THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

GENERAL ITEMS (3 items)

Evolutionary Theory of Motivation (3 items)
Optimization Theory (2 items)
Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation (8 items)
Arousal Theory of Motivation (8 items)
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GENERAL ITEMS (3 items)
Incentive Theory of Motivation (8 items)
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation (8 items)
Temporal Motivation Theory (8 items)
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Evolutionary Theory of Motivation (3 items)

Key Concepts

Individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that maximize their genetic fitness.

Why maximize genetic fitness?

Those who are the most fit are the most likely to survive, and eventually the population
evolves in such a way that their traits manifest themselves across the population.

Behaviors are not made consciously; they are instinctual, and based on what is most
advantageous in terms of passing one’s genes to the next generation.

From an evolutionary point of view, behaviors are not made consciously: they are instinctual,
and based on what is most advantageous in terms of passing one’s genes on to the next
generation. 

(This is just a perspective without any implication)

Optimization Theory (3 items)

Optimization theory is related to evolutionary theory, and is concerned with assessing the
success of a behavior.

It attempts to identify behavioral strategies that offer the highest return under a given set of
conditions using a cost/benefit analysis. 

Optimization theory states that individuals would be motivated to adopt strategies that allow
them to consume the most energy (e.g., to maximize their food intake) while expending the
least amount of energy (e.g., to minimize their exercise output). 
Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation (8 items)

Key Concepts
According to drive-reduction theory, humans are motivated to satisfy physiological needs in
order to maintain homeostasis or state of balance. In other words, the purpose of biological
drives is to correct disturbances of homeostasis. To maintain homeostasis is an important
directing behavior.

What are these drives?

Acts of motivation like thirst or hunger that have primarily biological purposes.
 Drives are thought to underlie all behavior in that behaviors are only
conditioned, or learned, if they satisfy a drive.

Types of Drives
1. Primary drives are innate biological needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, and desire for
sex),
2. whereas secondary drives are associated with—and indirectly satisfy—primary
drives (e.g., the desire for money, which helps pay for food and shelter).

Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal.
2 types of motivations
1. drives are acts of motivation like thirst or hunger that have primarily biological
purposes, while 
2. motives are fueled primarily by social and psychological mechanisms.

So now that these basic concepts are clear, what is the drive reduction theory?

Deviations from the homeostasis creates needs which needs to be satisfied or else a negative
state of tension happens. When the need is satisfied, the drive to satisfy the need is reduced.
This theory emphasizes the role of habits in behavioral response. Once we have engaged in a
behavior that successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage in that behavior
whenever faced with that drive in the future (Graham & Weiner, 1996).
Drive reduction is a major aspect of learning. Drives are thought to underlie all behavior in that
behaviors are only conditioned, or learned, if the reinforcement satisfies a drive.

In summary,
We have biological and instinctual needs, which we call DRIVES, which are addressed to
achieve homeostasis. Whatever addresses to satisfy these needs will be used again whenever
disequilibrium happens.
Arousal Theory of Motivation
While drive -reduction theory focuses primarily on biological needs as motivators,
arousal theory examines the influence of the neurotransmitter dopamine as a
motivator in the body.

Arousal theory proposes that motivation is strongly linked to biological factors that
control reward sensitivity and goal-driven behavior.

The reward system in the human body spurs physiological arousal, which motivates
individuals to engage in whatever behavior is necessary to relieve their arousal.

Research shows that there tends to be an optimal level of arousal for peak
performance; when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer.
Explanation: If we are under-aroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of
stimulation. On the other hand, if we are over-aroused, we will engage in behaviors to
reduce our arousal (Berlyne, 1960). Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best;
when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer. 
TEACHING IMPLICATION:
So when is the optimal level of arousal? The optimal arousal level depends on the complexity
and difficulty of the task to be performed.  This relationship is known as Yerkes-Dodson law,
which holds that a simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and
complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower.
(In action: Most students have experienced this need to maintain optimal levels of arousal over the course of their academic career. Think about how
much stress students experience toward the end of spring semester—they feel overwhelmed with work and yearn for the rest and relaxation of summer
break. Their arousal level is too high. Once they finish the semester, however, it doesn’t take too long before they begin to feel bored; their arousal
level is too low. Generally, by the time fall semester starts, many students are quite happy to return to school. This is an example of how arousal theory
works.)

Traits like impulsivity and sensation-seeking predispose people to engage in

activities that they find physiologically arousing.

What is arousal?

arousal: A physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to

stimuli, including elevated heart rate and blood pressure and a condition of sensory
alertness, mobility, and readiness to respond.
Incentive Theory of Motivation and Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation
Incentive theory argues that behavior is primarily extrinsically motivated: people are
more motivated to perform activities if they receive a reward afterward, rather than
simply because they enjoy the activities themselves.

 Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of

personal satisfaction that they bring.
 Extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive
something from others—such as a promotion, praise, candy, money, or
attention.

Studies have shown that intrinsic motivation will decrease over time if extrinsic
incentives are introduced for behaviors that an individual already found motivating.
Some data suggest that intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is
given—a process known as the overjustification effect. In other words, when one is
intrinsically motivated, there is no need for extrinsic motivation, because extrinsic motivation
could diminish intrinsic motivation, according to studies.  
The Cognitive and Achievement Approaches to Motivation
Cognitive and achievement approaches to motivation examine how factors like achievement
goals and cognitive dissonance influence motivation.

