Generator Set

Installation Fundamentals

PRODUCT INFORMATION
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11

Noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14

Air Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-21

Exhaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-27

Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-29

Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-43

Heat Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-54

Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-66

Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-77

Engine Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-86

Servicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-88

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GENERATOR SET
INSTALLATION FUNDAMENTALS
Proper generator set installation is crucial to GENERATOR
ensuring the efficient, long, and dependable
Electricity Horsepower
life of a system, as well as minimizing time
spent on maintenance. System planning is the
first step in achieving Cat performance and Electrical Mechanical
Energy Energy
reliability. A system installation plan must
address the product selected and the
environment in which the product will operate.
Before discussing installation, however, let’s
review some electrical power generation
basics.

Primary generator set systems and installation

issues include:
• Foundations
• Noise
• Air requirements
• Exhaust
• Emissions
• Cooling
• A generator set transforms chemical • Heat recovery
energy into electrical energy and heat.
• Fuel system
- The engine converts an air-fuel mixture
(chemical energy) into mechanical energy • Starting
or power. • Engine governors
- The generator then takes power from the • Servicing
engine and converts it into electrical
energy kilowatts (kW).

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FOUNDATIONS
Several basic foundations are suitable for
generator sets. The foundation chosen will
depend on the unit selected, as well as
limitations imposed by the specific location
and application.
Generator set foundations must:
• Support total wet weight of generator set,
which includes accessory equipment and
liquids (coolant, oil, and fuel)
• Maintain alignment between engine,
generator, and accessory equipment
• Isolate vibrations of generator set from
surrounding structures
Support
Mounting Surfaces
• Firm, level soil, gravel, or rock provides
satisfactory support for single-bearing
generator sets used in stationary or portable
service. This support can be used where the
weight-bearing capacity of the supporting
material exceeds pressure exerted by the
equipment package, and where alignment
with external machinery is unimportant.
FOUNDATIONS
• Soil, such as fine clay, loose sand, or sand
near the ground water level, is particularly
unstable under dynamic loads and requires
substantially larger foundations. Information
concerning bearing capacity of soils at the
site may be available from local sources and
must comply with local building codes.
• Where support rails or mounting feet have
insufficient bearing area, flotation pads can
distribute the weight. The underside area and
stiffness of the pad must be sufficient to
support the equipment.
• Seasonal and weather changes adversely
affect mounting surfaces. Soil changes
considerably while freezing and thawing. To
avoid movement from seasonal changes,
extend foundations below the frost line.
Concrete Foundations
Massive concrete foundations are unnecessary
for modern, multi-cylinder, medium-speed
generator sets. Avoid excessively thick, heavy
bases to minimize subfloor or soil loading.
Bases should be only thick enough to prevent
deflection and torque reaction, while retaining
sufficient surface area for support.
CONCRETE FOUNDATION
7.63 cm
(3 in)
Foundation
Weight
Equal to Foundation
Generator Set Depth
Weight 30.4 cm (12 in)
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FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS

Using Concrete Foundations Bases

If a concrete foundation is required, minimum
design guidelines are: There are important factors to consider when
selecting the type of base to be used because
• Strength must support wet weight of units the different types of bases are designed to
plus dynamic loads. accommodate various needs.
• Outside dimensions must exceed that of the
Fabricated Bases
generator set by a minimum of 1 ft
Engines with close-coupled, single-bearing
(304.8 mm) on all sides.
generators maintain alignment by mounting
• Depth must be sufficient to attain a rails or modest bases. They are commonly
minimum weight equal to generator set wet supported by fabricated bases. These bases are
weight (if inertia block is specified for used to provide:
vibration control).
• Ease of relocation
Foundation Design • Ease of installation
• When effective vibration isolation equipment
• Isolation from a flexing foundation
is used, floor concrete must only be deep
enough to provide structural support of the
static load.
• If isolators are not used, dynamic loads
transmit to the facility floor and require it to
support 125 percent of the generator wet
weight.
• If generator sets are paralleled, possible out-
of-phase paralleling and resulting torque
reactions demand foundations that are able to
withstand twice the wet weight of the
generator set.
Heavy-Duty Fabricated Base
Estimate foundation depth that will Two-bearing generators, generators driven
accommodate generator set weight using the from either end of the engine, tandem
formula: generators, or tandem engines require
W
substantial boxed bases. They must incorporate
FD = sufficient strength and rigidity to:
DxBxL
• Resist outside bending forces imposed on the
FD = foundation depth in meters (feet) engine block, couplings, and generator frame
W = total weight of generator set in during transportation
kilograms (pounds)
3 3
D = density of concrete in kg/m (lb/ft ) • Limit torsional and bending movement
3 3
(2402.8 kg/m , 150 lb/ft ) caused by torque reactions
B = foundation width in meters (feet)
L = foundation length in meters (feet) • Prevent resonant vibration
• Provide alignment
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FOUNDATIONS

FOUNDATIONS
• For single-bearing generators requiring
extremely close alignment, use a ground
body bolt at the flywheel end on one side of
Two-Bearing the engine. No other restraint is permitted.
Generator
• Mounting feet of two-bearing generators can
be doweled without harm. Slight expansion
within the generator is absorbed in the
generator coupling.

Structurally Rigid Base

Thermal Expansion
Due to thermal expansion, engines may
lengthen 2.3 mm (0.09 in) from cold to
operating temperature. This growth must not
be restrained.
• On single-bearing and most two-bearing
generators, no close clearance dowels or
ground body bolts may be used to limit
thermal growth.
HIGH TEMPERATURE WATER SYSTEM

Pressure Cap &

Vacuum
Low Breaker
Water Level
Shutdown Expansion Tank

Exhaust To Load
Heat Warm-up
Recovery From Load Thermostatic
Device Valve
123 Load Balancing Engine Coolant
Engine Heat Exchanger Heat Exchanger
Low
Water Flow To Load
A/C Shutdown To Remote
Generator Oil/C Cooling Device
From Load

Circulating Pump
Load Balancing
Thermostatic
Valve

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FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS

Three-point Suspension TORSIONAL VIBRATION

On a long train of equipment such as a tandem
arrangement, a very rigid steel base with a
three-point suspension is recommended. The
three-point suspension ensures uniform
support and factory alignment, even on an
uneven surface.

Engine vibrations are produced and maintained

Vibration
Reciprocating engines will vibrate. Whether
slight or severe, the vibration will be
perceptable either as noise, a vibration, or
both. Sometimes the vibration will be intense
enough to be detrimental to the engine itself,
to ancillary equipment and/or to the actual
building.
by regular, periodic driving forces set up by
unbalanced moving masses. These are called
forced vibrations.
Free vibrations have no driving force. When
set in motion such vibrations, if undamped,
would continue indefinitely with constant
amplitude and natural frequency.
If the frequency of a forced vibration is the
same as the natural frequency of free
vibrations, excessive vibration results. This is
called resonance and can cause serious
problems.

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FOUNDATIONS
Engine vibration may be of the following types
and causes:
1. Linear vibration — vertical and/or
horizontal inertia forces due to lack of
balance in reciprocating or rotating
machinery.
2. Torque reaction — not a vibratory force,
but may excite vibration.
3. Torsional vibration of shafting — occurs in
any rotating mass elastic system (two or
more masses connected by an elastic shaft)
where periodic forces are present. Where
these forces recur near the natural
frequency of torsional vibration, resonance
may develop and cause dangerous stress.
4. Axial vibration of shafting — when
torques are applied to a crankshaft, it is
alternately shortened and lengthened. This
could be troublesome if the natural axial
frequency is near a torsional frequency.
When an engine and generator are to be
assembled to each other, vibration studies and
tests must be completed to assure satisfactory,
trouble-free operation on the job site. With
factory assembled generator sets, the
responsibility is assumed by the manufacturer.
In any case, wherever assembly takes place,
someone must assure the integrity of the
installation from a vibration standpoint.
FOUNDATIONS
Vibration Isolation
Generator sets need no isolation for protection
from self-induced vibrations. However,
isolation is required if:
1. Engine vibration must be separated from
building structures
2. Vibrations from nearby equipment are
transmitted to inoperative generator sets
3. System is supported on a flexible mounting
surface, such as a trailer bed
Vibration isolators prevent the transmission of
possibly damaging generator set vibration
throughout a building. Noise is also reduced.
Generator Set Protection
Running units are rarely affected by exterior
vibrations. Methods of isolation are the same
for external or self-generated vibrations.
If an idle engine is located near heavy
reciprocating equipment, vibration isolation
must be specified to protect the idle engine. If
subjected to repeated shocks or vibrations
when idle, damage to the bearings, gears, etc.
may result. This occurs because the protections
provided by the lubricating oil are not
available.
Another application requiring generator set
protection involves mobile units. Isolation
from a movable platform is desirable to:
• Reduce vibration
• Reduce noise
• Prevent torque loading on generator sets
from flexing platforms or trailer beds
• Avoid bending of the generator set by
movement of the sub-base
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FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS

Vibration carried throughout an enclosure

causes early failure of auxiliary equipment. Separator
Relays, switches, gauges, and piping are Foundation
adversely affected.

No Isolation Application
If no isolation is required, the generator set
may rest directly on the mounting surface.
Factory assembled units are dynamically
balanced and theoretically there is no dynamic
load. However, the surface must support 25
percent more than the static weight of the unit
to withstand the torque and vibratory loads
resulting from combustion forces and
assembly tolerances. Unless the engine is a
mobile unit or driving equipment which
imposes side loads, no anchor bolting is
required. Thin rubber or composition pads
minimize the unit’s tendency to creep or fret
foundation surfaces.
Both bulk and fabricated isolators utilize static
deflection. A basic vibration chart will
describe the general effect deflection has on
isolation. By using engine rpm as the nominal
vibration frequency, magnitude of compression
on isolating materials can be estimated.
Bulk Isolators
Bulk isolating materials are used between the
foundations and supporting surface, but are not
as foolproof as commercial types.
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Isolating
Material
Sub-Base
INERTIA BLOCK
Gravel or sand:
• Isolation of block foundations may be
accomplished by 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in)
in the bed of the foundation pit
• Can reduce engine vibration one-third to
one-half
Note: The isolating value of gravel is
somewhat greater than sand.
How they’re used:
1. To minimize settling of the foundation,
gravel or sand should be thoroughly tamped
before pouring the concrete block.
2. The foundation pit should be made slightly
longer and wider than the foundation block
base.
3. A wooden form the size and shape of the
foundation is placed on the gravel or sand
bed for pouring the concrete.
4. After the form is removed, the isolating
material is placed around foundation sides,
completely isolating the foundation from
surrounding earth.
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FOUNDATIONS

FOUNDATIONS
Rubber, asphalt-impregnated felt, and Spring Isolators:
fiberglass: • Are the most effective isolator design,
• Can also be used to isolate foundation block isolating over 96 percent of all vibrations
from subsoil
• Provide overall economy
• Do not provide significant low frequency
• Permit mounting the generator set on a
isolation
surface required to support only the static
load
Cork:
• Is not effective with disturbing frequencies
below 1800 cps
• If not kept dry, will rot
• Is seldom used with modern generator sets,
but is used to separate engine foundations
and surrounding floor because of resistance
to oils, acids, or temperature changes
between -18° and 93° C (0° and 200° F)

Commercial (Fabricated) Isolators

Several commercial isolators provide various • As with direct mountings, no anchor bolting
degrees of isolation. Generally, the lower the is usually required; however, when operating
natural frequency of the isolator, the greater in parallel, vertical restraints are recommended
the deflection and more effective the isolation.
• Are available with snubbers for use when
Weight of generator sets can be unequally
engines are side loaded or located on moving
balanced within the limits of the isolators.
surfaces
However, overloading will eliminate isolator
benefits. Adding rubber plates beneath spring isolators
blocks high frequency vibrations transmitted
Rubber isolators: through the spring. These vibrations are not
• Are adequate for applications where harmful but cause annoying noise.
vibration control is not severe
• Provide 90 percent isolation with careful
selection
• Isolate noise created by transmission of
vibratory forces
• Should not to be used with natural
frequencies near engine exciting frequencies

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FOUNDATIONS
FOUNDATIONS

Isolator Application
Commercial isolators are most effective when Isolators are sized to have natural frequencies
located under the generator mounting and far removed from engine exciting frequencies.
engine front support. If these frequencies were similar, the entire
unit would resonate. A vibration
To apply isolators, wet weight and center of
transmissibility chart depicts this condition,
gravity of the assembled unit must be
and also shows the significant improvement
established. Assuming engine and generator are
caused by decreasing the mounting natural
assembled to a base, wet weight (WT) and
frequency to allow a ratio increase above
assembled center of gravity can be calculated. A
square root of 2, or 1.414.
common reference is needed, usually the rear
face of the flywheel housing. Because Seismic Vibration
measurements are to both sides of the reference,
one direction can be considered negative.

Wt(D) = We(D2) – Wg(D1) + Wr(D3)

We(D2) – Wg(D1) + Wr(D3)

D=
Wt

where:

wet weight of: distance from rear

face block to C/G of:

Generator Set, Wt D
Generator, Wg D1
Engine, We D2
Radiator, Wr D3

If additional equipment is added, the process is

repeated to determine a new center of gravity.
Having established the center of gravity for the
total unit, loading on each pair of isolators
(assuming two on each side) is determined by:

B A SEISMIC AREAS
S1 = Wt S2 = Wt
C C Zone 0 — no significant damage

Zone 1 — minor damage

where:
Zone 2 — moderate damage
A = distance from rear isolator to gen set C/G
Zone 3 — major damage
B = distance from front isolator to gen set C/G
C = distance between front and rear isolators Zone 4 — major faults
S = load on each pair of isolators

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FOUNDATIONS

FOUNDATIONS
Seismic shocks are insufficient to harm External Isolation
generator sets resting on the floor. However,
isolation devices, particularly spring isolators, Piping connected to generator sets requires
amplify small movement generated by isolation, particularly when generator sets are
earthquakes to levels which would damage mounted on spring isolators. Fuel and water
equipment. Special isolators incorporating lines, exhaust pipes, and conduit could
seismic restraining or damping devices are otherwise transmit vibrations long distances.
available, but exact requirements must be
reviewed by the isolator supplier. Isolators
anticipating seismic shock are bolted to the
equipment base and the floor. Positive stops
are added to limit motion in all directions.
Attached piping and auxiliary equipment
supports must also tolerate relative movement.

Trailer Units
Lateral movement of the generator set must be
minimized as the trailer is transported. This
can be achieved simply by:
• Isolator pipe hangers, if used, should have
• Blocking the unit off the isolators during the springs to attenuate low frequencies, and
move rubber or cork to minimize high frequency
• Using snubbers to confine vertical and transmissions.
horizontal movement • To prevent buildup of resonant pipe
A spring-type isolator with the addition of vibrations, long support piping should run at
thrust blocks will restrict lateral movement unequal distances.
without interfering with spring function.

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NOISE
Noise can be defined as all unwanted sounds.
Noise can produce undesirable psychological
effects on people and physical damage to the
ears. Recognizing this, many governmental
NOISE
The most commonly used network is
weighting A, and it is known as dB(A). It is
often measured in relationship to time limit for
exposure.

agencies around the world have established

limits for various environments. Permissible Noise Exposures
The physical effects of noise are measured by
microphones that produce electrical signals Duration of Allowable
directly proportional to sound pressures — the Daily Exposure Level
amplitude or strength of the sound pressure (hours) dB(A)
waves. This strength and the frequency of the
waves are the only measurable properties of 8 90
sound outside of the laboratory.
6 92
The human ear hears pressure levels that are
about 100 000 times stronger than the lowest 4 95
pressure it is actually affected by. For this
reason, measuring instruments have 3 97
extraordinary range and are scaled in decibels
2 100
(dB). The decibel scale is logarithmic, which
allows sound pressure to be measured in two- 1.5 102
or three-digit numbers.
1 105
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in dB =
measured pressure 0.5 110
20 log10 x ——————————
reference pressure 0.25 115
The reference pressure is taken as: 20 µPa or
2 x 10-4 microbars = 0 dB. Noise Control
The ear is more sensitive to high frequencies Mechanical
than low frequencies. To approximate the Many techniques for isolating generator set
effect of sound on the average person, vibrations are applicable to mechanical noise
measurements are weighted according to isolation. Modest noise reductions result from
frequencies corresponding to the sensitivity of attention to noise sources, i.e., reducing fan
the ear. The signal from the measuring speeds, coating casting areas, and ducting air
microphone is fed to an amplifier, then to an flows. But for attenuation over 10 dB(A), units
attenuator, which is calibrated in decibels. The must be totally isolated.
signal is then fed to one of four weighting
networks, referred to as A, B, C, and D. The
response of the network chosen modifies the
input signal accordingly.

