S887 tax) CHEMISTRY Matters Pi ge} Marshall Cavendish TanYinToon * Chen Ling Kwong Education John Sadler ¢ Emily Clarefreer ca te eae en i Mata) Peete sme et ets Cees eos Pan PEt! SoU pet ee ere es affects our daily lives eee Ce Pern ee es eer een annotated diagrams make chemical oe net! Contains short text oF focusing questions designed to help students appreciate how theoretical concepts are derived a eee nae from experimental investigations. The text may also highlight em es experimental precautions or guide the student to think about the Chemistry out ofthe classroom. Pec secre cat A summary of key concepts at the end of each section Poe) eee een cena d Ree oh Seer Po coe Peo ees that reinforce learning and PeetePeasy ea ee et recollect key ideas. scence Tes pointers help students 10 by reminding them of prior eee escent difficult words. They also provide Pe eee et recollect difficult ideas. Concept Map © cnr ee examination-type questions end of each chapter to PR eae a Questions are categorised into Foundation’ and ‘Challeng Peete ead Sees that provide practice in Pan ee eee cy technology based activities to help Pree ere e ec eee ee ey indicates that more topic-related material can be found ested URLs is provided ar the back of the boo Poe eee eee eeu ocean at tee cn Seren ea Screen ene eee ed ee ne Ses er rn rer See Eee ss discussion, Contains Critical ee em eeContent Preface Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory Chapter 2 Measurement and &xperimental Techniques Chapter 3 purification and Separation Chapter 4 — Etements, Compounds and Mixtures Chapter 5 atomic Structure Chapter 6 —_jonic Bonding Chapter 7 Covalent and Metallic Bonding Chapter 8 writing Equations Chapter 9 ~The Mote Chapter 10 Chemicat Calculations Chapter 11 Acids and Bases © Chapter 12 satts Chapter 13 Oxidation and Reduction Chapter 14 Metals. Chapter 15 Etectrotysis. Chapter 16 The Periodic Table Chapter 17 Energy Changes Chapter 18 = Speed of Reaction Chapter 19 “Ammonia Chapter 20 The Atmosphere and Environment ‘Chapter 21 An Introduction to Organic Chemistry Chapter 22 auaries Chapter23 — Alkenes Chapter 24 Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids Chapter25 Macromolecules 350 389 a7 3e8, ‘.3 Glossary BPS Taploos Elementsenue ll Kinetic Particle Theory Sea ee REMC ORT RCT Co Living things like your pet cat and even you are made of matter, Nonliving things suc sa roll of CTO eC es eRe CO Non OTRO Comes Mes ee Cote cme ea Cea Cee ea OTe oC Te RTO enn Re ee ROT ee eee eee Hl SR Ream gee eee OC eee eee en Oe ees eC Oe Cee cao SV oe irae remeTe ee Ce rea Pee omc1.11 States of Matter Matter can exist as a solid, a liquid or a gas. These three forms of matter are called the states of matter. For example, water (liquid) ‘can exist as ice (solid) or water vapour (gas). ‘Most substances can exist in each of the three states of matter. Matter can change from one state to another due to changes in temperature and pressure. For example, on freezing, water ‘becomes ice; on boiling, water becomes water vapour. The three states of matter have very different properties as summarised in Table 1.1. hem-Aid 1. A vapour is a gas that exists at room temperature and pressure (tp). For example, ‘water vapour is inthe air we breathe. Vapour can be given off by aliquid even when ‘the liquid isnot boing. 2. Toindlcate the state ofa substance, we use the state symbols for solid, for liquid and 4 for gas or vapour. The state symbol aq is used for substances dissolved in ‘water. The state symbol is written within brackets and placed after the formula of the substance. [formula of substance La satesymbo! CaCO,(s) + 2HCKaq) —» CaCl(aq) + H,0() + CO,9) calcium hydrochloric calcium == water_—_ carbon carbonate acid chlorid dioxide name of substance ‘These state symbols are important when writing chemical equations. Questions 1. Name the different states of matter in which burning candle wax can exist. 2. Mercury is used in laboratory thermometers. At rt.p. (room “temperature and pressure), which state of matter does it exis1.2| Kinetic Particle Theory Did you know that air is made up of tiny particles that move around? The ‘dancing’ dust that you see in a beam of light is actually the result'of air particles moving gnd bumping into dust! Air particles are too small to be seen by our eyes, therefore we can only see the dust moving. ‘This explanation for ‘dancing’ dust is based on the kinetic particle theory. The kinetic particle theory states that all ‘matter is made up of tiny particles and that these particles are in constant, random motion. Moving particles have kinetic energy, hence the name kinetic particle theory. We shall now learn more about the kinetic particle theory. The kinetic particle theory © describes the states of matter, © explains the differences in the properties of solids, liquids and gases, © explains the changes of state. ‘Dancing’ dust Is evidence that particles of air are moving about constantly. What other everyday observations prove that particles of matter are in constant motion? [— sereen ‘cous ep sog anu [et Lt beam of light hem-Aid ‘The word ‘kinetic’ refersto ‘motion. For example, ‘kinetic energy’ isthe energy of a ‘moving object.BO cic According to the kinetic particle theory, the particles of a solid are closely packed in an orderly pattern (Fig. 1.1). Why does a solid have a fixed shape and a fixed volume? ‘The particles of a solid are held