local tire
radius from the mean tire radius. Run-out is
assumed to be a harmonic function of the
angular position.
run_out_ang_position The angular belt element position relative
to the rim, where maximum run-out occurs.
number_belt_segments Number of numerical belt segments.
Maximum value is 200, but can be changed
upon request.
number_blocks_per_belt_segm Number of numerical blocks (= contact
elements) per belt segment. Maximum
value is 50, but can be changed upon
request.
274 Adams/Tire

number_tread_strips Number of strips, into which the contact
points are arranged in the full 3D variant,
using an equal spacing.
Note: If value is greater than or equal to
1000, the contact points are
scattered randomly over the tread.
Alternatively, it is possible to
place tread elements according to
the actual tread pattern of the tire.
This is done by specifying a
bitmap file of the footprint. For
more information, see the
extended documentation at
www.ftire.com.
If you specify neither

number_tread_strips nor the
bitmap file, FTire uses the basic
FTire variant instead of the full
3D variant, regardless of the
model-level specification in the
operating_conditions section.
maximum_time_step Maximum integration time step allowed.
Note: You can call FTire with very
large time steps (if this makes
sense for your model). Internally,
FTire uses multi-step integration
with an internal time step that is
chosen on basis of
maximum_time_step. This
internal time step is kept constant
if the external time step does not
change.
Changing the external time step

can result in considerable longer
computation time, because certain
time-consuming preprocessing
calculations have to be repeated.
For that reason, you should avoid
changing the external time step
whenever possible.
275
Tire Models

BDF_parameter Numerical parameter to control the internal
FTire implicit (BDF) integration scheme,
which is independent of the Adams
integrator.
0 = Euler explicit
0.5 = Trapezoidal rule
1 = Euler implicit
Theoretically, every value between 0 and 1

are allowed. 0.505 or greater is
recommended.
About the FTire Tire Data File

As with all TeimOrbit files, entries in the [UNITS] block define the physical units of all parameters.
The basic parameters are preprocessed during initialization, resulting in the preprocessed parameters.
These parameters are saved in a separate TeimOrbit-style file, which can be used in further simulations
instead of the basic data file. By this, you can omit the preprocessing calculation phase, which may result
in a considerable saving of time.
This preprocessed data file is a copy of the original one; the preprocessed data are appended after the
bottom line, using a hexadecimal, space-saving coding. In contrast to earlier versions of FTire, it is
possible to use this file for parameter changes instead of the original one.
You should, of course, not change the hexadecimal data but only the readable part of the file. The
hexadecimal section does not only contain the preprocessed data, but a copy of the original one, as well.
Moreover, it carries coded information about the FTire version that was used for creation.
This information helps to automatically determine whether or not an update of the preprocessed data is
required. This means that whenever you change some basic data or you download a new FTire version,
preprocessing will be repeated automatically, and the preprocessed data file saved in your current
working directory. You can (and should) replace the FTire data file in your database with this one,
without any loss of information.
From www.ftire.com, you can download a tool (being a member of FTire/tools) to carry out
preprocessing outside of Adams.
The FTire interface routine automatically recognizes whether several wheels of the car share the same
basic data file. In that case, preprocessing is done only once for all these files. Also, FTire automatically
recognizes whether the data file contains basic parameters or pre-processed ones.
FTire does not use the data in the section [VERTICAL]. It is only included for compatibility with other
tire models. It is recommended that you set Vertical_Stiffness to the value of
276 Adams/Tire
stat_wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl, after dividing by 10 mm. For Vertical_Damping, choose 0 (or a small

