Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198

This article is also available online at:

www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

Dynamic simulation of grinding circuits

Yi Liu *, Steven Spencer
a
CSIRO Minerals, Private Mail Bag 5, Menai, NSW 2234, Australia

Received 1 April 2004; accepted 12 May 2004

Abstract

A flexible and powerful dynamic simulation approach to grinding circuit simulation has recently been developed in CSIRO Min-
erals. The MATLAB/SIMULINK graphical programming environment has been used to construct a library of dynamic mathemat-
ical models of a number of key grinding and separation devices and to link them into various complex dynamic grinding circuits.
True real-time dynamic simulation and visualisation of interlinked unit process operations in grinding circuits of arbitrary complex-
ity can readily be achieved.
The application of the dynamic simulation approach can help greatly in understanding the sometimes complex, nonlinear behav-
iour and dynamic interactions in various grinding circuits. Dynamic simulation can be used to test ‘‘what-ifs’’ in grinding process
operations such as circuit response to variations in feed and unit operation characteristics. It is a cheap and effective means of inves-
tigating circuit optimisation without the risk of possible damage to operating units or production of a large amount of unwanted
product during a physical optimisation process. Dynamic simulation is also extremely useful in developing and testing new ideas for
process soft-sensors and control. The experience and knowledge gained in dynamic simulation of grinding circuits is directly appli-
cable to other dynamic flowsheet modelling and optimisation problems in the minerals and process engineering industries. The
advantages of building flowsheet models within the MATLAB/SIMULINK programming environment include the ability to readily
develop and modify continuous, discrete and/or hybrid models of individual unit operations, with solution of the flowsheet system
by a powerful in-built suite of equation solvers and analysis of results utilising extensive existing graphical capabilities. Flowsheet
models of arbitrary complexity can easily be graphically developed, while individual unit models can be developed in terms of graph-
ical block diagrams and/or customised block models written in computer code.

2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Comminution; SAG milling; Modelling; Simulation

1. Introduction simulation in most of the mineral processing industry,

Real time dynamic computer simulation has been a
powerful tool not only in traditional high-tech aero-
space and military industries, but also in other areas
such as the automotive, steel making, and chemical
processing industries. However, until very recently, there
has been limited practical application of dynamic
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9710 6731; fax: +61 2 9710
6789.
E-mail addresses: yi.liu@csiro.au (Y. Liu), steven.spencer@csiro.au
(S. Spencer).
instead relying on pilot plant studies and/or steady-state
flowsheet simulation for plant design, equipment dimen-
sioning and pre-control optimisation.
With recent progress in on-line measurement in min-
eral processing, there are an increasing number of min-
eral processing variables that can be measured on-line
in real time (Death et al., 2002). Soft sensor models are
also increasingly being developed for critical plant varia-
bles that have previously been unavailable (Gonzalez,
1999). This progress has greatly improved the opportuni-
ties for more advanced control techniques to be applied
to mineral processing. To do this, a full understanding

