CONCERNING THE STRUCTURE OF "FACUNDO"

Author(s): D. L. Shaw
Source: Ibero-amerikanisches Archiv , 1980, Neue Folge, Vol. 6, No. 3 (1980), pp. 239-250
Published by: Iberoamericana Editorial Vervuert

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43392293

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 CONCERNING THE STRUCTURE OF "FACUNDO"

D. L. Shaw

Facundo has traditionally been regarded as a book which, however

effective as a pamphlet against Rosas or as an interpretation of the
problems of Latin America, is uneven, lacking in unified structure
and therefore, as a work of art, unsatisfactory. A source of this view
may be traced in the first place to Sarmiento's own description of
the book as "ese libro extraño, sin pies ni cabeza, informe" quoted
by M. E. Carsuzán in Sarmiento el escritor (1949: 50) and to his
readiness to allow the second and third editions of the work (1851
and 1858) to be published in a severely mutilated form. In the
"Advertencia del autor" of the first edition in book-form (Santiago
1845) and in Recuerdos de provincia he emphasised the haste with
which it had been written, while in El Progreso (Santiago, 1 May
1845) he even declared that this haste had been such as to sacrifice
"toda pretensión literaria". M. E. Carsuzán mentions other state-
ments by Sarmiento of similar tenor, including his reference in a
letter to Alsina to the "mal disciplinada concepción" of Facundo
(1949: 52), all of which have contributed to the standard critical
reaction.
This reaction is clearly visible, for example, in C. M. Onetti's
Cuatro clases sobre Sarmiento escritor, which suggests that the three
parts of Facundo are in descending order of quality, the last section
being practically of no importance (1939: 61). E. Anderson Imbert
in Genio y figura de Sarmiento repeated Onetti's arguments practical-
ly word for word (1961: 59), while a year later the late Noel Salo-
mon declared the work to be no more than "une suite d'articles"
(1968: 354). C. A. Jones in his Critical Guide to Facundo is only th
latest in a long line of critics who insist on the "unevenness of
[Facundo1 s] structure" and on the assertion that the argument i
"bewildering and confusing to follow". Jones's conclusion is that
Facundo is only "good in parts" (1974: 37 - 38). On the other hand
a minority of critics have consistently defended the purely literar
and artistic qualities of the book. Carsuzán declares repeatedly tha
* Donald L. Shaw: *1930, Ph.D. (Dublin) 1961, Professor of Latin American
Studies (University of Edinburgh) since 1979; address: Department of
Hispanic Studies, The University, Edinburgh, Great Britain.

Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv N. F. Jg 6 H. 3 1980

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 240 D. L. Shaw

Sarmiento's deprecatory
disappointment at its initial lack of success (1949: 53 - 54) and
writes shortly afterwards: "Insisto una vez más en que la mentada
improvisación del libro no fue sino el rapto genial que plasma en
término breve la obra madura en la conciencia y en la subconciencia.
Insisto en que el propósito literario existió" (1949: 61). Paul Verde-
voye (1963: 385) refers to Facundo'' s "harmonie de structure". Dar-
do Cuneo in Sarmiento y Unamuno (1963: 70) shows that Unamuno
was also of this opinion. Ernesto Sàbato in El escritor y sus fantas-
mas does not hesitate to describe the book as an "obra sociológica e
históricamente equivocada, pero novelísticamente genial" (1963:
42). Finally, Ana María Barrenechea goes furthest of all, declaring,
"Lo importante no es que Sarmiento haya redactado su libro con una
armazón consciente y calculada ... Importa más que Sarmiento no se
haya contentado con proceder así y que haya recalcado también que
procedía así y por qué procedía así (1978: 46-47). What is notice-
able on both sides of the case is the abundance of simple affirmations
and the virtual absence of convincing arguments. In what follows I
should like to put the case for Facundo as a literary work character-
ized not only by the qualities of style and descriptive effectiveness
which critics have consented to praise, but also by genuine structural
unity and skill of composition. We cannot, of course, ignore the
haste and stress which attended the actual writing of the book. But
these circumstances in themselves do not rule out the possibility of
considering it from a general literary viewpoint. There are too many
similar cases; most notably, perhaps, that of Azuela's Los de abajo, in
relation to which critical responses have diverged on the same issue
of structural unity and artistic merit. We should do well to remember
in connection with these and similar works that Unamuno's San
Manuel Bueno, mártir, one of his most subtly complex novels, w
written in less than three weeks and that Stendhal's La Chartreuse de
Parme was poured out in fifty-two days. Speed of production is not a
reliable criterion when one is dealing with a writer who possesses an
innate sense of shape.
The fundamental reason why critics have denied this last and other
artistic gifts to Sarmiento in the composition of Facundo is to be
found in their instinctive reaction to the hybrid nature of the book.
To understand this in turn we must glance at the distinction between
myth and history. This is not necessarily a difference of function.
Both myth and historical biography, for example, can be used to
convey, through the depiction of an individual figure, a message to
the reader. The difference is one of approach. In biography the facts
are, or should be, in control of the writer; in the creation of myth it
is the creator, the artist, who chooses, controls and invents. To put it

