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Healthy Campus by Open Space Design: Approaches and Guidelines
Healthy Campus by Open Space Design: Approaches and Guidelines
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
a
Department of Architecture, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
b
Department of Architecture, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
c
Faculty of Built Environment, University of New South Wales, Room 3001, Red Centre West Wing, UNSW
Built Environment, Kensington Campus, Sydney, Australia
Received 30 October 2013; received in revised form 7 June 2014; accepted 29 June 2014
KEYWORDS Abstract
Healthy campus; This paper examines the architectural and landscape design strategies and intentions for green,
Open space; open spaces facilities targeting stress alleviation for learning environments such as those of
Healing gardens; university campuses in a compact urban setting. Literature reviews provide three prevailing
Architecture; perspectives for physical design pedagogical operatives: healing gardens where greenery and
Green building
plants produce restorative effects; flexible spaces that accommodate functional needs of
different activities; and green buildings that incorporate open space as a catalyst for integrated
eco-system. Corresponding design approaches (landscape design, spatial design and green
design) are scrutinized by case study. A comparison of two university campuses with different
urban contexts is conducted to identify challenges and opportunities for applying these design
approaches. For a compact campus, high-dense surroundings may limit the size of an open
space and may handicap circulation and accessibility; on the other side, a small open space may
provide its users more intimate contact with natural restorative elements and also a more
controllable microclimate for physical comfort. A healthy campus should encompass diverse
open spaces to satisfy different purposes. Finally, a framework that integrates the three
approaches is combined to produce a sustainable design rubric.
& 2014. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
1. Introduction
n
Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: gouzhonghua@gmail.com, Universities act as a power house, gushing forth innovative
z.gou@unsw.edu.au (Z. Gou). ideas, creative thinking and tangible effects of social and
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University. cultural vitality, by connecting the most intelligent, active
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2014.06.006
2095-2635/& 2014. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Healthy campus by open space design 453
researchers with a wide source of new knowledge. However, and sustainable environments are believed to lead to a
many students are exposed to high levels of stress in their healthy community where plants, natural habitats, pave-
university life. Surveys repetitively show an increasing ments, shades and lights jointly create an eco-system and
number of university students who are experiencing microclimate in addition to supplying comfort and suste-
significant stress due to interpersonal conflicts, self- nance for users (USGBC, 2009).
esteem problems, financial constraints, time constraints, The dual role for social interaction and environmental
frustration and emotional problems (Andersson et al., 2009; enhancement—mutually reinforcing one another, features
Chambel and Curral, 2005; Misra and Mckean, 2000; Mosley an open space in healthy campus life. How to design open
et al., 1994). Stress referring to an imbalance between spaces to alleviate students' stress and to promote healthy
environmental demands and human response capabilities campus life? To answer this question, this paper conducts a
has been evidently linked with physical ill health (Chida and literature review to identify in what way an open space may
Hamer, 2008; Miller et al., 2002; Sagerstrom and Miller, influence human stress. Based on the review, three design
2004) and deteriorated mental health (Hammen, 2005). The approaches (landscape design, spatial design and green
stressful university life also threatens students' academic design) are discussed respectively with cases and guidelines.
performance (Hamaideh, 2011). In this sense, design of The research method is two-step case study. The first case
campus is far beyond providing a place for study. study is a general examination of open space design in
It should also be healing—serving functional as well as different campuses to identify potential design elements
mental needs. and guidelines; the second case study is focused on two
Open spaces located between buildings and working as campuses respectively representing two different urban
joints of surrounding environments, provide a sense of contexts (high-dense and low-dense) to find out challenges
direction in a campus by integrating and organizing differ- and opportunities to apply the design elements and guide-
ent places and elements; they also can provide an esthetic lines. Finally, a framework is developed for stressing open
sense by involving attractive surroundings and creating spaces in the early stage of campus planning and design.