0892-6875/$ - see front matter
2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2004.05.018
1190 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198
of the dynamic behaviour of a processing circuit and the
dynamic interactions between the external process varia-
bles open to manipulation and internal (and perform-
ance) variables of the circuit is crucial before any
advanced process control can be successfully imple-
mented. Real time dynamic simulation provides a power-
ful tool to gain such an understanding with minimum
associated cost.
Many simulation packages and techniques already
exist for flowsheet simulation in the mineral processing
industry. They have been widely and successfully used
for plant design, capacity planning (equipment sizing),
circuit optimisation, problem diagnosis and costing pur-
poses. However, most of these existing simulation pack-
ages are based on steady state analysis (for instance
METSIM, USIM PAC, Limn and JKSimMet) and
may utilise empirical (and in the worst cases Ôblack-
boxÕ) models of limited generality for individual unit
operations. Such packages cannot simulate the dynamic
behaviour and interactions of processing units within a
circuit during transitional periods between various stea-
dy states (including prediction of transition times), nor
can they capture the real-time dynamic interactions be-
tween external process variables (e.g. feed variations),
internal variables (e.g. grinding mill load), and perform-
ance variables (e.g. product size distribution and flow
rate) of a processing circuit. Such dynamic variations
and interactions can cause major problems for process
control and optimisation, most notably, in the case of
semi-autogenous grinding/autogenous grinding (SAG/
AG) mills in primary grinding circuits. Some dynamic
simulation packages do exist (for instance Aspen
Dynamics and SysCAD). In the case of the Aspen suite
of products, their use may be viewed as relatively high
cost and suitable largely as a Ôhigh endÕ solution to flow-
sheet modelling needs for most of the mineral processing
industry. In the case of SysCAD, the dynamic capability
is available but to the authors knowledge has so far
has largely been used as a means to obtain a steady
state configuration for analysis. It is also known that
SIMULINK has been used for simulation of the alu-
mina refinery process and testing of control strategies
at Nabalco–Alcan Gove Pty Ltd. However, the
approach has not to our knowledge been extended for
general use in the mineral processing industry.
It is our intention to explore the techniques of dy-
namic simulation used in other industries (under the
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment) for development
and application in mineral processing dynamic flowsheet
simulation. The main reasons to use SIMULINK are its
modular approach to model building, open model struc-
ture, ease of changing circuit configurations and links,
powerful real time graphic display functions for process
variables, and integrated advanced nonlinear dynamic
system solvers. A flexible and powerful dynamic simula-
tion flowsheet modelling approach has accordingly been
developed, with specific application in grinding circuit
dynamic simulation. The reasons for the choice of grind-
ing circuits as the initial area for model development is
the relative maturity of dynamic mathematical models
for some of the unit operations and the interest in dy-
namic control of problematic unit operations such as
SAG/AG mills. The approach exploits extensions of lit-
erature dynamical mathematical models of grinding mill
unit operation developed into a SIMULINK unit model
graphical library and the flexibility/capacity of SIMU-
LINK to link these individual units into complex dy-
namic flowsheets. In this manner validated individual
unit models can be linked in an arbitrary manner and
used to perform true real-time dynamic simulations.
The application of the dynamic simulation approach
can help greatly in understanding the sometimes com-
plex, nonlinear behaviour and dynamic interactions in
various grinding circuits. Dynamic simulation can be
used to test ‘‘what-ifs’’ in grinding process operations
such as circuit response to variations in feed and unit
operation characteristics. It is a cheap and effective
means of investigating circuit control and optimisation
without the risk of possible damage to operating units
or production of a large amount of unwanted product
during a physical plant studies. Dynamic simulation is
also extremely useful in developing and testing new ideas
for process soft-sensors and control.
The next section briefly describes the main mathemat-
ical models used in our dynamic simulations. Section 3
summarises the general features of the simulation ap-
proach and the specifics of the comminution model li-
brary constructed for dynamic simulation of grinding
circuits. Several dynamic simulation examples are given
in Section 4. Section 5 concludes the paper with some re-
marks on the flexibility of the approach, possible future
extensions and practical applications.
2. Dynamic models for grinding circuit unit operations
The key unit model in a grinding circuit is the grind-
ing device itself, in many flowsheets being a SAG/AG
and ball mills, respectively for primary and secondary
grinding. There is a well-known mathematical model
for ball mill operation based on the population balance
modelling approach, with the assumption that mill
dynamics can be modelled by a number of perfect mixers
in series (see, Whiten, 1974; Austin et al., 1984). Let
X(t) = [x1(t), x2(t), . . . , xn(t)]T be the vector representing
the mass of solids in discrete size fractions in a perfect
