fibers

Article
Mechanical Properties of Concrete with Steel and
Polypropylene Fibres at Elevated Temperatures
Josipa Bošnjak 1, *, Akanshu Sharma 2 and Kevin Grauf 3
1 Materials Testing Institute, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 4C, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
2 Institute of Construction Materials, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 4G, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany;
akanshu.sharma@iwb.uni-stuttgart.de
3 University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany; kevingrauf@gmx.de
* Correspondence: josipa.bosnjak@mpa.uni-stuttgart.de; Tel.: +49-711-685 63377




Received: 6 December 2018; Accepted: 16 January 2019; Published: 24 January 2019


Abstract: Addition of steel fibres to concrete is known to have a significant positive influence on
the mechanical properties of concrete. Micro polypropylene (PP) fibres are added to concrete to
improve its performance under thermal loads such as in case of fire by preventing the phenomena
of explosive spalling. An optimum mixture of steel and micro PP fibres added to concrete may be
utilized to enhance both the mechanical and thermal behaviour of concrete. In this work, systematic
investigations were carried out to study the influence of elevated temperature on the mechanical
properties and physical properties of high strength concrete without and with fibres. Three different
mixtures for high strength concrete were used, namely normal concrete without fibres, Steel fibre
reinforced concrete and Hybrid fibre reinforced concrete having a blend of hooked end steel fibres
and micro PP fibres. The specimens were tested in ambient conditions as well as after exposure to
a pre-defined elevated temperature and cooling down to room temperature. For all investigated
concrete mixtures the thermal degradation of following properties were investigated: compressive
strength, tensile splitting strength, bending strength, fracture energy and static modulus of elasticity.
This paper summarizes the findings of the tests performed.

Keywords: steel fiber reinforced concrete; polypropylene fibres; elevated temperature; hybrid fibre
reinforced concrete; strength; fracture energy

1. Introduction and State of Art

Over the past decades, new concrete-based materials are being developed with an aim to derive
higher performance than ordinary concrete. Synthetic fibres are added to the concrete mixture to
improve one or more of its properties [1], such as creep or impact resistance or to prevent explosive
spalling due to fire [2]. In general, the addition of micro PP fibres does not significantly affect
the mechanical properties of concrete. Steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) is probably the most
investigated fibre reinforced concrete type [3–6]. Due to the inclusion of steel fibres, the tensile
strength of concrete gets higher and the fracture behaviour of concrete becomes more ductile [3,4].
Inclusion of steel fibres has been proven to reduce the congestion of reinforcement required in the
beam-column joint regions according to new seismic design codes [7–9]. Additionally, researchers have
tried combining steel fibres with other type of fibres to improve different properties of the concrete
mixture [10,11] including the resistance to elevated temperature [12].
Understanding the thermal degradation of various concrete properties is of vital interest for the
evaluation of both fire performance and post-fire capacity of RC structures. Furthermore, these data
are useful for numerical models, which can then be used to assess the concrete performance upon
heating. Significant research has been performed to assure better understanding of the behaviour of

Fibers 2019, 7, 9; doi:10.3390/fib7020009 www.mdpi.com/journal/fibers

Fibers 2019,
Fibers 7, 7,
2019, 9 x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 213
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heating. Significant research has been performed to assure better understanding of the behaviour of
concrete
concreteexposed
exposed to elevated temperature,
to elevated principally
temperature, for normal
principally and high
for normal andstrength concrete.
high strength However,
concrete.
theHowever,
studies on the thermal behaviour of concrete with steel and/or micro polypropylene
the studies on the thermal behaviour of concrete with steel and/or micro polypropylene (PP) fibres are
limited and the
(PP) fibres aremajority
limited andof the
thestudies
majorityfocused only onfocused
of the studies few material
only onproperties at a time
few material [13–15].
properties at a
This work
time [13–15]. is aimed at studying the mechanical and physical properties of concrete with steel
fibres and a combination of steel and PP fibres after exposure to elevated temperatures
This work is aimed at studying the mechanical and physical properties of concrete with steel in residual
state. Three
fibres and different mixtures
a combination for high
of steel and PPstrength concrete
fibres after are used
exposure in these temperatures
to elevated studies, namely:
in residual
state. Three different mixtures for high strength concrete are used in these studies, namely
• NC—Normal concrete without fibres;
• NC—Normal concrete without fibres;
• SFRC—Steel fibre reinforced concrete having 50 kg/m3 3 of hooked end steel fibres and
• SFRC—Steel fibre reinforced concrete having 50 kg/m of hooked end steel fibres and
3 of hooked end steel fibres +1 kg/m3
• • HyFRC—Hybrid
HyFRC—Hybridfibre fibrereinforced
reinforcedconcrete
concretehaving
having 50
50 kg/m
kg/m3 of hooked end steel fibres +1 kg/m3
ofof
micro
microPPPPfibres.
fibres.

TheThe specimens
specimens were
were tested
tested in ambient
in ambient conditions
conditions as wellas as
well as in residual
in residual conditions
conditions after
after exposure
exposure to a pre-defined elevated temperature and cooling down to
to a pre-defined elevated temperature and cooling down to room temperature. The maximumroom temperature. The
maximum temperature that was used in the ◦
tests was 800 °C. For all investigated concrete
temperature that was used in the tests was 800 C. For all investigated concrete mixtures the thermal mixtures
the thermalofdegradation
degradation of following
following properties wereproperties werecompressive
investigated: investigated: compressive
strength, tensilestrength,
splittingtensile
strength,
splitting strength, bending strength, fracture energy and static modulus of elasticity.
bending strength, fracture energy and static modulus of elasticity. Different specimens, namely cubes, Different
specimens,
cylinders, namely
prisms and cubes,
beams cylinders,
were usedprisms and beams
to test different were used
properties. to test different
However, to optimizeproperties.
and based
However, to optimize and based on the results of the investigations, not all the tests were made for
on the results of the investigations, not all the tests were made for the same temperatures, which will
the same temperatures, which will be discussed in the paper. This paper summarizes the findings of
be discussed in the paper. This paper summarizes the findings of the tests performed.
the tests performed.
2. Background
2. Background
Concrete is a quasi-brittle material that displays a relatively steep descending branch after reaching
Concrete is a quasi-brittle material that displays a relatively steep descending branch after
the peak load. The fracture behaviour of concrete in tension and the corresponding stress versus crack
reaching the peak load. The fracture behaviour of concrete in tension and the corresponding stress
opening is explained in Figure 1a (adapted from Reinhardt [16]). The response of concrete member in
versus crack opening is explained in Figure 1a (adapted from Reinhardt [16]). The response of
terms of direct tensile stress is plotted as a function of strain in the pre-peak region and in terms of the
concrete member in terms of direct tensile stress is plotted as a function of strain in the pre-peak
crack opening
region and indisplacement in theopening
terms of the crack post-peak region. Theinstress-strain
displacement curve
the post-peak for the
region. Theconcrete under
stress-strain
tension
curve for the concrete under tension is almost linear until the peak-tensile stress (tensile strength slope
is almost linear until the peak-tensile stress (tensile strength of concrete) is reached. The of
of concrete)
this stress-strain
is reached. The slope of this stress-strain curve in tension up to peak stress is often of
curve in tension up to peak stress is often considered the same as the modulus
elasticity
consideredconcrete
of the sameinascompression.
the modulus of elasticity of concrete in compression.

(a) Plain concrete (b) Steel fibre reinforced concrete

Figure 1. Typical fracture behaviour of plain concrete and SFRC under direct tension.
Fibers 2019, 7, 9 3 of 13

In case of plain concrete, beyond this peak stress, the crack localizes and therefore instead of
average strain over the pre-defined gauge length, crack opening displacement is used to describe the
post peak behaviour of concrete under tension. Thus, the tensile response of concrete can be divided
in two zones:

• the pre-peak response where the strain over a certain gauge length is used to define the
behaviour and
• the post-peak response where the crack opening displacement is used to describe the behaviour.