visual surprises. Many creative and innovative ideas occur
in outdoor environments, away from formal classes and
discussions. The natural scenery and a relaxing atmosphere 2. Literature review
in open spaces encourage impromptu meetings and discus-
sions, and provide fresh air for stressed scholars (Payne, 2.1. Healing garden
2009). On the other hand, a large number of university
campuses in the world have taken the lead in a green or There is an accumulated evidence of the influence of the
sustainable building revolution. In green building assess- landscape on people's health, from ancient times to the
ment tools such as Leadership in Energy and Environmental present day (Thompson, 2011; Velarde et al., 2007). A range
Design (LEED), open spaces as the sphere for micro-ecology of theories and approaches have been forwarded in order to
Ulrich (1984) Shorter post-operative hospital Number of days in Natural scene; trees
stays hospital after surgery
Heerwagen Restorative benefits for heart rate Heart rate; self- Painting of natural scene; distant mountains,
(1990) data and emotional states reports of emotional sunset, clustered trees and open grassy areas, path
state (mystery)
Leather Less job stress and intention to Self-reports of Percentage of the view from window with rural
et al. (1998) quit emotional state elements
Wells (2000) Higher naturalness score post- Behavioral Amount of nature in window view
move gave better cognitive observation
functioning
Kuo et al. Lower mental fatigue Attention-tests; Varying levels of nature (trees and grass)
(1998) neighborhood social surrounding public housing (scale 0–4)
ties-test
Taylor et al. Improved self-discipline Attention-tests Amount of window view of nature
(2002)
Ottosson and Increased powers of concentration Attention-tests; blood Garden, with old fruit trees and a variety of flower
Grahn (2005) pressure; heart rate species
Van den Berg Higher happiness, lower stress, Attention-tests; Park-like forest area with creek
et al. (2007) anger, depression and tension emotion-test
Hartig et al. Reduced stress and improved Attention-tests; blood Natural environment: tree views/nature reserve
(2007) mood pressure; emotion-
test
454 S.S.Y. Lau et al.
explain and assess this relationship. One of the research stimulation brought by an open space must be moderate. The
approaches relating to health effects of landscapes is known space must be flexible to embrace individual needs and social
as “Healing Gardens”. The belief that viewing vegetation, interactions. It must also provide control or shelter from
water and other natural elements can ameliorate stress discomfort and overstimulation. In the campus life, a well-
makes the design of hospital gardens becomes a new and designed open space shall create an integral blend of private
significant topic (Adevi and Lieberg, 2012; Adevi and space for concentrated study and public space for collabora-
Mårtensson, 2013; Pasha and Shepley, 2013; Sherman tive exchanges. Stress also occurs when changes or disruptions
et al., 2005; Ulrich, 1984). Research explains the healing in physical surroundings make prediction difficult. Open
garden with restorative effects that is the process of spaces, therefore, must be coherent. Coherence refers to
renewing physical, psychological and social capabilities the clarity or comprehensibility. Ambiguity, disorder, and
diminished in ongoing efforts to meet adaptive demands disorientation are major impediments to coherence.
(Hartig and Staats, 2006; Kaplan, 1993). The restorative
effect points out the potential of landscape elements to
function therapeutically, reducing cognitive fatigue and 2.3. Green building and ecosystems
other sources of stress. Direct contact with natural ele-
ments as well as views of nature both can provide restora- Green building revolution is sweeping the world with its
tion (Eckerling, 1996; Ulrich, 1986). Table 1 summarizes holistic comprehension of sustainability for built environ-
some evidence of health effects related to viewing these ments (Gou et al., 2013). Open space is featured in a green
landscapes in the rich body of environmental studies. The building design as a micro eco-system in that it can provide
health effects of exposure to visual landscapes were exam- habitat for vegetation and wildlife, create a microclimate
ined with diverse approaches, such as neurosciences (blood for users, and increase stormwater infiltration for soil and
pressure and heart rate tests), behaviors (days of recovery), land (Hamin and Gurran, 2009). In LEED, “Sustainable Site”
perceptions (self-reported emotions and well-being), etc. related credits covering restoring habitats, maximizing open
The literature reveals that natural landscapes gave a stronger space, stormwater design, heat island mitigation, and
positive health effect compared to urban landscapes, and biodiversity are proposed to design ecological and sustain-
urban landscapes were found to have a less positive and in able open spaces (USGBC, 2009). Many frameworks are
some cases negative effect on health (Velarde et al., 2007). being explored to link human and ecosystem health
Although most studies were conducted in healthcare envir- (Tzoulas et al., 2007). An integrative framework covers
onments, the knowledge can also apply to the context of various environmental (e.g., clean air and water, and
learning environments. In a campus, open spaces are an protection from infections), social (e.g., education, and
important natural landscape for healing effects. Theoreti- recreation) and economic (e.g., working and transport)
cally, open spaces can utilize various garden features, factors affecting health (Macintyre et al., 2002). A compre-
especially natural elements such as green plants, flowers hensive model of livability and quality of life illustrates the
and water, to help foster restoration from stress and provide complex interplay of factors affecting quality of life includ-
positive influences on human beings. Surveys also show that ing personal, social, cultural, community, natural and built