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 Concerning the Structure of "Facundo" 241

another way: myth and history he in a deeply uneasy rela

with each other. Both are about explanation. But history, of
biography is a part, is concerned with process, with moveme
change. Myth on the other hand can be, and often is, an esca
history via the unchanging or at best the cyclic. The impre
hybridness conveyed by Facundo is due to the way Sarmien
mythification with heavily "slanted" historical and sociolog
mentary. The simple deterministic assumptions, the indiffe
the complexity of the historical, social, and above all the e
forces in play, the selection of evidence, the dubious conce
"modo de ser argentino" and the resolve on the part of Sarm
interpret, rather than to observe and study empirically, a
from the fact that he imposes his own pattern on the hist
process. At the same time, moreover, he is endeavouring t
polate into this same historical process an anti-historical elem
alma de la raza mystique which is essentially static and non
tionary. To this mystique the Facundo-myth is attached. It
ambiguity in the ideological approach which has distracted a
from the book's basic design.
But we are none the less left with the problem of explaini
it is that in spite of the serious questions which have incr
been asked about the validity of Sarmiento's argument, th
survives so triumphantly and is so regularly reissued. We su
not follow Raimundo Lazo in seizing arbitrarily on one aspe
of Facundo (its picture of pampa life) as the explanation
survival (F: xxv).1 Less helpful still is Jones' baffling affirmati
the book lacks basic literary qualities but that "its primary
continues to be that of a work of literature" (1974: 86).
I should argue that, despite the infelicities of Sarmiento's
approach, Facundo functions more than adequately as a work
It has a formal arrangement dictated by Sarmiento's aim,
regular development dictated by the subject. The aim of Fac
clearly explained in the introduction. It is that of using the dep
of a historical figure as a means of analysing the Argentini
pendence period and by extension - far more importantly
means of exploring something elemental in Argentinian rea
Argentinian modo de ser or national character. The central f
other words, is conceived of instrumentally, as representative,
as symbolic. Hence the fundamental assertion: "en Facundo
no veo un caudillo simplemente sino una manifestación de la
argentina" (F: 6 a). On practically the same page Sarmiento m
obvious criticism: why not Rosas? His reply is significant:
1 F = D. F. Sarmiento: Facundo (Mexico: Porrúa, 1966). Letters a and
the page number refer to the double columns of this edition.

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 242 D. L. Shaw

se ha formado la últim
llena la medida" (F: 5 b
necessarily be incompl
actuality. Hence the se
Here is the beginning
work: the criterion is
Rosas is dictated by an
not writing a mere pam
the medium of art to e
process which is about
one of mythification. Th
is that Facundo is artis
the doctrine is the cre
instrumentalized by Sa
tion. Hence the strange
introduction: " ¡Somb
que ... te levantes a explicarnos la vida secreta ... de un noble
pueblo! " (F: 1 a). Inevitably this mingled sociological-mythical con-
ception of Facundo imposes significant modifications on his
characterization.

Part I

For the moment, therefore, it is not the figure of Facundo himself

which matters. In fact the beginning of his presentation is still some
chapters away. What is important first of all is to emphasize his
representativeness. It is this which governs the organization of the
rest of the work; for while it is the Facundo-myth, the presentation
of the central figure, which give the book its impact, the ultimately
controlling force in Facundo is Sarmiento's aim. This, we know
already, was not that of showing Facundo as he actually was, but
that of presenting him as a "manifestation", the incarnation in fact,
of the secret force which underlay (in Sarmiento's view) Argentinian
life. Hence the statement "por eso nos es necesario detenernos en los
detalles de la vida interior del pueblo argentino" (F : 6 a), which
introduces the first stage in the formal construction of the book. The
guiding idea is that of geographical and historical determinism, later
to be associated with Hippolyte Taine: the man Facundo existed and
was representative of barbarism, therefore the forces governing his
appearance must have been barbaric. This is what Sarmiento sets out
to illustrate.
Now Facundo represents for Sarmiento the combination of two
forces: the first is geographical, the influence of the provincial hinter-