The post-peak behaviour of plain concrete under tension in stress v/s deformation plot resembles
an exponential plot. The tensile stress attains the value of zero at a displacement, δo .
The fracture behaviour of concrete with steel fibres loaded under direct tension is depicted in
Figure 1b. Steel fibres are activated only after the concrete cracks. At any given displacement, δtot ,
the total resistance of SFRC member is given as the sum of remaining concrete resistance and the
resistance offered by the steel fibres intercepted by the crack. Since the concrete resistance drops down
rather fast with crack opening, the total resistance is primarily given by the resistance of the fibres.
The steel fibres display a relatively ductile behaviour and continue to provide the resistance even
at rather high crack opening displacements. This results in a ductile tensile performance of SFRC.
The influence of steel fibres on the mechanical properties of concrete under ambient conditions has
been significantly investigated and well-reported [14,15,17–19].
When the concrete is exposed to elevated temperature, its mechanical properties decade.
For high-strength concrete, one of the major problems encountered in case of exposure to fire is that
of explosive spalling. This is due to a combination of pore pressures and thermally induced stresses
that cause the concrete to fail abruptly with a sudden release of energy [2]. This type of concrete
failure is characterized by bursting and forcible separation of thin layers of concrete, accompanied
by a typically loud explosive noise. The failure is progressive in nature, which may lead exposure
of reinforcement or prestressing cables to direct fire. Furthermore, it reduces concrete cross section
and can thus lead to partial or complete collapse of the structure [2]. The most efficient and popular
method to mitigate explosive spalling is the addition of micro polypropylene (PP) fibres in concrete.
According to experimental evidence, explosive spalling occurs typically at temperatures between
200 ◦ C and 250 ◦ C [20,21], while the PP fibres melt at approximately 160 ◦ C to 170 ◦ C. Empty or
partially empty fibre beds together with the existing concrete capillary pores and micro-cracks form
an interconnected porous network in concrete. The created network (e.g., increased permeability)
provides free path for the water vapour to escape resulting in a relief of the pore pressure and hence
no or very limited spalling occurs. Bošnjak [2] developed a test setup to measure the permeability
of concrete at elevated temperatures and used it to measure the influence of micro PP fibres on the
permeability of concrete. It was concluded that the addition of PP fibres does not significantly influence
the transport properties of concrete up to 80 ◦ C. However, between 80 ◦ C and 130 ◦ C concrete with PP
fibres exhibits a sudden progressive increase in permeability of approximately two orders of magnitude
(Figure 2). Beyond 130 ◦ C the rate of increase in permeability reduces and it roughly corresponds
to that of the concrete without fibres. Same as in the case of concrete without fibres, the residual
permeability values of concrete with fibres are found to be somewhat higher than the permeability
values at elevated temperatures.
As different types of fibres affect different properties of concrete, an optimal mixture of concrete
with a combination of fibre types may lead to an enhanced performance of concrete under different
loading conditions (e.g., mechanical + thermal). However, there are often concerns that the addition of
polypropylene, though effective in preventing explosive spalling, may result in a negative impact on
the mechanical properties of concrete, especially at high temperature. The aim of this experimental
study is to investigate the effects of steel and polypropylene fibre reinforcement on the mechanical
properties of concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures, in residual conditions.
Fibers 2019, 7, 9 4 of 13
Fibers 2019, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

1E-14
PP 0kg/m³-1

intrinsic permeability [m2]

1E-15 PP 0kg/m³-2

PP 0kg/m³-3
1E-16
PP 1kg/m³-1

1E-17 PP 1kg/m³-2

PP 1kg/m³-3
1E-18
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
temperature [°C]
(a) Test setup (b) Intrinsic permeability

Figure
Figure 2. Permeabilityofofconcrete
2. Permeability concretewithout
without and
and withwith micro
micro PP
PP fibres
fibresas
asaafunction
functionofoftemperature,
temperature,
data
data from
from [2].[2]. (Note:
(Note: 1E-18
1E-18 referstoto1.0
refers 10−
1.0×× 10 −1818
).).

3. Materials and
3. Materials Methods
and Methods

3.1.3.1.
Concrete Mixture
Concrete Mixture
In In
thisthisexperimental
experimental program,
program, three threedifferent
differentconcrete
concrete mixtures
mixtures werewereused,used, see 1.
see Table Table
The 1.
Thereference
referencemixture
mixturewas wasnormal
normal(plain)
(plain)concrete
concretewithout
withoutfibres fibres(NC)
(NC)designed
designedto toachieve
achievea a
characteristic
characteristictarget cubic
target compressive
cubic compressive strength
strengthof approximately
of approximately 50 MPa.
50 MPa. TheThe
mixture withwith
mixture steelsteel
fibres
fibreswas
(SFRC) (SFRC)
made wasby made
adding by50 adding 3 of steel
kg/m50kg/m 3 of steel fibres to the normal concrete mixture, which lies
fibres to the normal concrete mixture, which lies within
thewithin
typicalthe typical
range range
used used in engineering
in engineering practice.practice.
In order Into order
ensureto ensure workability
workability of theofmixture,
the mixture,
slight
slight adjustments were made to the aggregate content and the amount
adjustments were made to the aggregate content and the amount of super-plasticizer. As a general of super-plasticizer. As a
rulegeneral
to ensurerule atosufficient
ensure a bondsufficient
betweenbondthe between
concrete thematrix
concrete andmatrix
fibres, and
thefibres,
maximum the maximum
aggregate
aggregate size should not exceed one-third of the fibre length. For
size should not exceed one-third of the fibre length. For this reason, the maximum aggregate size of this reason, the maximum
Dmaxaggregate
= 16 mm size
andoftheDmax = 16 mm type
hooked-end and fibres
the hooked-end
HE 75/50 by type thefibres
company HE 75/50 by the company
ArcelorMittal (Cologne,
ArcelorMittal (Cologne, Germany) were used for SFRC concrete mixture [22]. The tensile strength of
Germany) were used for SFRC concrete mixture [22]. The tensile strength of fibres was reported by the
fibres was reported by the manufacturer as 1200 N/mm2. The nominal diameter of the fibre was d =
manufacturer as 1200 N/mm2 . The nominal diameter of the fibre was d = 0.75 mm and the nominal
0.75 mm and the nominal fibre length was Lfiber = 50 mm (aspect ratio Lfiber/d = 67). The third mixture
fibre length was Lfiber = 350 mm (aspect ratio Lfiber /d = 67). The third mixture consisted of 50 kg/m3 of
consisted of 50 kg/m of 3the steel fibres plus 1 kg/m3 of micro PP fibres (hybrid fibre reinforced
the steel fibres plus 1 kg/m of micro PP fibres (hybrid fibre reinforced concrete—HyFRC). The micro
concrete—HyFRC). The micro polypropylene fibres of type PB Eurofiber HPR 15/6 with high melt
polypropylene fibres of type PB Eurofiber HPR 15/6 with high melt flow rate were used (obtained
flow rate were used (obtained directly from the producer—baumhueter extrusion GmbH
directly from the producer—baumhueter
(Rheda-Wiedenbrück, Germany)). The diameter extrusion GmbH
of the micro(Rheda-Wiedenbrück,
PP fibres is 15 micronsGermany)).
and the length The
diameter
is 6 mm. of the
These micro PPhave
fibres fibresa issuperior
15 microns and the length
performance compared is 6 to
mm. These micro
standard fibres PP
have a superior
fibres with
performance
respect to prevention of explosive spalling. It was shown previously that even a relatively small It
compared to standard micro PP fibres with respect to prevention of explosive spalling.
wasdosage
shownofpreviously that even a relatively small dosage of HPR 15/6 3 leads to a
HPR 15/6 fibres of 1kg/m 3 leads to a massive improvement of fibres of 1 kg/m
the resistance to explosive
massive improvement
spalling of thethe
[2]. Increasing resistance
PP fibretocontent
explosive spalling
beyond this[2]. Increasing
value is not the PP fibretocontent
expected beyond
significantly
thisinfluence
value is not expectedresistance.
the spalling to significantly
However, influence
it maythe spalling
have resistance.
an adverse effect However, it may have
on the workability andan
adverse effect on
mechanical the workability
properties. and of
The target mechanical
this workproperties. The target
was to investigate theofmutual
this work was
effect ofto investigate
steel fibres
the(used
mutual to effect
enhance the mechanical
of steel fibres (usedproperties)
to enhance and micro PP fibres
the mechanical (used to
properties) andimprove
micro PP resistance to
fibres (used
explosiveresistance
to improve spalling) after exposurespalling)
to explosive to elevatedafter temperatures.
exposure toTherefore, only one practically
elevated temperatures. relevant
Therefore, only
onedosage of PPrelevant
practically fibres was used. of PP fibres was used.
dosage

Table
Table 1. 1. Descriptionofofconcrete
Description concretemixture
mixture used
used in
in the
the test
test program.
program.
Aggregate 1 Aggregate 2 Aggregate 3 Steel Micro PP
Mixture Cement Sand Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate 3 Water/Cement Superplasticizer Steel Micro PP
Mixture Cement Sand (2−4 mm) (4−8 mm) (8−16 mm) Water/Cement Superplasticizer fibres fibres
ID (kg/m3) (kg/m33) 1 (2–4 mm) 2 (4–8 mm) (8–16 mm)3) Ratio (−) (% of cement) Fibres Fibres
ID (kg/m3 ) (kg/m ) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m Ratio (-) (% of cement) (kg/m 3) (kg/m 3)
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 )
NC 370 562 259 392 571 0.48 0.2 0 0
NC
SFRC 370 562
556 259
256 392
389 571565 0.48
0.48 0.20.3 0 50 0 0
SFRC
HyFRC 370 556 256
256 389
389 565565 0.48
0.48 0.30.4 5050 0 1
HyFRC 370 556 256 389 565 0.48 0.4 50 1