nonzero value). The actual vertical damping of FTire is not just one single value, but will depend on
rolling speed, inflation pressure, load, camber, and so on.
The following is an examples of a basic FTire data file. Note that by far not all possible data are defined.
For examples, only data for one inflation pressure are provided.
$--------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE
= 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 4.0
FILE_FORMAT
= 'ASCII'
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire Manufacturer
- unknown'
'Tire Type
- unknown'
'Tire Dimension
- 195/65 R 15'
'Pressure
- 2.0 bar'
'File Generation Date - 03/03/11 10:32'
$-------------------------------------------------------------SHAPE
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.9
0.9 1.0
$-------------------------------------------------------------UNITS
[UNITS] FORCE = 'NEWTON'
MASS = 'GRAM'
LENGTH = 'MM'
TIME = 'MILLISECOND'
ANGLE = 'DEGREE'
$---------------------------------------------------------DIMENSION
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS =
326.0 $ [mm]
$----------------------------------------------------------VERTICAL
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS =
170.0 $ [N/mm]
VERTICAL_DAMPING =
0.0 $ [Nms/mm]
$-------------------------------------------------------------MODEL
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT =
'FTIRE'
$
separate_animation =
277
Tire Models
0
$ [0/1] additional_output_file =
0
$ [0/1]
verbose =
0
$ [0/1]
$----------------------------------------------OPERATING_CONDITIONS
[OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
inflation_pressure =
2.0
$ [bar]
tread_depth =
8.0
$ [m]
model_level =
7
$ [-]
$---------------------------------------------------------PARAMETER
[FTIRE_DATA]
$basic data and geometry *******************************************
tire_section_width =
195
$ [mm]
tire_aspect_ratio =
65
$ [%]
rim_diameter =
381
$ [mm]
rim_width =
152.4
$ [mm]
load_index =
91
$ [-]
rolling_circumference =
1975
$ [mm] tread_lat_curvature_radius = 800 $ [mm]
tread_width =
160
$ [mm]
tire_mass =
9000
$ [g]
interior_volume =
0.03e9 $ [mm^3]
volume_gradient =
1.0
$ [%/mm] belt_torsion_lat_displ_coupl =
0.0
$ [deg/mm]
$
278 Adams/Tire
$static and modal data for 1st infl. pressure ***********************

stat_wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl = 1690
$ [N] stat_wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl = 3600
$ [N]
dynamic_stiffening =
20
$ [%] speed_at_half_dyn_stiffening =
5.55
$ [mm/ms]=[m/s] radial_hysteretic_stiffening =
0
$ [%]
radial_hysteresis_force =
0
$
[N] tang_hysteretic_stiffening =
0
$
[%]
tang_hysteresis_force =
0
$ [N] belt_extension_at_200_kmh =
1.0
$ [%] rel_long_belt_memb_tension =
82.0
$ [%]
$
f1 =
62.1
$ in-plane rotat. [Hz]
f2 =
81.4
$ in-plane transl. [Hz]
f4 =
80.0
$ out-of-plane rotat. [Hz]
$
D1 =
0.05
$ in-plane rotat. [-]
D2 =
0.08
$ in-plane transl. [-]
D4 =
0.05
$ out-of-plane rotat. [-]
$
belt_in_plane_bend_stiffn =
2.0e6
$ [Nmm^2] belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiffn = 200.0e6 $ [Nmm^2]
belt_lat_bend_stiffn =
20.0e6 $ [Nmm^2]
belt_twist_stiffn =
1.0e6
$ [Nmm^2/deg] belt_torsion_stiffn =
279
Tire Models
100.0
$ [N/deg]
$
rim_flange_contact_stiffness = 3000.0
$ [N/mm] rim_to_flat_tire_distance =
30.0
$ [mm]
$
$tread properties **************************************************
tread_depth =
8.0
$ [mm]
tread_base_height =
3.0
$ [mm] stiffness_tread_rubber =
64
$ [Shore A]
tread_positive =
65
$ [%]
damping_tread_rubber =
0.025
$
[ms]
$
sliding_velocity =
0.1
$ [mm/ms]
blocking_velocity =
50.0
$ [mm/ms]
low_ground_pressure =
0.01
$ [bar]
med_ground_pressure =
2.0
$ [bar]
high_ground_pressure =
10.0
$ [bar]
mu_adhesion_at_low_p =
1.3
$ [-]
mu_sliding_at_low_p =
1.1
$ [-]
mu_blocking_at_low_p =
0.8
$ [-]
mu_adhesion_at_med_p =
1.3
$ [-]
mu_sliding_at_med_p =
1.0
280 Adams/Tire
$ [-]
mu_blocking_at_med_p =
0.8
$ [-]
mu_adhesion_at_high_p =
1.3
$ [-]
mu_sliding_at_high_p =
1.0
$ [-]
mu_blocking_at_high_p =
0.8
$ [-]
$
$tire imperfections ************************************************
static_balance_weight =
0.0
$ [g] static_balance_ang_position =
0.0
$ [deg] dynamic_balance_weight =
0.0
$ [g] dynamic_balance_ang_position =
0.0
$ [deg]
radial_non_uniformity =
0.0
$ [%] radial_non_unif_ang_position =
0.0
$ [deg]
tang_non_uniformity =
0.0
$ [%] tang_non_unif_ang_position =
0.0
$ [deg]
ply_steer_percentage =
0.0
$ [%] conicity =
0.0
$ [deg]
run_out =
0.0
$ [mm] run_out_angular_position =
0.0
$ [deg]
$
$measuring conditions **********************************************
inflation_pressure =
2.0
$ [bar]
rim_inertia =
0.25e9 $ [g*mm^2]
$
281
Tire Models
$numerical data ****************************************************