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NOISE
A 2 dB(A) reduction can be achieved by using
vibration isolators under the generator set.
VIBRATION ISOLATORS — 2 dB(A)
BAFFLES — 5 dB(A)
A 15 dB(A) reduction is afforded with a rigid,
sealed enclosure without openings; however,
necessary openings for pipes, ventilation, and
engine-driven radiator fans drastically reduce
the degree of attenuation.
RIGID SEALED ENCLOSURE — 15-20 dB(A)
SOUND TREATED ENCLOSURES
AND ISOLATORS — 35-40 dB(A)
A 40 db(A) reduction can result by using
sealed, double-walled enclosures with
absorption material and double mounting
NOISE
isolators.
Completely enclosed engines, however, are
impractical due to openings required for pipes,
ducts, and ventilation. Enclosures with
numerous openings rarely attain over 20 dB(A)
attenuation, even with double walls and
isolators.
In an effort to achieve high attenuation,
radiator air flow may be severely restricted.
Reduced radiator cooling capabilities,
however, should be anticipated.
A simple but effective method of reducing
noise utilizes concrete blocks filled with sand
to house the generator set. Materials with
densities greater than 32 kg/m3 (2 lb/ft 3) are
good sound barriers. Filling voids with sand or
even a thick coat of paint helps seal small
cracks in the blocks and further reduces noise.
However, the unit must also incorporate
vibration isolation techniques.
ENGINE ROOM INSULATION
Cement Block
Sand
Fiberglass
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NOISE
Exhaust If the sound pressure level of a point source at
Exhaust noise attenuation is commonly some distance is known, the sound pressure
achieved with a silencer typically capable of level at a second distance can be calculated by:
NOISE

reducing exhaust noise 15 dB(A) when

SPL 2 = SPL1 – 20 x log10 (D2/D1)
measured 3.3 m (10 ft) perpendicular to the
exhaust outlet. Because the number of where:
cylinders and engine speeds create varied
exhaust frequencies, specific effects of SPL1 = known sound pressure level, dB(A)
silencers must be predicted by the SPL 2 = desired sound pressure level, dB(A)
D1 = known distance, m (ft)
manufacturer. D2 = desired distance, m (ft)
Sound pressure level of site exhaust noise is
determined by:
Sound Pressure Level, dB(A) =

Sound Pressure Level,

dB(A) - 10 x Log10 (3.1416 x CD2)

where:

C = 2 for exhaust source adjacent to a

flat surface, such as a horizontal
exhaust pipe parallel to a flat roof
= 4 for exhaust source some distance
from surrounding surfaces, such as a
vertical exhaust stack some distance
above a roof

D = Distance from exhaust noise source (m)

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AIR REQUIREMENTS
There are four air-related issues to consider in
planning generator set installation.
• Combustion air requirements
• Engine room ventilation
• Crankcase breathers

REQUIREMENTS
• Air filters

Combustion Air Requirements
Diesel engines require approximately
0.09 m3/min (3.2 cfm) of air per brake
horsepower for combustion, or 17 lb of air for
each pound of fuel. Volumetric (V) and mass
(M) intake air flow have the following general
relationships.
V (m3/min) = .01486 x M (kg/hr)
or
OR
V (cfm) = .2382 x M (lb/hr)
• Heavy fuel engines require about 40 percent
greater inlet air flow than those burning
distillate fuels.
AIR
• High intake air temperatures can adversely
affect engine performance and raise exhaust
temperatures, which may damage pistons,
exhaust valves, and heads.
• Combustion air entering the engine air
cleaners should ideally be less than 38° C
(100° F).
• On some engine configurations, prolonged
operation with extremely cold inlet air to the
engine may require a boost control valve to
limit intake air manifold pressure and
resultant peak cylinder pressure.

• Gaseous fueled engines demand twice that of • Cold air and altitudes above 2440 m
diesel. (8000 ft) may cause overfueling when starting
automatically, as some governors remain full
Intake Location open during acceleration to rated speed.
Although normally obtained from air
surrounding the engine, some circumstances
require ducting combustion air from outside
the engine room. This is particularly true in
high altitude operations where light air
densities are further affected by engine room
temperatures.

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AIR REQUIREMENTS
Inlet Air Restriction • No duct weight should be imposed on the
connection to the engine.
• Flexible connections are required to isolate
engine vibration and noise from the ducting,
and should be located as close as possible to
the engine.
REQUIREMENTS

• Rubber flexible connections must be routed

AIR

to avoid harmful heat from exhaust piping.

• Insulation can be used on inlet air ducting to
reduce turbocharger noise and reduce heat
transfer from the room to the combustion air.
Total inlet duct head loss (restriction) is
When ducting is necessary to obtain cooler or generally less than 0.50 kPa (2 in. H2O)
cleaner air, filters should remain on the engine. column to maximize time between air filter
This prevents harmful dirt from leaking into replacements. As a general guide, ducting with
ducting joints or remote filter housings. a diameter equal to the standard air cleaner
adapter can accommodate 7.6 m (25 ft) of
• Fabricated ducting or fasteners such as rivets
straight pipe. Increasing this diameter 25.4 mm
should not be used.
(1 in) will allow 19.8 m (65 ft) of straight pipe.
• Baffles incorporated in the duct prevent Pipe bends are long radii, with flanged or
water from entering the engine. welded joints to encourage low restriction. A
flexible connection isolates engine vibration
• Design ducting to withstand a vacuum of
and noise, and allows easy filter servicing.
12.5 kPa (50 in. H2O).
Saturated air with the dew point near freezing
• If the filter must be remote mounted, piping
can cause icing and clogging of the air cleaner,
at the turbocharger must encourage smooth
with resulting performance loss. Procedures to
air flow.
avoid this condition include:
Filter Duct Restriction Filter - Prewarming intake air
Change (pipe size, # bends) Life
- Blow-in doors (with alarms) spring loaded
30" 2" = 28"*
30" 15" = 15"
to open at 12.5 kPa (50 in. H2O) maximum

* 46% increased life - Bypassing the cleaners (only in an

emergency)

16
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

AIR REQUIREMENTS
Calculate duct head loss by: Air Cleaners
2 6
P (kPa) = L x S x Q 5x 3.6 x 10 Combustion air must be clean and cool.
D
Engine-mounted, dry-type air cleaners are
P (in. H 2O) = L x S x Q2 considerably more efficient than oil-bath types
5
187 x D and remove 99.5 percent of AC fine dust.

REQUIREMENTS
P = Restriction (kPa) (in. H2O)
L = Length of pipe (m) (ft) Adapter for
Precleaner

AIR
Q = Inlet air flow (m3/min) (cfm) Precleaner
or Duct
D = Inside diameter of pipe (mm) (in)
in. H2O = inches water column
kPa = 6.3246 x mm water column
psi = 0.0361 x inches water column

(2 x a x b)
If duct is rectangular, D =
(a + b)
Service Filter
Indicator
a and b = sides of duct (mm) (in)
S = Density of air (kg/m3) (lb/ft3)

• Clean filters offer little restriction so total air

352.05
S (kg/m ) =3
restriction, including ducting, should not
Air Temperature + 273.16¡ C
exceed 1.2 kPa (5 in. H2O) of water column.
39.6 • Air cleaner service indicators will signal a
S (lb/ft3) =
Air Temperature + 460¡ F filter change when a restriction of 3.74 kPa
(15 in. H2O) develops.
To obtain equivalent length of straight pipe • Ducting must have sufficient strength to
for each long radius 90-degree bend: withstand minimum restrictions of 12.5 kPa
(50 in. H2O), which is also the structural
capability of the Caterpillar prime power air
D
L = 33 x
X
Standard Elbow cleaner.
(Radius equals pipe diameter)

L = 20 x
D
Long Elbow
AC Dust (% total weight)
X
(Radius > 1.5 diameter)
Micron Size Fine Coarse
L = 15 x D 45-degree Elbow 0-5 39+/-2% 12+/-2%
X

5-10 18+/-3% 12+/-3%

L = 66 x D Square Elbow
X
11-20 16+/-3% 14+/-3%
L = 31 Flexible connection
(1 = connector length)
21-40 18+/-3% 23+/-3%

where X = 1000 mm or 12 in
41-80 9+/-3% 30+/-3%

The radius of 90-degree bends with radii 1-1/2 times 81-200 0 9+/-3%
the pipe diameter help to lower resistance.

17
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

AIR REQUIREMENTS
Precleaners Engine room ventilation must provide an
Precleaners adapt to standard air cleaners to environment:
extend filter service periods.
• Permitting machinery and equipment to
function properly
REQUIREMENTS
AIR

• They impose 0.25 to 0.75 kPa (1 to 3 in.

H2O) added restrictions, but increase
• Where maintenance personnel can work
standard filter life about three times.
comfortably and effectively
• Conventional precleaners approach 70
A 7° to 10° C (13° to 18° F) temperature rise
percent efficiency.
is a reasonable target for engine rooms.
• Exhaust-augmented precleaners exhibit However, in cold climates this may cause
92 percent efficiency, further extend filter discomfort from the flow of cold air. Restrict
element life and are maintenance free. flow only if engine combustion air is available
and engine jacket water is adequately cooled.
Heavy-duty air cleaners
Engine room ventilation can be estimated by
Heavy-duty air cleaners provide the same
the following formulas, assuming 38° C
protection as standard filters but allow further
(100° F) ambient air temperature:
extension of filter change periods. Service
H
periods are six to seven times that of standard V (m3/min) = + engine combustion air
1.099 * 0.017 * dT
air cleaners.
H
Ventilation V (cfm) = + engine combustion air
1.070 * 0.24 * dT
Six to 10 percent of fuel consumed by a diesel
engine is lost as heat radiated to the
V = ventilating air
surrounding air. In addition, heat from H = heat radiation; engine, generator,
generator losses and exhaust piping can easily aux (kW) (Btu/min)
dT = permissible temperature rise in engine
equal engine radiated heat. The resulting room (¡C) (¡F)
elevated temperatures in the engine room
adversely affect maintenance personnel, Density of air at:
3 3
switchgear, and generator set performance. 40¡ C (104¡ F) = 1.099 kg/m (0.071 lb/ft )
Specific heat of air at:
40° C (104° F) = 0.017 kW/(min•kg•°C)
0.24 Btu/(lb•°F)
18
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

AIR REQUIREMENTS
While engine room temperatures must be • In cold climates, movable louvers can be
controlled, air velocities affect worker arranged to provide circulation inside the
comfort. Typical air motion at various ambient room until jacket water temperatures reach
conditions include: 88° C (190° F).
Air Velocity Once jacket water temperatures reach 88° C
(190° F), the radiator must be furnished with

REQUIREMENTS
(fpm) m/min Conditions
sufficient cooling air. Use a number of small
50 15.2 Offices, seated worker

AIR
ventilating fans rather than a single large unit.
100 30.5 Factory, standing worker Selective fan operation compensates for
150 45.7 Capture velocity, varying ambient temperatures while
light dust maintaining engine room temperatures.
1300 396 Capture velocity, rain
Increase air flow 10 percent for every 763 m
200 61.0 Maximum continuous (2500 ft) above sea level to maintain original
exposure
cooling capability. Final ventilation
1-2000 305-610 Maximum intermittent calculations must use precise heat radiation of
exposure selected engine, generator, and power output.
Radiator Air Air Flow
Installations utilizing remote or engine- Ideally, clean, cool, dry air circulates around
mounted radiators may provide sufficient air
the switchgear, flows through the rear of the
flow for ventilation, but ventilation air flow
generator, across the engine, and discharges
requirements must be compared to radiator fan
through the radiator. Cool air should always be
capabilities.
available for the engine air cleaner.

• Intake and exhaust ventilators may have

movable or fixed louvers for weather
protection.
• Locate room air intakes to provide maximum
• If movable, actuate by pneumatic, electric, or cooling air to the generator set.
hydraulic motors; never depend on air
• Multiple generator sets require additional
pressure developed by the radiator fan to
openings and fans.
move the vanes.

19
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

AIR REQUIREMENTS
• Units not using radiators require a forced air • Air inlet must circulate air between the
draft. engines.
• Openings for intake air should be low, near • Inlets located at the end of the room will
the rear of the engine; position outlets high provide adequate ventilation only to the
on the opposite wall. engine nearest the inlet.
REQUIREMENTS

• This technique will dissipate engine heat but

Horizontal Air Flow
a certain amount of heat will still radiate and
AIR

Cool, dry, clean air should enter the engine

heat the engine room.
room as close to the floor as possible using
fans/ducts. Allow this air to flow across the
Air Curtains
engine room from the entry point across heat
Air curtains, totally enveloping the generator
sources such as the engine, exposed exhaust,
set, provide ventilation without exposing the
generator, etc.
equipment room to high air velocities.
Radiated heat is removed with approximately
half the air flow of a horizontal flow system.

• For best results, air should flow first across

the generator then to both sides of the engine.
• If engine mounted radiators are not used, air
discharge fans should be mounted or ducted
at the highest point directly over the heat
sources.

20
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

AIR REQUIREMENTS
Vertical Air Flow • Avoid low places allowing condensation to
The least desirable ventilation system collect and block the fumes passage.
discharges outside air directly down on the
• Allowable crankcase pressure at full load is
engines with inlet fans.
plus 0.25 kPa (1 in. H2O).
• In unusually long runs of pipe, as in below-

REQUIREMENTS
ground installations, or if forced to combine
multiple engine breathers, increase pipe size

• Exhaust fans should be mounted in the
corners of the room.
• Because this system interferes with the
natural rising of hot air, ducting should be
used to prevent air from taking the shortest
path out of the engine room and bypassing
the engine.
Crankcase Breathers
Firing pressure forces slight amounts of
combustion gases past piston rings into the
crankcase. Resulting crankcase pressure is
relieved to maintain oil control and seal life by
having crankcase breathers exhausting fumes
at the rate of 0.028-0.042 m3 (1-1.5 ft 3)/hp-hr.
AIR
to reduce backpressure.
• Excessive restrictions may require
installation of a suction device in the line to
aid ventilation. Flexible oil- and chemical-
resistant tubing is connected (in a non-
airtight manner) to the disposal tube so
crankcase vacuum is less than 0.06 kPa
(0.25 in. H2O).
Breathers in Exhaust
NEVER incorporate the breather tube into the
engine exhaust system. This can result in a
buildup of deposits in the exhaust, and create
excessive crankcase backpressure and a
possible fire hazard.
Filters
• In prime power applications where fumes
cannot be disposed outside the engine room,
special filters can be used to clean the
crankcase fumes.

Piping
• Pipe the breather outlet to an outdoor vent.
Fumes are thus prevented from collecting in
the equipment room, clogging engine intake
air filters and radiator cores.
• Low operating hours of standby applications
demand little of air filters, so fumes can
discharge immediately in front of the filter.
Do not bypass this air filter.
• Each engine’s fumes disposal should have
separate discharge pipes.

21
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
EXHAUST
Exhaust systems collect exhaust gases from
engine cylinders and discharge them quickly
and silently. One purpose of the exhaust
system is to minimize backpressure because
exhaust gas restrictions cause horsepower
losses and exhaust temperature increases.
30-
40%
7%
EXHAUST
20-
33% 40%
Components
Engine exhaust manifolds collect exhaust
gases from each cylinder and channel them
into a single exhaust outlet. Several types of
manifolds are available:
Dry manifolds are the most cost-effective, but
least effective type of manifold for heat
shielding. During engine operation, dry
manifold surface temperatures can range from
430° to 480° C (800° to 980° F).
22
Watercooled manifolds’ temperatures are
considerably lower than those of dry
manifolds. Surface temperatures reach only
about 100° C (212° F) during operation.
Passages within watercooled manifolds allow
engine jacket coolant to flow around the
manifold removing heat otherwise carried by
exhaust gases. Heat rejection to the jacket
water will increase 20 to 40 percent, which
requires a larger capacity cooling system.
Loss of exhaust heat energy may affect
turbocharger performance, causing engine
deration and/or loss of altitude capability.
Water
Exhaust
Air
Passage
Exhaust
Water- Water-
Cooled Shielded
Dry
Water shielded manifolds have a fabricated
auxiliary jacket or shield around the manifold.
Engine jacket coolant circulates through the
shield but does not come in direct contact with
the manifold casting. This adds little heat to
the engine cooling load and will not affect
performance.
Exhaust System Design
Exhaust restrictions cause performance losses,
particularly in fuel consumption and exhaust
temperature.
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

EXHAUST
Restriction Criteria To obtain equivalent length of straight pipe for
• Pressure drop includes losses due to piping, each long radius 90-degree bend:
muffler, and rain cap, and is measured in a
L = 33 x D Standard Elbow
straight length of pipe 3 to 5 diameters from X
the last transition change after the
turbocharger outlet. L = 20 x D Long Elbow
X
(Radius > 1.5 diameter)
• Pressure drop across the exhaust system
should not exceed 6.7 kPa (27 in. H2O) of L = 15 x D 45-degree Elbow
X
water for most Caterpillar engines.
D
L = 66 x Square Elbow
• 3600 diesel gas engine performance will be X

EXHAUST
adversely affected above 2.5 kPa (10 in.
H2O). Exceeding this limit on 3600s will L = 31 Flexible connection
(1 = connector length)
increase fuel consumption approximately 0.8
percent per each 2.5 kPa (10 in. H2O) of where x = 1000 mm or 12 in
backpressure above the limit.
The radius of 90-degree bends with radii 1-1/2
• Engines burning heavy fuel have an absolute times the pipe diameter help to lower
backpressure limitation of 2.5 kPa resistance.
(10 in. H2O) to avoid excessive exhaust
valve temperatures. Exhaust gas mass flow can be calculated from
the exhaust gas volumetric flow and the
Calculate backpressure by: exhaust stack temperature.
2
L x S x Q x 3.6 x 10
6 Exhaust flow in:
P (kPa) = 5 + Ps
D (exhaust flow in m3/min) (2078)
kg/min =
exhaust gas temperature in ¡C + 273
2
P (in. H2O) = L x S x Q
5
+ Ps
187 x D OR

P= Backpressure (kPa) (in. H 2O) Exhaust flow in:

L= Length of pipe (m) (ft)
Q= Exhaust gas flow (m3/min) (cfm)
D= Inside diameter of pipe (mm) (in)
Ps = Pressure drop of silencer/raincap
(kPa) (in. H2O)
in. H 2O = Inches water column
kPa = 6.3246 x mm water column
psi = 0.0361 x inches water column
S = Specific weight of gas (kg/m3) (lb/ft3)
(exhaust flow in m3/min) (2333)
lb/hr =
exhaust gas temperature in ¡F + 460
Conversion to Standard Air flow
(SCFM) = Actual CFM (ACFM)*
* (density at actual temp/density at std temp)

S (kg/m3) = 352.05
Exhaust Temperature + 273.16¡ C

S (lb/ft3) = 39.6
Exhaust Temperature + 460¡ F

23
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

EXHAUST
Thermal Growth Provide for movement of the engine and
exhaust components
Thermal growth of exhaust piping must be Movement between piping and engine is
planned to avoid excessive load on supporting common and results from:
structures.
• Torque reactions when a generator set is
38¡ C (100¡ F) mounted on spring-type isolators
3.05 m (10 ft) • Expansion and contraction due to thermal
changes. Pre-stretch the bellows during
installation to allow it to operate near its free
state at engine operating temperatures.
EXHAUST

3.21 m (10.05 ft)

510¡ C (950¡ F) Piping Layout

Physical characteristics of the equipment room
• Steel exhaust pipe expands 1.13 mm/m/100° determine exhaust system layouts.
C (0.0076 in/ft/100° F) rise in exhaust
temperature.
• A temperature rise from 38° to 510° C Vertical
(100° to 950° F) will cause 16 mm (0.65 in) Pipe
Support
growth in 3.05 m (10 ft) length of pipe. Pipe Support
Flexible
Pipe
Exhaust Fittings Connection

Exhaust pipes are isolated from the engine Slight Pitch Drain
Flexible Away from
with flexible connections which have three Pipe Engine
primary functions: Connection
Flexible Pipe Connection
Engine Exhaust Outlet
Minimize exhaust piping weight on the
engine
Engine exhaust components should not be
more than 27 kPa (60 lb) of piping weight • Thick-walled pipe provides long life while
when the system is at operating temperature. absorbing the shocks and noise of the
combustion gases.
Isolation vibration
Flexible connections are needed to relieve • Arrangements with minimum backpressures
exhaust components of excessive vibrational are favored, consistent with other
fatigue and prevent vibration transmission requirements.
through the building.