3.2. Test Specimen

 Fibers 2019, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13

Fibers 2019,
Fibers7, 9 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2019, 5 of 13
Different properties of concrete were tested in this study, for which different test specimen5 were of 13

utilized. For each property and a given temperature, at least two specimens were tested to verifyofthe
Fibers 2019, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 13
Fibers Different
2019, 7, x FORproperties of concrete were tested in this study, for which different test specimen5were
PEER REVIEW of 13
repeatability of the test results. The test specimens used to obtain different material properties are
3.2. Test Specimen
utilized. For each
Different property and a given temperature, at least two specimens were tested to verify the
summarized inproperties
Table 2. of concrete were tested in this study, for which different test specimen were
Differentofproperties
repeatability the of concrete
test results. were tested in this study, for which different test specimen were
utilized. For
Different each property
properties and aThe
of concrete giventest specimens
weretemperature,
tested in this
used to obtain
at least
study, two different
forspecimens
material
were
which different tested properties
testtospecimen
are
verify the were
utilized. For each
summarized in property
Table 2. and a given temperature, at least two specimens were tested to verify the
repeatability
utilized. For each of the test
Table
property results.
2. Description
and a The
given test
of the testspecimens
temperature, used
specimen used
at toto obtain
determine
least two different material
material properties.
specimens were properties
tested to are the
verify
repeatability of the test results. The test specimens used to obtain different material properties are
summarized in Table 2.
repeatability
summarized of the test2.results.
inTable
Table 2. The of test
Specimen
Description specimens
the test used
specimen used to to obtainmaterial
determine different material properties are
properties.
Material property Specimen dimensions Shape
summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Description type
of the test specimen used to determine material properties.
Specimen
Table 2. Description of the test specimen
Material property used to determine
Specimen dimensionsmaterial properties. Shape
CompressiveTable strength type
2. DescriptionSpecimen
ofCube
the test specimen used× to
150 mm 150determine
mm × 150material
mm properties.
Material property Specimen Specimen dimensions Shape
Material property type Specimen dimensions Shape
Compressive
Material property strength Specimen Cube
typeType 150 mm × 150 mm
Specimen × 150 mm
Dimensions Shape
Compressive strength
Split tensile strength Cube
Cylinder 150
150 mm
mm×××
150 ×mm
(D) 300×××150 (H)
mm mm
Compressive
Compressive strength
strength Cube
Cube 150
150mm
mm 150
150mm
mm 150
150mm
mm
Split tensile strength Cylinder 150 mm (D) × 300 mm (H)
Notched
Flexural
Split
Split tensile
tensile
tensile strength
strength
strength Cylinder
Cylinder 150
150 mm
mm
150 mm ×(D)
150
(D)×× mm 300×mm
300 600(H)
mm mm
(H)
Split tensile strength beam
Cylinder 150 mm (D) × 300 mm (H)
Notched Central notch: 5 mm wide and 50
Flexural
Flexural tensile
tensile strength Notched
strength
Notched beam 150
150 mmmm ××150150 mmmm ××600
600 mm
mm
Fracture energy beam
Notched mm high
Fracturetensile
Flexural energystrength Notched beam beam Central
150 mmnotch:
Central ×notch:
1505 mm
mm5 mm wide
600 and
× wide and50
mm
Notched
Flexural
Static
Fracture
Static tensile
modulus
modulus ofstrength
energy of beam 150 mm ×mm 50
150mm mm
highhigh × 600 mm
elasticity
Square
Square beam
Notched prism Central
prism
100 mm
notch: 5 mm wide and 50
× 100 mmwide × 200and mm 50
elasticity Central notch: 5 mm
Fracture
Staticmodulus
Dynamic modulusenergyof of Notched 100 mm ×mm 100 high
mm × 200 mm
Fracture
Dynamic energy
modulus of Square
Square beam prism
prism mm high
elasticity
elasticity Square beam prism
Static modulus of
elasticity 100 mm × 100 mm × 200 mm
Static modulus
Dynamic modulus ofof Square prism
elasticity Square prism
elasticity 100 mm × 100 mm × 200 mm
3.3. Heat Treatment
3.3.Dynamic
Heat modulus of
Treatment 100 mm × 100 mm × 200 mm
Dynamic modulus of Square prism
elasticity Square prism
The mechanical
Theelasticity
3.3. Heat mechanical
Treatment properties
properties of different
of different types
types ofofconcretes
concreteswere wereinvestigated
investigated over overaarange rangeofof2020 ◦ C
(ambient°C (ambient
conditions) conditions)
until 600 ◦ C,600
until 700°C, ◦ C 700
or 800°C ◦orC800 °C depending
depending on theon the property
property investigated.
investigated. For
For heating,
3.3. Heat
The Treatment
mechanical properties of different types of concretes were investigated over a range of 20
the testheating,
3.3. Heat the
specimens test
Treatment were specimens
placed were
inside placed
an inside oven
electric an electric
with oven with programmable
programmable controls controls
for the for the rate
heating
°C (ambient
Therate conditions)
mechanical until 600
properties °C,
oftime 700 °Ctypes
different or 800of°C depending
concretes on the propertyover investigated. For
as well heating
asThe
retention as well
time as retention
for the temperature. for the temperature.
The target Thewere targetinvestigated
temperature temperature
in each case
a range
in each
was case ofwas
reached
20
heating, mechanical
the test properties
specimens were ofplaced
differentinsidetypesan of concretes
electric oven were
with investigated
programmable over a range
controls for 20 at a
ofthe
°C (ambient conditions) until 600 °C, 700 °C or 800 °C depending
reached at a relatively slow ◦heating rate of 2 °C/min. After reaching the desired temperature, the on the property investigated. For
relatively
heatingslow
°C (ambient rateheating
conditions)
as well rate
as of 2 C/min.
until
retention 600time°C, 700After
for °C or
the reaching the The
800 °C depending
temperature. desired ontemperature,
target the property the
temperature temperature
investigated.
in each case For was
was
heating,
temperature the testwasspecimens
maintainedwere for 3placed insideuniform
h to ensure an electricheatingovenofwith programmable
the test specimen. The controls for the
temperature
heating,for
maintained
reached the3
at a test
h to specimens
ensure
relatively slow were
uniform
heating placed
heating
rate inside
of 2of an
theelectric
°C/min. testAfter oven
specimen. with The
reaching programmable
thetemperature controls
desired temperature,was for the to
allowed
heating rate as well as retention time for the temperature.
was allowed to gradually come down after the completion of retention time by opening the small The target temperature in each case was
heating
temperature
gradually comerate as
was
down well as
after retention
maintained the for 3time
completionh to for the
ensure
of temperature.
uniform
retention heating
time The
by oftarget
the
opening temperature
test specimen.
the small in
The each case
temperature
ventilation was
holes
reached at a relatively slow heating rate of 2 °C/min. After
ventilation holes in the oven, while keeping the oven door closed. When the oven temperature reaching the desired temperature, the in
reached
was
the oven, while at
allowed a relatively
to
keepinggradually slow
the come
oven heating
down
door rate
after
closed.of 2
the°C/min.
completion
When theAfter of
oven reaching
retention the
temperature desired
time by temperature,
opening
reached the the
small
approximately
temperature was maintained for 3 h to ensure uniform heating
reached approximately 100 °C, the door of the oven was opened to allow relatively fast cooling. Note of the test specimen. The temperature
◦ temperatureholes
ventilation was maintained
in the oven, forwhile
3 h tokeeping
ensure uniform
the oven heating
door of the test
closed. specimen.
When the The temperature
oven
100 C, was
thatthe door
allowed
all the testsofto the oven
gradually
were was
comeopened
performed down
on theafterto allow
cooled thedownrelatively
completion
specimen fast
of cooling.
retention
(residual timeNote
state). by that
openingall the
the tests
smallwere
was allowed
reached to gradually
approximately 100 come
°C, the downdoor after
of thethe ovencompletion
was opened of retention
to allow time by opening
relatively the small
fast cooling. Note
ventilation holes in the oven,
performed on the cooled down specimen (residual state). while keeping the oven door closed. When the oven temperature
ventilation
that all the holeswere
tests in the oven, while
performed on thekeeping
cooled the oven
down door closed.
specimen (residual When
state).the oven temperature
reached approximately
4. Test Results 100 °C, the door of the oven was opened to allow relatively fast cooling. Note
and Discussion
reached approximately 100 °C, the door of the oven was opened to allow relatively fast cooling. Note
that all the tests
4. Test Results and Discussion were performed on the cooled down specimen (residual state).
4. Test
that
4.1. all Results
the testsand
General were Discussion
performed on the cooled down specimen (residual state).
4. Test Results and Discussion
4.1. General
4.1. In Results
this section,
General
4. Test and the results of the experiments performed are presented. In all the cases, after heat
Discussion
treatment,
In this the specimens
section, the results were
of of visually
the inspected for any surface
experiments cracks, which werethethen marked in
4.1. General
In this section, the results the experimentsperformedperformed are arepresented.
presented. In In
all all
the cases,cases,
afterafter
heat heat
red
4.1.
treatment, colour.
General The
the specimens specimens were were tested under static loading rate. All concrete types were tested at a
treatment,
In this the specimens werevisually
visually inspected forany
inspected performed
for any surface
surface cracks,
cracks, which which were
In allwere
then marked
then marked in
similar agesection, the results
of approximately of the
5−6experiments
months. Following are presented.
material properties the
were cases, after heat
investigated:
in redred colour.
In thisThe
colour. The specimens
section, the results
specimens were
were tested
of tested
the under
experiments
under static
performed
static loading
loading rate.
are presented.
rate. All concrete
All concrete types
In all the were
cases, were
after heattested
treatment,
compressive the specimens
strength, were
splitting visually
strength, inspected
bendingforstrength,
any surface cracks,
fracture whichtypes
energy, were thenmodulus
dynamic
tested
marked atin
of
a
treatment,
at a similar
similar age
age theofofspecimens
approximately
approximately were visually5–6
5−6 inspected
months.
months. for any surface
Following
Following cracks,
material
material which were
properties
properties were then
were marked in
investigated:
investigated:
red colour.(non-destructive
elasticity The specimens were tested under
impact-echo test static
method)loading andrate. All concrete
static modulustypes were tested
of elasticity. at a
While
red colour.
compressive
compressive The
strength, specimens
strength, splitting were
splitting tested under
strength,
strength, static strength,
bending
bending loading rate.
strength, All concrete
fracture
fracture energy,
energy, types
dynamic weremodulus
dynamic tested atofa of
modulus
similar age of approximately 5−6 months. Following material
evaluating the results of the present study, it should be kept in mind that only two specimens were properties were investigated:
similar
elasticity
elasticity age of approximately
(non-destructive
(non-destructive 5−6
impact-echo months.test Following
method) material
and fracture
static properties
modulus were investigated:
of elasticity. While
compressive
tested per case (only inimpact-echo
strength, splitting
exceptional test three
strength,
cases method)
bending and static
strength,
or more). modulus of elasticity.
energy, dynamic While
modulusevaluating
of
compressive
evaluating the strength,
results splitting
of the presentstrength,
study, bending
it should strength,
be kept fracture
in mind energy,
that only dynamic
two modulus
specimens wereof
the resultsInofthe
elasticity thepresent
presentstudy
(non-destructive study, it should
onlyimpact-echo
one dosage be kept
test in mind
method)
of both steel andthat polypropylene
and only two specimens
static modulus of
fibres waswere tested per
elasticity. While
investigated. case
elasticity
tested per case (non-destructive
(only inofexceptionalimpact-echo cases test
three method)
or more). and static modulus of elasticity. While
(only evaluating
in exceptional
Therefore, the
the results
cases three
results the present
and or more).
conclusions study, it should
presented be keptare
herein in mind that only
indicative andtwo specimens
valid only forwere the
evaluating
In thecase the
presentresultsstudyof the
onlypresent
one dosagestudy,of it should
both be and
steel keptpolypropylene
in mind that only twowas
fibres specimens were
investigated.
tested
In the per
conditionspresent used(only
study inonly
in this exceptional
study.oneFurther casesstudies
dosage three
of both orare
more).
required
steel and to allow more general
polypropylene fibresconclusions.
was investigated.In
tested per
Therefore, case (only
the results in exceptional
and conclusions cases three or
presented more).
herein are indicative and valid only for the
In
particular,
Therefore, thethe present
more study
detailed only
studies one aredosage
required of both
to steel
investigateand polypropylene
the thermal fibres
degradation was investigated.
of SFRC with
In
conditions theresults
present
used and
in study
this conclusions
only one
study. Furtherpresented
dosagestudies herein
of bothare steel are
requiredand indicative
polypropylene
to allow and
more valid
fibres only
general was for the conditions
investigated.
conclusions. In
Therefore,
different thecontent
fibre results and
and conclusions
fibre types presented
(straight and herein are
corrugated indicative
steel and valid
fibres). conclusions. only for the
used particular,
in this study.
Therefore, the
more Further
results
detailed andstudies
studies are
conclusions
are required
presented
required to to allow
herein
investigate more
are
the general
indicative
thermal and
degradationvalid only
of Infor
SFRC particular,
the
with
conditions used in this study. Further studies are required to allow more general conclusions. In
more different
detailedfibre
conditions studies
used inare
content this required
andstudy. to investigate
fibre Further
types studiesand
(straight the thermal
required degradation
are corrugated tosteel
allow moreofgeneral
fibres). SFRC with different
conclusions. In fibre
particular, more detailed studies are required to investigate the thermal degradation of SFRC with
content particular,
and fibre more detailed studies are required to investigate
fibres). the thermal degradation of SFRC with
different fibretypes
content (straight
and fibre andtypescorrugated
(straight and steel corrugated steel fibres).
different fibre content and fibre types (straight and corrugated steel fibres).
Fibers 2019,
Fibers 7, 97, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2019, 6 of6 13
of 13