most university students chose open spaces with natural environment, as well as economic factors amongst others
settings to ameliorate their moods when they were stressed, (van Kamp et al., 2003). These frameworks encourage us to
upset, depressed, angry or confused (Lau and Yang, 2009). look at the role of built environment design in a broad sense
Open spaces in a campus can help with stress coping and of sustainability. For a campus project, incorporating a
restoration by its beauty and Serenity, fragment flowers, sustainable open space can facilitate a highly effective
natural sound from birds and water, and exposure to sunshine resource for teaching about natural systems, biodiversity,
and other natural elements. and other ecological and natural science subjects (USGBC,
2010). These design strategies are synergistic. For example,
when designing a vegetated space to help mitigate urban
2.2. Architectural stimulation heat island, a landscape architect can help select native,
adapted, and noninvasive species; for biodiversity, the
Environmental psychology research has identified that archi- landscape architect should also research the bird species
tecture can affect human health through stimulation (Evans that are likely to use the space and select plants that will
and Mccoy, 1998). Architectural stimulation describes the provide food, forage, or nesting areas. The idea from green
amount of information in a space that impinges upon users. building that designing open spaces from a bio-ecology
Human beings function optimally with moderate levels of perspective has a far-reaching implication for healthy
stimulation. Lack of stimulation, insufficient stimulation and campus life.
too much stimulation can cause sensory of deprivation or In sum, there is rich body of evidence showing the
distraction. For moderate or appropriate stimulation, layout, potential roles of open spaces in a campus: providing
circulation, control, flexibility, responsiveness, privacy, spatial restorative effects for stressed students through natural
syntax, defensible space and certain symbolic elements are elements; providing clear direction to reduce spatial ambi-
key architectural factors (Evans and Mccoy, 1998; Garling guity, disorder and disorientation; and embracing sustain-
et al., 1986; Stokols, 1992). Insufficient spatial resources, able features to create an ecosystem. However, the
inflexible spatial arrangements, and lack of climatic controls, literature of the relationships between health and land-
all threaten individual needs to effectively interact with the scapes did not identify specific landscape attributes that
space. It has been widely accepted that an open and informal enable future architecture and landscape design to be of
atmosphere can stimulate creative expression. However, the benefit to human health. To further identify opportunities
Healthy campus by open space design 455
3. Landscape design
3.1. Sensation
Figure 2 Lawns (upper left), trees (upper right), colorful plants (lower left) and dense plantations (lower right), MIT.
456 S.S.Y. Lau et al.
important in bringing nature back. Open spaces with plants growth. Their strong trunks and large canopy reflect a sense
allure people outwards with the sense of nature and cure of stability and dependability.
people with the effect of restoration. To attract users' visit
and stay, plants design of an open space shall be “mystery” 3.1.3. Colorful plants
encouraging people to discover an environment and “com- Implementing color variation in planting, especially flowers,
plexity” providing diverse and rich elements. To be myster- is another approach to attract people. People enjoy viewing
ious and complex, landscape design shall make full use of and being in the presence of color and flowers. Research has
sensations. found that scenery with flowers is very effective in emotion
People perceive their surroundings using the sense of mitigation and reducing feelings of “discourage”. While in
sight, touch, sound and smell. Design with full consideration existing situation, color is always mentioned as lacking in
of these sensations would enrich people's experience and planting. It has once been said the following about flowers:
awareness of the place. For the sense of sight, a diverse and “you can seldom have enough flowers”.
dynamic composition of color, texture and pattern of plants
can improve the visual quality of the garden; a densely 3.1.4. Dense planting
planted flower border can even enlarge the size of a garden An area can be densely planted with a variety of trees,
by enhancing the plants change in design. For the sense of shrubs and flowers. A densely planted area provides much
touch, the special texture of plants can draw people to more visual interest than a sparsely or mono-planted one.
touch them, and waxy leaves and fluffy flowers can encou- Plants are a source of beauty, shade and color. Without
rage direct interaction between people and natural ele- these diverse plants, the area would always be regarded as
ments. For the sense of sound, soft sounds in an enclosed boring and bare.
area would bring in a sense of serenity and can create a Open spaces are to make a place of art, order and quality.
natural symphony that brings relief to people. The soft But the vague definition of open spaces leads to nowhere.
sounds include plants that make sounds with the rhythms of To achieve a vibrant and sustained place, open space design
wind and rain, birds and small insects that sing in trees, and in the campus should be enlightened by the essential
a fountain that spouts tiny water columns. For the sense of aspects of landscape character, which can be understood
smell, the scent of plants, varying from acrid to sweet, from as a physical expression of five elements: nice; natural
fruity to musky, may delight users of the space. When scenery; engagement and connections with surroundings;
getting close to the plants, users are enchanted by the relaxing atmosphere; impromptus encounters and other
magic fragrance from flowers and grass, unconsciously spontaneous activities; harmonious.
approaching enjoyment.