24
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

EXHAUST
• Support long runs of piping at unequal
distances to minimize resonant vibrations.
• Pipes should be securely supported and
rubber dampers or springs installed in the
bracing to isolate vibrations, and routed to
avoid interference with overhead service
equipment.
• Long pipe runs need to be sectioned with
expansion joints. Each section is fixed at
one end and allowed to expand at the other.

EXHAUST
Supports are located to allow expansion
away from the engine, avoid strains or
distortions to connected components, and to
allow equipment removal without additional - Traps may be built by inserting a vertical
support. pipe down from a tee section in the line.
- Including a short length of plastic pipe
• Install lines with 229 mm (9 in) minimum
before the drain cock or removable plug
clearance from combustible materials.
will indicate drainage periods.
• Exhaust thimbles separate the exhaust pipe
from walls or ceiling to provide mechanical
and thermal isolation.
- Single sleeve thimbles have diameters at
least 305 mm (12 in) larger than the
exhaust pipe.
- Double thimbles (inner and outer sleeve)
have outside diameter at least 152 mm
(6 in) larger than the exhaust pipe.
• Long runs of exhaust piping require traps to
drain moisture.
- Traps installed at the lowest point of the
line near the exhaust outlet prevent
rainwater from reaching the silencer.
- Slope exhaust lines from engine and
silencer to the trap so condensation will • Extended engine operation at loads less than
drain. 15 percent of rated may induce exhaust
manifold slobber.
- This black oily fluid does not necessarily
indicate an engine problem and is not
usually harmful to the engine, but can be
unsightly and messy.

25
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
EXHAUST
- If extended periods of light loads are
unavoidable, slobber can be minimized by
operating the engine above 30 percent of
rated power for at least ten minutes every
four hours.
• Extend exhaust stacks to avoid nuisance
fumes and odors.
EXHAUST
- Pipe outlets cut at a 30- to 45-degree angle
will reduce gas turbulence, and thus noise.
- Rain caps forced open by exhaust pressure
will keep water from entering.
Insulation
Flexible pipe connections, when insulated,
must expand and contract freely within the
insulation. This generally requires a soft
material or insulated sleeve to encase the
connection.
Common Exhaust System
Although economically tempting, a common
exhaust system for multiple installations is
usually not acceptable.
• Combined exhaust systems with boilers or
other engines allow operating engines to
force exhaust gases into engines not
operating.
26
• Every liter of diesel fuel burned provides
about one liter of water in the exhaust.
• Spark ignited engines burning natural gas
develop 1.6 kg of water for each cubic meter
(1 lb/10 ft3) of natural gas burned.
• This water vapor condenses in cold engines
and quickly causes engine damage.
• Additionally, soot clogs turbochargers,
aftercoolers, or air cleaner elements.
• Duct valves separating engine exhausts are
also discouraged.
• High temperatures warp valve seats and soot
deposits cause leakage.
Exhaust draft fans have been applied
successfully in combined exhaust ducts, but
must operate whenever exhaust is present.
Separate exhaust systems assure expected
engine performance and life.
Piping Outlet
Exhaust heat must be discharged without
causing discomfort to personnel or hazards to
buildings or equipment.
• Locate exhaust discharge away from
ventilating air intakes to prevent reentry of
offensive fumes and odors.
• Directing exhaust emissions in front of a
radiator blower fan is acceptable; but avoid
premature clogging of the radiator core by
preventing exhaust passing through the
radiator.
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

EXHAUST
Silencer
• Muffler placement greatly affects silencing
ability. Locating it near the engine minimizes
transmission of sound to the exhaust piping.
Exhaust System Design Summary
• Locate the muffler near the engine; the
transmission of sound through exhaust will
be minimized.
• Provide a drain at the muffler’s lowest point
to relieve condensation.
• To prevent water from entering the system,
vertical exhaust stacks require a bend or rain
cap.

EXHAUST
• Minimize potential system resonance by
cutting the end of the exhaust pipe at a
45-degree angle.
• Higher exhaust temperatures near the engine
• To prevent reentry of exhaust fumes into the
also reduces condensation and carbon
building, exhaust pipes must be located away
buildup in the muffler; a drain removes
from air intakes.
condensation.
• Use separate exhaust pipes for each engine.
• At least 5 diameters of straight pipe
upstream, and 2.5 diameters downstream are
required to minimize turbulence and
backpressure.
Both noise reduction and backpressure
considerations are necessary when selecting a
silencer. Engines using heavy fuel have greater
exhaust flow than those burning conventional
fuels, and silencer sizing must account for this
increase.

27
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

EMISSIONS
Gaseous exhaust emissions of diesel engines
are the lowest of modern internal combustion
engines. Engine emissions are measured using
a Horiba or Beckman gas analyzer, with
equipment and data measurement techniques
conforming to the U.S. Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 40, Part 53 or 86. Caterpillar
engines at rated load will not exceed:

Diesel Natural Gas

Emission
g/bhp-h Catalytic Low
NA TA TA Converter Emission
Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) 12.0 15.0 19.0 1.2 2.0
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 3.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.7
EMISSIONS

Hydrocarbons (NMHC) 0.4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.35

Nitrogen oxides are formed by decomposition Nitrogen dioxide emissions in parts per
and recombination of the molecular oxygen million by volume can be approximated from
and nitrogen present in the combustion air. the mass emission rate and the exhaust flow:
• They consist primarily of nitric oxide and NO x mass emissions
nitrogen dioxide. NO x concentration = 629 x
(exhaust mass flow)
• The designation of nitrogen dioxide
signifies 1 or 2 oxygen atoms can be where:
present in the molecule. NO x concentration is in parts per million (ppm)
• Generally, over 90 percent of nitrogen NO x mass emissions are in g/hr of equivalent NO2
Exhaust flow is in kg/hr
dioxide in engine exhaust is in the form of
nitric oxide.
Depending on configuration and rating, many
• The nitric oxide gradually oxidizes to the engines emit considerably less emissions.
more harmful nitrogen dioxide in the Specific emission data is available from the
atmosphere. engine supplier.
• Nitrogen dioxide is a poisonous gas which,
when combined with hydrocarbons in the
presence of sunlight, forms smog and
ozone.
• By convention, the nitrogen dioxide mass
emissions (such as grams/hour) are usually
reported as equivalent mass of nitrogen
dioxide.
28
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
EMISSIONS
Carbon monoxide (CO) is poisonous and is
formed by combustion that takes place with a
shortage of oxygen. CO emissions in parts per
million by volume is calculated by:
CO mass emissions
CO concentration = 1034 x
exhaust mass flow
where:
CO concentration is in parts per million (ppm)
CO mass emissions are in g/hr
Exhaust flow is in kg/hr
Carbon dioxide is not regulated in most areas
but is considered a greenhouse gas. It is the
result of combustion of all hydrocarbon fueled
engines, including humans. Carbon dioxide is
a function of engine efficiency, with high
efficiency engines producing the lowest carbon
dioxide.
Hydrocarbons (HC) consist of unburned fuel
or lubricating oil, and can cause unpleasant
odors and eye irritation. HC emissions in parts
per million by volume is calculated by:
HC mass emissions
HC concentration = 2067 x
exhaust mass flow
where:
HC concentration is in parts per million (ppm)
HC mass emissions are in g/hr
Exhaust flow is in kg/hr
Particulates and sulfur dioxide levels are also
sometimes required.
Particle emissions include unburned carbon
(soot), soluble organic fraction (SOF), and
sulfates.
• There is no universally accepted measuring
method for non-truck application, so the
level of particle emissions depends on the
measuring method.
• Caterpillar has developed a correlation
between smoke and particulate concentration
which can be used to estimate particulate
emissions.
Black smoke results from incomplete
combustion and is the soot portion of
EMISSIONS
particulates.
White smoke is caused by vaporized but
unburned fuel passing through the engine, and
usually occurs during startup of a cold engine.
The sulfur present in the fuel oxidizes
primarily to sulfur dioxide, with less than two
percent forming sulfate. The emission of sulfur
dioxide depends only on the sulfur level of the
fuel and the fuel consumption rate of the
engine. Sulfur dioxide emissions are calculated
by:
Specific SO 2 = (0.01998) (BSFC) (% sulfur in fuel)
where:
Specific SO2 is emissions in g/kW-hr
BSFC is Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
in g/kW-hr
Percent sulfur in fuel is in percent by weight
Aldehydes can cause eye and respiratory
irritation, but levels are quite low for most
engines.
Emission levels are affected by engine rating,
speed, turbocharger, timing, fuel, and ambient
conditions. Increased intake air temperature
and higher altitudes increase nitrogen dioxide
and particulate emissions.
29
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
Heat Balance Engine cooling systems must:
Internal combustion engines produce heat as a 1. Cool jacket water at greatest engine load,
by-product of combustion. Twenty to forty highest ambient temperature, and altitude
percent of fuel energy required for engine
2. Allow filling without air entrapment
operation results in heat rejected to the jacket
water, and must be totally removed by the 3. Provide sufficient pressure head to
engine’s cooling system to assure dependable discourage pump cavitation
engine performance.
4. Vent air introduced into the system by
filling, leaks, and engine combustion
30- There are three primary areas to consider in
40%
engine cooling:
7%
• Internal engine coolant flow
• Types of internal cooling systems
• Jacket water and separate circuit aftercooling
20-
33%
COOLING

40% Internal Circuit

The engine thermostat controls minimum
operating temperature of the engine. It permits
efficient engine operation by disconnecting the
• The cooling system is comprised of the
external cooling system until jacket water
jacket water circuit and, depending on
temperature exceeds 79° C (174.2° F).
engine configuration, aftercooler, oil cooler,
and fuel cooler circuits.
• A small percentage of heat is also rejected to
the atmosphere, and is removed by engine
room ventilation. Pump

The distribution of input fuel to energy is

approximately: Thermostat Closed

• 33% to useful work COOLANT FLOW

To
• 30% to rejected work Cooling

• 30% to jacket water

• 7% to friction and radiation
Pump

Thermostat Open

From
Cooling
30
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
COOLING
• After the engine jacket water reaches
approximately 80° C (176° F), the
thermostat begins to open and allows
circulation to the external cooling system.
• Never operate without thermostats when
utilizing the normal 88° C (190° F) cooling
system. Optional thermostats are available
for applications requiring higher minimum
operating temperatures.
Outlet regulated cooling systems provide a
constant outlet temperature from the engine by
regulating the flow between the bypass and
cooling circuits. Usually applied with radiator
cooled systems, the sensing bulb is placed in
the outlet flow from the engine. Note that all
Caterpillar EPG radiator cooled systems use an
outlet regulated cooling system.
Inlet regulated cooling systems provide a
constant temperature to the inlet jacket water,
aftercooler, and/or oil cooler. This design is
used to minimize overcooling when very cold
or large cooling sources are involved. The
sensing bulb of the thermostat is placed in the
inlet flow to the engine. The thermostat then
balances the bypass flow (hot water directly
from engine) with cool water from a heat
exchanging device.
A potential problem with inlet controlled
cooling incorporating a radiator is that full
pump pressure is imposed on the radiator core.
This pressure usually exceeds the structural
pressure of a solder tube radiator core.
Therefore, inlet controlled systems are not
often used with radiators.
Types of Cooling
There are two basic types of cooling systems,
one of which is an open system.
In an open system, untreated water is used to
cool the engine. This cooling process can
result in scale buildup, corrosion, and erosion
in the internal cooling water passages,
decreasing the cooling system’s efficiency and
endangering the engine’s service life.
Caterpillar recommends a closed cooling
system. In a closed system, cooling medium
does not come into direct contact with air, but
is cooled by a process of heat transfer, usually
water or air (example — radiator).
Water Treatment
Prime consideration in closed cooling systems
is to ensure no corrosion or scale forms at any
point. Select the best quality water available,
but never use salt water.
COOLING
Usually water hardness is described in grains
per gallon – one grain being equal to 17.1 parts
per million (ppm), or in mg/L, both expressed
as calcium carbonate. Water containing up to
3.5 grains per gallon (60 ppm) is considered
soft and causes few deposits.
Usable water must have the following
characteristics as defined by industry standard
specification ASTM D4985:
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5-9.0
Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 ppm
2.4 grains/gal
Sulfate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 ppm
5.9 grains/gal
Total Dissolved Solids . . . . . . . . . . . 340 ppm
20.0 grains/gal
Total Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 ppm
10.0 grains/gal
31
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
COOLING
Water softened by removal of calcium and
magnesium is acceptable.
• Never use water alone as a coolant. Coolant
additives are required because water is
corrosive at engine operating temperatures.
- Corrosion inhibitors added to water or
antifreeze solution maintain cleanliness,
reduce scale and foaming, and provide pH
control.
- A 3 to 6 percent concentration of inhibitor
is recommended to maintain a pH level of
8.5 to 10.
- Soluble oil damages hoses, gaskets, and
seals, and does not lubricate pump
bearings, or protect from cavitation
erosion. Avoid sudden changes in coolant
composition to minimize failure of
COOLING
nonmetallic components.
- Caterpillar cooling inhibitor is compatible
with ethylene glycol and propylene glycol
base antifreezes, but not with Dowtherm
209. With 30 percent glycol, no additional
inhibitors are required.
Following are some main points of water
treatment:
• To maintain constant protection, additives
should be replenished every 250 operating
hours.
• Because modern antifreezes contain
considerable dissolved chemical solids to
accommodate aluminum components, over-
concentration needlessly reduces heat
transfer and causes water pump seal leakage
or failure.
Note: If cooling water contacts domestic water
supplies, water treatment may be regulated by
local codes.
32
• Engine cooling water for high temperature
water systems is circulated within the engine
water jacket at temperatures above 100° C
(212° F).
- High temperature solid water applications
have the potential for steam to form.
- Minerals in the water can precipitate during
the heating process and form deposits
within the cooling systems, restricting heat
transfer and water circulation. The engine
coolant must therefore be treated the same
as boiler feed water.
The engine coolant (boiler water) is a mixture
of feed water and resident water. It should not
exceed the following maximum
concentrations.
Silica concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 ppm
as silicon dioxide
Total alkalinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 ppm
as calcium calcium carbonate
Specific conductance . . . . . . . 3500 microhms
per cm (2680 ppm)
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.0-11.5
In addition, the jacket water treatment should
include:
- Maintenance to limit calcium carbonate
equivalent of hydroxide alkalinity to
200-400 ppm
- A blend of dispersants to condition and
suspend the precipitated solids
- Treatment of condensate return
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
COOLING
• Make-up water should not exceed the
following maximum concentrations:
Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 ppm
Copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 ppm
Total hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 ppm
as calcium carbonate
These stringent guidelines are based in part on
established limits of the American Boiler
Manufacturer’s Association (ABMA) and
recommendations of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Research
Committee on Water in Thermal Power
Systems.
• Cooling towers supplying cooling water
directly to turbocharger aftercoolers must
also incorporate treatment.
- A corrosion resistance core must be
specified and raw water treated with
corrosion inhibitors and protected from
freezing.
- Algae formation severely affects heat
transfer rates and must also be controlled.
Antifreeze Protection
Exposing engine coolant to freezing
temperatures requires addition of antifreeze.
Ethylene glycol, Dowtherm 209 (sold at 20%),
or Cat ELC (sold and recommended at 50%)
are recommended to protect against freezing
and inhibit corrosion. Borate-nitrite solutions
such as Caterpillar Inhibitor or NALCO 2000
are compatible only with ethylene glycol and
can replenish the original corrosion inhibitors
in the antifreeze.
• The glycol concentration should exceed
30 percent to assure protection against
corrosion and minimize water pump
cavitation, but concentration above
60 percent will needlessly penalize heat
transfer capabilities.
• Generally, a radiator derates 2 percent for
each 10 percent of antifreeze concentration.
• Use of antifreeze year-round decreases
radiator capabilities at least 3.3° C (6° F).
Radiator Cooling
Radiator cooling is the most common and
reliable method used to cool engines. As with
all cooling systems, radiators are usually sized
15 percent greater than the engine’s maximum
full load heat rejection. This allows for
overload conditions and system deterioration.
Temperature Differential
Most engines operate with water temperature
differential (outlet minus inlet) of 5.5° to
8.3° C (10° to 15° F) maximum. Temperature
limitation of water leaving the engine is
COOLING
determined by cooling system design. In
standard systems operating with 27.6 to
48.2 kPa (4 to 7 psi) pressure caps, maximum
top tank temperature is 99° C (210° F). This
limit prevents steam formation in the engine
water jacket. The drawing below illustrates the
effect of system pressure on the boiling point
of water at various altitudes.
96.1¡ C (205¡ F)
Pump
Thermostat Open
90.5¡ C (195¡ F)
33
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
System Pressure Heat Rejection (kW)
Flow (L/min) =
Slight system pressure minimizes pump dT (¡C) x Density (kg/L) x
cavitation (voids in water) even at high Specific Heat (kW-min/kg-¡C)
altitude, and increases pump efficiency.
COOLING SYSTEM PRESSURE Heat Rejection (Btu/min)
ALTITUDE Flow (gal/min) =
0 4 10 psi dT x Density (Ib/gal) x
Feet Meters 0.0 0.3 0.7 kPa Specific Heat (Btu/Ib-¡F)
14 000 4300
12 000 3700
10 000 3000 Water flow rates in external cooling systems
8000 2400
6000 1800
are calculated by:
4000 1200
2000 600 Pure Water 50/50 Glycol
Sea Level 0
¡Fahrenheit 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 Density kg/L at 80° C= 0.98 1.03
¡Centigrade 82 88 93 99 104 110 115 121
(Ib/gal) at 175° F= 8.1 8.6
BOILING POINT OF WATER
Specific Heat
• For each 6.9 kPa (1.0 psi) of pressure, the (kW-min/kg-°C)= .071 0.06
boiling point is raised about 2° C (3° F). (Btu/Ib-°F)= 1.0 0.85
Elevations above 3048 m (10,000 ft) require
COOLING

higher rated pressure caps to avoid boiling. dT = Allowable temperature rise, °C, °F

• Additions of alcohol or other volatile
antifreeze coolants lower the boiling point,
while ethylene glycol solutions raise the
boiling point.
Engine Mounted Radiator System Design
Jacket water flow is determined by engine heat
rejection and allowable jacket water
temperature rise.
• Minimum temperature rise is desirable to
reduce thermal stresses, but water flows are
limited to reduce erosion and pump
horsepower requirements.
• Watercooled exhaust manifolds increase heat
rejection 15 percent over dry manifolds, and
may affect turbocharger performance,
causing power deaerations.
• Exact power ratings and configurations are
necessary when calculating heat rejection.
• Piping and heat transfer equipment resist
jacket water flow, causing an external
pressure head which opposes the engine-
driven pump.
- Jacket water flow reduces as external head
increases.
• To ensure adequate coolant flow, external
head losses must be balanced against water
pump capabilities.
- Excessive external heads demand pumps
with additional pressure capacity.
- Friction head losses are a function of pipe
size, number and type of fittings and
valves used, coolant flow rate, and losses
contributed by heat transfer devices.
- After determining required coolant flow
rate, pump performance establishes
maximum allowable external head.