Fibers 2019, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

4.2. Compressive Strength
4.2. Compressive Strength
4.2. Compressive Strengthstrength of concrete was obtained from a standard compressive strength test
The compressive
The
using compressive
cube specimens strength
of side of
150concrete was obtained
mm following from atesting
the European standard compressive
standard strength
(EN)strength
12390-3 test
[23].
The compressive strength of concrete was obtained from a standard compressive test
using cube
Figure specimens
3 presents of
the of side
typical 150 mm
thermal following the
cracks observed European testing
on the testing standard
surfacestandard (EN)
of the specimens 12390-3
after[23].[23].
heat
using cube specimens side 150 mm following the European (EN) 12390-3
Figure 3 presents
treatment with a the typicaltemperature
maximum thermal cracks of observed
600 °C and a on the surface
typical failure of theafter
mode specimens
the after heat
compressive
Figure 3 presents the typical thermal cracks observed on the surface of the specimens after heat
treatment
strengthwithtest. a maximum temperature of 600 ◦ Ccracks
and aappearing
typical failure mode after the rather
compressive
treatment withDue to relatively
a maximum slow heating,
temperature of 600the
°C and a typical on mode
failure the surface were
after the compressive fine.
strength test.
The failure
strength Due
test. mode to relatively
Due toobserved slow
relativelyinslow heating,
the heating,
compressivethe cracks
strength
the cracks appearing on
test performed
appearing the surface
on thewere
on the surface were
cubes rather
afterfine.
rather fine.
heat
The
Thefailure
treatment
failuremode
modeobserved
corresponds
observed in the
well compressive
inwith strength
the failure
the compressive modes test performed
observed
strength foron
test performed theoncubes
cubes the after
tested heat
under
cubes treatment
ambient
after heat
conditions.
corresponds Thus,
well the
with exposure
the failureto elevated
modes temperature
observed for does
cubes not result
tested in
under
treatment corresponds well with the failure modes observed for cubes tested under ambient a change
ambient of failure mode.
conditions. Thus,
the exposure to elevated temperature does not result in a change of failure mode.
conditions. Thus, the exposure to elevated temperature does not result in a change of failure mode.