together by very strong forces COR te lao Ree On NAM aN re smn eu ete ea tsa ne a DUO ORO ECL Tat ES Re Ua ke eee ee cS cet very close to one another. Thus, a solid also has a fixed volume. Trae Bere ae eR eo a etc eea ee aes _ liquid with that of the solid in Fig. 1.1. In a liquid, there is more Rta cs oo CCR me Ree TT ee DCR nee seer Se aie ee ent cg ea eee ORICA ec ee a disorderly manner and can move freely by sliding Ce a ane ee ee aaa SUC ree tree ea ce a pares eee eect COTA eae ee SRN aU co ae ee Particles in a solid. However, the particles of a liquid Bae pa quite closely together. Thus, a liquid cannot be a volume,The Gaseous State Dre ene Gn Mena eon acca ct ee ees eer ——————————— be ai | Plrs Fig. 1.3 Gas particles are far apart. ee ea eT 4 ——- See ie = | Fig. 1.4 Gat particles become closer together. DS aR ee Bits eugete oscuro cert Neuen pee emo acute eae ars Fig, 1.3. This is because the forces of attraction between the particles are Roses coon nr momma arte am ca ae Patent aces ee Mon ire eter) are not held in fixed positions. They can move about rapidly in any direction, Thus, a gas has no fixed sha ratte Sacer oe ene them as compared to particles of liquids or solids. 5 Seng ete ree ca te oan Ae P Peg cM ceo oT akc ceca tz Ce pressiir@ is applied as shown in Fig, 1,4. In oth ‘words, the particles of a gas can be forced to move bic adore RS eg Ose SO ee Ree ceo eee ae Denese a ale ae ret aeee eerie tl Tet oi Ee Use the internet to three-| freezing point of naphthalene Q- During the + Energy i absorbed by particles in the liquid. + The particles gain kinetic energy and start to move faster as the temperature rises. P-Q: liquid cools From point P to point Q, the temperature of naphthalene drops until it reaches point Q, the freezing point of naphthalene. At point Q, liquid naphthalene starts to freeze and change into a solid. iqui 3 freezing process, the temperature of naphthalene remains the same even though int Ral th cooling continues. This is because heat enerays__ | navhahatene har solidified released as the particles are attracted to each other | The temperature of solid to form a solid. This heat energy is completely naphthalene continues to given out to the surroundings. A mixture of liquid and solid naphthalene exists here The temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid is called its freezing point. Heat energy is given out during the cooling process. How does the temperature of a liquid change when it cools? ‘We can use naphthalene to study how temperature changes when a liquid cools. Solid naphthalene is first melted. Liquid naphthalene is then allowed to cool in air using the set-up shown in Fig. 1.11 ‘The temperature of cooling naphthalene is recorded at half-minute intervals until all the naphthalene has solidified. When temperature is plotted against time, the graph in Fig. 1.12 is obtained. This graph is known as the cooling curve of naphthalene. A cooling ‘curve shows how the temperature of a pure liquid changes as it is cooled to its freezing point. R-S: solid cools drop as itis allowed to cool. Fig. 1.12 Cooling curve of naphthalene Time (min) Boiling When a substance changes from a liquid to @ gas at the boiling temperature, we say that itis boiling. What happens to the particles of a liquid that is heated until it boils? e ‘Eventually, the particles throughout * the liquid have enough energy to a overcome the forces holding them heat (© ‘together. +The particles can now spread far apart and move rapidly in all directions. + The substance is now a gas. Fig. 1.13 Effect of boling on the particles of a iquidThe temperature at which a liquid boils to become a gas is called its boiling point. Different substances have different boiling points. Table 1.3 shows the boiling points of some common substances at normal atmospheric pressure. oxygen | ethanol | water ron 183 78 100 3000 ‘able 1.3 The boiling points of oxygen, ethanol, water and iron How does the temperature of a liquid change when it boils? TiaBit We can use the set-up shown in Fig. 1.14 to determine the boiling ‘iene eae point of a liquid at normal atmospheric pressure. in this case, seaictrullnetnay we are determining the boiling point of tetrachloromethane. Sleaning and ire extinguishers tnt scien discovered it Poisonous! theemometer re hem-Aid | distillation flask A water ath — his symbol mean that 9 ig chi sbstance isto (pasonou foe” Tevecerornchane tow Smooth boing) 2nd gloves shoul be worn ‘then andling Ts ‘xpeiment MUST be cared tetrachloromethane cuninefimecopbour Fig. 1.14 Experient to determine the bling point of ttracloromethane If we record the temperature of tetrachloromethane as it is heated to its boiling point, we can plot a graph like the one shown in Fig. 1.15, Similar graphs are obtained when other liquids are boiled. Temperature (°C) ‘When tetrachloromethane is heated, its temperature increases until it reaches 77 °C, ‘This i the boiling point of tetrachloromethane. At 77°, liquid tetrachloromethane starts to boil and change into a vapour. mc] ‘The temperature remains constant during the boiling process. This is because the heat energy taken in is used to overcome the forces of attraction between the particles of the liquid and to ‘make the particles move faster. The temperature remains constant Until all the tetrachloromethane has changed into vapour. 28°C: > Fig. 1.15 Heating curve of tetrachloromethane Time (min) osu won 200