mixer, then single mixer ball mill breakage in a mill with
constant hold-up can be modelled as governed by the
following equation:
dX ðtÞ
¼ ðBðtÞ  IÞSðtÞX ðtÞ: ð1Þ
dt
 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198
Here B(t) is the breakage distribution function (lower
triangular matrix), S(t) is the breakage rate (selection)
function (diagonal matrix), and I is the identity matrix.
It is usually assumed that the breakage distribution and
breakage rate functions are constant matrices, and can
be estimated from batch grinding tests (see, Austin
et al., 1984; Weller et al., 1997, 2000). To model a
SAG/AG mill, as well as to reflect possible ore hardness
changes in the feed, the following single mixer nonlinear
grinding phenomenological model was developed by us:
dX ðtÞ
¼ ðBðtÞ  IÞ½bðtÞðcðtÞSðtÞ þ aS a ðtÞX ðtÞÞX ðtÞ ð2Þ
dt
Here B(t) and S(t) are the same as in Eq. (1), and
Sa(t) is a breakage rate (lower triangular matrix) repre-
senting the effect of autonomous grinding. The constant
0 6 a 6 1 is a structure parameter. When a = 0, the
model simulates a ball mill, 0 < a < 1 simulates a SAG
mill, and when a = 1 and S(t) = 0, the model simulates
an AG mill. Function b(t) is used to simulate changes
in feed ore hardness. The model simulates ‘‘softer’’ ore
when b(t) < 1, and b(t) > 1 for ‘‘harder’’ ore, and
b(t) = 1 returns to ‘‘normal’’ ore hardness. Similarly,
function c(t) is used to simulate the effects of ball charge
in the mill. When c(t) > 1, extra balls are added, when
c(t) < 1 balls are consumed, and when c(t) = 1, we as-
sume no variations of ball charge in the mill.
Eq. (2) is restricted to modelling breakage in a single
perfect mixer. However, grinding mill operation gener-
ally can be more reasonably modelled in terms of several
perfect mixers connected in series. This provides a low
order model for the dynamics of mass transportation
through the mill. A critical parameter in this model is
the mean residence time of the solids in the mill. An-
other consideration is that at the discharge end of any
grinding mill, there is generally a size classification
effect, sometimes due to the presence of a grate or
screen. In these circumstances, the following model
better describes comminution in a perfect mixer:
dX ðtÞ
¼ ðBðtÞ  IÞ½bðtÞðcðtÞSðtÞ
dt
1 ð3Þ
þaS a ðtÞX ðtÞÞX ðtÞ þ ðf ðtÞ  pðtÞÞ
s
pðtÞ ¼ CðtÞX ðtÞ
Here f(t) = [f1(t), f2(t), . . . , fn(t)]T is the mass of the sol-
ids feed, and mass of the mixer product is
p(t) = [p1(t), p2(t), . . . , pn(t)]T. Matrix C(t) contains classi-
fication coefficients for the mixer. It is usually a diagonal
constant identity matrix for all mixers of a grinding mill
model except the last mixer, which will also be a diago-
nal matrix but reflect the classification effects of the mill
at the discharge. Here s is the mean residence time for
solids in a mixer, which can be obtained by appropriate
analysis of pulse injection tracer tests (see, Weller et al.,
2000).
1191
Eq. (3) is the generic building block of the grinding
mill models for this dynamic simulation approach. In
practice, we also need to include a water phase mass bal-
ance in the above mill model if a wet grinding circuit is
to be simulated. The water phase model will not be dis-
cussed in this paper.
Other key unit operations in grinding circuits are
mixing and separation devices. A dynamical mathemat-
ical model of a sump unit operation can be derived in
the similar fashion to Eq. (3), based on simple mixing
principles with an associated mean residence time. There
are many types of models for cyclone separators in the
literature, which will not be discussed in this paper.
The hydro-cyclone model we used in this study is based
on an empirical model (Austin et al., 1984). Neither of
these models will be described in any detail in this paper.
3. General features and the specifics of comminution
models
As can be seen from the last section, dynamical math-
ematical models of grinding mills can quickly grow into
some very complex, nonlinear and highly inter-con-
nected differential equations. The complexity of the
whole grinding circuit will dramatically increase once
we start to connect different unit models into a grinding
circuit and when wet grinding is considered. Any closed-
loop control (even with simple PID control) will com-
plicate the models further. It is clear that a powerful
nonlinear differential equation solver is a must for any
dynamic simulation of such complex models. In addi-
tion, a modular and subsystem approach is highly desir-
able to manage the complexity of the unit models and
also, the simulation tool has to be sufficiently flexible
to allow users to simulate a wide variety of types of
grinding circuits with different connectivity. In order
to fully understand the true dynamical behaviour of
individual unit models and the linked flowsheet, it is also
necessary to have real time graphical display capacity in
the simulation tool.
After a review of many commercially available dy-
namic simulation packages on the market, SIMULINK
(www.mathworks.com) was chosen for this work due to
its strong dynamical modelling capability and flexibility.
3.1. General features of SIMULINK
SIMULINK is a general purpose, very powerful and
flexible dynamic system simulation environment. It has
been applied to various time-domain dynamic system
simulations in a wide variety of industries, such as aero-
space (e.g. F14 flight control, missile flight control, lunar
module autopilot, and radar tracking), and automotive
(e.g. engine timing control, anti-lock brake system, auto-
matic transmission control, active suspension, power
1192 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198