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P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
• Coolant velocity is maintained to achieve • Consult manufacturers’ specification sheets
optimum heat transfer without damage to for friction head loss through heat transfer
system components by erosion. devices.
- Jacket water external circuit velocities of - Decrease resistance by minimizing number
0.6 to 2.5 m/s (2 to 8 fps) are acceptable. of bends.
- Raw or sea water circuit velocities reduce - Use long sweep elbows and gate-type
to 0.6 to 1.9 m/s (2 to 6 fps). valves.
• Suction head on the pump must not be
Water Maximum Velocity
significantly below atmospheric pressure.
m/sec ft/sec
pressurized lines 4.5 15 • Inlet piping should have internal diameters at
least the diameter of that furnished on the
pressurized thin-wall tubes 2.5 8 engine.
suction lines (pump inlet) 1.5 5 • Radiator bottom tank must have greater
low velocity deaeration line 0.8 2 cross-sectional area than inlet piping.
- Depending on the coating thickness,
• Radiators may contain orifices to limit radiator capability will be reduced at least

COOLING
coolant flow, so flow in engines with 3 percent.
radiators may be less than in those without
• Coatings such as solder or paint are
radiators.
sometimes used to protect the copper fins of
- Because published pump data reflects the radiator core from aggressive
coolant flow without a radiator, auxiliary atmospheres.
cooling equipment installed with standard
radiators must anticipate flows lower than • Altitude affects radiator sizing.
published. - Increased air flow is required at higher
altitudes to maintain cooling capabilities
Pressure relationships:
equivalent to sea level.
• Pressure drop and velocity of liquids is - Reduce radiator performance 1.4° C per
calculated in EPG Designer, while both 305 m (2.5° F per 1000 ft) of elevation to
pressure drop and velocity are estimated in compensate for lower air densities.
the Generator Set A&I Guide. For example,
new 6-inch steel pipe carries 2270 lpm of
water at 66° C (600 gpm at 150° F).
• If a high capacity pump is installed in series
with the standard engine pump, total pressure
head imposed on the engine pump inlet must
be less than 1172 kPa (25 psi).
- External system modifications may be
necessary to prevent cavitation of the high
capacity pump.

35
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
Top Tank
Radiators normally have top tanks for filling,
expansion, and deaerating of engine coolant.
Extended systems using added coolant may
require enlarged expansion tanks.
COOLING
Restrictions
• When louvers are used, the duct size should
be increased at least 25 percent due to louver
assembly restrictions.
• If common window screening is used, the
size of the opening may increase 40 percent.
• Solid walls perpendicular to fan air flow
must not be closer than 2 fan diameters from
the radiator.
• Avoid uneven loading of the fan caused by
obstructions or auxiliary coolers partially
obstructing air flow.
• Fatigue failure of fan blades as well as air
turbulence may occur when obstructions are
within 150 mm (6 in) of the fan face.

Movable Louvers
If movable louvers are used, specify those
which open in a positive manner. Pneumatic
and electric-actuated louvers are satisfactory.
Installation
• When an engine-mounted radiator is used
and the generator set is installed in a room, a
blower fan and a radiator duct running to the
outside can be used.
- Ducts directing radiator air to the outside
prevent recirculation and high equipment
room temperatures.
- Some generator set packages have standard
radiator duct flanges for installation ease.
- The duct length is short and direct to
minimize backpressure, with total inlet and
Louver Operation
outlet restriction on the radiator fan being • Louvers which open from the discharge
less than 6.35 kPa (0.25 in. H2O). pressure of the radiator fan are discouraged.
- Radiator ducting should be larger than the • Rain, ice, and snow can render them
radiator core, with inlet air ducts 1.5 times inoperative within a short time and result in
greater than outlet ducts. engine overheating and shutdown.

36
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
• Do not wait to activate the louvers until the Vertical remote radiators are positioned so
engine warms up. In an emergency, the prevailing winds or structures do not impede
engine will be loaded immediately and fan air flow or cause the heated air to
require full air flow. recirculate through the radiator core.
• Heat sensors needlessly complicate the
system and their malfunction can reduce air
flow to the engine and cause shutdown.
• Open louvers as soon as engine starts.
• Don’t use heat sensors.

Enclosures
Enclosures trap radiated heat and direct it
Horizontal remote radiators nullify the
through the radiator decreasing cooling
effects of wind but may require protection
capabilities 8° to 10° C (14° to 18° F). Even
from snow and ice.
with doors open, radiators can derate 5° to
7° C (9° to 13° F).

COOLING
Remote Mounted Radiators
The radiator may be located some distance
from the engine.
• Remote-mounted radiator systems add
restriction to cooling water flow by
additional piping.
• The standard engine coolant pump may be
unable to provide adequate flow, so it may
have to be replaced or boosted by an
additional pump usually located in the
Static Head
engine return line. (The auxiliary pump Static head is the maximum height the coolant
operates whenever the engine is running.) water is raised.
• Allowing engine warmup before pumping to • Large static heads are encountered where
remote radiator can cause the radiator core to radiators or heat exchangers are located on
fail due to thermal shock. the roof.
- If the empty radiator is exposed to extreme • Heights above 17.4 m (57 ft) cause leakage
cold, initial flow of unprotected coolant at the engine pump seals.
can freeze and block the core. Antifreeze
must be included in the water treatment to • Brace pipes at bends and use Marmon (or
assure uninterrupted flow. equal) clamps.

37
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
• High static head and movement in long pipe
runs cause straight clamped rubber hoses to
leak. A separate external cooling system
relieves the engine system from this
pressure.
• Automatic make-up water controls and low
water alarms are desirable in remote systems
to avoid inattention.
• Radiators mounted level or above engine
and connected with straight piping will
avoid air traps.
• The engine outlet pipe, which dips below the
engine, will trap air during initial fill or
combustion gases which leak into the
coolant.
• If piping dips are unavoidable, vent lines
COOLING
While preferable in installations involving
multiple generator sets to provide separate
cooling systems for each engine, using a single
radiator is possible. Such designs must be
analyzed by a cooling system engineer.
Location
• When selecting radiator location, consider
fan noise.
- Noise transmits through the air inlet as
well as outlet.
- Soft flexible joints between radiator and
duct will reduce vibration and noise
transmission.
• Position the radiator so prevailing winds do
not act against the fan.
- One form of wind protection for radiators

from each potential trap run to the radiator

top tank. is a baffle set several feet from the exhaust.
- Another method is to install an air duct
• Vent lines must also slope up with no dips. outside the wall directing the air outlet (or
inlet) vertically.
Expansion Tank

Radiator

17.37 m
(57 ft)

Jacket Water
Pump

38
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
Air Density Revised Coolant Temperature =
Original Coolant Temperature x
Air density, flow restrictions, and speed affect
( )
0.7
Original Fan Speed
fan performance, possibly limiting radiator
Revised Fan Speed
ambient temperature capabilities. Performance
changes are estimated by these relationships: Radiator Ambient Capability =
Rad Top Tank, usually 99° C (210° F) -
Revised Static Pressure =
Revised Coolant Temperature
Revised Air Density
Original Static Pressure x
Original Air Density where:

Air Density = kg/cu cm (Ib/cu in)

Revised Fan Horsepower =
Air Flow = cu m/min (cfm)
Revised Air Density
Original Fan Horsepower x Coolant Temperature =
Original Air Density

Ambient
( )
99° C (210° F) – 5.5 – Original Radiator
2
Speed Assumptions:
Fan speed affects the performance of a fan in Coolant Top Tank Temperature =
respect to radiator ambient temperature 99° C (210° F)

COOLING
capabilities. Revised air flow, static pressure, Inlet to Outlet Radiator Temperature
and fan horsepower can be calculated using Change = 5.5° C (10° F)
revised and original fan speeds. Fan Horsepower = kW (hp)
Fan Speed = rpm
Revised Fan Speed Static Pressure = mm (in) of H2O
Original Air Flow x
Original Fan Speed
Heat Exchanger Cooling
Revised Static Pressure =
2
A heat exchanger is sometimes used to cool
Original Static Pressure x
(
Revised Fan Speed
Original Fan Speed ) the engine when ventilating air is limited or
excessive static head on the engine must be
Revised Fan Horsepower =
avoided. Caterpillar exchangers are all shell
and tube-type.
( )
3
Original Fan Horsepower x Revised Fan Speed
Original Fan Speed

Temperature
Revised coolant temperature and radiator
ambient capabilities are calculated as shown.

Revised Coolant Temperature =

Original Coolant Temperature x

( )
0.7
Original Air Flow
Revised Air Flow

39
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
Advantages of heat exchangers include: • Multi-pass exchangers flow raw water
through the exchanger two or more times. In
• No fan noise
multi-pass exchangers, relative direction of
• Reduced air flow requirement flow between jacket and cooling water is
unimportant.
• Minimum space requirement
• Single-pass types use raw water only once.
• Less parasitic load, improving fuel
Raw water in single-pass exchangers flows
consumption
through the exchanger opposite to coolant
The disadvantages of heat exchangers flow to provide maximum differential
include: temperature and heat transfer. This results in
improved heat exchanger performance.
• A separate cooling source
• Heat exchanger performance depends on raw
• A separate expansion tank
water flow and differential temperature.
• An extra pump and plumbing - To reduce tube erosion, flow of raw water
• Room ventilation through the tubes should not exceed
2.4 m/s (8 fps).
Design - Minimum flow rate for good heat transfer
COOLING

Shell and tube heat exchangers are single- or design is 1.2 m/s (4 fps).
two-pass. This refers to the flow in the raw - The heat exchanger must accommodate
water circuit of the exchanger. raw water temperature and flow needed to
remove maximum engine heat rejection.
Jacket Water
- Thermostats are retained in the jacket
water system to provide adequate low
temperature control.
• Heat exchangers must accommodate heat
rejection 10-15 percent greater than engine
full load heat rejection, depending on fouling
factors.
Single Pass - Standard Caterpillar exchangers incorporate
Cooling Jacket Water a 0.001 hr-ft °F/Btu factor. Fouling factor
Water affects heat transfer by the following
relationship:
1 1
FF =
U coolant U clean core
where:
Two-Pass FF = fouling factor, Btu/h ft °F/
HEAT EXCHANGER TYPES U coolant = heat transfer coefficient of core
with coolant, Btu/h ft2 °F
U clean core = heat transfer coefficient of clean
core, Btu/h ft2 °F
40
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
• Solenoid valves controlling cooling water are Expansion Tanks
applied upstream of the heat exchanger. Unlike radiators, heat exchangers have no
built-in provision for jacket water expansion.
• Since heat exchanger tubes can be cleaned
Surge (expansion) tanks must be included in
more easily than the surrounding jacket, raw
heat exchanger systems. Factory-designed
water usually is routed through tubes and
tanks are normally specified to assure proper
engine coolant through the shell. Strainers
performance of the total system.
prevent premature system fouling.
- The exchanger is relieved of pressure when
inoperative and raw water cannot be
trapped in the tubes if the solenoid fails to
open.
- Water trapped during engine operation
expands and can rupture the exchanger.
- All solenoid valves include manual
bypasses.
• Do not add temperature regulators in raw
water supplies. Engine jacket water is

thermostatically controlled and additional
controls add expense, cause restriction, and
decrease reliability.
Installation
• Always use flexible connections on water
lines to prevent transmission of engine
vibration to the heat exchanger.
• Limit total system volume by mounting the
heat exchanger close to the engine.
COOLING
Design
• Water expands about five percent between
0° and 100° C (32° and 212° F).
- Expansion tanks should have capacity for
at least 15 percent of system water volume
for expansion, plus reserve.
- Tanks vent to atmosphere or incorporate
pressure caps to assure system pressure.
- Tanks are located to prevent formation of a
vacuum, a primary cause of cavitation on
the suction side of the pump.

41
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
COOLING
• Deaerate jacket water to prevent formation
of air pockets and minimize pump cavitation.
- Entrained air encourages corrosion and
erosion in the engine.
- Coolant may be lost because air expands
more than water when heated.
- Entrained air is caused by air trapped
during fill operations, combustion gases
leaking (five percent per cu in
displacement), leaks in piping (particularly
on the inlet side of the pump), or low after-
level in the expansion tank.
- A low velocity area must be provided
where deaeration can occur.
- Entrained air separates from the water if
the tank is sized and baffled to slow water
flow to 0.6 m/s (2 fps).
COOLING
If full flow is not directed to the expansion
tank, a 10 mm (3/8 in) deaeration line to the
expansion tank can be run from an enlarged
cross-section of the return water line.
Expansion tanks are the highest point in the
circuit. The heat exchanger mounts lower than
coolant in the expansion tank, preferably
several feet. Jacket water flows from engine
outlet to heat exchanger, to expansion tank,
and back to jacket water pump inlet. This
purges air and creates positive pressure at the
jacket water pump inlet. If the heat exchanger
is remote mounted, locate in a minimum
vibration area, with flexible fittings between
heat exchanger and engine.
Cooling System Features
The various features of a cooling system
ensure that the cooling system runs properly,
in turn, aiding the performance of the entire
generator set.
42
Hot Well
Hot well systems are used when static head
exceeds 17.4 m (57 ft.), or a boost pump
imposes excessive dynamic head. The
auxiliary pump operates whenever the engine
is running. Allowing engine warmup before
engaging the pump can cause the radiator core
to fail due to thermal shock.
If the empty radiator is exposed to extreme
cold, initial flow of coolant can freeze and
block flow in the core. Antifreeze must be
included in the water treatment to assure
uninterrupted flow.
Mixing Tanks
A mixing tank accommodates total drainback
of the remote cooling device and connecting
piping. A baffle divides the tank into a hot and
cold side, but is open sufficiently to assure full
engine flow. Baffles are also used where water
enters the tank to minimize aeration.
A tank sized for 110 percent of radiator and
piping coolant ensures that pumps will not
suck air and that water level can be checked
during shutdown.
Turbocharging
Turbocharging compresses combustion air
charge, but this compression increases
temperature, limiting the benefits of
turbocharging. Lowering intake air temperature
through jacket water aftercooling further
increases the density of air for combustion.
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

COOLING
The resulting increase in oxygen allows more
fuel to be burned, which produces greater
engine power. Improved combustion can also
lower:
• Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
• Exhaust temperature
• Certain exhaust emissions
Separate Circuit Aftercooling (SCAC)
Separate circuit aftercooling removes the
aftercooler from the jacket water circuit and
provides aftercooler cooling from an
independent source. While jacket water
temperature to aftercooler approaches 88° C
(190° F), a separate source provides much
cooler water, allowing air charge temperature
to be further reduced, which improves engine
- Cooling water temperature less than 54° C
(130° F) is required to maintain proper
(full) engine/generator power ratings and
emission levels and to avoid detonation of
the fuel mixture.
- Split or dual core radiators will usually
provide 54° C (130° F) coolant.
- Lower water temperatures or air-to-air
aftercooling will allow even greater
performance.
SEPARATE CIRCUIT AFTERCOOLING (SCAC)
123
JW Out
Engine
A/C
Generator JW Return

COOLING
performance.
• SCAC is necessary on all turbocharged gas Inlet Temperature Range For Aftercooling:
32¡ C (90¡ F) to 54¡ C (130¡ F)
engines and high temperature jacket water
systems used in heat recovery applications.
Air-to-Air AfterCooling (ATAAC)
• A closed cooling circuit, such as a heat
ATAAC is an optional cooling medium used to
exchanger or radiator, is preferred to control
achieve low charge air temperatures. The
water quality.
charge air is routed to the heat exchanger
• If supplied from an open system, such as a while ambient air driven by the radiator fan
cooling tower or pond, the aftercooler core passes across the external surface. Aftercooler
and associated plumbing must be non- heat rejection, charge air flows, and piping
corrosive and cleanable. restrictions require analysis to avoid
compromising engine performance.
• Cooling tower water should be treated with
corrosion inhibitors and protected against
freezing.
• Separate circuit aftercooling generally
improves operating performance of all
turbocharged engines, but gas engines
MUST have a separate cooling source.