The Lily Pond in HKU is a typical sensitive garden
(Figure 1). The richness of the plants in the small garden
3.2. Function
creates a complex field which attracts people to stay and
encourages people to explore. Colorful flowers blossom in Many universities, especially in Asia, are built with dense
different seasons and impress people with seasonal change. structures, where an open space attracting too many users
The scent from plants, flowers and water embraces people. may impose extra physical and mental stress. How to
The delicate songs of birds and swaying of leaves pull people balance foci and interactions is a salient challenge for open
out of their tedious work and returns them to a relaxed space design.
ambience.
To provide a sensory interest to relieve pressure, lawns, 3.2.1. Foci
trees, colorful plants and dense plantations are the oft- Foci in space mark a place of cultural significance. It is
adopted strategies (Figure 2). usually in the form of a landmark but not limited to it. Foci
can visually dominate and make a place distinct from its
context in addition to helping people navigate. It is an
3.1.1. Lawns attraction that draws eyes and movement towards it. It can
If possible, a lawn area should be maintained or grown. The be designated for recreational activities, a gathering spot or
sight of lush green is largely welcomed by people. Lawn destiny (Figure 3). The tiny pond (Figure 4) is a focus in Main
areas provide a large amount of green and create a playing Building courtyard for most visitors. This yard is regarded as
surface for users of all ages. In addition, the fresh fragrance one of the most romantic spots in HKU. Upon approaching
from newly mown or watered grass is quite charming. the yard, people will be captivated by a tiny fountain
located in the center of the yard. The graceful water arcs
of the fountain spout and the ripples of the water echo in
3.1.2. Trees this enclosed yard, creating feelings of serenity and peace.
Trees that are already large or will be large at maturity
should be planted. People respond positively to large trees. 3.2.2. Interaction
The striking appearance of trees can easily become the Open spaces create an area for both planned and sponta-
leading attraction of a site and the shade from large neous activities in a natural setting. Landscape elements in
canopies is the most welcomed feature outdoor. They are open spaces that provide interactions with users would
natural habitats for birds and other small animals. Trees are encourage users' engagement with open spaces. For users
the dispensable elements in most of the spiritual symbolic who would like to clear their minds from daily work and
gardens in campus. Different from the venerable bush living seek relaxation, an element which can arouse their inter-
at most several years, trees represent an “external” ests would alleviate their tense nerves. The Tanner Fountain
Healthy campus by open space design 457
Figure 3 A sculpture as foci in MIT. Figure 4 A tiny pond as foci in Main Building, HKU.
Figure 12 A series of open spaces to link different parts of the campus, Northwestern University.
5.1. Eco-system
5. Green design
campus. By working closely with the vegetarian restaurant stop water from reaching the sewer system. Rainwater
on campus, this project demonstrates how one may put in soaks through the permeable surface of soil and supple-
real practice a sustainable food cycle that encourages ments the groundwater. This natural purification system
consumption of local produce with minimal carbon foot- improves the water quality of ground water. Water gardens
prints and reduces food waste by composting. Compost from can be used for explorations of natural habitats in aquatic
standard composting bins and vermin culture (worm com- ecology studies—without needing a bus for field trips. Rain
posting) can provide opportunities to learn about plant collection and distribution systems can be used to teach
ecosystems, biology, and nutrient cycles and also be used students about the water cycle. Constructed wetlands can
in school vegetable gardens. filter wastewater from the building while teaching students
about the biological processes, habitats, and importance of
these ecosystems in nature. Inspired by the famous water
5.2. Water garden gardens in Chinese Gardens of Suzhou, the Xi'An Jiaotong
Liverpool University Suzhou Campus adopts a dynamic
Water or rain garden is a kind of open space that helps with strategy of horizontal and vertical layering to create a
storm-water management. Deep-rooted native plants and series of interwoven spaces for rainwater harvesting
grasses are planted, which capture rainwater runoff and (Figure 17).