window control). A good exposition of the capabilities
of SIMULINK can be found at the Mathworks SIMU-
LINK Technical Literature Web Page.
The key features of the SIMULINK can be summa-
rised as:
• Modular and subsystem approach to handle very
complex systems;
• Intuitive block-diagram (graphical) interfacing makes
it easy to construct and understand;
• Very rich commonly used block and subsystem
libraries;
• Extensive control system libraries can be readily used
for closed-loop simulations;
• Flexible structures and configurations and user defin-
able functions;
• Powerful simulation solvers to handle highly nonlin-
ear and stiff systems;
• Powerful graphics and visualisation tools;
• S-functions for addition of custom blocks to SIMU-
LINK models, defined in terms of MATLAB, C/
C++, Fortran or Ada code.
3.2. Specifics of the comminution dynamic model library
The comminution dynamic model library (see Fig. 1)
so far contains several versions of perfect mixer dynamic
comminution models of varying degrees of complexity,
which are the building blocks of the grinding mill
models. A hydro-cyclone size separation model (Austin
et al., 1984) has also been developed in the library. There
are also several versions of the sump/pump dynamic
model and links to several demonstration dynamic simu-
lations of grinding circuits. A number of other mineral
processing unit operation library models are currently
under development.
There are several key features of this library:
• The general approach to model development is to try
to make a model as generic as possible to accommo-
date a variety of simulation situations.
• To develop a grinding circuit, it is a simple task of
drag and drop of appropriate blocks (grinding units)
from the library into a new workplace, and then the
blocks can be linked into a grinding circuit by click
and drag of the mouse. After linking with the feed
and appropriate display tools in the same way, the
system is ready to be simulated once the model
parameters are loaded.
• To change the structure and configuration of the
grinding circuit, it is a simple task of substituting
blocks or re-linking the blocks in different ways.
• The hydro-cyclone model is a user-defined function
(called S-function), which can be a very complex
dynamic function. It is easy to develop the S-function
by following a few general rules.
• The sump/pump model in the library is treated as a
perfect mixer with residence time but without break-
age functions.
• The SAG Mill model in Fig. 1 is in fact a general
dynamic model for tumbling mills (see Eq. (3)). It
has several very useful characteristics:
– One parameter (a in Eq. (3)) could change the
model from a ball-mill (a = 0) to SAG mill
(0 < a < 1) or to AG mill (a = 1 and S(t) = 0) simu-
lations. It can also be used to model stirred ball
mills (see, Weller et al., 2000).