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 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
Recovery design for any installation depends Reciprocating engines convert about 30 to
on several technical and economic 37 percent of their input fuel energy into
considerations. The primary function of any mechanical power. The remainder transforms
heat recovery system is to cool an engine or into heat and is carried from the engine by
group of engines. Provisions must be made to jacket water, exhaust, and radiation.
ensure engines operate at correct temperatures,
• The 20 to 40 percent of generator set heat
even when plant heat demands are small.
contained in jacket water can be totally
Fuel is the largest operating expense recovered.
associated with a generator set.
• About half of the 30 to 40 percent carried by
GENERATOR SET OPERATING COSTS
the exhaust is economically recoverable.
• Total heat recovery results in fuel
Fue efficiencies approaching 80 percent.
l
Other Fluids
& Preventive
Maintenance USING HEAT RECOVERY
Component
Repairs &
Overhauls
Downtime &
Associated Costs
Purchase Price
& Associated Costs

Re
RECOVERY

In typical prime power applications, fuel costs co

ve
HEAT

red
over a ten-year cycle can range from 75 to
85 percent of total operating costs. Therefore,
in installations where heat can be recovered
and used, it is possible to increase total energy
output per dollar and yield significant savings.

44
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
Heat recovery may be as simple as utilizing Standard Temperature Heat
heat from the engine radiator. Air passing Recovery
through the radiator core of a loaded engine
has a temperature of 38-65° C (100-150° F), This approach uses a shell and tube heat
and is suitable for: exchanger to transfer the heat of normal jacket
water [temperatures about 93° C (200° F)] to a
• Drying secondary circuit — usually water.
• Space heating
• Preheating boiler combustion air
Recovering radiator heat requires no
modification of standard engine equipment,
with overall efficiency approaching 60 percent.

TYPICAL HEAT
RECOVERY APPLICATIONS

• preheating boiler
combustion air
• space heating
• drying processes
38¡ to 65¡ C
(100¡ F to 150¡ F) The typical heat recovery system involving
standard temperature jacket water includes
standard engine equipment. Plant hot water is

RECOVERY
taken from the secondary side of the heat

HEAT
Types of Heat Recovery exchanger. After warmup, the regulator allows
Heat recovery methods are grouped as follows: flow to the plant load heat exchanger.

• Standard Temperature [93° C (200° F)] Expansion Tank Location

• High Temperature [127° C (260° F)]
- Solid Water [127° C, 137.4 kPa
(260° F, 20 psi)]
- Ebullient Steam [121° C, 103.4 kPa
(250° F, 15 psi)]
Ideally, all flow passes through the expansion
tank to promote deaeration.
The added external head of the extended jacket
water circuit may exceed the allowable head
on the engine mounted pump, so an auxiliary
pump may be necessary.
The amount of heat available is dependent on
the mechanical load on the engine, so, in times
when electrical loads are light but plant heat
loads are high, an additional heating source
(boiler) may be necessary. If heating loads are
sometimes low when electrical loads are high,
a load balancing heat exchanger should be
incorporated.

45
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
An exhaust heat recovery muffler may be Recoverable heat data is obtained from the
added to the system as a separate water circuit engine manufacturers but can be estimated by:
or in series with the jacket water. As a separate Q = CpM (T1-T2) where:
heat source independent of the jacket water,
the muffler water circuit can produce high Q = Recoverable Heat (KJ/h)
Cp = Specific Heat
temperature water or steam.
Diesel Engines – 1.081 KJ/kg per ¡C
• The amount of heat available is highly Gas Engines – 1.170 KJ/kg per ¡C
dependent on engine load.
T1 = Exhaust Gas Stack Temperature (¡C)
• Coolant must flow through the heat recovery T2 = Exhaust Gas Exit Temperature (¡C)
device whenever the engine operates to M = Exhaust Mass Flow (kg/h)
avoid thermal shock. M3/min x 60 x 353.0
M= OR
T1 (¡C) + 273¡ C
Muffler Heat Recovery
Q = CpM (T1-T2) where:
HEAT RECOVERY
Heat
Q = Recoverable Heat (Btu/hr)
Cp = Specific Heat
Diesel Engines – 0.258 Btu/Ib per ¡F
Gas Engines – 0.279 Btu/Ib per ¡F
Recovered
T1 = Exhaust Gas Stack Temperature (¡F)
T2 = Exhaust Gas Stack Temperature (¡F)
Exhaust M = Exhaust Mass Flow (Ib/h)
RECOVERY
HEAT

Exhaust Flow (cfm) x 60 x 39.6

M=
T1 (¡F) + 460¡ F

Jacket Water

Heat recovery mufflers economically recover

about half the engine exhaust heat. Exhaust
exit temperature above 149° C (300° F)
discourages condensation in ducting. For each
gallon of diesel fuel burned, a gallon of water
is carried into the exhaust.

46
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
Muffler/Jacket Water in a Series • An external regulator directs coolant back
Placing the muffler in series with the secondary through the engine and the heat recovery
side of the jacket water heat exchanger adds the muffler.
heat rejection of the two systems into a single
• When heat available from the engine and
source. The additional heat from the muffler
muffler exceeds plant heating requirements,
demands a larger load balancing device than
an additional cooling source is added to the
with the jacket water alone.
system to accommodate both jacket water
• Removal of engine thermostats and blocking and muffler heat.
water bypass prevents sudden thermal shock
of coolant on hot muffler surfaces.
STANDARD TEMPERATURE WATER SYSTEM
With Series Exhaust Heat Recovery

Pressure Cap &

Vacuum
Low Breaker
Water Level
Shutdown Expansion Tank

Excess Flow
Bypass Valve

123 JW Heat Load Balancing Load

Engine Exchanger Heat Exchanger Heat Exchanger

RECOVERY
Low To Load

HEAT
A/C Water Flow To Remote
Generator Shutdown Cooling Device
From Load
Jacket
Water
Pump Circulating Load Balancing
Pump Thermostatic
Separate Circuit Valve
Cooling

47
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
Water-Steam Circuit Heat Recovery System
The heat recovery muffler can be included in
the system as a separate water-steam circuit
for loads requiring high temperatures — in
excess of 99° C (210° F).
In hospital applications, for example,
absorption equipment may require 93° C
(200° F) water, while sterilization equipment
may require water-steam in excess of 99° C
(210° F). The engine jacket water system
could be used for the absorption equipment,
and the exhaust heat recovery system for the
sterilization equipment.
Here’s how it works:
1. Water-steam flows through the exhaust heat
recovery device to the steam separator.
2. Load demands determine valve pressures.
3. The pressure control valve regulates
pressure within the steam separator.
• The relief valve should be set at least
6.9 kPa (1 psig) above the pressure control
valve setting.
• The excess steam valve is set equal to or
less than the pressure control valve setting.
4. As steam is absorbed by the load, it
condenses to a liquid state, flows through
the condensate tank, and is pumped back to
the steam separator.
• To avoid thermal shock on hot muffler
surfaces, a low water flow shutdown
device ensures constant coolant flow
through the muffler.

SEPARATE CIRCUIT EXHAUST HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM

Pressure Control
Valve Steam To Load
Relief Valve
RECOVERY

Steam Separator
HEAT

Excess
Steam Condensate
Valve From Load
Water Level
Control
Exhaust Load Balancing To Remote
Heat Low Condenser
Water Level Cooling Device
Recovery
Device Shutdown

Air
Eliminator

Make-up Water
Condensate Condensate
Pump Tank

48
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
Design Criteria — Standard Temperature
Heat Recovery Systems
Certain requirements are necessary for proper
operation of a standard temperature heat
recovery system. The following is not,
however, an all-inclusive list. An engineer
should be consulted for specific installations.
• The system must provide adequate coolant
flow through the engine so the engine
coolant temperature differential (outlet minus
inlet) does not exceed 8.5° C (15° F).
• The expansion tank must be the highest
point in BOTH the engine and load loop
cooling systems. Locate the jacket water heat
exchanger as near the engine as possible.
• Only treated water should be used in the
engine cooling circuit.
• Incorporate air vents to eliminate air traps
and locks.
• A load balancing thermostatic valve must be
• Coolant must continually flow through the
exhaust heat recovery device whenever the
engine is operating to avoid thermal shock
on hot muffler surfaces. This can be
accomplished by using a low water flow
shutdown device.
High Temperature Heat Recovery
Types of high temperature heat recovery
systems include:
• Solid water system
• Ebullient system
• Water-steam system
High Temperature Heat Recovery System
Design
Elevated jacket coolant temperatures [99° to
127° C (210° to 260° F)] recorded at engine
outlet require higher system pressure to
prevent flashing to steam. Operating pressures

RECOVERY
are normally 27.6 or 34.5 kPa (4 or 5 psig)

HEAT
used to direct coolant through a secondary
above the pressure at which steam forms. The
cooling source to limit jacket water inlet
source of this pressure may be a static head
temperature.
imposed by an elevated expansion tank, or
controlled pressure in the expansion tank.

STANDARD TEMPERATURE WATER SYSTEM

Critical Design Criteria

Exhaust To Load
Heat
Recovery Engine Mounted
Device From Load Expansion Tank

123 Thermostat Engine Coolant

Engine Heat Exchanger
To Load
A/C
Generator
From Load

Load Balancing
Thermostatic
Separate Circuit Valve
Cooling

49
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
HEAT RECOVERY
• For 127° C (260° F) water temperature,
engine pressures are approximately 138 kPa
(20 psig).
• Pumps suitable for elevated temperatures
and pressures replace conventional engine
jacket water pumps.
• High temperature engine operation requires
separate cooling circuit for oil cooler and
aftercooler.
Separate Circuit Oil Cooler/Aftercooler
To ensure proper cooling in all types of high
temperature systems, the engine oil cooler
(heat exchanger) and aftercooler require a
cooling water circuit separate from the engine
jacket water.
RECOVERY
HEAT
• A thermostat in the oil system controls
lubricating oil temperature to prevent
overcooling.
- The thermostat begins to open at 82° C
(180° F), and oil leaving the cooler should
not exceed 88° C (190° F).
- The maximum allowable coolant
temperature to the oil cooler is 77° C
(170° F).
• An external control valve is recommended to
prevent oil gelling and ensure oil flow
through the oil cooler.
50
- The valve will bypass coolant to the
radiator until the coolant reaches correct
operating temperature.
• The standard water pump should be removed
and replaced by a special high temperature
pump.
Load Balancing Cooling Circuit
Below is a schematic of a load balancing
remote radiator cooling circuit. There is no
water flow through the load balancing heat
exchanger when the load uses all the
water/steam provided.
In cold environments, to prevent water from
freezing in the heat exchanger, an external
thermostatic control valve will bypass coolant
to the radiator until the coolant reaches correct
operating temperature.
Solid Water System
The function of this system is similar to a
standard temperature water system, except
elevated jacket water temperatures [99° to
127° C (210° to 260° F)] are used.
• The standard engine thermostat and bypass
are removed and replaced by an external
control (warm-up thermostatic valve).
• A pressure cap must be provided in the
engine coolant circuit to assure a pressure of
several kPa (psi) above the pressure at which
steam forms.
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
- The source of this pressure may be a static
head imposed by an elevated expansion
tank, or controlled air pressure in the
expansion tank.
- For 127° C (260° F) water, pressure should
be about 172 kPa (25 psi).
• The standard jacket water pump must be
removed and replaced with one with high
temperature and pressure capabilities.
Design Criteria — High Temperature Solid
Water Systems
These design features are similar to those
required for a standard temperature system.
Check with a consulting engineer for a more
comprehensive list.
• The system must provide adequate coolant
flow through the engine so the engine
coolant temperature differential (outlet minus
inlet) does not exceed 8.5° C (15° F).
• Only treated water should be used in the
cooling circuit.
• Incorporate air vents to eliminate air traps
and locks.
• A load balancing thermostatic valve must be
used to direct coolant through a secondary
cooling source to limit jacket water inlet
temperature.
• Coolant must continually flow through the
exhaust heat recovery device whenever the
engine is operating to avoid thermal shock
on hot muffler surfaces. This may be
accomplished by using a low water flow
shutdown device.
Unlike a standard temperature system, a high
pressure system also requires:
• A pressure control for the engine coolant
circuit.
• Water pumps suited for use with elevated

RECOVERY
• The expansion tank must be the highest temperatures and pressures

HEAT
point in the cooling system. Locate the
engine coolant heat exchanger as close to the • Engine oil cooler and aftercooler with a
engine as possible. cooling water circuit separate from engine
jacket water
HIGH TEMPERATURE WATER SYSTEM
Critical Design Criteria

Pressure Cap &

Vacuum
Breaker
Low
Water Level
Shutdown Expansion Tank

Exhaust To Load
Heat
Recovery From Load
Device

123 Engine Coolant

Engine Low Heat Exchanger
Water Flow To Load
A/C Shutdown
Generator Oil/C
From Load

Circulating Pump
Load Balancing
Thermostatic
Valve
51
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
Ebullient System
“Heat of vaporization” removes rejected heat
from the engine. A pound of water at
atmospheric conditions of 101 kPa and 16° C
(14.696 psia and 60° F) gains 1122.3 Btu
[970.3+(212-60) = 1122.3] during
vaporization. While ebullient installations are
highly successful when properly applied, the
difficulties involved in integrating the engine
cooling system with the plant heating load
discourage widespread acceptance.
• Steam is not collected within the engine but
moves through the water passages mixed
with high temperature water.
• Thermal action carries the mixture to a steam
separator elevated above the engine.
• No jacket water pump is required with this
system.
• While temperature differential between
“water in” and “water out” is usually quite
RECOVERY
• Formation of steam causes coolant to
become lighter and creates a pressure
differential between water inlet and outlet.
A variety of heat recovery arrangements are
possible. The exhaust gas boiler, or muffler,
and the steam separator can be combined into
single “packaged” units — one package unit
used for each engine. Other equipment
combines exhaust gas boilers and steam
separators in single units which may include a
direct-fired section to eliminate the auxiliary
boiler. Such units can each serve two engines,
but to do so requires complex exhaust piping
with a steam separator located above the
engine.
Design Criteria — Ebullient Systems
• To avoid excessive boiling within the engine
and the formation of steam pockets in water
passages, engine coolant must be under a
static head of at least 55 kPa (8 psi), but the
combination of static and dynamic head

low [1.1° to 1.7° C (2° to 3° F)], flow is

HEAT

must not exceed 197 kPa (28.5 psi).

assured by change in coolant density as it
gains engine heat.
EBULLIENT SYSTEM

Pressure Control
Valve
14 psig Steam To Load
Relief Valve
15 psig max
Steam Separator Excess
Steam
Valve Condensate
13 psig From Load
Water Level
Control
To Load
Exhaust Load Balancing
Low Condenser To Waste
Heat Cooling Device
Recovery From Load Water Level
Device Shutdown
Min.
123 Static Air
Engine Head Eliminator
Reqd.
A/C Make-up Water
Generator Oil/C Condensate Condensate
Pump Tank
Low Pressure
Shutdown

Separate Circuit
52 Cooling
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
• The engine oil cooler and aftercooler require
a separate water circuit from engine jacket
water.
• The engine oil cooling system must be
protected against a sudden loss of pressure.
- Controls which limit a sudden pressure
drop to 21 kPa (3 psi) must be located
between the separator loads.
• Coolant piping between engine and steam
separator must be installed so the flow of
coolant (water and steam) will always be
upward.
• Make-up water should be provided to
compensate for any loss in the system.
- This water should be treated and fed into
the condensate tank.
Water-Steam System
The high temperature water-steam system is
similar to the ebullient system with the
water through the cylinder block and heads to
flush steam bubbles that may form in the
engine.
Next the mixture flows to a steam separator.
The steam separator is similar to the one used
with the ebullient system, except it is sized for
larger water flow.
The following pressures are representative
values. The relief valve pressure 103 kPa
(15 psi) is set by boiler codes. Pressure in the
separator is controlled by the pressure control
valve. Once the pressure builds to 97 kPa
(14 psi), the control valve will allow steam to
flow. The actual steam pressure in the load line
is a function of load requirements. If the load is
not consuming steam, the pressure in the steam
line will increase. Once pressure reaches 90 kPa
(13 psi), the excess steam valve will open to
transfer engine heat to the waste cooling device
(load balancing condenser). Install the excess
steam valve downstream of the pressure control

RECOVERY
addition of a circulating pump to assure valve. If it is upstream, the pressure control

HEAT
positive flow. The circulating pump forces valve may not function properly.

HIGH TEMPERATURE WATER-STEAM SYSTEM

Pressure Control
Valve
14 psig Steam To Load
Relief Valve
15 psig max
Steam Separator Excess
Steam
Valve Condensate
13 psig From Load
Water Level
Control
To Load
Exhaust Load Balancing
Low Condenser To Waste
Heat Cooling Device
Recovery From Load Water Level
Device Shutdown

123 Air
Engine Low Eliminator
Water Flow
A/C Shutdown Make-up Water
Generator Oil/C Condensate Condensate
Pump Tank
Circulating
Pump

Separate Circuit
Cooling
53
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

HEAT RECOVERY
Design Criteria — Water Steam Systems
There are no elevation or static head
requirements for the steam separator.
Therefore, this system may be used in
locations with limited overhead clearance.
• Pressure at the engine outlet must be
maintained between a minimum of 55 kPa
and a maximum of 197 kPa (8.0 to 28.5 psig).
• Maximum temperature at engine outlet must
not exceed 127° C (260° F).
• A low water flow shutdown device is
standard on high temperature cooling
engines; it is a pressure differential switch
located across the engine water jacket.
- When the water flow rate slows or stops, a
pressure drop across the engine block will
shut down the engine.
• The pump should be running while the
engine is operating, and the pump should
continue to run for approximately five
RECOVERY
• Proper water treatment care is essential for
successful system operation.
• A low water level shutdown in the steam
separator device is required and a low water
level pre-alarm is also recommended. Low
engine water level could cause engine
overheating and more serious damage.
Lubricating Oil — an Auxiliary Heat Source
When recovering heat from engines using high
temperature cooling systems, it may be
worthwhile to use heat rejected to lubricating
oil. This heat can be applied to preheat boiler
feed water, domestic hot water, or other low
temperature requirements.
• Heat removed by lubricating oil from
engines operating above 104° C (220° F) is
always rejected to a cooling medium other
than the jacket water.
• Heat rejection to the oil for Caterpillar
engines is approximately 7.9 Btu/kW-min

minutes after the engine is stopped. (5.5 Btu/hp-min) for gas engines, 12.2 Btu/
HEAT

kW-min (8.5 Btu/hp-min) for diesel engines.