According to the achievement approach to motivation, the need for achievement

drives accomplishment and performance and thereby motivates our behavior.
People are motivated by different goals related to achievement, such as mastery or
performance goals.

Mastery of Goals vs Performance Goals

 Mastery goals are a form of intrinsic motivation that tend to be
associated with the satisfaction of mastering the material at hand.
 Performance goals are extrinsically motivated and tend to be
associated with wanting to attain positive outcomes or avoid negative
outcomes.

Cognitive approaches to motivation focus on how a person’s cognitions —and

especially cognitive dissonance —influence their motivation. What is cognitive
dissonance? A conflict or anxiety resulting from inconsistencies between one’s beliefs
and one’s actions or other beliefs.
Implication: The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a
motivational drive to reduce contradictory cognitions by either changing or
justifying their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Example of cognitive dissonance:
For example, if you consider yourself an honest person but then lie to your parents when they
ask about your future plans), you are likely to feel cognitive dissonance afterward. The theory of
cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance
in their cognitions by either changing or justifying their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Temporal Motivation Theory
Temporal motivation theory emphasizes the impact of time and deadlines on our motivation to
complete tasks.
 Temporal motivation theory (TMT) emphasizes the impact of time, and
particularly deadlines, on the allocation of attention to particular tasks.
 TMT argues that the perceived usefulness and benefit of an activity
increases exponentially as the deadline for completing nears. It is
particularly useful for understanding human behaviors like procrastination
and goal setting.
 Motivation for a task can be derived with the following formula: Motivation =
(Expectancy × Value) / {1 + (Impulsiveness × Delay)}.
 The greater the individual’s self-efficacy (expectancy) for completing the
task, and the higher the value of the outcome associated with it, the
higher the individual’s motivation will be.
 Impulsivity (the inability to resist non task-related urges) and a greater
amount of time before a deadline tend to reduce motivation.

Example: Consider a student who is given one month to study for a final exam. Throughout the
month, the student has two options: studying or socializing. The student enjoys socializing but
needs to achieve a good grade. At the beginning of the student’s study period (where there is
a long delay before the deadline), the reward of studying is not immediate (and therefore
has low value); therefore, the motivation to study is lower than the motivation to socialize.
However, as the study period diminishes from several weeks to several days, the motivation to
study will surpass the motivation to socialize.
IN SUMMARY

Key concepts

Evolutionary Theory of Motivation

Individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that maximize their genetic fitness (ability to survive
and reproduce) with the goal of survival. However, it is important to note that this behavior is
instinctual, not made consciously. So, our natural instinctive behavior is geared towards maximizing
genetic fitness.

Optimization Theory
Individuals are motivated to adopt strategies that offer the highest return while expending the least
amount of energy.

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation

Individuals are motivated to maintain homeostasis by satisfying physiological needs, also known as
biological drives. Behaviors are only learned or conditioned if such behavior satisfies such biological
drive—be it primary or secondary. Behavior that reduces a drive are repeated whenever faced with that
drive in the future.

Additional items:
Primary Drives
Secondary Drives

Drives
Motives

Arousal Theory of Motivation

Individuals are motivated primarily because of arousal, or the influence of neurotransmitter dopamine.
This physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive determines performance success,
that is, when arousal is either very high or low, performance tends to suffer.

NOTE:
If under-aroused, one becomes bored and seek stimulation. In this case, complex tasks are to be
provided.
If over-aroused, one will engage in behavior to reduce the arousal. In this case, simple task should be
given.
Moderate arousal is generally best.

NOTE:
At the beginning of the semester, it is better to provide complex tasks when arousal levels are low
because of a long break. Towards the end of the semester, it is better to provide simple tasks when
arousal levels are high because of too much workload and stress from school.

Additional Item:
Yerkes-Dodson Law recognizes the relationship of arousal levels and performance. Moderate level of
arousal can help improve performance. However, when arousal becomes excessive, performance
diminishes. For example: An optimal level of stress can help you focus on the test and remember the
information that you studied, but too much test anxiety can impair your ability to concentrate and make
it more difficult to remember the correct answers. If arousal is low, one might fall asleep during the test.

Incentive Theory of Motivation

Individuals are motivated extrinsically. In other words, rewards motivate individuals to perform rather
than simply enjoying the activity itself.

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation = one does something because it provides personal satisfaction
Extrinsic motivation = one does something because of reward—be it a promotion, praise, candy,
attention.

NOTE:
Overjustification Effect: a phenomenon in which being rewarded for doing something actually
diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform that action. So instead of giving reward to an activity that
students already find motivating, use positive verbal reinforcement instead. So, if you are looking to
motivate someone for the long term, consider avoid using reward and incentives.

Achievement Approach
Individuals are motivated by the need for achievement which leads to accomplishment and
performance. These achievements are considered goals—mastery and performance goals.

Additional Items:
Mastery of Goals
Performances Goals

Cognitive Approach
Individuals are motivated because of focusing on their cognition, like cognitive dissonance. When a
learner experiences cognitive dissonance, they are motivated to reduce such contradictory cognitions by
either changing or justifying their actions.

Additional Item:
Cognitive dissonance is a conflict or anxiety resulting from inconsistencies between one’s belief and
one’s actions or other beliefs.

Temporal Motivation Theory

Individuals are motivated to perform due to deadlines or time constraints. The perceived usefulness and
benefit of an activity increases exponentially as the deadline for completing nears. This explains the
behavior of procrastinators.