NC SFRC HyFRC Failure mode

FigureNC3. Thermal cracks and typicalSFRC failure mode observed HyFRC

for the cubes used forFailure mode
compressive
strength tests
Figure3. 3.Thermalafter
Thermal an exposure
cracks and to maximum
typical failure temperature
mode of
observed 600 °C.
for cubes
the cubes
Figure cracks and typical failure mode observed for the used used for compressive
for compressive strength
strength tests after an exposure to maximum temperature
tests after an exposure to maximum temperature of 600 C. ◦ of 600 °C.
The compressive strength tests were performed on cubes with a maximum exposure
temperature
The of 800 °C.
Thecompressive
compressive The results
strength
strength of the
teststests
were weremean compressive
performed
performed on cubes on strength of different
cubesa maximum
with with a maximum concretetemperature
exposure mixtures
exposure
obtained
800 from
◦ C. The
oftemperature of the tests
800
results°C.
of Theare mean
the plottedcompressive
results as the
of a function of the exposure
mean strength
compressive temperature
strength
of different inmixtures
of different
concrete Figure 4a.
concrete In general,
mixtures
obtained from
it can
obtained be observed
from that
the tests the inclusion of steel and micro PP fibres does not have any significant
the tests are plotted as are plotted as
a function ofathefunction
exposureof thetemperature
exposure temperaturein Figurein4a. Figure 4a. In general,
In general, it can be
itinfluence
can bethat
observed
on the mean
observed thatcompressive
the inclusion theofinclusion
steel and of
strength
steelof
micro PP
concrete.
and micro
fibres does
This
PPnot can bedoes
fibres attributedhave
have any not
to the
significant any relatively
significant
influence
low
on the
volumetric
influence fraction
on the mean of fibres in
compressive concrete.
strengthNevertheless,
of concrete. it is found
This can that the addition
be relatively
attributed low of
to the micro PP fibres
relativelyfraction
low
mean compressive strength of concrete. This can be attributed to the volumetric
does not negatively
volumetric fraction of influence
fibres in the compressive
concrete. Nevertheless, strength
it is of concrete,
found that the neither at
addition of ambient,
micro PP nor at
fibres
of fibres in concrete. Nevertheless, it is found that the addition of micro PP fibres does not negatively
elevated
does notthetemperature.
negatively It was further
influence observed that
theofcompressive the reduction
strength in compressive
of concrete, neither atstrength
ambient, fornor
all the
influence
mixtures compressive
tested was rather strength
strong forconcrete,
an neither
exposure at ambient,
temperature of nor
800 at
°C.elevated
The temperature.
scatter of test Itatwas
results
elevated temperature. It was further observed that the reduction in compressive strength for all the
further
within observed
atested that the
particular testreduction
series was in compressive
found strength
to be rather lowforindependent
all the mixtures of thetested was rather
concrete strong
mixtures was rather strong for an exposure
◦ C. temperature of 800 °C. The scatter of testtype and
results
forexposure
an exposure temperature
temperature, as of 800
visible in The
Table scatter
3. The of test results
fibre-reinforced within a
concrete particular
types test
exhibit series
similarwas
within a particular test series was found to be rather low independent of the concrete type and
found to be
scatter rather low independent
as temperature,
the normal concrete. With of the concrete type and exposure temperature, as visible in three
Table 3.
exposure as visible inincreasing
Table 3. The temperature, the scatter
fibre-reinforced increases
concrete typesslightly
exhibitfor all
similar
The fibre-reinforced
concrete types. concrete
Thisconcrete.
is most Withtypes
probably exhibit similar scatter
relatedtemperature,
to the pronounced as the normal
effect concrete.
of concrete With increasing
heterogeneity,
scatter as the normal increasing the scatter increases slightly for all three
temperature,
which then the scatter
affects increases
thermally slightly
induced for
damage. all three concrete types.
concrete types. This is most probably related to the pronounced effect of concrete heterogeneity,
This is most probably related to
the pronounced effect of concrete
which then affects thermally induced damage. heterogeneity, which then affects thermally induced damage.

75 1.2
Mean compressive strength [MPa]

Relative compressive strength [-]

75 1.2
1.0
60
Mean compressive strength [MPa]

Relative compressive strength [-]

1.0
60 0.8
45
0.8
0.6
45
30
0.6
0.4
30 Normal Concrete (NC) Normal Concrete (NC)
15 0.4 SFRC
SFRC 0.2 Normal Concrete (NC)
Normal Concrete (NC)
15 HyFRC HyFRC
SFRC 0.2 SFRC
0 0.0
0 HyFRC
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 HyFRC200
100 300 400 500 600 700 800
0 Temperature [°C] 0.0 Temperature [°C]
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
(a) Absolute values
Temperature [°C]
(b) Temperature
Relative values
[°C]

Figure
Figure 4. 4.(a) Absolute
Influence
Influence valuestemperature
ofofelevated
elevated temperature on
on compressive (b)ofof
compressive strength
strength Relative values
different
differenttypes
typesofofconcrete.
concrete.
Figure 4. Influence of elevated temperature on compressive strength of different types of concrete.
 Fibers 2019, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

The variation of the relative compressive strength with temperature as shown in Figure 4b
Fibers 2019, 7,
follows 9
similar 7 of 13
trend for all three concrete mixtures tested. The compressive strength remains almost
constant up to approximately 300 °C. As the difference in thermal strain of the concrete matrix and
aggregates increases, the compressive strength decreases linearly. After exposure to 800 °C normal
The variation of the relative compressive strength with temperature as shown in Figure 4b follows
concrete exhibits slightly higher residual compressive strength than the fibre reinforced concrete
similar trend for all three concrete mixtures tested. The compressive strength remains almost constant
types. This is attributed to the scatter in the material properties of concrete. Thus, it can be concluded
up to approximately 300 ◦ C. As the difference in thermal strain of the concrete matrix and aggregates
that the influence of elevated temperature on the compressive strength of concrete with added steel
increases, the compressive strength decreases linearly. After exposure to 800 ◦ C normal concrete
fibres as well with added steel and micro PP fibres is the same as that on the compressive strength of
exhibits
normalslightly higher
concrete. Theseresidual compressive
results lead strengthconclusion
to an important than the fibre reinforced
that addition of concrete
micro PPtypes.
fibres This
can is
attributed to the scatter
prevent explosive in the
spalling of material
concrete properties
without leadingof concrete. Thus, it can be
to any deterioration of concluded that the
the compressive
influence of elevated
strength of concrete. temperature on the compressive strength of concrete with added steel fibres
as well with added steel and micro PP fibres is the same as that on the compressive strength of
normal concrete. These results lead Tableto an important
3. Overview conclusion
of the test results.that addition of micro PP fibres can
prevent explosive spalling of concrete without leading to any deterioration of the compressive strength
Tmax Splitting strength Bending strength
ofTconcrete.
max (°C)Compressive strength (MPa) Tmax (°C)
(°C) (MPa) (MPa)
- NC SFRC HyFRC - NC SFRC HyFRC
Table 3. Overview of the test results. - NC SFRC HyFRC
60.5 65.8 71.1 3.83 4.89 5.59 20 4.71 6.99 9.05
20
Tmax Compressive
20 Splitting Strength
61.2 68.0 Strength70.9 Tmax 4.10 5.32 5.84 Tmax (◦20 C) 4.82 6.22
Bending Strength 9.03
(MPa)
(◦ C) (MPa) (◦ C) (MPa)
63.9 58.9 69.7 2.62 4.98 5.17 20 4.36 6.88 -
100- NC SFRC 300NC
65.5 57.6 HyFRC 69.9 - 3.03SFRC4.86 HyFRC 5.48 - 20 NC
5.17 SFRC
5.99 HyFRC
-
60.5 65.8 71.1 3.83 4.89 5.59 20 4.71 6.99 9.05
20 58.3
61.2 60.0
68.0 70.970.4
20 1.39 5.32
4.14 5.842.7 100/150 1) 5.77 5.17 -
300 5004.10 20 4.82 6.22 9.03
62.1
63.9 61.6
58.9 69.768.2 2.621.46 4.98
3.44 5.173.21 20 200 4.36- 4.79
6.88 --
100 300
65.5
45.6 57.6
45.8 69.958.9 3.031.39 4.86 - 5.48 - 20 200 5.17- 5.99
5.12 --
500 58.3 60.0 70.4 6001.39 4.14 2.7 1) 5.77 5.17 -
300 41.2 45.6 56.8 500 1.46 - - 100/150 300 3.56 5.06 5.32
62.1 61.6 68.2 1.46 3.44 3.21 200 - 4.79 -
46.9
45.6 51.4
45.8 58.952.6 7001.390.82 -2.37 - 2.05 200300 3.16
- 4.01
5.12 5.51
-
600
500 600
46.7
41.2 46.3
45.6 56.847.7 - 1.460.77 -2.18 - 1.75 300400 2.18 3.30
3.56 5.06 4.13
5.32
46.9
29.5 51.4
21.1 52.619.1 700 - 0.82 - 2.37 - 2.05 - 300400 3.16
2.54 3.234.01 5.51
5.21
600
800 46.7 46.3 47.7 - 0.77 2.18 1.75 400 2.18 3.30 4.13
27.1
29.5 26.5
21.1 19.120.7 - - - - - - - - 400500 1.81 3.82
2.54 3.23 3.32
5.21
800
27.1 26.5 20.7 - - - - 500600 1.07 4.13
1.81 3.82 2.77
3.32
- 600600 1.07- 4.13 2.77
- 2.59 3.95
1) NC was exposed to 150 °C; SFRC to 100 °C
600 - 2.59 3.95
1) ◦
NC was exposed to 150 C; SFRC to 100 C. ◦

4.3. Split Tensile Strength

4.3. Split Tensile Strength
The split tensile strength was obtained by performing standard Brazilian tests according to EN
The split tensile strength was obtained by performing standard Brazilian tests according to EN
12390-6 [24], on concrete cylinders 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm high. Again, prior to mechanical
12390-6 [24], on concrete cylinders 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm high. Again, prior to mechanical
loading, thermal cracks were marked on the surface. Figure 5 displays the typical thermal cracks
loading, thermal cracks were marked on the surface. Figure 5 displays the typical thermal cracks
visible on the surface of the cylinders used for split tension tests after heating to 600 °C◦and cooling
visible on the surface of the cylinders used for split tension tests after heating to 600 C and cooling
down to room temperature. Several fine cracks were seen on the surface due to slow heating. Figure
down
6 showsroom
to temperature.
the test setup usedSeveral
for the fine
splitcracks were
tension testsseen
andon the surface
a typical due
failure to slow
mode heating.
obtained fromFigure
the 6
shows
tests. the test setup used for the split tension tests and a typical failure mode obtained from the tests.