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 Concerning the Structure of "Facundo" 243

land of Buenos Aires, the interior, the pampa; the second is

co-political, the barbaric federalism of the caudillos, which Sa
to believed was the manifestation in action of the spirit of th
pa. So the first phase of construction of the book contains
successive, mutually-modifying and complementary section
first three chapters of Part I involve costumbrista description of
on the pampa with an initially broad historical relevance, car
emphasised by Sarmiento's claim that "estos pormenores ser
para explicar todos nuestros fenómenos sociales y la revoluc
se ha estado obrando en la República Argentina" (F: 33 a/b).
chapters correspond to Facundo's early life prior to his entr
scène as a politically significant figure. Chapter four of Part
pletes the pattern with the main historical interpretation: that o
critical events of 1810 and subsequently. It corresponds to F
do's second evolution as a nationally important caudillo.
In each of these two opening sections of Facundo the appro
essentially deductive, being plainly derived from Sarmiento
viction that he was dealing with a situation which could be ex
in relatively simple deterministic terms. The technique is t
gradually narrowing down the focus from the general: Argen
the particular: Facundo, who is thus seen as the product of the
conditions ascribed by Sarmiento to his homeland. Behind the outer
covering of observed details which bring it alive, the design of Part I
is rigorously logical. Beginning in chapter one with a factually based
account in the tone of a Regional Geography, we pass in chapters
two and three to an artistically interpretative picture of the pampa-
ambiente with its climax in the sketch of the caudillo (F: 32b). This
is the passive milieu. Chapter four, which deals with the 'moment'
(1810), adds the relevant historical details which dynamise this
milieu and bring the montonera with its caudillo- leader out of it as
an active force on the public stage.
The second part of chapter four introduces a new feature. Hither-
to Sarmiento has been dealing exclusively with what are, in his
opinion, the causes of the state into which his country has fallen.
Here, for the first time, he discusses some of the effects. Even before
the depiction of Facundo gets under way, the effect of the barbarism
which he incarnates is anticipated in the description of the collapse
of La Rioja and San Juan. Hereafter at strategic points in the evolu-
tion of the narrative, Sarmiento deliberately turns from the growing
pattern of causes to ram home the effects with cumulative force.
Throughout the book this method creates a kind of contrapuntal
pattern, the aim of which is never to allow the reader to lose sight for
long of the ugly reality which the factors and events depicted had
produced. In practice, because of Sarmiento's will to explain rather
than merely to describe, this aim is not consistently fulfilled.

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 244 D. L. Shaw

Part II

At this point we can express Sarmiento's method in terms of the

simple progression:
milieu -*■ moment -+ man

Only now is the time ripe for Facundo to make his actual appear-
ance. He is not, however, the centre of the book. Facundo is ideo-
logically centred, and the presentation of Facundo Quiroga is modi-
fied to fit the ideology. Genuine biographies of the caudillo exist,
and in them he is rather different from his portrait here. But no-one
cares. The myth has conquered the man; art has displaced reality.
Essentially, then, Facundo is to be shown as a product of his environ-
ment and as exemplifying its barbarity to a memorable degree. What-
ever is not material to this end is eliminated.
A primary feature of the character-presentation is the highly
dramatic opening, the encounter with the jaguar, which immediately
arouses the reader's interest. After this, selected physical and factual
details follow rapidly in order to reach the basic element, the moral
character. Sarmiento purposely invests Facundo with the outstanding
qualities of strength of will and natural dominion over others which
he believed distinguished such men as Napoleon and Mehemet Ali;
but he does so in order to emphasise that in the context of the
society already depicted, thes qualities are necessarily turned in the
wrong direction and find their outlet in irresponsible violence. True
to the earlier analysis, Facundo emerges at once as a gaucho malo of
the kind described in chapter two. The environment has begun its
work. The next stage is equally representative. Recruited into San
Martin's glorious army of liberation, he deserts to join the opposite:
Ramirez's montonera. Finally in 1818 comes the turning point: the
massacre which establishes his fame and prestige. Noteworthy here is
the replacement of a conventional biographical approach by an
accretive effect, produced not by an orderly succession of facts and
circumstances, but by significant anecdotes, which gradually build up
a coherent character illustrative of "la barbarie primitiva" (F : 5 1 a).
Part II chapter two brings to an end the first, or environmental,
phase of the construction of Facundo. It acts as a link between this
and the second, or historical, phase, which fills the rest of Part II. In
it Facundo is made to emerge as a caudillo, that is to say, he is
granted the required status for the beginning of the next stage of the
narrative. Facundo the private figure gives way to Facundo the
public historical personality. In this tidy, simplified development we
can see the myth taking shape as real biography progressively
disappears.