HIGH TEMPERATURE WATER-STEAM SYSTEM
Critical Design Criteria

Pressure Control
Valve
14 psig Steam To Load
Relief Valve
15 psig max
Steam Separator Excess
Steam
Valve Condensate
13 psig From Load
Water Level
Control

Low
Water Level
Shutdown

123 Air
Engine Low Eliminator
Water Flow
A/C Shutdown Make-up Water
Generator Oil/C Condensate
Tank
Circulating
Pump

Separate Circuit
Cooling
54
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
FUEL SYSTEM
The main areas of consideration in a
discussion of fuel systems and fuels are:
• Fuel tanks, main and auxiliary
• Fuel coolers
• Fuel filters
• Types of fuels
• Gas engines
Fuel Tanks
Main tanks are large tanks where fuel is stored.
The fuel is transferred from the main tanks to
smaller auxiliary tanks for ready access by the
engine.
Bulk Storage
Fuel supply systems assure continuous and
clean supplies of fuel. Bulk fuel is usually
stored in large tanks and transferred to smaller
tanks (day tanks) near engines by electric
motor-driven pumps. Flexible nonmetallic
lines routing fuel inside buildings should meet
fire-resistant qualifications similar to U.S.
Coast Guard Specification 56.60-25(c).
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
37 further identifies fuel storage methods
and quantities.
• The 1981 U.S. National Electric Code,
Article 700, calls for on-site fuel supplies
capable of operating the prime mover at full
demand load for at least two hours.
• Fuel storage is one of the cheapest items for
an installation. It is wise to provide too much
rather than too little storage capacity.
Tank Material
• Steel tanks are preferred, but black iron tanks
and fittings are satisfactory.
• Avoid galvanized, aluminum or zinc-bearing
fittings and tanks, because chemical reactions
with fuel impurities will clog fuel filters.
SYSTEM
FUEL
Tank Installation
Large capacity storage tanks allow bulk
purchases and minimize dirt contamination.
Maintaining full tanks reduces condensation,
particularly if fuel is seldom used.
• Tanks may be above or below ground level,
but high fuel level generally should not
exceed the engine injector’s height. This
prevents possible fuel leakage into cylinders.
- New and existing tanks must meet
stringent corrosion protection and leak
detection regulations.
55
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
FUEL SYSTEM
- Above ground tanks provide accessibility,
allowing for easy draining of impurities
and reducing the danger of ground water
contamination.
- Underground tanks allow the earth to work
as an insulator, limiting radical temperature
changes which can cause flow restrictions,
condensation, and possible power loss.
- Regulations governing the installation and
maintenance of both above and below
ground fuel tanks may apply.
Tank Design
• Water and sediment are drawn periodically
SYSTEM
from the tank. Contaminants can be localized
FUEL
by rounding the tank bottom and tilting it
about two degrees toward the drain.
For
Underground
Tanks
2¡
For Surface
Mount Tanks
56
• Consider ground settling when installing
tanks so drain cocks remain low.
- Avoid seasonal settling by burying tanks
below frost lines.
- Locate storage tank fill tubes for
convenience and safety of filling
operations.
• In underground tanks, remove water by
pumping through a tube placed down the fill
pipe.
• Vents relieve air pressure created by filling
and prevent vacuum as fuel is consumed.
Tank Maintenance
• Water contamination of fuel during long-
term storage encourages microorganism
grout, forming a dark slime which:
- Plugs filters
- Deposits on tank walls and pipes
- Swells rubber products that it contacts
• Sulfur compounds are natural antioxidants,
so the low sulfur fuels (0.05 percent by
weight) now available will degrade quicker
in storage. Gums and varnishes will form
which can plug fuel filters and injectors.
• Because microorganism growth occurs in the
fuel/water layer, the tank should be designed
to minimize this interface, and water bottoms
should be drained regularly.
• Microbiocide additives, either water- or fuel-
soluble, can be added to fresh fuel to inhibit
microorganism growth. Consult your local
fuel supplier for recommended additives.
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
FUEL SYSTEM
• In warm climates, large bulk storage diesel
fuel requires full filtering every six months
to one year.
- Every two years fuel should be completely
changed to remove water, scale, bacteria
growth, oxidized gums/resins, and minimize
filter clogging due to fuel separation into
components such as asphaltenes.
• If it is necessary to store fuel longer,
kerosene may be substituted for diesel fuel.
- A simple engine power adjustment may be
needed for this fuel’s lower Btu content to
achieve full rated power.
Pump Lift
Cat engine-mounted transfer pumps are
positive displacement gear-type or piston-type
Fuel
Transfer
Pump
Engine
20 m
7 ft
Auxiliary
and have a prime and lift capacity of 2.0 m
(7 ft) of diesel fuel. Pipe size, bends, and cold
ambients limit this capacity.
Total System
If day tanks are not used, bulk tanks must
provide a ready fuel supply to the engine-
mounted transfer pump.
• Because the fuel shutoff function is normally
accomplished in the engine fuel system, the
supply line requires no additional shutoff to
stop engine operation.
- A shutoff in the supply line can cause a
vacuum if activated prior to the engine
coming to a complete stop, which,
depending on the inertia of the system, can
require several seconds.
- If a separate supply line shutdown is
required by specification, avoid hard
starting problems by including a time delay
for the solenoid.
• The return line enters the top of the tank
without shutoff valves, allowing air to pass
freely and prevent a vacuum in the fuel system.
SYSTEM
- No more than 60 kPa (8.7 psi) restriction is
FUEL
recommended in the return line.
- Fuel suction lines remove fuel about
51 mm (2 in) above the tank bottom and
tank end opposite the return line.
Overflow
Line Auxiliary
Pump
Draw Main
Tank
Tank
57
 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

FUEL SYSTEM
• Piping and fittings should be sealed to
prevent air and dirt contamination.
- Air in the system causes hard starting and
erratic engine operation.
• Joint cement affected by fuel should be
avoided, and connection should be made
without gaskets.
• Flexible fuel lines between fuel source (bulk
storage or day tank) and engine fuel inlet and
return will isolate vibration.
Fuel Lines
multiple engines over 9.14 m (30 ft) from the
tank, or temperatures are low, larger fuel
supply and return lines ensure adequate flow.
The overflow line from the day tank (or, if no
day tank is used, the engine fuel return line)
should be one size larger.
Auxiliary Tanks
If the fuel tank is placed more than 2 m (7 ft)
below the engine transfer pump, or more than
15 m (50 ft) from the pump, an auxiliary tank
— or “day tank” — is desirable. While most
engines have 9-12 ft lift capability, the 3208
and 3304 have a 7 ft limit.

Base Mounted Fuel Tanks

Base mounted day tanks are sometimes used
to provide a convenient and close source of
fuel with adequate capacity for four to eight
hours of operation. While minimizing the floor
space needed for fuel storage, the height of the
engine will increase significantly with this
option designed to ease maintenance.
The delivery line carrying fuel to the fuel If fuel must be located above the injectors, an
overhead mounting day tank is
SYSTEM

transfer pump, and the return line carrying

FUEL

excess fuel to the tank should be no smaller recommended to avoid excessive pressures on
than engine fittings. If the fuel tank feeds the fuel system.
ELEVATED FUEL SUPPLY DESIGN

Manual Fill & Vent Cap

Solenoid or Float Valve Shutoff
From Main
Tank
Main Fuel Tank
Day Tank Nominal
Level
Fuel to
Day Tank
Drain
Fuel Level Must Be
Below Injector Height Vent
123
Fuel
Engine Transfer Day Tank
Generator Day
Pump Supply
Tank
Flexible
Hoses Engine Fuel Supply

Fuel Cooler Engine Fuel Return

58
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

FUEL SYSTEM
• A float valve or solenoid valve in this type of Auxiliary Cooling
day tank regulates the fuel level to keep it The air-fuel mixture a naturally aspirated
below the level of the injectors. engine can draw into its cylinders is limited by
the engine’s breathing characteristics and
• Fuel returning to the main tank will, because
atmospheric conditions. Therefore, engine
of its volume, aid with cooling, but returning
power output is limited.
to the day tank is permissible.
Turbocharging is an efficient means of
• If overhead mounting is unavoidable, as in
increasing air flow and power output.
NFPA Section 20 concerning fire pumps,
However, air compression by the turbocharger
include a 20.67 kPa (3 psi) differential check
increases air temperature. An aftercooler
valve in the supply line and a 3.45 kPa
between the turbocharger and intake manifold
(0.5 psi) differential check valve in the
cools the compressed air. Acceptable
return line.
temperature levels are achieved using a water
source separate from engine jacket water.
Coolers and Filters
Two temperature ranges are available:
By reducing the temperature of fuel and
removing harmful particles, coolers and filters • Water at a minimum of 32° C (90° F)
improve the quality of the fuel used by an
• Water at a minimum of 54° C (130° F)
engine.
SCAC
Coolers
Engines incorporating unit fuel injectors 130˚ Aux. Water
transfer about 42.2 kJ (40 Btu) per minute per 90˚
injector into the return fuel. If the fuel tank is Out In
insufficient to dissipate this heat, a cooling
A/C

SYSTEM
source must maintain fuel temperatures below

FUEL
68° C (155° F). Heat also causes a volumetric JW Out
change, resulting in a one percent power loss
for each 6° C (10° F) above 38° C (100° F). Engine
JW In

Filters
Clean fuel is necessary for dependable engine
performance. Engine filters protect the fuel
injection pumps and nozzles and should never
be removed or bypassed.
Primary filters with 0.30 mm (0.012 in)
screens extend engine filter and transfer pump
life. Water and sediment traps can be included
upstream of the transfer pump, but pump flow
must not be restricted.

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FUEL SYSTEM
Duplex filters for fuel and lubricating oil Clean fuels provide maximum service life and
allow extended operation without interruption. performance. Dirty fuels adversely affect
combustion, filter life, injection system
• The main and auxiliary filter systems allow
performance, startability, and component
changing either the main or auxiliary filter
service life.
elements with the engine running under load.
• Generally, the same elements are used in Requirements
both systems, and are capable of providing
adequate filtration for at least 100 hours full Cetane Number
load running time with reasonably clean fuel Precombustion Chamber 35 minimum
and oil. Direct Injection 40 minimum
100 SUS at 38° C
Viscosity
(100° F) max.
6° C (10° F) below
Pour Point
ambient temp.
not higher than
Cloud Point
ambient temp.
adjust oil change
period for high
Sulfur
sulfur fuel (greater
than 0.5%)

• Use pressure gauges to determine when Water and Sediment 0.1% maximum
filters must be changed.
Fuels meeting the above requirements include:
SYSTEM

• Avoid mounting filters near the radiator fan,

FUEL

because a fuel or oil leak during replacement No.1 and No. 2

could create a fire hazard. (As either ASTM D396 fuels (burner fuels)
substance passes through the fan it can be
atomized, and therefore easier to ignite.) No. 1 and No. 2-D diesel
ASTM D975 fuel oil
Plus, coated radiator fins trap dirt which can
diminish cooling capability. Class A1, A2, B1, and B2
BS2869 engine fuels
Caterpillar Engines
Class C, C1, and C2 and
Caterpillar engines operate efficiently with a BS2869 class D burner fuels
variety of fuels. Generally, use the lowest
priced distillate fuel which meets the DIN51601 Diesel fuel*
requirements. DIN51603 EL heating oil*
Diesel engines may require optional equipment
* These distillate fuels are also referred to as
to run on fuels as light as Jet-A, JP-5, and
“gas oil,” “35-second oil” (Redwood No. 1),
kerosene, and fuels with heavy distillates.
or “diesel oil.”

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FUEL SYSTEM
Other fuel categories requiring special Aviation kerosene can be used as a fuel for
treatment or blending when applying to Caterpillar diesel engines but some precautions
modern engine designs include: must be taken. The following aviation fuels
are defined by military, NATO, and
• Light residual fuel oil — ASTM D936-67
commercial codes:
heavy, BSS2869 Class F, loosely referenced
as “boiler fuel” or “1000-second oil”
• Heavy residual fuel oil — ASTM D936-67
No. 6, BSS2869 Class G, sometimes called
“burner fuel oil” or “3500-second oil”

Name
(military or MIL-Spec NATO Comments
commercial) ASTM SPEC Code
Aviation gasoline; NOT for use as Cat
JP-4 MIL-T-5624 F-40 engine fuel
Aviation kerosene; acceptable Cat engine
JP-5 MIL-T-5624 F-44 fuel; must control viscosity
Aviation kerosene; acceptable Cat engine
JP-8 MIL-T-83133 F-34 fuel; must control viscosity
Commercial aviation kerosene;
Jet A-1 ASTM D 1655 F-35 acceptable Cat engine fuel; must control
viscosity

SYSTEM
FUEL
U.S.A. commercial aviation kerosene;
Jet A ASTM D 1655 acceptable Cat engine fuel; must control
viscosity

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 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
FUEL SYSTEM
The viscosity of fuel is significant because the
fuel serves as the lubricant for the fuel system
components.
• If the viscosity of the fuel is lower than
1.4 cSt as supplied to the engine, excessive
wear and scuffing, and seizure can occur.
• JP-5 fuel typically has a viscosity of 1.5 cSt
measured at 40° C (the normal temperature
used to evaluate a fuel).
• JP-8, Jet A-1 and Jet A have a viscosity of
1.2 cSt typically measured at the 40° C
temperature, which is below the desired
value for Cat engines.
- To eliminate the problem of low viscosity
of JP-8, Jet A-1, and Jet A kerosenes, the
fuel can be supplied to the engine at a
lower temperature to provide an increased
fuel viscosity.
- At a temperature less than 25° C (77° F),
the fuel should have sufficient viscosity to
properly lubricate the fuel system
components.
- The military fuel JP-8 does have a
mandatory additive package (icing
SYSTEM
inhibitor, corrosion inhibitor, and static
FUEL
dissipator additive) which does increase the
lubricity of the fuel. Jet A-1 may or may
not have this additive package.
• Light fuels may out-produce rated power at
factory settings, but adjustments to the
engine fuel system are generally
discouraged.
- Fuel system component life may
experience increased wear due to the low
viscosity of the lighter fuel.
• The customer should order as heavy a
distillate fuel as engine and temperature
conditions permit.
62
NOTE: Caterpillar diesel engine fuel settings
are based on 35-degree API (specific gravity)
fuel. Fuel oil with a higher API (lower specific
gravity) number reduces power output unless
settings are corrected. When using heavier
fuels, a corrected setting prevents power
output above approved ratings.
Crude Oil Fuels
Crude oil, in some cases, is a practical and
economic fuel for diesel engines. Crude oils are
evaluated individually and special equipment
may be needed to condition the fuel. Minimum
guidelines have been established to determine
the suitability of crudes.
Residuals
Residual fuel (which resembles tar and
contains abrasive and corrosive substances) is
composed of the remaining elements from
crude oil after the crude has been refined into
diesel fuel, gasoline, or lubricating oil.
After the more desirable products have been
refined, residual fuel can be combined or
diluted with a lighter fuel to produce a mixture
that can flow. This mixture is called blended
or heavy fuel. Heavy fuels tend to create more
combustion chamber deposit formations which
can cause increased cylinder and ring wear,
particularly in smaller, higher speed engines.
• Blending may improve fuel density, but
addition of alcohol (ethanol, methanol) or
gasoline causes an explosive atmosphere in
the tank and is not recommended.
• Cat 3500 and 3600 family engines can be
modified to run on blended fuels, but
extreme PREVENTIVE MEASURES MUST
BE TAKEN, including following a
thorough maintenance program and use of
high quality fuel treatment equipment.
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

FUEL SYSTEM
Blended fuel can lower fuel cost, but there are
often significant trade-offs. Fuel price must be
weighed against:
• Fuel containment effects
• Reduced engine component life
• Higher maintenance and personnel costs
• Reduced warranty
Total Base Number
Most diesel fuels contain some degree of
sulfur. Usually, heavy fuels have a higher
sulfur content than distillates. Lubrication oils
neutralize sulfur by-products, namely sulfuric
acid, and thus retard corrosive engine damage.
TBN (Total Base Number) reflects the
alkalinity number and is a measure of an oil’s
acid-neutralizing capacity.
• The higher the TBN, the more neutralizing
capacity.
• When the fuel sulfur content exceeds
0.5 percent, special lubricating oil and more
frequent oil changes are required to assure
satisfactory engine/oil service life.
New oil TBN — Follow 1.25 line to line A
which intersects at 25. This is the
recommended TBN for 1.25 percent sulfur
content.
Used oil TBN — Follow 1.25 line up to line B
which intersects at 12.5. At 12.5 TBN the oil
should be changed.
Fuel Economics
Heavier fuels generally provide more energy.
Examining the economics (see the illustration
provided) we can see that a gallon of No. 1
diesel fuel weighs 3.08 kg (6.79 lb) and
will produce approximately 3.10 kW-h/L
(15.78 hp-h/gal). The normal — and heavier —
weight of No. 2 furnace oil is 3.37 kg (7.40 lb)
and will produce approximately 3.21 kW-h/L
(16.56 hp-h/gal).
Thus, for each 3785 L (1000 gal) of No. 2
furnace oil, you obtain an additional 582 kW/h
(780 hp/h) — or a 4.9 percent gain. What’s
more, furnace oil is usually less expensive.