5.3. Microclimate Natural lighting can also improve productivity and health in
schools while lower schools' maintenance costs. Natural
Temperature and light are two key elements for a micro- lighting can potentially increase the operation efficiency
climate. Natural lighting minimizes the need for artificial of both buildings and their occupants. Natural ventilation
lighting in buildings and reduces electrical lighting loads, imports external air to benefit the occupants of buildings.
which can assist with cooling the temperature of buildings However, allowing fresh air into a building does have a
because electrical lighting releases heat as a by-product. minor drawback – it may result in a building's interior
Table 2 Assessment for open spaces in the Main Campus of University of Hong Kong.
Lawn
A courtyard Microclimate Reading
Trees
for (Sunny and Chatting
Dense
circulation shade) Sitting
planting
Colourful
plants
Ecosystem Sitting
Trees
Circulation (birds, fishes, Chatting
Dense
etc.) Enjoying scenery
planting
Ponds
Social gathering,
Colourful
Main Waiting for
plants N/A
circulation friends
Facilities
Passing-by
Passing-by
Natural Main Microclimate
Advertising
views circulation (shading)
Social gathering
464 S.S.Y. Lau et al.
Table 3 Assessment for open spaces in the Main Campus of University of New South Wales.
Lawns Chatting
Main
Trees N/A Sitting
circulation
Sculpture Passing-by
A large
Courtyard for
Lawns Sitting
easy
Trees N/A Chatting
accessibility
Sculpture Enjoying scenery
and
circulation
Passing-by
Lawns Main Social gathering
N/A
Trees circulation Waiting for
friends
A large space
Walking around
to separate the
Lawns N/A Sitting
campus and
Playing games
the outside
Healthy campus by open space design 465
in the HKU campus are separated by buildings and some of large scale open spaces. Therefore, a healthy campus must
them are not easily accessed. The tight land use condition encompass diverse open spaces for different purposes.
posits a big challenge for compact campuses: how can open
spaces play the healing role in a restricted context?
Tables 2 and 3 further examine each of design elements 7. Conclusion
mentioned above. Observations were conducted during peak
hours (lunch time) of weekdays to continuously record and The essential concept of healthy design, which is used
categorize students' activities. Generally, outdoor activities in originally in hospitals to accelerate patients' recovery, has
public spaces can be divided into three categories: transitional been applied to open spaces design, in which natural features
activities (waiting for a person, passing-by, etc.); personal assist users in relaxing and restoring their minds from stress.
activities (reading, taking a walk to get a breath of fresh air, Combined with ideas to healing gardens, architectural sti-
standing around enjoying life, or sitting and sunbathing) and mulation, and green building approaches, this paper studies
social activities (playing games, meeting others and conversa- exemplary cases of contemporary campus design with an aim
tion, communal activities of various kinds, etc.) (Shi et al., to provide campus open space design guidelines. The guide-
2014). Top three activities are identified for each space. lines could be incorporated into landscape design, spatial
Obviously, the UNSW campus provides more spacious open design and green design practice. Landscape design is looking
spaces with lawns to accommodate transitional and social at creating natural environments and sensational connections
activities; while the HKU campus accommodates more sensa- for restoration; spatial design is looking at arranging easily
tional elements in its small open spaces. Generally, when an accessed spaces to provide good sense of orientation and
open space is easily accessed (e.g. close to the main circula- order for different activities; and green design is looking at
tion of the campus), it is likely to be a place for circulation building an eco-system inclusive of sustainability features as
and social interaction; when an open space is less easily well as physical comfort. A comprehensive combination of
accessed, it is likely to be a place for personal activities. An these design strategies will realize the restorative effect of
open space in the UNSW campus tends to have a distant an open space and lead to a wide range of comfort for users –
relationship with its surrounding buildings while an open space from physical enjoyment to emotional relief – that further
tends to have an intimate relationship with its surroundings in promotes well-being in campus (Figure 20). Comparison of
the HKU campus. Although a large open space with a distant two campuses found that these design elements and guide-
relationship with its surroundings is of benefit for sense of lines are subject to the land use and urban context of a
orientation and order, it is hard to control microclimate campus. For a compact campus, high-dense surroundings may
conditions especially in extreme weather and it is also hard limit the space for larger lawns and wider views that may
to provide its users intimate contact with sensational natural handicap easy accessibility and circulation. On the other
elements. A healthy environment should provide people with hand, small open spaces with sensational landscapes may be
intimate relations to restorative natural environments using more intimate to users for the health effects. The campus
small open spaces and also provide people with socially should encompass open spaces in diverse scales to satisfy
supportive and easily accessed outdoor environments using different purposes.
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