Comminution Model Library

Ball Demo 1:
Mixer SUMP RT Change
Mill

Perfect Mixer Sump Model (sfun)

Ball Mill with Hydro-Cyclone (sfun)
with water and RT Demo 2:
3 mixers and a
Feed Rate
classifier at end
Change

Ball
Mixer SUMP Demo 3:
Mill
Feed Size
Perfect Mixer with RT Change
Ball Mill with Sump model
and hardness input and
hardness input with RT and
solids holdup output Demo 4:
holdup output pump rate input
Ore Hardness
Changes
Mixer SAG SUMP
SAG Mill
Demo 5: Size
Perfect Mixer with Sump model with and Hardness
SAG Mill with Changes
RT for SAG pump rate input and
hardness input
holdup output solids holdup

Fig. 1. Dynamic model library for comminution.

 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198 1193

1 1
Mixer Mixer Mixer
Slurry mass SAG SAG SAG Slurry mass
feed discharge
Perfect Mixer with Perfect Mixer with Perfect Mixer with
RT for SAG 1 RT for SAG 2 RT for SAG 3
2
Solids & water
2 mass holdups
Solids hardness
change factor This SAG mill model allows any number of mixers to be connected.
Ore hardness be changed by Input 2, where input_2 < 1.0 means
softer feed, input_2 > 1.0 for harder feed.

Fig. 2. A SAG mill model with three perfect mixers.

– Mills can be modelled by any number of mixers to
match mean residence time distributions (sÕs in Eq.
(3)) determined from tracer test experimental data
(see, Weller et al., 2000).
– Each mixer can have independent breakage func-
tion and rate, mean residence time, and discharge
classification coefficients.
– Ore-hardness changes in the feed can be simulated
by defining a time varying b(t) coefficient in the
appropriate grinding model. Ball charge changes
can also be simulated in a similar manner (time-
varying c(t)), though this feature has not yet been
implemented.
– All models can be used for both wet and dry grind-
ing simulation.
Fig. 2 shows how three single mixer SAG blocks are
connected to model an entire SAG mill. Again, the num-
ber of mixers used to model a mill can be increased or
decreased easily by the user to fit the real conditions.
Each Mixer SAG block in Fig. 2 is the SIMULINK
implementation of the mathematical model of Eq. (3).
Usually, such a detailed model of a single unit operation
would be masked under a single graphical interface icon
and hence not shown to users.
An important consideration in any simulation exer-
cise is the validation of models. It should be noted that
the ball mill model used in this library has been checked
against the corresponding model in DYNAMILL, a
command line based dynamic mill simulation package
originally developed by Raj Rajamani and John Herbst
at University of Utah. It was found that under the same
conditions, the models produced simulation results that
differed by less than 2% in product size distribution.
4. Grinding circuit simulation examples
Two examples are here used to demonstrate the use
of the Comminution Model library and the key features
of SIMULINK as mentioned above.
4.1. Example 1: Residence time effects in a ball mill
In this example, a simple ball mill model consisting of
three perfect mixers is simulated under open circuit con-
dition. The slurry volumetric feed rate to the mill is kept
constant with zero initial solids feed rate in order to
grind-out the initial contents of the mill. Then a step
change increase of the solids feed rate is then introduced
and later a step change return to zero solids feed is intro-
duced. Two runs of the simulation are performed with
different residence times set for the first mixer in the ball
mill model (the residence times for the second and third
mixer are not changed).
Fig. 3 depicts the simulation setup for the residence
time test of a ball mill. Again, the feed to the mill can
be easily changed to suit various simulation purposes

K*u Ball Load Data

Solids Mill n=16, tau1=1
Solids
Feed Size Dist Mixer Discharge
Volume -K- Ball Mill with 3 mixers
and a classifier at end Plot Size
offset
Fractions

Mill Feed Plot Total

Solids & Water
-C- yin yout

Water Mill_Feed Mill_Discharge Change RT

Feed tau1=3
Change Residence Time tau1, then re-run to see
the change of the rising and decay characteristics Compare Two
of the ball mill with a constant volume feed Total Solids

