Stress Concentration

When a large stress gradient occurs in a small, localized area of a

structure, the high stress is referred to as a stress concentration. Near
changes in geometry of a loaded structure, the flow of stress is
interfered with, causing high stress gradients where the maximum
stress and strain may greatly exceed the average or nominal values
based on simple calculations. Contact stresses, as discussed in Chapter
14, also exhibit high stress gradients near the point of contact,
which subside quickly as one moves away from the contact area. Thus,
the two most common occurrences of stress concentrations are due to
(1) discontinuities in continuum and (2) contact forces. Discontinuities
in continuum include changes in geometry and material properties.
This chapter is devoted to geometric changes.
Rapid geometry changes disrupt the smooth flow of stresses through
the structure between load application areas. Plates in tension or
bending with holes, notches, steps, etc. are simple examples involving
direct normal stresses. Shafts in tension, bending, and torsion, with
holes, notches, steps, keyways, etc., are simple examples involving
direct and bending normal stresses and torsional shear stresses. More
complicated geometries must be analyzed either by experimental or
numerical techniques such as the finite element method. Other, less
obvious, geometry changes include rough surface finishes and external
and internal cracks.
Changes in material properties are discussed in Chap. 7, and
demonstrated in an example where a change in modulus of elasticity
drastically changed the stress distribution. Changes in material
properties can occur both at macroscopic and microscopic levels
which include alloy formulation, grain size and orientation, foreign
materials, etc.