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 Concerning the Structure of "Facundo" 245

Part II, chapter three thereafter constitutes a second expos

this time not of the environmental influences operating on F
Quiroga, but of the historical forces by which he had been throw
and of which he was to be the blind instrument. In this sense the
chapter is a logical development of Part I, chapter four. Once more
Sarmiento consciously uses the same "focus technique" that he had
employed at the beginning of the book, narrowing the field of vision
from a contrast between the provinces and the metropolis to the
conflict between two historical forces and finally to the resolution of
that conflict by Facundo. This chapter completes the "frame" withi
which he must be seen to operate if the book's ideological aim is to
be fulfilled. It ends on a note of major significance: the contrast
between Facundo Quiroga and other caudillos such as Ibarra and
López. While they are above all defensively localist in outlook, con-
tent to maintain their control inside the limits of their respective
territorial baronies, Facundo is essentially expansive. Thus his
representativeness is further extended. He stands not just for cau-
dillismo, but for the spreading force of federalismo, both of which
are, for Sarmiento, manifestations, at different levels, of barbarism.
We are now at the middle section of the work. Its true centre of
balance is the confrontation in Part II, chapter five, of Facundo the
montonera- leader and Paz the trained general: "dignas personifica-
ciones de las dos tendencias que van a disputarse el dominio de la
república" (F: 86 a); Facundo: "ignorante", "bárbaro"; Paz: "el
representante legítimo de las ciudades, de la civilización". The
disposition of the whole book around this central turning point is a
further indication of its formal unity.
Chapters five to nine of Part II are structurally the most important
in the entire narrative, for three reasons. First, as we have seen, they
contain the work's centre of balance. But Facundo is not symmetri-
cally designed; it is divided into three sections, each with a specific
purpose in the overall pattern and each functionally related to the
others in a way which Sarmiento is at pains to underline repeatedly.
These five chapters belong to the second phase of the narrative,
which develops out of the first in two ways: on the one hand by
presenting Facundo Quiroga as an inevitable product of the environ-
ment described in the first three chapters of Part I; on the other hand
by presenting his actions in a historical context which grows out of
the early part of Part I, chapter four.
Overall, however, we can discern a certain shift of emphasis after
Part II, chapter four. Up to this point Facundo really consists of two
superimposed expositions, one geographico-social, the other histori-
co-biographical, which bring Facundo Quiroga to the beginning of his
first major campaign, his first real threat to civilización. After Part II,