NC SFRC HyFRC

Figure5.5.Typical
Figure Typicalthermal
thermalcracks
cracks observed
observed for
for the
the cylinders
cylindersused
usedfor
forsplit
splittensile strength
tensile tests
strength after
tests after
exposuretotomaximum
exposure maximumtemperature of 600 ◦°C.
temperature of C.
 Fibers 2019, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
FibersFibers
2019, 2019,
7, 9 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
8 of 13

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Test setup(a) and (b) typical failure mode of concrete cylinders used for(b)
determining split
tensile strength after exposure to a temperature of 600 °C.
Figure 6. (a)6.Test
Figure (a) setup and (b)
Test setup andtypical failure
(b) typical modemode
failure of concrete cylinders
of concrete usedused
cylinders for determining split split
for determining
tensile strength after exposure to a temperature of 600 ◦ C.
tensile strength after exposure to a temperature of 600 °C.
The mean value and the relative degradation of the split tensile strength obtained from the tests
for different types of concrete is plotted as a function of the exposure temperature in Figure 7. As
The mean
Thethe
expected,
value
mean and the
value
influence and relative degradation
the presence
of the relative of the split
degradation
of steel andofmicro thetensile
split strength
tensile
PP fibres
obtained
strength
on
fromstrength
obtained
split tensile
the teststhe
from for
is tests
different types
for different
significantly of concrete
typesthan
higher is plotted
of concrete
that on the as a function
is compressive of the
plotted as a strength exposure temperature
functionofofconcrete.
the exposure in Figure
This is temperature 7.
explainable by As expected,
intheFigure
fact 7. As
thethat
influence
as the of
expected, the influence
the
concrete presence
cracks of ofsteel
in the and
tension, micro
presence
the PPcrossing
of
fibres fibresand
steel onthe
split
micro tensile
crack PP strength
fibres
plane onissplit
significantly
get activated tensile
and provide higher is
strength
than that on to
resistance thefailure
significantly compressive
higherduethan strength
that on the
to splitting. of compressive
For concrete.
the This
temperature isrange
explainable
strength by the
of concrete.
investigated fact
This
(20 that
tois700 as the
explainable
°C), concrete
by the fact
the tensile
cracks in
strengthtension,
that as oftheSFRC the
concretefibres crossing
cracks in
and HyFRC the crack
tension,
was aroundthe plane
40%fibresget activated
crossing
to 150% higher and
thethan provide
crack plane
that resistance to
get activated
of normal failure
concrete. and
Thisdue
provide
to splitting. For the temperature range investigated (20 fibres
to 700 ◦
shows a high
resistance tobeneficial
failure influence
due of steel
to splitting. Forandthemicro PP
temperature onC),
range the tensile
tensile strengthstrength
investigated of concrete
(20 to 700of °C),
SFRC
even and
at
the tensile
HyFRC was
elevated around
temperatures. 40% to 150% higher than that of normal concrete.
strength of SFRC and HyFRC was around 40% to 150% higher than that of normal concrete. This This shows a high beneficial
influence
showsofasteel
highand micro PP
beneficial fibres on
influence of tensile
steel andstrength
micro of PPconcrete
fibres on even at elevated
tensile strengthtemperatures.
of concrete even at
elevated temperatures.
7 1.2

6
Mean split tensile strength [MPa]

Relative split tensile strength [-]

1.0
7 1.2
5
0.8
6
Mean split tensile strength [MPa]

Relative split tensile strength [-]

1.0
4
0.6
5
3 0.8

4 0.4
2
Normal Concrete (NC) 0.6 Normal Concrete (NC)
3 SFRC 0.2 SFRC
1
HyFRC 0.4 HyFRC
0 2 Normal Concrete (NC) 0.0 Normal Concrete (NC)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
SFRC Temperature [°C] 0.2 SFRC Temperature [°C]
1
(a)
HyFRC Absolute values HyFRC
(b) Relative values
0 0.0
0 7.100
Figure
Figure 200 of of
7. Influence
Influence 300 400 temperature
elevated
elevated 500 600on
temperature 700 tensile
onsplit
split 0 100
tensile strength
strength 200
different
of different 300 400
typesofof
types 500
concrete.
concrete. 600 700
Temperature [°C] Temperature [°C]
4.4.4.4.
Flexural Tensile
Flexural (a)
Tensile Absolute
Strength valuesofofRupture)
(Modulus
Strength (Modulus Rupture)and
andFracture
Fracture Energy
Energy (b) Relative values

TheThe Figure
flexural
flexural7. Influence
tensile
tensile of elevated
strength or or
strength temperature
modulus
modulus on split
of rupture of tensile
of rupture concrete strength
of concrete waswas of measured
differentintypes
measured of concrete.
accordance
in accordancewith
RILEM
with 50-FMC
RILEM Recommendation
50-FMC Recommendation [25] using notched
[25] using prismatic beam specimens
notched prismatic with a cross-section
beam specimens with a
of 1504.4.mm
Flexural
× 150
cross-section ofTensile
mm
150 mm Strength
and ×a150
span(Modulus
mmlength of 600
and aof Rupture)
span mm. A
length and Fracture
ofnotch
600 mm.of 5AEnergy
mm
notchwidth
of 5 mmandwidth
50 mm length
and 50 mmwas
cutlength
at theThe
midflexural
was span
cut oftensile
at the the
midbeams.
span ofFigure
the 8
beams.shows
Figurethe8 test
shows setup
the used
test in
setup the flexural
used in
strength or modulus of rupture of concrete was measured in accordancethe tests as
flexural well
tests as
theastypical
well as
with the typical
failure
RILEM mode failure
50-FMC mode
obtained forobtained for[25]
beams with
Recommendation beams
SFRC. with
usingNote SFRC.
that the
notched Note thattest
same
prismatic thebeam
sameused
was test was usedwith a
to evaluate
specimens
thetofracture
evaluate the fracture
energy of energy
concrete as of concrete
well. The as well.
tests wereThe tests wereinperformed
performed crack tip
cross-section of 150 mm × 150 mm and a span length of 600 mm. A notch of 5 mm width and 50 mm in crack displacement
opening tip opening
displacement
(CTOD) control. (CTOD) control.
length was cut at the mid span of the beams. Figure 8 shows the test setup used in the flexural tests
as well as the typical failure mode obtained for beams with SFRC. Note that the same test was used
to evaluate the fracture energy of concrete as well. The tests were performed in crack tip opening
displacement (CTOD) control.
Fibers 2019,
Fibers
Fibers 7, 97,7,xxFOR
2019,
2019, FOR PEER REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 9 of9 9of 13 13
13of

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Test setup used and (b) close up view of the typical fracture region (failure mode)
Figure 8. (a)
Figure Test
8. in
observed (a) setup
Test
the used
setup
flexural andon
used
tests (b)
andclose
(b)up
notched viewup
close
beams. of view
the typical
of thefracture
typicalregion (failure
fracture mode)
region observed
(failure mode)
in observed
the flexural
in tests on notched
the flexural tests beams.
on notched beams.
The typical load-displacement curves obtained from the flexural tests on notched beams are
plottedtypical
The
The intypicalload-displacement
Figure load-displacement curves
9 for different concretes curves obtained
(a) obtained from
fromthe
under ambient the flexural
flexuraltests
conditions tests
and onon
(b) notched
notched
after beams
exposure to are
beams a are
plotted
plottedin Figure
in Figure
temperature 9 for
9 for
of 400 different
°C different concretes
in residual concretes (a)
conditions. under
(a) under ambient conditions
ambient conditions
The load-displacement and (b)
andfor
curves after
(b) normal exposure
concreteto
after exposure to a
a temperature of 400 ◦ C in residual conditions. The load-displacement curves for normal concrete
temperature of 400 °C
displays a relatively in residual
straight pre-peak conditions. The load-displacement
line, a well-defined peak and a gradual curves for normal
post-peak concrete
softening
displays
curve, atypically
displays relatively
a relatively straight
associated
straight pre-peak
with line,
the tensile
pre-peak a behaviour
line, well-defined peak
of normal
a well-defined peak and a gradual
concrete.
and The post-peak
a gradual softening
load-displacement
post-peak softening
curve, typically
curve for associated
normal concrete with the
retains tensile
its shape behaviour
also afterof normal
exposure concrete.
to elevated The
curve, typically associated with the tensile behaviour of normal concrete. The load-displacement load-displacement
temperature but curve
reaching
forcurve
anormal
lower concrete
forultimate retains
load.
normal concrete itsretains
However, shapethe also
its afteralso
sharpness
shape exposure
ofafter to elevated
the exposure
peak to temperature
is reduced and the
elevated but reaching
post-peak
temperature butareaching
lower
softening
becomes
ultimate more
load. gradual
However, for
the normal
sharpnessconcrete
of loaded
the peak after
is exposure
reduced and to elevated
the temperature.
post-peak
a lower ultimate load. However, the sharpness of the peak is reduced and the post-peak softening softening becomes
more gradual
becomes moreforgradual
normal concrete
for normal loaded
concreteafterloaded
exposure toexposure
after elevated temperature.
to elevated temperature.
16 14
Normal Concrete (NC)
14
16 1214 SFRC
12 Normal Concrete (NC)
HyFRC
14 1012
SFRC
10
12
Load [kN]