number_belt_segments =
80
$
number_blocks_per_belt_segm =
32
$
number_tread_strips =
8
$
maximum_time_step =
0.2
$ [ms]
BDF_parameter =
0.505
$ 0.5 ..
1.0 [-]
Choosing FTire Operating Conditions

You can control certain tire data during a simulation, without rerunning preprocessing. These parameters,
listed below, are called operating condition parameters:
• Inflation pressure - The operating condition value of inflation_pressure defines the actual,
possibly time-dependent inflation pressure, whereas the [FTIRE_DATA] value describes the
inflation pressure at which the remainder of the data measurements had been taken.
• Tread depth -The operating condition value of tread_depth defines the actual, possibly time-
dependent tread depth, whereas the [FTIRE_DATA] value describes the tread depth at which the
remainder of the data measurements had been taken.
• Model level - The operating condition value of model_level defines what variant of FTire is to
be used: the basic version (=6) or the full 3D version (=7). The list of possible variants will be
extended in the next release.
Also in the next FTire release, ambient temperature, will be added to the list of operating conditions.
To determine the actual operating conditions, FTire looks for the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
in the basic or preprocessed tire data file. If it does not find this section, or it does not contain the
respective definitions, FTire uses the data in the sections [FTIRE_DATA] or
[FTIRE_PREPROCESSED_DATA] as the measurement conditions.
In case the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS] is defined, FTire first tries to read a constant value
for each operating condition. This value may either be the same for all tires using the data file, or it can
have individual values for each such tire instance.
You can enter constant operating conditions as shown the table below.
282 Adams/Tire
OPERATING_CONDITIONS Section Parameters

inflation_pressure Actual inflation pressure, used for all FTire
instances that are parameterized by this
data file.
inflation_pressure_wheel_i Actual inflation pressure, used only for
FTire instance with GFORCE ID i. This
value overrides the inflation_pressure
value (i is to be replaced by a numerical
GFORCE ID value of the tire instance).
tread_depth Actual tread depth, used for all FTire
data file.
tread_depth_wheel_i Actual tread depth, used only for FTire
instance with GFORCE ID i. This value
overrides the tread_depth value (i is to be
replaced by the numerical GFORCE ID
value of the tire instance).
model_level Actual model level, used for all FTire
data file. In the current release, the
following model levels are implemented:
• 6: FTire basic version (three
degrees of freedom for each belt
element, one line of contact
elements.
• 7: FTire full 3D version (five
generalized degrees of freedom for
each belt element, several lines of,
or irregularly scattered, contact
elements).
model_level_wheel_i Actual model level, used for FTire instance
with GFORCE ID i. This value will
override the model_level value (’i’ is to be
replaced by the numerical GFORCE ID
value of the tire instance).
If no constant value is found, FTire looks for a table that is defining data points for operating condition
versus time. These data points then will be piecewise linearly interpolated with respect to simulation
time.
283
Tire Models
You enter such look-up tables as subsections of the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS]. These
subsections can each contain up to 200 data pairs, one pair per line. Every data pair consists of a value
for time and a corresponding value for the operating condition. Units are the same as for constant values.
Similarly as for constant values, tables which are valid for all tires, or individual tables for each instance
are allowed.
The names of these table subsections, with obvious meanings, are:
• (TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE)
• (TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_ i)
• (TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH)
• (TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH_WHEEL_ i)
• (TIME_TABLE_MODEL_LEVEL)
• (TIME_TABLE_MODEL_LEVEL_WHEEL_ i)
The following examples defines a sudden pressure loss (between 5 and 5.2 s of simulation time) in tire
with GFORCE ID 2. In addition, it specifies constant inflation pressure (2.2 bar) for the other tires, and
a certain, equal and constant extreme tread wear (0.1 mm every100 s) for all tires. Model level is chosen
to be the full 3D variant for all tires at any time:
$------------------------------------------------------
OPERATING_CONDITIONS
[OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
MODEL_LEVEL = 7
INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_1 = 2.2
(TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH)
0
8.0
100
7.9
(TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_2)
0
2.2
5
2.2
5.2
1.2
284 Adams/Tire
Note: If you use the preprocessed data file in subsequent simulations, don't forget to copy the
[operating_conditions] section from the basic data file manually into the preprocessed data
file. This is not done automatically, because tire operating conditions are not considered to
be part of the tire data.