Fig. 3. Example 1––Setup for simulation of a ball mill with residence time changes.
1194 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198

and the simulation progress can be monitored by the
scopes attached to feed stream pffiffiand
ffi discharge stream.
There are 16 size fractions at 2 size intervals used in
the model. The simulation is for a wet mill, with an addi-
tional water phase.
In the first run of the simulation, the residence time
constants for three mixers are all set to the same value
(s1 = s2 = s3 = 1 min). The simulation is repeated with
the residence time of the first mixer set to s1 = 3 min
and the other residence times unchanged (s2 =
s3 = 1 min).
Fig. 4 shows the dynamic responses of the ball mill
model with residence time of all mixers equal
(s1 = s2 = s3 = 1 min). The total solids mass and water
of the feed are shown in the first plot of Fig. 4 (total slur-
ry volume is kept constant). The second plot in Fig. 4
shows the mass of solids in each particle size fractions
in the discharge of the mill. It is interesting to note that
the initial solids hold-up in the ball mill was ground out
quickly due to no solids feed in the first 50 min (there is a
similarly rapid decline in solids mass at the second
grind-out). Solids hold-up quickly increases with the
step change addition of solid feed and stabilises at a con-
stant level. The third plot in Fig. 4 shows the total mass
of solids and water phases in the discharge of the mill.
Due to the nature of the constant volumetric feed, the
discharge steam of the mill is also a constant in volume.
Hence we can clear see that as expected, when solids in-
creases in discharge, the water will decrease accordingly
to keep the volume a constant, and vice versa.
Fig. 5 is a comparison of discharge total solids and
water phase mass as a function of time for the simula-
tion described above and a second simulation with the
residence time of the first mixer changed as also noted
above. The second plot in Fig. 5 clearly shows that when
the residence time in the first mixer of the ball mill model
is changed from 1 to 3 min, the response of the total sol-
ids in discharge stream is as expected, proportionally
slower, i.e. the total solids mass in the discharge stream
takes longer time to stabilise to the step changes of the
feed.
This example clearly shows that the mean residence
time input to a ball mill model has a major impact on
the responsiveness of the dynamic behaviour of the
model to feed rate changes. It is easy to see that by
adjusting the number of mixers and associated mean res-
idence times, one can match the residence time response
of a grinding mill model with tracer study data from a
real mill (see Weller et al., 2000).
4.2. Example 2: Responses of a SAG mill circuit to feed
size and hardness changes
In this example, we link SAG mill, hydrocyclone and
sump/pump models in a closed grinding circuit in feed-
forward configuration. A simulation is carried out with
a step up and down change of solids feed size at the fresh
feed stream to the grinding circuit. When feed solids size
increases, the mass of coarser fractions in feed increases
and the mass of the finer fractions decreases so as to

Mill Feed - Total Solids, Water & Volume

1000 640
Feed Volume (litre)

Solids
Water
Mass (kg)

500 638

0 636
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Solids Fractions in Discharge Stream
400
Mass Fractions (kg)

300

200

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Mill Discharge - Total Solids & Water. Mixer 1 RT τ 1 = 1 (min)
1500
Solids
Water
Mass (kg)

1000

500

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (min)

Fig. 4. Dynamic responses of a ball mill model demonstrating mean residence time effects.
 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198 1195

Mill Feed - Total Solids, Water & Volume

1000 638.5
Solids
800 Water 638

Feed Volume (litre)

Mass (kg)
600 637.5

400 637

200 636.5

0 636
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Comparison of Residence Time Change of the 1st Mixer of Ball Mill (Water - dotted)
1500
Total Solids Mass & Water (kg)

Water

1000
RT: τ 1=1, τ 2=1, τ 3=1
RT: τ1=3, τ 2=1, τ 3=1
Solids
500

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (min)

Fig. 5. Comparison of changes in residence time of the ball mill model.

keep the total mass of solids feed at a constant. A step The SAG mill model consists of three perfect mixers
up and down change (10%) of feed ore hardness is sub- incorporating comminution effects (see Eq. (3)) with the
sequently imposed on the mill model. Water feed is kept same constant breakage function B and breakage rate S,
at a constant rate during the simulation. Note that some but different residence times, s. The autonomous grind-
white noise is added to the feed rate in an attempt to ing rate functions Sa are constant and the same for all
make it closer
pffiffiffi to the reality. There are again 16 size frac- mixers. The AG structure parameter a = 0.2 is used in
tions at 2 size intervals used in this example. Some dis- the simulations.
charge classification effects are introduced at the last Fig. 6 shows the closed-loop grinding circuit of the
mixer associated with the SAG mill model. SAG mill simulation. In this closed grinding circuit