HyFRC
Load [kN]

810
8
10
6
Load [kN]

Load [kN]

6 8
8
4
4 Normal Concrete (NC) 6
6
SFRC
2 2
HyFRC 4
4 Normal Concrete (NC)
0 SFRC 0
2 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
HyFRC Displacement [mm]
Displacement [mm]
0 0
0.0 (a)0.5 1.0conditions
Ambient 1.5 (202.0
°C) 2.5 3.0 0 (b)0.2Residual0.4
(400 °C) 0.6 0.8 1
Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm]
Figure
Figure 9. Load-displacementcurves
9. Load-displacement curvesobtained
obtainedfrom
fromthe
theflexural
flexural tests on notched
notchedbeams.
beams.
(a) Ambient conditions (20 °C) (b) Residual (400 °C)
Conversely,
Conversely,
Figure thethe
9.load-displacement
load-displacementcurves
Load-displacement curves
curves obtained
obtained
obtained for concrete
forthe
from concrete
flexuralwith
with steel
testssteel fibres(SFRC)
fibres
on notched (SFRC)asaswell
beams. well
as the concrete
as the concrete withwitha combination
a combinationofofsteel steeland
andmicro
micro PP PP fibres
fibres (HyFRC)
(HyFRC) underunderambient
ambientconditions
conditions
display
display a a first
first drop
drop in in
thethe
loadloadat at approximately
approximately the
the same
same load as
Conversely, the load-displacement curves obtained for concrete with steel fibres (SFRC)the
the peak
peak load
load obtained
obtained for
fornormal
normal
as well
concrete.
concrete. After
After this
as the concrete this
with first
first drop, the
drop, the load
a combination load carrying
carrying
of steel capacity
capacity
and micro further
PP further rises and a
rises andunder
fibres (HyFRC) high
a high level of load is is
level ofconditions
ambient load
maintained
maintained
display even
a first even at at
drop relatively
relatively
in the load large
large displacements.the
displacements.
at approximately This
This phenomenon
load as theisispeak
phenomenon
same associated
associated with
withthe
load obtained thetension
fortension
normal
behaviour
behaviour of of concrete
concrete withsteel
with steelfibres
fibresand
andisisdiscussed
discussed in in Figure
Figure 11 ofof this
this paper.
paper. ItItisisinteresting
interesting toto
concrete. After this first drop, the load carrying capacity further rises and a high level of load is
observe
observe that
that even even
thoughthough the
the micro micro PP fibres
PP displacements. are not
fibres are not expected expected to contribute
to contributeismuch much
towards towards
thethe the
strength,
maintained even at relatively large This phenomenon associated with tension
thestrength,
peak load thereached
peak load reached for thewith
concrete with both
andsteel andPP micro PP fibres was significantly
behaviour of concretefor withthe steel
concretefibres andboth steel
is discussed inmicro
Figure 1fibres
of thiswas significantly
paper. higherto
It is interesting
higher
than SFRC.thanThisSFRC.
is, This
however, is, however,
attributed attributed
to the to
higher the higher
concrete concrete
strength strength
of HyFRC. of HyFRC.
It can be Itobserved
can be
observe that even though the micro PP fibres are not expected to contribute much towards the
observed in Figure 9a that only the cracking strength of HyFRC is higher than that of SFRC. The
instrength,
Figure 9athe that onlyload
peak the reached
crackingfor strength of HyFRC
the concrete withisboth
highersteelthan
andthat
microof SFRC.
PP fibres Thewas post-cracking
significantly
behaviour is similar for both SFRC and HyFRC. These results indicate
higher than SFRC. This is, however, attributed to the higher concrete strength of HyFRC. It can be that the tensile post-cracking
behaviour
observedisinmainly
Figureinfluenced
9a that only by thethesteel fibresstrength
cracking and not of by HyFRC
PP fibres. is higher than that of SFRC. The
 Fibers 2019, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

post-cracking behaviour is similar for both SFRC and HyFRC. These results indicate that the tensile
Fibers 2019, 7, 9 10 of 13
post-cracking behaviour is mainly influenced by the steel fibres and not by PP fibres.
The performance of SFRC and HyFRC in residual conditions after exposure to a temperature of
400 °C was also significantly
The performance of SFRC better than the
and HyFRC in performance of normal
residual conditions concrete.
after exposureBoth
to athe strength as of
temperature
well
◦ as displacement capacity were found to be rather large compared to the corresponding values
400 C was also significantly better than the performance of normal concrete. Both the strength as well
obtained for normal concrete. Thus, it can be said that the beneficial influence of adding steel and
as displacement capacity were found to be rather large compared to the corresponding values obtained
micro PP fibres as observed under ambient conditions remain valid even after exposure to elevated
for normal concrete. Thus, it can be said that the beneficial influence of adding steel and micro PP fibres
temperatures.
as observed under ambient conditions remain valid even after exposure to elevated temperatures.
Figure 10a displays the influence of elevated temperature on the flexural tensile strength of
Figure 10a displays the influence of elevated temperature on the flexural tensile strength of
different types of concrete. The concrete with both steel and micro PP fibres displays the highest
different
strengthtypes
valuesof for
concrete. The
almost all theconcrete
exposurewith both steelThe
temperatures. andtrend
microof PP
the fibres
flexuraldisplays the highest
tensile strength is
strength
comparable to that obtained for splitting tensile strength (Figure 7a). It may be noted that the slight is
values for almost all the exposure temperatures. The trend of the flexural tensile strength
comparable
increase intothe
thatflexural
obtained for splitting
strength of NCtensile strength to
after exposure (Figure
150 °C7a).
is Itprobably
may be noted that the
attributable to slight
the
increase in the flexural strength of NC after exposure to 150 ◦ C is probably attributable to the increased
increased concrete age at testing compared to all other specimens (concrete age 9 months).
concrete age at testing compared to all other specimens (concrete age 9 months).

(a) Flexural tensile strength (b) Fracture energy

Figure
Figure 10.10. Variation
Variation ofofflexural tensile
flexural strength
tensile and fracture
strength energy as
and fracture a function
energy as a offunction
exposure of
temperature.
exposure temperature.

The fracture
The fracture energy
energyvalues
valuesofofdifferent
differentconcretes
concretes were calculated
calculatedas asthe
thearea
areaunder
underload-CMOD
load-CMOD
(crack mouth opening displacement) curves. Figure 10b shows the variation
(crack mouth opening displacement) curves. Figure 10b shows the variation of fracture energy of fracture energy as as
a a
function
function of exposure
of exposure temperature
temperature calculated
calculated for different
for different concretes
concretes tested.tested. Irrespective
Irrespective of the
of the exposure
exposure temperature,
temperature, the fracture the fracture
energy energyconcrete
of normal of normal (NC)concrete (NC) to
was found was befound to becompared
negligible negligible to
compared
that of SFRC to or that
HyFRC.of SFRC
This orcanHyFRC. This can
be observed be observedthe
by comparing by load-displacement
comparing the load-displacement
curves obtained
for different concretes (Figure 9), where the area under the curves forunder
curves obtained for different concretes (Figure 9), where the area normal theconcrete
curves for normal
is negligible
compared to the area under the curves for concrete with fibres. The steel fibres contribute fibres
concrete is negligible compared to the area under the curves for concrete with fibres. The steel to high
contribute to high increase in fracture energy under ambient conditions. With increasing
increase in fracture energy under ambient conditions. With increasing temperature the bond between
temperature the bond between steel fibres and concrete undergoes thermally induced damage,
steel fibres and concrete undergoes thermally induced damage, which then leads to a significantly
which then leads to a significantly lower fracture energy. Already after exposure to 300 °C, the
lower fracture energy. Already after exposure to 300 ◦ C, the fracture energy of fibre reinforced concrete
fracture energy of fibre reinforced concrete reduces to more than half of the initial value (under
reduces to more than half of the initial value (under ambient conditions). Beyond this temperature,
ambient conditions). Beyond this temperature, the fracture energy decreases only moderately. This
the fracture energy decreases only moderately. This trend is different from that observed in normal
trend is different from that observed in normal concrete, which exhibits an increase in fracture
◦ C (up to 50–60%). Residual
concrete,
energy which exhibits
up to 300–400 °Can(upincrease in fracture
to 50–60%). Residual energy
fracture upenergy
to 300–400
after exposure to 600 °C of normal
fracture energy after exposure to 600 ◦ C of normal concrete corresponds roughly to that under ambient
concrete corresponds roughly to that under ambient conditions. These results are consistent with
conditions. Theseinresults
those reported are [26].
literature consistent with those reported in literature [26].
In In
order
order to to
obtain
obtainmore
moreinsight
insightinto
intothe
the ductility
ductility ofof fibre
fibre reinforced
reinforcedconcrete
concreteafter
afterexposure
exposure to to
elevated temperatures, an evaluation of the residual flexural load for different
elevated temperatures, an evaluation of the residual flexural load for different CMOD values (first CMOD values (first
cracking,
cracking,0.5,
0.5,1.5,
1.5,2.5,
2.5,3.5
3.5 and 10.0
10.0mm)
mm)was wasperformed.
performed. TheThe results
results are summarized
are summarized in Figure
in Figure 11. The11.
Therelative
relative flexural
flexural loadload represents
represents the ratio
the ratio of theof the flexural
flexural load corresponding
load corresponding to the measured
to the measured CMOD
CMOD and the load at the proportionality limit. According to the European standard EN 14651 [27]
the proportionality limit is estimated as the maximum load attained before or upon reaching a CMOD
of 0.05 mm. However, considering that this limit would not be realistic for thermally damaged concrete,
the limit of proportionality was estimated as the maximum load attained up to a CMOD of 0.1 mm.
 and the
Fibers load
2019, at the
7, x FOR proportionality
PEER REVIEW limit. According to the European standard EN 14651 11 [27]
of 13 the
proportionality limit is estimated as the maximum load attained before or upon reaching a CMOD of
0.05
andmm. However,
the load considering that
at the proportionality this
limit. limit would
According to thenot be realistic
European standardfor EN
thermally damaged
14651 [27] the
proportionality
concrete, the limitlimit is estimated as the
of proportionality wasmaximum
estimatedload attained
as the before load
maximum or upon reaching
attained up atoCMOD
a CMOD of of
0.05
Fibers mm.
2019, 7, 9 However, considering that this limit would not be realistic for thermally
0.1 mm. In spite of the pronounced scatter, it can be observed in Figure 11 that the relative ductility damaged 11 of 13
concrete, the limit of proportionality was estimated as the maximum load
of both fibre reinforced concrete types is not significantly influenced by the temperature. attained up to a CMOD of
0.1 mm. In spite of the pronounced scatter, it can be observed in Figure 11 that the relative ductility
In of
spite
bothoffibre
the pronounced scatter,
reinforced concrete it can
types be observed
is not in Figure
significantly 11 that
influenced thetemperature.
by the relative ductility of both
fibre 1.4
reinforced concrete types is not significantly influenced 1.4 by the temperature.
SFRC HyFRC