Adams Tire Models

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Adams Tire Models

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Tire Models

Using the Fiala Handling Force Model

Fiala Tire Assumptions

Fiala Tire Inputs

Input for Calculating Tire Forces

Quantity: Description: Use by Fiala: Source:

Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behavior

Lagged longitudinal and lateral slip quantities (transient tire behavior)

Stretched String Model for Transient Tire behavior

Fiala Tire Force Evaluation

Normal Force of Road on Tire

• Fzk is the normal force due to tire vertical stiffness

The comprehensive slip ( S s α ):

U = U max – ( ( U max – U min ) ⋅S s α )

Fiala defines a critical longitudinal slip ( S critical ):

Case 1. Elastic Deformation State: |Ss| < S_critical

Case 2. Complete Sliding State: |Ss| > S_critical

Case 1. Elastic Deformation State: |Alpha| ≤ α critical

Rolling Resistance Moment

Case 2. Complete Sliding State: |Alpha| > α critical

Fiala Tire Carcass Shape

Fiala Tire Property File Format Example

'Test Date - XXXXXX'

Fiala Tire Contact Methods

Using the PAC2002Tire Model

When to Use PAC2002

PAC2002 and Previous Magic Formula Models

Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces

Axis Systems and Slip Definitions

Variable type: Name: Abbreviation: Unit:

Rolling resistance moment My

Longitudinal slip speed Vsx

Lateral slip speed Vsy

Definition of Tire Slip Quantities

Slip Quantities at Combined Cornering and Braking/Traction

The total tire spin ϕ is calculated using:

Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation

Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius

Effective Rolling Radius and Longitudinal Slip

To represent the effective rolling radius Re, a MF-type of equation is used:

in which ρ Fz0 is the nominal tire deflection:

and ρ is called the dimensionless radial tire deflection, defined by:

Normal Load and Rolling Radius Parameters

Name Used in Tire Property

Name Used in Tire Property

δ = max(0 , ½·width ·| tan( γ) | ) + Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottom)

Srim= ½·width - max(width , δ /| tan( γ) |)/3

Srim = width2 · | tan( γ) | · /(12 · Penrim)

Basics of the Magic Formula in PAC2002

Y ( x ) = D cos [ Carc tan { Bx – E ( Bx – arc tan ( Bx ) ) } ] (15)

Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions

Y ( x ) = D cos [ Carc tan { Bx – E ( Bx – arc tan ( Bx ) ) } ] (16)

in which Y(x) is the pneumatic trail t as function of slip angle α.

The Magic Formula and the Meaning of Its Parameters

Longitudinal slip κ [-]

Slip angle α [rad]

Inclination angle γ [rad]

Normal wheel load Fz [N]

Longitudinal force Fx [N]

The output variables are defined in the W-axis system of TYDEX.

Basic Tire Parameters

Nominal (rated) load Fz0 [N]

Nomenclature of the Tire Model Parameters

User Scaling Factors