Solids Product

A SAG Mill Circuit Model with feed

Product stream
size and ore hardness changes m

Cyclone return Water in Product

yu Cyclone input

Return stream
Solids Feed
Disturbance Solids Feed ym Mill feed
Hydro-Cyclone Sump discharge
Solids feed SAG Mill with
hardness input ys
sff holdup output
Size Sump model
Switch
Discharge
2 size system SAG
SUM P
M ill
Size changes
wff
Sump Volume Holdup
Water Feed
Solis & Water Water
Mass Holdup wsf Addition
1 Pump rate
Normal hardness
qsp PID 24
Ore hardness Hardness
disturbance changes Sump discharge Sump volume
volume rate offset PID Controller
holdup setpoint
Do uble click to Plot Total Plot Other Plot Size
load th e data So lids & Wate r Mill Infos Distributions

Fig. 6. A closed-loop SAG mill grinding circuit simulation setup.

1196 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198

simulation, a simple and crude PID control is imple-
mented to regulate the sump level to a constant (hence
to prevent the sump from overflowing) by adjusting
pump out rate of the sump alone (no changes to the
water addition to the sump). Such simple control strat-
egy is used for simulation purposes only and obviously
it may be inappropriate for real SAG grinding mill
operation.
The first plot in Fig. 7 shows the total solids mass, the
particle size (P50), and ore hardness in the fresh feed
stream of the grinding circuit. It clearly shows the con-
stant feed mass rate and the step up/down changes of
both feed size and feed ore hardness. The second plot
in the figure shows the solids and water hold-ups as well
as the solids concentration in the SAG mill. The third
plot in Fig. 7 shows the total solids mass and water in
the product of the grinding circuit as well as the product
size (P50).
It is interesting to note that although the feed rate
and production rate remain largely constant, the pro-
duction size changes significantly with the change of
feed size as well as the change of ore hardness. Also,
we can see that the total mill hold-up does not change
much during the simulation. This could simply be due
to the fact that in the mixer model used, a further
assumption on overflow in volume of the mixer is im-
posed. This means that when feed rate is increased, dis-
charge rate increases accordingly, such that volumetric
hold-up remains constant.
The first plot of Fig. 8 shows slurry volume of the
sump (i.e. indirectly the sump level). It is clear that a
simple PID controller did a reasonably good job to keep
the actual level close to the set point (a constant in this
case). It is clear that when feed size increases, more
coarse solids will pass through the mill and then be
fed to the hydrocyclone. This in turn means that hydro-
cyclone will reject more materials to the return stream.
Hence the circulation load of the grinding circuit will in-
crease (as shown in the second plot of Fig. 8). When this
happens and if the sump pump out rate remains the
same, the sump level will have to increase. In order to
keep the sump level at a constant, the PID controller
has to increase the pump out rate (as shown in the third
plot of Fig. 8) to cope with the increased slurry feed to
the sump. When ore hardness increases, again, more
coarse solids will be discharged from the mill and be
fed to the hydrocyclone, the circulation load increases,
and the sump level will rise and again, the PID control
loop increases the pump out rate as a compensation
effect.
It should be recalled that in Fig. 7, solids mass feed
rate is constant, and hence so should be the product dis-
charge rate of the circuit. The impact of an increased
hydrocyclone circulation load ratio due to changes in
feed size and hardness are manifested in the product size
distribution.
The first plot in Fig. 9 shows the particle size (P50) of
the solids at various points of the SAG mill circuit as a
function of time. It is immediately apparent that all the
P50 measures of particle size distribution at different
positions in the circuit are in the expected order at any
time. It is clear that when feed size increases, the circu-

Total Solids and Size in Fresh Feed

10000
Mass (kg) & Size (µm)

Feed Size Ore Hardness 1.1

Ore Hardness

5000
1
Feed mass

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Solids and W ater Holdup and Solids Concentration in Ball Mill
0.79
Solids Concentration

5000
4000 Solids Concentration
Mass (kg)

3000 0.78
Water
2000
1000
0.77
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Total Solids and Water in Product
Product Size - P50 ( µm)

1000 180
900 170
Solids
Mass (kg)

800 160
Size
700 150
600 Water 140
500 130
400 120
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min)

Fig. 7. Process variables of the SAG mill circuit.

