RESEACH METHODS METHOD

Methodology simply has to do with the method employed in conducting the research.
This chapter comprises of
 Research design
 Area of study
 Population
 Sample / sampling techniques
 Instrument for data collection
 Validity / reliability of instrument
 Method of data collection
 Method of analysis
 Ethical consideration

Research design: this is a plan of action. It can be seen as a blue print or the overall
layout of how to obtain answer to the questions being studied and how to handle
some of the hindrances. It helps to draw inference between samples and population
and establish cause and effect relationship. It includes plan, sketch, an outline, a
general arrangement, it identifies how data in relation to a research should be
collected. Therefore, it identifies the procedure. It considers the nature of the research
as well as time available. The choice of design depends on the type of research.
Types of research design are
 Experimental
 Quasi experimental
 Non-experimental

Experimental
Experimental: Most sophisticated and scientific RID, observations are made in order
to observe according to defined character in order to derive, verified fundamental
relationship among phenomenon. Most suitable for comparing cause and effect
relationship between variables. It can easily be replicated. Bias or external variables
should be controlled. In experimental design effort is made to reduce / prevent bias.
Manipulation / treatment must be measured or controlled to get an accurate result eg
evaluating the impact of breast feeding on child survival
It is more of laboratory than social group studies. Classic experimental design consist
of an experimental group and a control group. The two groups must be similar and
have same characteristics. The experimental group is exposed to the treatment / an
independent variable. The researcher then observes the effect of treatment on the
experimental group.

Advantage
It is the most suitable tool for testing cause and effect relationship between
variables.
 The research can easily be replicated.
 The researcher has a control over the study group.
 The data obtained are usually accurate because of regulations of control and
precision of measurement.

Disadvantages

 Some factors cannot be controlled eg sex, height, and intelligence.

 It is mostly laboratory based and cannot be done by every researcher.
 Placebo effect may be introduced
 Sometimes the cost is exorbitant and limits number of subjects. Sometimes
control is impractical because of the risk involved in depriving individual liberty.

B Quasi Experimental
This research possess some qualities of experimental research but not exactly
experimental. One or more of the qualities of experimental is missing eg
randomization and control group.
The advantages
Practicability
Feasibility
Generalization

Disadvantages
 The researcher cannot establish cause and effect relationship.
C Non experimental
This is weakest kind of research approaches. There is absolute lack of control.
However, they are the most widely used types of research design involving human
beings eg
 Descriptive, survey etc

Ex-post facto

Area of study: the geographical area under study and its boundaries.

POPULATION

The term population refers to the total number of objects, subjects or members that
conform to a set of specification desired by the researcher for the study. It is the group
to which the result of the study should be inferred. Population is target of the study.
Totality of the units under study living or non-living commonly called the subjects thus
inferences are drawn from the responses elicited from subjects. Populations being
determined by the research topic and area of study in order words the population is
guided by the title of the search scope and area of the study. Population can be target
entire accessible or possible to reach, finite –known usually small population and
inaccessible too large to be determined. The population is unknown to the researcher
thus necessitating the need for sample.

Types of Population

- Target Population: This is the total number of objects/subjects with desired

attributes to whom the researcher will make a generalization to concerning the
findings of the study, e.g. Hypertensive patients in Enugu state.
 - Accessible Population: A subgroup from the target population which the
researcher has access to and from where sample for the study will be withdrawn
e.g. hypertensive patients in ESUT Teaching Hospital Parklane, Enugu.
- Homogenous Population: when the population is similar in terms of research
interest so that any one chosen car represent others very well e.g. all females SS
I students etc. When the population is homogenous a small sample could be
taking to represent the interest of others.
- Heterogeneous Population: This is the opposite of homogenous population.
Here the population has different characteristics e.g. mixture of boys and girls or
people of different ethnic backgrounds etc. here a larger population is usually
drawn to present the different characteristics.

Sample
A subset / section of the population selected for study. Usually drawn using definitive
procedure; however the sample should be a true representation of the population, if a
good/ true picture of the population.
Sample Size
The sample size in a study must be indicated. The sample size need to be adequate.
The more the sample size is close to the population the better the study, the more the
researcher is in making generalization of his finding. Sampling error always occurs in
researches involving sampling is and this can make a study porous.
The sample size can be statistically determined using formulars e.g.

Taro Yamen
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Sampling / sampling techniques

Sample: This simply means a subset of the population. This group represents the
population and any discover made in the group applies to the entire population. The
process of selecting the sample is called sampling.