Relative flexural tensile load [-]

Relative flexural tensile load [-]

1.2 1.2
1.4 1.4
SFRC HyFRC

Relative flexural tensile load [-]

1.01.2 1.0
Relative flexural tensile load [-]

1.2

0.81.0 0.8
1.0

0.60.8 0.6
0.8

0.40.6 0.6
0.4
20 _1 20 _2 20 _3 20 _4
100 _1 200 _1 200 _2 300 _1
0.20.4 20 _2
300 _1 20 _2
400 _1 20 _3
400 _2 20 _4
500 _1
0.4
0.2 20 _1 20 _2 300 _1 300 _2 400 _1
100_1_1
600 200_2
600 _1 200 _2 300 _1 400 _2 500 _1 600 _1 600 _2
0.00.2 300 _2 400 _1 400 _2 500 _1 0.2
0.0 20 _1 20 _2 300 _1 300 _2 400 _1
0 600 2_1 6004_2 6 8 10 12 0 400 _2 2 500 _14 6
600 _1 600 8_2 10 12
0.0 CMOD [mm] 0.0 CMOD [mm]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(a) [mm]
CMOD CMOD(b)
[mm]
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Influence of elevated temperature on the ductility of (a) SFRC and (b) HyFRC.
Figure11.
Figure 11.Influence
Influenceof
ofelevated
elevated temperature
temperature on
on the
the ductility
ductilityofof(a)
(a)SFRC
SFRCand
and(b)(b)
HyFRC.
HyFRC.
4.5. Static Modulus of Elasticity
4.5.4.5.
Static Modulus
Static ModulusofofElasticity
Elasticity
The static modulus of elasticity was obtained in accordance with EN 12390-13 [28] using the
The
prismaticThestatic
staticmodulus
specimens modulus ofofelasticity
of size 100 mm ×was
elasticity was
100 mm obtained
obtained in accordance
in accordance
in cross-section with
andwith
200 mmENEN12390-13
in12390-13 [28]
height.[28]
The using
using
typicalthethe
test
prismatic
prismatic specimens
specimens of
of size
size 100
100 mm
mm ×× 100
100 mm mm in in cross-section
cross-section and and
200
setup as well as the variation of the static modulus of elasticity as a function of temperature for200
mm mm
in in height.
height. The The
typical typical
test
setup
test setup
different astypes
aswell
well asas
of the
thevariation
variation
concrete ofof
the
investigated thestatic
static modulus
modulus
is plotted of of
in Figure elasticity
elasticityas as
12. Only afine
function
cracksofwere
a function temperature
of observedfor
temperature o for
the
different
different types of concrete investigated is plotted in Figure 12. Only fine cracks were observed o the
surface due to thermal loading, which were marked. The plot of the static modulus of elasticity asoa
types of concrete investigated is plotted in Figure 12. Only fine cracks were observed
thesurface
surfacedue to to
thermal loading, which were marked. The plot of theofstatic modulus of elasticity as a
function ofdue thermal
temperature loading,
clearly which
shows were
that marked.
the absolute Thevalues
plot thewell
as staticasmodulus of elasticity
the variation of the
as function
a function of of
temperature
temperature clearly shows
clearly shows thatthat
thethe
absolute
absolute values as as
values well as as
well thethe
variation
variationof ofthethe
elasticity modulus the temperature for SFRC and HyFRC are quite similar to that of normal concrete.
elasticity
elasticity modulusthe
modulus thetemperature
temperaturefor for SFRC
SFRC andand HyFRC
HyFRC are
arequite
quite similar
similartoto that of of
normal concrete.
Considering the relatively low volumetric content of the fibres in concrete, it that normal
can be expected concrete.
that the
Considering
Considering thethe relatively
relatively lowlow volumetric
volumetric content
content of
of the
the fibres
fibres in
inconcrete,
concrete, it can
it canbe expected
be expected that thethe
that
fibres do not have any significant effect on the modulus of elasticity.
fibres do not have any significant effect on the modulus
fibres do not have any significant effect on the modulus of elasticity. of elasticity.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 12. (a) Typical test setup and (b) variation of static modulus of elasticity with elevated
Figure 12.
Figure 12. (a) Typical
Typical test
test setup
setup and
and (b)
(b) variation
variation of
of static
static modulus
modulus of
of elasticity
elasticity with
with elevated
elevated
temperature for different types of concrete.
temperaturefor
temperature fordifferent
differenttypes
typesofofconcrete.
concrete.

5. Conclusions
In this work, systematic experimental investigations were carried out to study the influence
of elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of concrete without fibres, SFRC—Steel fibre
reinforced concrete having 50 kg/m3 of hooked end steel fibres and HyFRC—Hybrid fibre reinforced
Fibers 2019, 7, 9 12 of 13

concrete having 50 kg/m3 of hooked end steel fibres +1 kg/m3 of micro PP fibres. The test results led
to the following conclusions:

1. The compressive strength of SFRC and HyFRC was found to be comparable to that of NC for
entire temperature range, which is related to the relatively low volumetric content of fibres
in concrete.
2. The split tensile strength as well as the modulus of rupture (flexural tensile strength) for
concrete with fibres (both SFRC and HyFRC) was significantly higher than that of NC for all
the temperatures. An increase in strength of the order of 40% to 150% was observed due to the
presence of the fibres. The increase is primarily owed to the relatively high content of hooked-end
steel fibres, which can take up the load upon concrete cracking. However, the bond between steel
fibres and concrete is damaged due to thermal exposure, resulting in a decay of tensile strength
with increasing temperature.
3. The highest influence of the presence of fibres was observed in the fracture energy of concrete.
For both SFRC and HyFRC, the fracture energy was at least two orders of magnitude higher than
that of NC over the entire temperature range investigated in this work.
4. The static modulus of elasticity of all types of concrete investigated is of similar magnitude and
the variation with the temperature is also similar. The addition of fibres cannot affect elasticity
modulus due to their small volumetric content.
5. No negative influence of the presence of 1 kg/m3 of micro PP fibres was observed on the strength,
fracture energy or modulus of elasticity of concrete with steel fibres.
6. Such hybrid FRC has a huge potential in real-life applications to provide high mechanical as well
as fire resistance.

Author Contributions: J.B. and A.S. conceived and designed the experiments; J.B. and K.G. performed the
experiments and analyzed the data; J.B. and A.S. wrote the paper.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors are very thankful to the company ArcelorMittal Wire Solutions Sales
Germany GmbH for providing the steel fibres and to company baumhueter extrusion GmbH for providing
the polypropylene fibres.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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