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 246 D. L. Shaw

chapter four the emph

has gone before. The
cut short by his death
consequence, is the manner in which the triumph and death of
Facundo opened the way to power for Rosas. The whole design is
superbly logically articulated, though, of course, by that very fact it
reveals itself to be what it is: a carefully arranged and over-simple
ideological interpretation of a highly complex set of historical events.
The second importance of the chapters in question arises from the
function of the first four of them (Part II, chapters five to eight)
within this general pattern. They link the two superimposed expo-
sitions with the climax in chapter nine. The selection and arrange-
ment of the incidents they contain call for special attention. To-
gether with the climax itself they form a clearly recognizable dramat-
ic movement. From the centre of balance the counterforce becomes
temporarily dominant: Facundo is defeated by Paz at La Tablada
and later at Oncativo. In one of the regularly inserted descriptions of
barbane we see Facundo at a pitch of fury recoiling into his own
territory before the onslaught of Paz and despoiling it ruthlessly in
order to reconstitute his military strength.
Momentarily all seems well: "La unidad de la República, pro-
puesta por Rivadavia ... empezaba a hacerse efectiva" (F: 95 a). But
this brief setback to Facundo's fortunes is deliberately presented so
as to throw into relief the much more significant fact that as soon as
he resorts to Buenos Aires and joins forces with Rosas his star is once
more in the ascendant. The defeats of La Tablada and Oncativo are
symmetrically offset by the victories of Chacón and Ciudadela, with
their aftermath of massacres and tortures, which mark a peak of
barbarism. At this point Facundo has reached the height of his
fortunes. The undisputed ruler of the interior provinces of Argentina
"el derrotado de Oncativo ... podía ahora mirarse como el segundo, si
no el primero, en poder" (F: 116 a).
There now occurs a highly effective pause. A careful description of
the balance of forces in the country as a whole is followed by an
account of Facundo's fatal inactivity, his mental paralysis and
'expectative funesta'. Meanwhile a feeling of menace has been
created, which is allowed to grow as the events which brought Rosas
to supreme power are rapidly detailed. The instinctive sense of shape
which Sarmiento reveals throughout the book is nowhere more
apparent than in the postponement of the real contrast between
Facundo and Rosas until this moment. Two chapters previously
Sarmiento had presented Facundo as the rival - ideologically - of
Rivadavia, the civilized, unitarian President of Buenos Aires (F:
70 a). Subsequently, with the elevation of Rosas to the rank of

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 Concerning the Structure of "Facundo" 247

Comandante General de Campaña, it is he who becomes the riva

Rivadavia's successor Dorrego (F : 82 a). After the elimination o
Dorrego, Facundo and Rosas were left facing each other: "Facun
el bárbaro del interior, Rosas el lobezno que se está criando aún"
97 a). Facundo's resort to Buenos Aires, the territory of Rosas, af
his initial defeats, marks a further stage in Rosas's rise to dominanc
The former's return, flushed with victory after Chacón and Ciud
la, but with no future plans, is Rosas's chance to assume the init
tive. Facundo, at the height of his power, is doomed. All that i
necessary is a pretext. At the appropriate moment it is presented
the threat of a further outbreak of hostilities in the north of Arge
tina. Facundo, invited to mediate, sets out on his last journey.
This is the dramatic climax of the book. Beginning with Facun
fateful parting speech it progresses with mounting intensity to
critical instant of his assassination. With great skill Sarmiento bu
up, through a series of presentiments and warnings, the atmosph
of impending tragedy, while Facundo, in the role of the tragic h
becomes possessed of that fatal confidence which confers an alm
classic tone to the description. Finally in a concise paragraph th
cycle is completed and Facundo lies dead.
Thus the third feature of technical significance connected w
chapters five to nine of Part II is the perfectly managed dram
sequence of events they contain, superimposed on a series of sy
metrical contrasts. The conflict between Facundo and Paz at the
beginning of the pattern in chapter five, in which the "tipo má
acabado del ideal del gaucho malo" contrasts with "el hijo legítim
de la ciudad" (F : 85 b), is balanced by the conflict between Facund
and Rosas in chapter nine, a conflict now of "dos caudillos que se
disputaban sordamente el mando" (F : 118 a). In between, the two
defeats of La Tablada and Oncativo are balanced by the victories
Chacón and Ciudadela. Finally the murder of Facundo coincides
with the final seizure of power by his rival. To assert, as Onetti and
Anderson Imbert have done, that Part II of Facundo is inferior to
Part I is to allow one's concern for the way Sarmiento increasingly
manipulates the events to obscure the work's principal artistic
achievement.

Part III

Part III constitutes the epilogue. But let us not be deceived by the
use of this word; this is no appendage, structural or otherwise. With-
out it, not only the basic ideological message of the work (the thesis
that Rosas is merely the heir to Facundo, systematically working out

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 248 D. L. Shaw

the methods originally

but also its structural un
From as early as Part II
affairs represented by
shape. Already Sarmie
the future, between F
prepared, successful rise

Facundo, el caudillo más jo

por la falda de los Andes,
en Buenos Aires, tenía y
exhibición (F: 84 a)

In Part II, chapter seven

striking metaphor of t
of Part II the process i
do spelled out:

mientras tanta que se aban

día acercarse la boa que
120 a)

Thereafter the incident of the quarrel in the northern provinces

passes the initiative to Rosas and Facundo goes to his death. The
episode is the dramatic climax of the book certainly, but it is not its
ideological climax. It is this which now follows in Part III. We have
seen the causes; we have seen the effects; we must now see the
application of it all to the country as a whole.
The two chapters of Part III, therefore, complete the structural
pattern of the book. They describe the evolution of Rosas and his
régime after Facundo's death, developing the question asked in
Part II, chapter seven:

" ¿Qué habría hecho Rosas sin él en una sociedad como era antes la de
Buenos Aires? " (F: 105 b)

To have ended the book with the death of Facundo, without doc-
umenting the triuph of the system he incarnated would have left the
work truncated, as Sarmiento himself makes clear:

"con su muerte no queda terminada la serie de hechos que me he pro-

puesto coordinar, y para no dejarla trunca e incompleta, necesito con-
tinuar un poquito más adelante" (F: 129 a)

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 Concerning the Structure of "Facundo" 249

Part Ill's two chapters form a single narrative unit with it

interior articulation and arrangement. It is based on a sim
effective antithesis, which mirrors the symmetry characte
much of the work as a whole. First the apotheosis of Rosas,
with a description of his character, his régime, his methods
cesses. Then, in contrast, the rise of the movement to which Sa
to adhered, the Asociación de Mayo and the forecast of Rosas's
inevitable fall, together with an affirmation of Sarmiento's hope for
the future. In these two chapters Sarmiento rounds off with a
consciously organised conclusion the general plan of his work. As he
had originally sketched it out, so now in final retrospect be under-
lines the fulfilment of his purpose:

he querido pintar el origen de este gobierno y ligarlo a los antecedentes,

caracteres, hábitos y accidentes nacionales que ya desde 1810 venían
pugnando por abrirse paso y apoderarse de la sociedad. He querido,
además, mostrar los resultados que ha traído y las consecuencias ... (F:
152 a/b)

Into this general plan fit, not perfectly, but well, its several parts and
secondary technique of repeated emphasis on barbarism in action.
Over and above the book's hybrid nature, there are digressions and
there is some ideological over-kill. But Facundo as a whole is logical-
ly articulated and follows a deliberate Une of evolution which runs
from environmental and historical causes to the gaucho malo, thence
to Facundo as the archetypal gaucho malo and finally to Rosas and
his régime as the culmination of an entire, inevitable cycle of causes
and effects. From the interplay of aim and subject matter the con-
struction of the work emerges with extreme clarity. It falls into two
carefully related phases of development, one superimposed on the
other, rising to a splendid climax in the death of Facundo. It con-
cludes with a third section bringing the theme of the work into
relation with contemporary and future trends as Sarmiento saw
them. The pattern is coherent not only in its broad outlines but also
in most of its subordinate aspects. When analysed, it can be seen to
function effectively as a genuine literary mechanism.

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 250 D. L. Shaw

RESUMEN

En el artículo se procura demostrar que Facundo , aunque escr

rápidamente, no es (como se suele afirmar) un libro "sin pies ni
cabeza". Al contrario, tiene "una armazón consciente y calculada"
(Barrenechea). Podemos identificar dos exposiciones complementa-
rias: una geográfica, otra historico-política. Las fuerzas analizadas en
las exposiciones determinan la presentación mitico-simbólica de
Facundo Quiroga, que las encarna y representa. Al conflicto Quiro-
ga-Paz que marca el centro del libro sigue un grupo de capítulos
organizados en torno a una serie de antítesis, con su climax dramáti-
co en la muerte de Facundo. La Parte Tercera, lejos de constituir un
simple apéndice, completa un diseño rigurosamente funcional y
estéticamente logrado.

REFERENCES

Anderson Imbert, Enrique

1967 Genio y figura de Sarmiento. Buenos Aires.

Barrenechea, Ana María

1978 Textos hispanoamericanos de Sarmiento a Sarduy . Caracas.

Car su z án, María Emma

1949 Sarmiento el escritor. Buenos Aires.

Cuneo, Dardo
1963 Sarmiento y Unamuno. Buenos Aires.

Jones, Cyril
1974 Facundo: A Criticai Guide. London

Onetti, Carlos María

1939 Cuatro clases sobre Sarmiento escritor. Tucumán.

Sàbato, Ernesto
1 963 El escritor y sus fantasmas. Buenos Aires.

Salomon, Noel
1968 "A propos des éléments 'costumbristas' dans le Facundo de D. F. Sar-
miento." In Bulletin Hispanique , 70: 342 - 412, Bordeaux.

Verdevoye, Paul
1963 Domingo Faustino Sarmiento , éducateur et publicisté. Paris.

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