onal © The International Institute of Welding Doc.lIS/IIW-527-76 ‘The methods and practices discussed in this Handbook do not necessarily reflect those which are recommended by The Welding Institute2676 CONTENTS SYMBOLS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 3 CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION 3 Scope and application 3 Principle of the method 3 CHAPTER 3 CONDITIONS TO BE ESTABLISHED PRIOR TO THE EXAMINATION 4 Personnel 4 Requirements for apparatus and probes, separately and in combination 4 The apparatus; The probes; Combination of apparatus and probe Condition of the parent metal 5 Particulars of welds to be examined 6 Material characteristics; Types of joint Agreements before the start of the examination 6 Extent of the examination; Sensitivity required; Special conditions; Regular check of equipment; Reporting CHAPTER 4 GENERAL PROCEDURE 7 Visual inspection 7 Surface preparation 7 Couplants 7 Examination of the scanning zones 7 Selection of angle probes 8 Influence of geometry; Influence of material properties; Influence of measuring-accuracy required Calibration and setting of equipment 2 ‘The use and limitations of calibration and reference blocks; Determination of probe index and angle of refraction of a probe; Adjustment of the time base; Adjustment of the time base using two probes in tandem; Sensitivity setting Procedure for defect detection in butt welds 15 Procedure for defect detection in weld thicknesses less than 10mm; Procedure for defect detection in thicknesses from 10-100mm; Procedure for defect detection in thicknesses over 100mm. Procedure for the identification of defects 16 Defect location; Appearance of defect indications: Supplementary methods for defect identification; General observations CHAPTER 5 APPLICATION TO BUTT WELDED CURVED SURFACES 21 Circumferential welds 21 Longitudinal welds 21 CHAPTER 6 APPLICATION TO OTHER FORMS OF WELD 22 Fillet welds 22 Double-bevelled T joints 23 Other fillet welds 24CHAPTER 7 DEFECT SIZE ESTIMATION 24 Factors influencing reflectivity 25 Defect size estimation based on comparisons with reference reflectors 25 Description of echo size; Correction of sensitivity settings Defect size estimation based on the use of the DGS diagram 27 The use of the DGS diagram in tandem scanning; Consideration of attenuation; Consideration of differences in coupling Defect size estimation based on shape determination 29 Determination of the beam characteristic and defect dimensions; Half-amplitude technique General advice on the evaluation of defects 31 CHAPTER 8 REPORTING 31 Forms for the presentation of results 3 Code system for defects in welds 32 The use of forms 32 CHAPTER 9 INSTRUCTIONAL CHARTS 36 CHAPTER 10 LIMITATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING 35 Weld structure 36 Conditions of the parent metal 36 ‘Surface; Internal condition; Temperature Resolution 36 Defect orientation 37 Other factors 37 CHAPTER 11 EXAMINATION OF SPECIAL WELDS AND BRAZED JOINTS 37 APPENDIX 1: CALIBRATION BLOCK 1 37 FOREWORD 7 GENERAL, 37 Purpose METHOD OF USE 37 Calibration of the time-base range and checking its linearity: Sensitivity setting; Estimation of the dead zone; Check of the resolving power; Determination or check of probe index Determination or check of beam angle; Correction of the transmission point; Evaluation of the beam characteristics COMMENTS 39 APPENDIX 2: CALIBRATION BLOCK 2 42 SUBJECT 42 INTRODUCTION 42 DIMENSIONS 42 MATERIAL 42 PREPARATION 42 METHOD OF USE 42 Calibration of the time base: Checking during examin: NOTES 44SYMBOLS USED IN THE TEXT AND THEIR EXPLANATION CHAPTER 1 GENERAL Symbol Description Aa path length, P, between crystal and reflec tor expressed in the near-field length, P N(A=f) a projected path length a reduced projected path length (2X) b distance between successive cylindrical diil holes e width of reference blocks De diameter of eylindrical dil hole Der _ effective crystal diameter D; diameter of flat-bottom hole a depth of reflector ‘ frequency 6 reflectivity H height of defect echo He height of echo from a cylindrical drill hole Hi height of echo from a flat-bottom hole H~ height of echo from an infinite reflector h defect height k distance between indications on the time base length ' m probe displacement parallel to the weld N near-field length a width of the weld at the surface P path length a distance from defect to weld centre line R external radius for tubular items : skip distance t thickness V amplification in dB Ve amplification correction in dB for attenuation ve amplification correction in dB for coupling differences V__ extra gain required to make Hy equal to H~ w length or width of probe x distance of probe index from front of probe Y distance between the two probes B angle of refraction or probe angle « angle of incidence angle of beam spread ° y angle of diffraction as a result of surface roughness a wavelength This Handbook has been drafted on the basis of document IIS/lIW-205-66 ‘Draft recommended, practice for the ultrasonic inspection of butt welds’, taking into account other existing codes, recom- mendations, and published material It is to be noted that, in a number of related fields, development is continuing and revision in another five years may be necessary on the subjects of calibration and defect evaluation. The attention of the reader is furthermore drawn to the fact that the testing techniques described here- after refer to general examples. The complexity of the parts to be examined, special welding pro- cesses applied, or certain metallurgical phenomena may call for other techniques. The Handbook refers almost exclusively to normal electric or gas welding processes and to welds made in normal carbon and low-alloy steels or light alloys with thicknesses over 5mm. CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION 2.1 SCOPE AND APPLICATION This Handbook refers to the manual examination of welds by the ultrasonic pulse-echo technique, taking into account the above-mentioned restrictions. It relates only to the detection, location, possible identification, and size estimation of weld defects and gives no information about standards of acceptance. For an effective examination a number of conditions should be fulfilled as given in Chapter 3. 