 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198 1197

Sump Volume
680.5

Volume (litres)
680

679.5

679

678.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cyclone Circulation Load Ratio
2
Circ. Load Ratio

1.5

1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sump Pump Volumatric Rate
2000
Pump Rate (litres/min)

1800

1600

1400

1200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min)

Fig. 8. Internal dynamic responses of the SAG mill circuit.

4
Particle Size P50 TimeTraces at Different Points of the Circuit
10
Size P50 (µm)

3
10

2
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min)

Comparison of Particle Size Distributions at T = 20 mins and T = 85 mins (*)

100
Fresh Feed
Mill Feed
Percentage Passing (%)

80 Cyclone Return
Cyclone Feed
60 Product

40

20

0
2 3 4
10 10 10
Solids Size (µm)

Fig. 9. Particle sizes at different points of the SAG mill circuit.

lation load ratio increases, and then the product size in- the SAG mill circuit at two time specific moments in
creases (when the feed rate and production rate are effec- time (at 25 min with coarser feed size and at 85 min
tively constant). When ore hardness increases, product under normal feed conditions). As expected, the PSD
size increases as well. The second plot in Fig. 9 shows under coarse feed conditions is at all locations larger
particle size distributions (PSDs) at the same points in than for fine feed. This is an example of the detailed
1198 Y. Liu, S. Spencer / Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 1189–1198
particle size information that may be obtained from
such a dynamic simulation.
5. Conclusions
A powerful and flexible library of mineral processing
dynamical flowsheet unit operation models has been
developed in the SIMULINK programming environ-
ment. A generic, phenomenological mathematical model
based on an extended form of population balance meth-
od has been developed for grinding mills. This unit
model is inherently nonlinear for SAG/AG mills and is
suitable for dynamic simulation purposes. The power
of the dynamic simulation approach based on SIMU-
LINK environment has been demonstrated by two
examples which illustrate the importance of dynamic ef-
fects associated with variations of the key parameters of
unit mean residence time, feed size distribution and
hardness. The dynamic simulation approach developed
here has great potential not only for grinding circuit dy-
namic simulation, optimisation and control, but also for
many other dynamic flowsheet modelling and optimisa-
tion applications in the mineral processing industry.
A number of further conclusions can be drawn from
this work. SIMULINK is a powerful and flexible simu-
lation tool. It offers a modular and subsystem approach
for complex system handling. It has an intuitive block-
diagram interface for model building and model config-
uration, and rich libraries for basic model building and
development of control algorithms. The powerful solver
of the package is very easy to use and includes options
for easy handling of complex and stiff systems of equa-
tions associated with large flowsheets of complicated
connectivity. The graphical display capabilities of the
SIMULINK environment are similarly powerful and
flexible to use. In simulations, all relevant variables are
readily accessible in real time. This is particularly useful
to fully understand the dynamic interactions of the
external and internal variables of grinding circuits. In
real industrial situations, however, on-line measurement
of some those variables are far from trivial, if not totally
impossible. Hence, it is clear that dynamic simulation
can be used to answer many ‘‘what if’’ hypothetical
questions for industrial grinding circuits. Application
of this modelling approach to real plant dynamic simu-
lation is potentially of great value to industry.
As can be seen from an example in this paper, a sim-
ple PID control loop is not optimal for mill operation.
More studies on appropriate on-line measurement and
control strategies are needed. Further extensions of the
comminution model library would be very useful and
a more thorough process of validating the model library
using real plant data should be carried out. We believe
that the dynamic simulation approach used here will as-
sist in devising more appropriate control strategies for
achieving maximum throughput while keeping very tight
control on product size for grinding circuits.
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