Sampling technique

This is the method employed in selecting a sample to represent the interest of the
population. There are two broad categories viz;
Probability sampling
Non probability sampling
Probability Sampling: In this process all the elements /units have equal chance of
being selected. The researcher employs random i.e. the selection of samples, objects,
subjects or organization etc is done on the basis of chance.
Types of probability sampling simple random
- Stratified sampling
- Cluster sampling / multistage sampling
- Systematic sampling.
Simple Random Sampling: This allows each element opportunity of being selected.
The procedures include: table of random numbers, tossing a coin, lottery etc.
Stratified Sampling: Here the population is put into strata or groups. This is used when
the population is heterogeneous so that the researcher puts the population into
homogenous sub groups, before drawing the sample. It is used when it is necessary to
obtain satisfactory representation of each subset.
Multistage sampling
This is used when the area or population of study is very large. It involves random
selection of dusters. Selection is done in stages until the final sample size is reached.
E.g. in trying to carry out a study involving the black race.
Cluster sampling; this is done in cases of large population. The study population is
divided into heterogeneous groups called clusters. The sample size is the selected
cluster not individual. The cluster selected is studied. The possibility of introducing
error is very great because characteristics like income, educational level, sex, exposure
etc are not equally distributed. This method can be employed in studies carried out in
a town.
Systematic sampling
Here samples are selected systematically using a sequence. The selection is done using
a regular interval which is gotten by dividing the entire population with sample size.
Hence ratio of interval is
Population – (N)
Sample size (n)
E.g. population of 1000 with sample size of 100 = 1, 10, 20, 30, etc persons are
selected. Therefore: this method involves making a list of the subjects (sample frame)
and selecting a predetermined number of subjects at a regular interval e.g. the use of
class register.
Importance of probability sampling
- It guides against selection bias
- Allows for the determination of probability distribution
- It enhance the ability to obtain from the sample itself an objective measurement
of the sample variation
- It is possible to calculate the proportion of estimates that will fall in a specified
interval around the so called mean.

Non Probability sampling

In non-probability sampling each element does not have an equal opportunity of being
selected.
The methods include;

 Accidental or convenience sampling; this is the use of the most readily available
subjects/objects in the research. It is a weak form of sampling because the
sample may have a characteristic untypical of the population.
 Purpose Judgment: here the researcher hand picks the subjects /objects as the
research samples. This may be based on the researchers previous knowledge
 participating is based on the researchers subjective judgment. There is
possibility of introducing bias.
 Voluntary: those subjects who volunteered to participate are automatically
taken as the research sample.
 Quota: Looks like accidental sampling; however, it is done according to quota or
stratum in the population. Each quota is given a certain number of subjects and
that number must be collected from that quota. Any method can be used to
select from the quota.
 Sequential: This is the type of research in which the investigator collects data
from the subjects by examining them in turns until the results are adequately
supplied.

Advantages of non-probability sampling methods

- It is common and simple
- Much lower cost per unit
- May do without a sample frame
- The probability sampling requires skill, turn, feasibility or good opportunity for
these reasons the best option is non probability sampling.

Disadvantages
The probability of been included cannot be assured, thus giving room to bias.
- Data are in appropriate for statistical analysis.
- There is usually high level of selection bias.
- The probability distribution of estimates cannot be determined hence sampling
error cannot be determined or objectively evaluated.

Characteristics of good sampling technique

 - The sample selected must be a representation of the study population
- It eliminates sampling bias
- The sample size should be appropriate as regards the total study population.
Ethical considerations in research process
Ethical considerations in the research process has to do with safe guarding the interest
of the public especially the human subjects in a research process. Every institution is
bound to abide by the ethical norms (rules and regulations or guidelines) that have
been established by law or tradition which stipulates the researcher’s obligation
towards their human subjects, colleagues and the society. The World Health
Organization (WHO) emphasized that it is very important that the various procedures
in research be thoroughly considered before embarking on research. Ethical
committees of institutions approve the research proposal after reviewing how the
researcher stated how he intends to follow ethical rules in the research process.
Principles of ethical conduct in the research process
The primary ethical principles which standards of ethical conduct in research are based
on include;
The principle of beneficence which includes:
a. Freedom from harm or injury – physical, psychological or emotional
b. Freedom from exploitation – this implies that the subjects should not be
exploited in any manner during the research process.
c. Benefits from the research. The subjects should benefits from the findings of the
study.
d. Assess the risk/benefits ratio. It is desirable that the degree of risk to be taken
by the subjects should not exceed the potential humanitarian benefits of the
knowledge to be gained from the study eg in drug trails.
1. The principles of respect for human principle; this involves
a. The right to self-determination which implies that the prospective subjects have
the right to decide to participate or not and also the right to discontinue
participating at any point in the research process without the risk of penalties or
prejudicial treatment.
b. The right to full disclosure. This requires the researcher to fully disclose every
important information about the proposed study such as the nature of the
study, the risks and benefit associated with the study and the subject’s right to
refuse to participate in the study.
2. The principles of Justice
This includes the potential subjects’ right to fair treatment and their right of
privacy
a. Right to fair treatment includes:
- Equal treatment of all subjects in all respects; respectful and courteous
treatment of the subject by the researcher and
- Honoring of all agreements reached by the researcher and the subjects etc.
b. Right to privacy. This includes the right to confidentiality and anonymity of t
information and person of the informant.
3. The principle of the informed consent for a person to give informed consent,
he/she must be fully informed about what is expected of the subjects and the
nature of the study.
4. The right of vulnerable subjects. Vulnerable subjects include children, the
physically or mentally challenged, the aged and prisoners. No attempt should be
made to exploit their vulnerable subjects because of their in competence. They
should not be exposed to any harm during the research process.