SYSTEM
FUEL
NEW OIL ALKALINITY VALUE REQUIRED FOR A
STANDARD OIL CHANGE PERIOD WITH
UP TO 1.5% FUEL SULFUR
0.5 A

New Oil
0.5 Recommended
TBN

0.5
L
Alkalinity OI
Value 0.5 OF
TBN by NGE B
ASTM D2896 RA
FUL Used Oil
0.5
USE Minimum
TBN

0.5

0.5 1.0 1.5

Percent Fuel Sulfur
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FUEL SYSTEM
3785L (1000 gal) • Turbocharged engines require separate
circuit aftercooling, so a 30° or 55° C
(90° or 130° F) cooling source must be
available.
3.08 kg #1 • Operating with supply gas pressures slightly
(6.79 lb) Diesel
below the minimum values may be possible
#2 3.37 kg
Furnace (7.40 lb) if the engine is not subjected to large load
Oil
fluctuations.
3.21 kW - h/L
(16.56 hp - h/gal.) • If the supply gas pressure to the regulator is
below published limits, a low pressure
Since fuel consumption is the largest generator conversion group should be used.
set operating expense, consider using a fuel
which will provide the lowest cost per kW/h Gas Pressures Required
(hp/h) while delivering satisfactory performance. Engine Models Pipeline Digester Landfill
3300 NA 14 kPa (2 psi) Consult Factory
Engine Configuration 3500 NA
To correctly determine which spark ignited 3306 TA 83 kPa (12 psi) Consult Factory
engine configuration is required for a specific
3408 & 138 kPa (20 psi) 138 kPa (20 psi)
application, the following minimum 3412 TAs
information must be known:
3500 SITA L.E. 207 kPa (30 psi) 241 kPa (35 psi)
• Horsepower required
Low Pressure 14 kPa (2 psi) Consult Factory
• Gas pressure Conversion Gp.

• Type of fuel Note: minimum gas pressure must be adjusted for altitude.
SYSTEM
FUEL

• Type of cooling system

Regulators
• Temperature of auxiliary cooling water Regulator valves are positioned close to the
carburetor for optimum gas pressure control. A
• Exhaust emission levels permitted
balance line from regulator to air inlet
Gas Pressure manifold compensates for air cleaner
• Naturally Aspirated (NA) engines and restriction and turbocharger boost.
turbocharged engines using optional low
pressure equipment require minimum gas
pressure of 13.8 kPa (2 psi) to the gas regulator.
• Standard turbocharged engine minimum
requirements range from 82.7 kPa (12 psi) to
330 kPa (48 psi).
- Lower values may be applicable only at
low altitude installations where response to
sudden load changes is not critical.

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P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
FUEL SYSTEM
• Manual and solenoid valves are upstream
(high pressure side) of the regulator to
minimize restriction between regulator and
carburetor.
• Regulators will withstand inrush of pressure
gas when the valve is open.
• The upstream valve position slightly extends
engine stopping time during normal
shutdown.
• Emergency shutdown remains immediate by
grounding magneto power and closing gas
valves.
• Gas pipes cannot be used for electrical
grounding.
Types of Fuel
A wide variety of gaseous fuels can be burned
in Caterpillar gas engines. Various gases can
back up the primary fuel. Addition of another
regulator and change of carburetor may be
necessary to accommodate a particular gas.
Latent Heat of
Vaporization =
Lost Energy
Low Heat
High Heat Value =
Value Useful Energy
The low heat value (LHV) of a gas is the high
heat value (HHV) less the heat used to
vaporize the water formed by combustion.
LHV is the figure Cat uses to express fuel
consumption.
Power capabilities are calculated using LHV of
the air-fuel mixture and not directly to the
LHV of the fuel. Using fuels other than
natural gas requires a recalculation of engine
power capabilities.
Natural Gas
The recommended fuel for Cat SI engines is
dry natural gas or “pipeline gas.” These
commercial gases have less than 10 parts per
million (ppm) of hydrogen sulfide. Any gas
with a greater concentration should be
evaluated to determine engine effects and
required special maintenance practices.
• Natural gas is a mixture of gases composed
mostly of methane with varying percentages
of methane, propane, butane, and small
amounts of helium, carbon dioxide, and
nitrogen.
• In its original state, natural gas is often
referred to as field, well head, or wet gas.
• The designation “wet” or “dry” does not
refer to water content, but to the presence or
absence of liquid hydrocarbons such as
butane or pentane.
SYSTEM
FUEL
- Before distribution, the wet ends are
removed to provide dry pipeline gas.
Natural Gas — Propane
• Propane is transported and stored in a liquid
state, and converted to a vapor at the point of
use.
- Local codes may prohibit liquid propane
storage within a building.
- It is heavier than air, so good ventilation is
necessary to prevent concentration in low
areas.
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 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

FUEL SYSTEM
Alternative Fuels
• Sweet gases have low concentrations (below
10 ppm) of sulfur compounds, and can be used
without treatment or changes to the engine.
• Sour gas generally refers to fuels containing
high concentrations of sulfur compounds
(above 10 ppm).
- Fuels such as field, digester, bio-mass, and
landfill gases usually fall into this category,
and require special operating considerations.
Gas/Diesel Operating Efficiency
Performance characteristics of gas engines
require consideration when analyzing
operating costs. The Brake Specific Fuel
Consumption (BSFC) at part load is much
higher than at full load. When compared to a
diesel engine, this part load inefficiency is
apparent.
FUEL EFFICIENCY VS. LOAD
BSFC

Gas
Diesel

0 25 50 75 100
% Load

For most efficient operation, gas engines

should operate near full load.
SYSTEM
FUEL

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STARTING
Several starting mediums are available, but Electric Starting
most common are electric (DC) and air. These
mediums are both easily controlled and Electric motors utilize low voltage direct
applied either manually or automatically. current and provide fast, convenient,
pushbutton starting with lightweight, compact,
Starting Basics engine-mounted components.
Magnetic
Startability of a diesel engine is affected Flywheel
Switch
primarily by ambient temperature and
lubricating oil viscosity. The diesel relies on
heat of compression (resulting from cranking
time) to ignite fuel. When engines are cold, Starting
Motor
longer cranking periods are required to develop
ignition temperatures. Start
Switch

Lubricating Oil Batteries

Heavy lubricating oil imposes the greatest load
on the cranking motor. Oil type and
temperature drastically alter viscosity. SAE 30
oil approaches the consistency of grease below
0° C (32° F).

• Electric starting is generally 24-volt or 30- to

32-volt DC.
• A manual starting system includes a start
switch, solenoid, and starting motor.
- When the start switch is closed, the
solenoid moves a pinion to engage with the
flywheel ring gear.
- After engagement, the main motor contacts STARTING
close and the motor begins to crank.
- The starting motor will continue to crank
until the start switch is opened (usually by
releasing the start button).

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 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

STARTING
Batteries
Batteries provide sufficient power to crank
engines fast and long enough to start.
• Lead-acid battery types are common, have
high output capabilities and low cost.
• Nickel-cadmium batteries are costly, but
have long shelf life and require minimum
maintenance.
- Nickel-cadmium types are designed for
long life.

Battery Sizing
Low ambient temperatures drastically affect
battery performance and charging efficiencies,
as well as oil viscosity. High temperatures
should also be avoided.
• Maintain 32° C (90° F) maximum • Cables should be routed to avoid sharp
temperature to assure rated output. bends and have sufficient play and support
to minimize stress on the battery terminals.
• High temperatures also decrease battery life.
• Locate cranking batteries for easy visual
• Ideally, temperatures surrounding the battery inspection and maintenance, away from
should not exceed 25° C (77° F). Battery life flame or spark sources, and isolated from
is roughly halved by a 10° C (17° F) rise in vibration.
temperature; doubled if ambients are reduced
10° C. • Mount level on nonconducting material and
protect for splash and dirt.
Battery Location and Considerations • Disconnect battery charger when removing
• To minimize voltage drops between the or connecting battery leads, as solid-state
STARTING

batteries and starting motor, place the equipment (electronic governor, speed
batteries near the starting motor and connect switches, etc.) can be harmed if subjected to
with adequately sized cables. the charger’s full output.

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P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
STARTING
Battery Chargers
Various chargers are available to replenish a
battery.
• Trickle chargers are designed for
continuous service on unloaded batteries and
automatically shut down to milliampere
current when batteries are fully charged.
• Overcharging shortens battery life and is
recognized by excessive water losses.
- Conventional lead-acid batteries require
less than 59.2 ml (2 oz) make-up water
during 30 hours of operation.
• Float-equalize chargers are more expensive
than trickle chargers and are used in
applications demanding maximum battery life.
- These chargers include line and load
regulation, and current limiting devices
which permit continuous loads at rated
output.
• Engine-driven generators or alternators can
be used, but have the disadvantage of
charging batteries only while the engine
runs.
- Where engine-driven alternators and
battery chargers are both used, the
disconnect relay is usually controlled to
disconnect the battery charger during
engine cranking and running.
• Chargers must be capable of limiting peak
currents during cranking cycles, or have a
relay to disconnect during cranking cycles.
- If generator sets are subject to many starts,
insufficient battery capacity could threaten
dependability.
- Charging alternators are not required for
standby applications.
STARTING
Air Starting
Manual or automatic air starting is highly
reliable. It is generally applied where facilities
have existing plant air, or where a combustible
gas may be present in the atmosphere.
Torque available from air motors accelerate the
engine to twice the cranking speed in about
half the time required by electric starters.
Remote controls and automation, however, are
more complex. Because the exhaust from the
air starter is very loud, an air silencer may be
appropriate.
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STARTING
- A check valve between plant air and
receiver assures that failure of plant air
will not deplete the backup supply.
- The air compressors are driven by gasoline
engines and electric motors wired to the
emergency power source.
• Air motor supply pipes should be short and
direct, and at least equal in size to the motor
intake opening.
- Black iron pipe is preferable, and it should
be supported to avoid stresses on the
An air starting system includes: compressor.
• Air starting motor - Flexible connections between motor and
piping are required.
• Air storage tank
• Tandem or compound engines use two
• Starting solenoid valve motors and two solenoid valves.
• Pressure regulator - Valves are equal distance from their
respective motors for coordinated motor
• Oiler
engagement.
• Optional air silencer - When a single solenoid controls air to both
• Pressure air may originate from air receivers motors, piping between valve and each
and plant air. motor must be equal in length.

AIR STARTING SYSTEM

Plant Air Supply

Storage Tank
STARTING

Check
Valve

123
Engine
Starting Motor

Generator
Oiler Regulator Compressor

Solenoid
Valve

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STARTING
• Deposits of an oil-water mixture Free Air
accumulating in receiver and piping are Quantity of free air required per start (Ar)
removed by traps installed at intervals in the depends on:
lines.
1. Time required per start. Time per start
- Lines slope toward these traps. depends upon:
• The compressed air may freeze in low • Engine model
ambient temperatures as it expands through
the motor. • Condition
- Below 0° C (32° F), a dryer at the • Ambient air temperature
compressor outlet or a small quantity of
• Oil viscosity
alcohol in the air tank prevents freezing.
- Consult the factory for recommendations • Fuel type
below -18° C (0° F). • Condition of fuel system

Air Pressure • Cranking speed

Compressed air from a 758 to 1723 kPa (110
to 250 psi) source is regulated to 759 kPa
(110 psi) and piped to the air motor. Higher
supply air pressures may be utilized by
plumbing regulators in series.
Air Receivers
Air receivers should meet ASME
specifications and be equipped with a safety
valve and gauge. Check safety valves
frequently to guard against sticking.
Receivers are sized for a specified number of
starts. Receiver size is estimated by:
Ns (Ar x Ap)
Rc =
Rp - 724 or 90
Five to seven seconds is typical for diesel
engines at 25° C (77° F), but restarts of hot
engines normally take less than two seconds.
Due to the time necessary to develop a
combustible mixture in the intake manifold,
natural gas engines usually exhibit starting
times up to double that of a diesel.
2. Free air consumption. Free air
consumption depends on the same variables
as time required per start, and also on the
pressure regulator setting.
STARTING

where:

Rc = Receiver Capacity (m3) (ft 3)

Ns = Number of Starts
Rp = Receiver Pressure (kPa) (psia)
Ar = Free Air Requirement per Start (m3) (ft3)
Ap = Atmospheric Pressure (kPa) (psia)
Minimum = (724 kPa) (90 psia)

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 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

STARTING
Engines equipped with a pneumatic oil
prelubrication pump require an additional
0.03 m3/s (1 cu ft/s) of air volume. Cat 3600
engines require a one- to five-minute prelube;
all other models require 2-20 sec. Five- to
seven-second starting (prelube is additional) is
typical for engines operating at 25° C (77° F)
ambient temperature.
3. Prompt manual or automatic air shutoff
after engine starting

Air Starting
Free Air Consumption m3/s (cu ft/s)
Required for Air Motor to Start Engine at 10° C (50° F)
Air Pressure to Motor kPag (psig) Min. Tank
Model Motors Pressure
690 (100) 862 (125) 1034 (150) kPag (psig)
3304 1 0.16 (5.8) 0.20 (6.8) 0.21 (7.7) 242 (35)
3306 1 0.17 (5.9) 0.20 (6.8) 0.22 (7.8) 248 (36)
3406 1 0.18 (6.4) 0.21 (7.3) 0.24 (8.6) 276 (40)
3412 1 0.25 (9.0) 0.29 (10.3) 0.33 (11.8) 207 (30)
D379 1 0.26 (9.3) 0.30 (10.3) 0.36 (12.6) 207 (30)
D398 1 0.28 (9.8) 0.32 (11.4) 0.38 (13.3) 242 (35)
D399 1 0.30 (10.8) 0.34 (12.1) 0.40 (14.1) 345 (50)
3508 1 0.26 (9.3) 0.30 (10.8) 0.36 (12.6) 207 (30)
3512 1 0.28 (9.8) 0.32 (11.4) 0.38 (13.3) 242 (35)
3516 1 0.30 (10.5) 0.34 (12.1) 0.40 (14.1) 345 (50)
3606 1 0.38 (13.6) 0.46 (16.4) 0.54 (19.2) 690 (100)
STARTING

3608 1 0.38 (13.6) 0.46 (16.4) 0.54 (19.2) 690 (100)

3612 2 0.76 (27.2) 0.92 (32.8) 1.08 (38.4) 690 (100)
3616 2 0.76 (27.2) 0.92 (32.8) 1.08 (38.4) 690 (100)

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P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
STARTING
Starting Aids
Starting aids for temperatures below 21° C
(70° F) reduce cranking time and assure
dependable starts.
Starting Aid Options
Jacket water heaters are used on both manual
and automatic starting systems, but are
essential for automatic starting below 21° C
(70° F). Heaters precondition engines for
quick starting and minimize the high wear of
rough combustion, by maintaining jacket water
temperature during shutdown periods. Dual
heaters are used on large vee-type engines to
ensure circulation.
Heaters thermostatically control jacket water
temperature near 30° C (90° F) to promote fast
starts. Higher temperatures accelerate aging of
gaskets and rubber material.
Preheating engine combustion chambers
improves fuel ignition. Precombustion
chambered engines provide a resistance-type
glow plug in each chamber to aid manual
starts in cold weather. The plug tip reaches
980° C (1800° F) in approximately 30 seconds
to vaporize injected fuel. Direct injection
engines cannot accommodate glow plugs.
In a flame start, glow plugs project into the
air inlet manifold and ignite a small amount of
diesel fuel during manual starting. The flame
is maintained until smooth idling conditions
are achieved.
Ether starting aids are restricted to manual
starting systems and are rarely used for
generator sets. Ether is highly volatile, with its
low ignition point. Introduced into the intake
air, it ignites the mixture at low cylinder
temperatures. High pressure capsules are the
safest and most positive injection method.
Ether injection should not be used on Cat 3600
engines.
Oil heaters are usually not recommended due
to the danger of oil coking. If specified, heater
skin temperatures should not exceed 150° C
(300° F) and have maximum heat densities of
0.02 W/mm2 (13 W/in2 ).
Starting Requirements
Automatic Start-Stop
Automatic start-stop systems are primarily for
unattended engines which must:
• Start automatically
• Pick up the load
• Operate the load
• Stop automatically when demand ceases
For example, a standby generator set must
start automatically when utility power fails.
Caterpillar offers both electric and air powered
STARTING
systems.
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STARTING
Ten-Second Start Automatic
Ten-second starting is often required either by If automatic or remote shutdown is required, a
application or local regulation. The National solenoid shutoff is used on engines with
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 99, Health mechanical, hydromechanical, or hydraulic
Care Facilities 1996 Edition states, “generator governors. The solenoid shutoff operates by
set(s) shall have sufficient capacity to pick up moving the fuel rack to the shutoff position.
the load and meet the minimum frequency and Either an energized-to-run or energized-to-
voltage stability requirements of the shutdown system is available. For energized-
emergency system within ten seconds after the to-run systems, an electrical signal must be
loss of normal power.” present at the fuel solenoid for the engine to
operate. When the signal is lost, the engine
Caterpillar requirements for ten-second
will shut down.
automatic starting include:
• Combustion air a minimum of 21° C (70° F)
• Jacket water heaters which maintain a
minimum of 32° C (90° F) water temperature
• Fully charged batteries to provide 60 seconds
of continuous cranking, or full air supply
• Readily available fuel

Engine Shutdown
Engine shutdowns result from either manually
or automatically shutting off fuel, air, or both.
Depending on engine configuration, fuel
shutdowns vary from a manual position on a
governor control (shown) to an electro-
mechanical shutoff control.
STARTING

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P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

STARTING
For engines using electronic governors, the
control panel signals the actuator to shut off
the fuel. In some cases a solenoid shutoff is
also used.
In either system, the engine may be shut down
manually.
Engine Shutdown Devices
Caterpillar offers protection devices to prevent
serious engine damage. Minimum protection
for any generator set includes engine shutdown
in the event of:
• Overspeed
• Low lubricating oil pressure
• High jacket water temperature
If the generator set is remotely started,
overcrank protection is required.
• Indicators for engine water level and flow
are recommended.
• Additional operating functions can be
monitored with minor modifications.
Overspeed Shutdown
Engine overspeed can result from a governor
malfunction or fuel rack sticking. With no
overspeed protection, a diesel engine can
rapidly accelerate to the point of destruction.
Inlet Air Shutdown
Engine overspeed can result from a seized fuel
rack, or by the engine drawing in combustible
gases which are sometimes present in the
surrounding atmosphere — in oil or gas
drilling operations, for example. If either of
these conditions cause the engine to overspeed,
a fuel shutoff system may be ineffective.
• A positive way to stop the engine is to shut
off the air supply. An engine cannot operate
without a source of combustion air.
• The air inlet shutdown is not recommended
for routine shutdowns because there are
some potential adverse mechanical effects on
the engine.
STARTING

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 P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
STARTING
Conventional Switches
Conventional electro-mechanical control
panels use switches and probes for monitoring
engine conditions.
• Shown below is a Caterpillar two-wire type
coolant temperature switch.
- The two-wire system eliminates the need to
ground through the case and provides
greater reliability and accuracy.
- To minimize electrical arcing, the switch
utilizes snap action contacts activated by a
miniature switch mechanism in lieu of
butt-type contacts.
- The temperature sensing element is a wax
motor type, yielding excellent sensing
accuracy.
STARTING
• Low oil pressure can cause serious engine
damage.
- If pressure falls below a safe level, the oil
pressure switch will activate an engine
shutdown.
- The oil pressure switch is also two-wire
type with the same stable grounding
characteristics.
76
- It also includes the same self-cleaning
contacts as the coolant switch.
• The magnetic pick-up measures engine
speed and converts it to a digital pulse.
- Generally Cat engines are shut down at
118 percent of rated speed.
Electronic Modular Control Panel (EMCP)
Monitoring System
The Caterpillar Electronic Modular Control
Panel II (EMCP II), consisting of solid state
microprocessor-based engine control modules,
uses electronic transducers to monitor and
digitally display engine conditions. Operating
functions are monitored by three components:
• Jacket water transducer (water temperature
probe)
• Oil pressure transducer
• Engine speed magnetic pickup
The oil pressure and water temperature
transducers and the magnetic engine speed
pickup send information directly to the engine
control module. Transducers are industrial
grade and environmentally sealed for
reliability. They help eliminate additional
jacket water and oil pressure temperature
switches needed to activate alarm systems and
gauges, and require significantly less wiring.
MONITORING SYSTEM
• Jacket Water Temperature Transducer
• Oil Pressure Transducer
• Engine Speed Magnetic Pick-Up
• DSU (Data Sending Unit)
• Single Wire Serial Data Link
WTP
EMCP
DSU/OPT
MPU
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N

STARTING
Alarm Modules
Warning alarms and alarm modules are The prime power alarm module shown
available to provide an audible and/or visual satisfies NFPA 99 and NFPA 110. Also, remote
warning of engine conditions before they annunciators are available which also satisfy
become severe enough to shut the engine NFPA 99 and NFPA 110.
down, or keep it from starting. This gives
maintenance personnel time to remedy the
condition.