2.2 PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD The ultrasonic method of examination is based on the principle that different materials display different acoustic impedances. Most discontinuities in welds have, therefore, the ability to reflect sound pulses. To reveal small defects of the order of a few milli- metres the wavelength should also be in the millimetre range; consequently the frequencies of these waves measured in megacycles (MHz) are far beyond the audible range, hence the reason they are called ultrasonic frequencies. The ultrasonic pulses are transmitted from a trans- ducer called a probe into the material via a suitable acoustic coupling medium, usually a liquid such as oil or water.A similar probe, or very often the same probe, acts as the receiver of the reflected ultrasonic pulses. The electronic part of the equipment which produces the outgoing signals and amplifies those received is equipped with an appropriate oscilloscope to show both the travel time and amplitude of these signals. From this information, location of the reflecting surfaces is possible and at the same time an impres- sion of their reflectivity is obtained. This information, combined with sufficient knowledge of the material under test, enables the practical interpretation of these screen indications to be made in terms of the homogeneity of the material. CHAPTER 3 CONDITIONS TO BE ESTABLISHED PRIOR TO THE EXAMINATION The effectiveness and reliability of an ultrasonic test depend largely on the skill of the personnel carrying it out, the quality of the ultrasonic equipment, and the ability of those drawing the final conclusions from the observations made. It is therefore important that, in view of the ultimate consequences of such a test, the parties involved should be aware of the essential conditions before the examination is carried out as specified below. 3.1 PERSONNEL The personnel responsible for the ultrasonic inspec- tion of butt welds should be thoroughly trained and qualified to carry out this method of inspection. Moreover, the personnel concerned should: (@) have adequate experience to cony out the inspection (b) be familiar with the characteristic properties of the equipment used, the principles on which it operates, and the checking of its performance (©) be conversant with other methods and possi- bilities of nondestructive examination (4) be adequately familior with the properties of the material to be tested (0) be able to demonstrate, recognise, and classify possible discontinuities, both in the weld and in the parent metal (f) beable to independently report the results of the tests All the personne! concerned should be of high integrity and should have a critical attitude towards their own findings. All instructions, stipulations, etc. should be carried out, meticulously. The personnel concerned should not make any decision contra- dictory to these instructions or stipulations. The personnel in question should be familiar with, and keep themselves informed of, the developments, both in equipment and in methods of inspection. If necessary, full facilities for additional instruction should be provided to this end. Whenever necessary, the personnel in question should be submitted to requalification tests to prove their proficiency. 4 3.2_ REQUIREMENTS FOR APPARATUS AND PROBES, SEPARATELY AND IN COMBINATION For the ultrasonic examination of welds the equip- ment as a whole must meet a number of minimum requirements. Not only the apparatus but also the probes and their combination with the apparatus must give a satisfactory performance so that the ultrasonic equipment is capable of giving good information. reproducibl 3.2.1 The apparatus The minimum requirements for the ultrasonic apparatus in the context of this Handbook are that itmust: Work according to the pulse system Be suitable for both single- and double-probe techniques Be suitable for use at at least two frequencies between 1 and 6MHz Have an amplifior with a gain control which is calibrated in steps of 1 or 248 Be possible to use the amplifier without suppression of low-level signals Have an A-scan display or similar presentation Have a time base which is linear within +1% over its full range and have length appropriate to the ‘geometry of the parts to be tested Be provided with an adjustable time-base range between 100 and 500mm travel path for both compressional and shear waves Have a delay and/or sufficient horizontal shift control (depending on the type and size of probe) to enable proper correction of the zer0 point to be made Have graticules in both horizontal (time-base) and vertical (amplitude) directions which are. per- manently matked (preferably on the inside of the tube window) so as to avoid inaccuracies owing to parallax (if the graticules are on the outside