STARTING

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ENGINE GOVERNORS
A governor controls engine speed (generator Transient speeds are temporary excursions
frequency). The main areas of engine from steady-state speed caused by sudden load
governors to understand are: changes.
• Basic terms TRANSIENT CONDITION
• Types of governors Load
Removed
• Governor selection
Load Steady State
Basic Terms Applied Speed Band
Time
A few terms must be understood in order to
select the appropriate governor for a specific
application. These terms are commonly
Recovery time is the time of excursion from
encountered when specifying or analyzing
the steady-state speed band until returning and
governor and generator set performance.
remaining within the band.
Speed band refers to the amount of variance
RECOVERY TIME
from a set speed at any steady load.
Caterpillar governors have a speed tolerance
of +/- 0.33 percent while Woodward
governors offer +/- 0.25 percent.
Load Steady State
Applied Speed Band
Hz STEADY STATE REGULATION (0.33%)
Time
50.17 Recovery
(60.19) Time

50
(60) Droop, speed droop, and regulation are terms
used interchangeably to describe the
49.83 relationship of engine speed change from no
(59.81) Time load to full load in steady-state operation.
GOVERNORS
ENGINE

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ENGINE GOVERNORS
Expressed as a percentage, droop is calculated 50% LOAD APPLIED
by dividing the difference in speed between 61.8
full rated load and no load by speed at rated
load and multiplying the quotient by 100. Hz 60.9
Example:
60.0
A generator set equipped with a three percent
droop governor will operate at 60 Hz or
1800 rpm (50 Hz or 1500 rpm) at rated load (at 59.2 4 Sec.
half load — 60.9 Hz [50.75 Hz]). At no load the
Time
generator set frequency will increase no more
than three percent to 61.8 Hz or 1854 rpm
(51.5 Hz or 1545 rpm). operates at 61.8 Hz (1854 rpm). When half
load is applied, the frequency drops to
Hz
3% DROOP approximately 59.2 Hz (1777 rpm). The
governor senses this speed drop and adjusts the
51.5 rack, delivering more fuel to the engine. This
(61.8)
3%
causes a momentary increase in generator
50 frequency above 60.9 Hz (1827 rpm) before it
(60)
levels off at 60.9 Hz (1827 rpm). Recovery
time from when the load is applied until the
frequency levels off at 60.9 Hz is four seconds.
0 50 100 150 Governors are only one factor affecting
% Load transient speed and response. Greater
influencers of the engine’s recovery capabilities
% DROOP — ISOCHRONOUS
Hz include:
• Size and type of load
• Engine configuration
50
(60) • Type of generator voltage regulator
• Rotating inertia of motor load, engine, and
generator
0 50 100 150
% Load
Governor Types
GOVERNORS
ENGINE

A generator equipped with a zero percent droop

governor will operate at 60 Hz or 1800 rpm The following governors are noted in order of
(50 Hz or 1500 rpm) at rated load and 60 Hz or cost, simplicity, and power output. Cat
1800 rpm (50 Hz or 1500 rpm) at half load or recommends using the simplest governor
no load. which adequately satisfies the application.

Transient Response with Droop

The following graphic depicts a 60 Hz
generator set equipped with a three percent
droop governor. With no load, the generator
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ENGINE GOVERNORS
Mechanical and Hydromechanical
Governors
Although the exact design of a
hydromechanical governor may vary, basically
it is a mechanical governor assisted by a
hydraulic servo valve.
Mechanical Governors
The simplest Cat governor is the mechanical
type. It uses a ball head with flyweights for
speed sensing. The mechanical governor
develops sufficient force by flyweight action to
move a fuel rack or carburetor control.
• The Caterpillar mechanical governor is a
three percent fixed droop governor and
features 0.33 percent steady-state regulation.
• Mechanical governors are adequate for
manual paralleling and will share load within
ten percent at any load point.
GOVERNORS
Hydromechanical Governors
ENGINE
As the force required to move the governor
linkage and fuel injection pumps increases, the
force developed by the governor must also
increase. On a larger engine, instead of
increasing the size of the mechanical governor,
engine lubricating oil pressure is sometimes
used to support the action of a mechanical
control.
80
• Like Cat mechanical governors, Cat
hydromechanical governors have
nonadjustable three percent droop and are
adequate for manual paralleling.
• Engine lubricating oil is used for lubrication
and hydraulic power.
• They are used in most installations under
500 kW for spark ignited and 600 kW for
diesel.
• They share load with paralleled units within
+10 percent.
Speed Control
Caterpillar mechanical and hydromechanical
governors have an optional governor control
motor. The 24-volt direct current motor is used
for speed control from remote locations.
Hydraulic Governors
A hydraulic governor builds on the basic
mechanical governor design, and develops
additional work force. A control valve allows
oil pressure to work directly on the terminal
shaft through a power piston. No longer is the
work force associated with the governor’s
speed-sensing mechanism.
• Depending on oil pressure and the area of
the power piston, adequate force can be
developed to control almost any size engine.
• The Woodward PSG, UG8D, and 3161 are
hydraulic governors offered by Caterpillar.
• The governors have zero to ten percent
adjustable droop and exhibit steady-state
regulation of ± 0.25 percent.
• When adjusted to three percent droop,
they share load with parallel units within
five percent.
• These governors are applicable for single
unit or manually paralleled multiple unit
applications.
P R O D U C T I N F O R M AT I O N — G E N E R AT O R S E T I N S TA L L AT I O N
ENGINE GOVERNORS
Woodward PSG Governors
The Woodward Pressure-Compensated Simple
Governor (PSG) uses engine lubricating oil for
a hydraulic medium and a self-contained
pump, gear driven from the engine, to develop
its work capacity. Generally it is adequate for
generator sets up to 600 kW.
• The PSG has an externally adjustable droop
control from zero percent (isochronous) to
seven percent.
• Shares load with paralleled units within
five percent. A 24- to 32-volt DC
synchronizing motor for remote speed
control is included with the basic governor.
Woodward UG8D Dial Governor
Two versions of the Woodward UG8D Dial
Governor are available — one for single unit
(non-parallel) operation and the other for
multiple unit (parallel) operation. The single
unit version is fast acting, providing excellent
steady-state speed control and transient
response to off speeds in startup and load
rejection.
The paralleling version possesses dampening
characteristics allowing it to perform well in
parallel operations. It is slower acting, but
retains excellent steady-state speed control and
transient response. Both versions use a self-
contained oil supply and gear driven pump.
They are generally used on generator sets over
600 kW.
The Woodward UG8D has four external
adjustments:
• Speed Droop — zero to ten percent, shares
load within five percent
• Load Limit — provides movable stop which
limits the amount of load the generator set
will accept
• Speed Setting — manually adjusts engine
GOVERNORS
speed (rpm)
ENGINE
• Speed Setting Indicator — indicates percent
of travel of terminal shaft; the UG8D has
remote speed control which operates on
110 VAC or 24-32 VDC
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ENGINE GOVERNORS
Woodward 3161 Governor Most electronic governing systems include:
The Woodward 3161 governor is completely
• Electronic speed control assembly with
interchangeable with the UG8D. These
optional load sharing control
governors feature:
• Actuating system (electronic or electronic
• A synchronizing motor for remote speed
hydraulic)
control
• Magnetic pickup
• Zero percent (isochronous) to ten percent
droop • Oil pressure switch (optional)
• External adjustability
• Synchronizing motor for remote speed
control
• Adjustable load limit
• Use of an independent oil supply and pump
which develops the output force necessary to
control large engines
All hydraulic governors feature ± 0.25 percent
steady-state regulation, load sharing within
five percent, and are capable of single unit
isochronous operation or manual paralleling.
Operation
1. Engine speed is detected with the magnetic
Electronic Governors
pickup which is located next to the flywheel
Electronic governors offer the greater
ring gear. The magnetic pickup generates a
capability and flexibility needed for complex
voltage with frequency proportional to
control applications.
engine speed. This voltage travels to the
Advantages of electronic governing systems electronic control assembly where it is
include: compared to the adjusted governor setting
• Automatic paralleling of multiple units 2. The control sends the appropriate signal
(voltage) to the actuating system that
• Isochronous load sharing
converts the electrical input to a mechanical
GOVERNORS

• Fast response to load changes which output which positions the engine fuel rack.
ENGINE

minimizes speed changes and recovery time

3. The oil pressure switch attaches to the
• Flexibility with numerous options engine and is electrically connected to the
control assembly. When proper oil pressure
• Excellent steady state frequency control
is obtained, the switch signals to the control
• Fail-safe speed sensing assembly to accelerate their engine to rated
speed.

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ENGINE GOVERNORS
• All wiring should be isolated from AC
power.
- Low grade voltage lines, e.g., magnetic
pickup, and oil pressure switch lines
should be shielded and grounded because
signals flowing through these wires are
inherently weak.
Governing System
The Woodward 8290/1724 and 8290/Peak
actuator is a completely electronic governing
system. The 8290 identifies the control
assembly and the 1724 identifies the electronic
actuator. In contrast, the 8290/Peak uses an
electrical motor to control a hydraulic servo
valve which provides the mechanical power to
move the fuel rack. Both systems as standard
have zero speed droop and exhibit steady-state
regulation of ± 0.25 percent.
• When load demand increases, requiring
additional units in parallel, a load sensor may
be added to the system for droop (zero to ten
percent) — or isochronous — load sharing
capabilities.
- Units can share load within ± 0.5 percent.
• An SPM (Speed and Phase Matching)
Synchronizer can be connected to the load
sensor for a fully automatic system.
Woodward 2301 EG Actuators
The 2301 identifies the Woodward electronic
control assembly. The electric/hydraulic
actuator is either an EG3P, EG10P, or EG26P,
and contains an engine driven oil pump to
develop power to move the fuel mechanisms
of larger engines.
• The EG3P has a maximum work capacity of
6.1 J (4.5 ft-lb).
• The EG10P has a maximum work capacity
of 12.6 J (9.3 ft-lb).
• The EG26P has a maximum work capacity
of 54 J (40 ft-lb).
- The EG26P is an electrically controlled
actuator with an integral backup
mechanical governor. The actuator is used
on units which must continue to function
even when the electrical governor fails.
GOVERNORS
ENGINE
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ENGINE GOVERNORS
Isochronous Load Sharing The starting fuel limit sets the maximum
There are two major reasons why electronic actuator position during engine cranking and is
governing systems can share loads removed when the engine is running. This
isochronously: creates improved starting and minimizes
smoke emissions from the engine. The actuator
• The governor’s reaction time to speed and
compensation allows the control to work on
load changes is very fast.
several different fuel systems.
• When units are paralleled, auxiliary contacts
controlled by the circuit breaker connect the Share/Speed Control Module
controls through paralleling lines. This electronic governor features zero percent
(isochronous) to ten percent droop and
This allows the controls to continuously
includes:
compare their real-time positions to each other.
• Magnetic speed pickup
Woodward 2301 Load Share/Speed Control
• Control for parallel/nonparallel operation
Governor characteristics are expanded when
the 2301 Load Share/Speed Control Module • Hydraulic actuator using engine lubricating
replaces the standard/basic 2301 Speed oil and internal pump
Control. It adds:
This system is applied where extreme
• Isochronous load sharing capability frequency control is demanded or in automatic
paralleling installations. Models include EG3P,
• Input for an SPM synchronizer (required in
EG10P, and EG26P, depending on work force
automatic paralleling applications)
required.
Woodward 2301A Load Share/Speed
Control Module
This system further extends the 2301’s
capability to include:
• Fuel limiting during engine startup
• Actuator compensation for increased stability
• Protection from voltage spikes and reverse
polarity
GOVERNORS
ENGINE

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ENGINE GOVERNORS
Caterpillar Electronic Control Module • Allows custom programming to:
(ECM) - Improve fuel consumption
The Caterpillar Electronic Control Module
- Minimize exhaust emissions
(ECM) offers all the advantages of
conventional electronic governors, plus - Improve transient response while
enhanced capabilities to optimize engine minimizing over/undershoots
performance. It is available on all Cat 3500B • Used where extreme frequency control is
engines. The ECM combines traditional demanded or in automatic paralleling
governing functions with real-time input from installations
sensors monitoring:
• Shares load within five percent
• Coolant temperature
• Droop is adjustable, zero percent
• Fuel pressure (isochronous) to ten percent.
• Oil pressure
Selection
• Atmospheric pressures When selecting a governor, always use the
• Exhaust temperature simplest governor that will adequately satisfy
the application. To review:
• Turbocharger inlet pressure
• A mechanical governor is used when the
• Boost pressure application requires:
• Injection timing - Manual paralleling
This information allows the governor to - Share load within ten percent
continuously adjust to operating conditions. - 0.33 percent steady-state regulation
• System includes: - Fixed droop of three percent
- Magnetic speed pickup
- Fuel-air ratio control
- Cold start programming
- Independent oil pressure
- Coolant temperature engine protection
- Automatic altitude deration
GOVERNORS
ENGINE

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ENGINE GOVERNORS
• The PSG governor can be used to satisfy
the following conditions:
- Manual paralleling
- Share load within five percent
- 0.25 percent steady-state regulation
- Adjustable droop zero to seven percent
- Isochronous capability for single unit
operation
• The criteria for using a UG8D governor is
the same as for the PSG, except:
- It produces more work force and is used
with larger engines
- It is available in two versions — one for
single unit operation and one for parallel
operation
GOVERNORS
ENGINE
• The criteria for using a 3161 governor is
similar to the UG8D, but:
- It utilizes engine lubricating oil
- It delivers better performance
- Only one version is used for all
applications
• An electronic governor is recommended if
the following are critical:
- Automatic paralleling
- Isochronous load sharing
- Improved response time

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SERVICING
Optimum Performance • Camshaft or crankshaft removal on many
engines requires an area at one end of the
Two keys to optimum performance and long engine equal to the engine length.
service life are:
Overhead clearance (between top of engine
• Serviceability and ceiling or nearest obstruction) should
• Preventive maintenance permit the removal of cylinder heads, exhaust
piping, etc. With larger engines adequate area
Adherence to proper generator set maintenance should be provided to permit use of a chain
practices is critical to generator set reliability. hoist or overhead crane to remove heavier
Caterpillar publishes guidelines and service components.
intervals for every engine and generator model.
Reference should be made to these guidelines
for specific maintenance practices. However,
the installation must be designed for ease of
servicing to ensure adequate maintenance.

Location for Serviceability

A generator set should be positioned so service
can be performed easily. Floor space must be
adequate for both routine service and major
engine repair.

Expansion
When determining the location of a generator
set, future expansion should be considered. An
installation should be designed so additional
units can be added with minimum effort.

• As a rule of thumb, the minimum amount of
floor space between engines or a wall should
be at least the width of the representative
engine.
Preventive Maintenance
Inspection, test, and maintenance programs
must be carefully planned and carried out on
schedule. Poorly maintained equipment can be
very unreliable. Load increases must be
carefully monitored. Overloads, if sustained,
can cause failure even though maintenance is
good.
SERVICING

• Floor space at the front or back of the

generator set must be adequate for engine
removal or removal of any of its major
components — either by forklift or crane.

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SERVICING
Preventive maintenance of generator sets will With an engine mounted radiator, sufficient
vary depending on configuration and usage. area above the radiator is required to add
However, areas that require easy access coolant.
include:
• Batteries
• Oil drain
• Oil filters
• Fuel filters
• Coolant
• Air cleaners
Batteries should be positioned so water can
easily be added, and battery cables and
terminals can be cleaned to assure good A remote-mounted radiator requires periodic
contact. coolant level inspections and convenient
access is a must. Depending on the radiator
location, a stairway or permanent ladder may
be required.
Air filter replacement intervals will vary with
engine usage. The area required to replace a
filter will be determined by the filter size and
location.
SERVICING

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LEKX8499 Materials and specifications are subject to change without notice. © 1998 Caterpillar Inc.
All rights reserved.
Printed in U.S.A.