of the tube window reference marks should be present 10 reduce parallax effects) Have graduations along the horizontal scale accord- ing to the decimal system Have sufficient trace brilliance to enable the screen indications to be read at a distance of 500mm without special aids when no direct sunlight falls Upon the screenAxter 15min of warming up the indications on the screen should be stable both in position and amplitude For mains-fed apparatus, variations in voltage of 410% should cause neither horizontal variations greater than 1% of the time-base range nor variations in echo amplitude of more than 1d8. Battery- powered equipment should automatically switch off when the above requirements can no longer be met. ‘Thd majority of the above-mentioned requirements, can be checked without any test material at all; others require a suitable testpiece which may be any steel block or one of the IIW calibration blocks (see Appendices 1 and 2). From the scientific point of view some of the requirements call for a more specific definition, and others require special test procedures involving the use of an IIW calibration black or special electronic equipment. The latter go far beyond the scope of normal weld testing procedures; however they may bbe very useful in the development of equipment ‘and when optimum performance conditions have to be sought. 3.2.2 The probes The probe, ie. the assembly of the piezoelectric transducer in its mounting, complete with the electronic part to be connected to the apparatus, should be such that any internal ‘noise’ should not interfere with the interpretation of the screen indication obtained at the sensitivity required. In 1, probes should have markings to indicate: (2) probe index (b) probe angle (angle of refraction in steel! (c) frequency (d) wave type (e) kind of crystal (crystal dimensions The area of each transmitting or receiving crystal ‘should not exceed 500mm? and no diinension of the crystal face should exceed 25mm. In special circumstances additional data regarding the angle of beam spread, the near-field length, and, where possible, a polar diagram of the probe are recommended, The beam index on a new probe should be accurate in position with a deviation of 2 maximum of + 5% of the longest dimension of the probe contact surface. The beam angle of a new probe should not deviate more than +2 from the angle indicated. ‘The beam axis should be parallel to the sides of the jprobe bearing the probe index and not deviate more than + 2° fromit, ‘Some of the particulars of the probe mentioned such {as beam index, beam angle, and beam spread can easily be checked on an IW calibration block Others, such as frequency determination, require special techniques. 3.2.3 Combination of apparatus and probe A number of equipment characteristics are deter- mined not only by the design of the apparatus but are sngly influenced by the probe construction. 3.2.3.1 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE CHARACTERISTICS, Signal-to-noise characteristics for oscilloscope apparatus should be checked on an IIW calibration block using the shear-wave probe which will be employed for the actual examination and taking the echo from the 100mm quadrant as a measure. Once this echo is 50% of the usable screen height it should remain visible after 244B reduction and be distinguishable from noise indications on the time base. When the echo is increased from its original height by 50dB the noise indications on the screen should not exceed 20% of the usable screen height. 3.23.2 NEAR-FIELD RESOLUTION The disturbance zone after the initial pulse indication should be short to facilitate the detection of defects near the surface. The amplitude of the trailing edge Of the initial pulse indication lying within the range Of interest should be less than 20% of the screen height. 3.2.3.3 FAR-FIELD RESOLUTION To check the resolution with shear-wave probes the width of the indication obtained from the ‘quadrant of IIW calibration block 1 can be taken as a measure, For a full-scale amplitude the width of the indication at the 20% level should not exceed: 5mm steel equivalent for probes with a frequency higher than 3MHz ‘8mm steel equivalent for 2MHz probes 3.23.4 STABILITY Finally, the equipment should function according to the above-mentioned requirements in the tempera~ ture range of +40° to -10°C. 3.3 CONDITION OF THE PARENT METAL ‘An ultrasonic examination of the parent metal adjacent to the welded joint (whether or not the parent metal has been ultrasonically tested before welding) must be considered necessary prior to scanning the weld (see also para. 4.2). The reasons. for this preliminary investigation of this part of the plate, on which the shear-wave probes will be positioned, are: (a) to check for the presence of defects, such as laminations and relatively large inclusions (such defects can give rise to erroneous indications which can impair the detection, localisation, and identification of defects in the weld) (b) to establish the thickness of the material and to note possible significant variations in attenua- tion If defects or considerable variations in attenuation are found it is important that their influence on the ‘weld examination is taken into account and the scanning technique adjusted to ensure complete ‘examination of the weld.A knowledge of the thickness of the parent material in the scanning zone is important for an accurate determination of the position of weld defects. Additionally, it is necessary for the operator to have a knowledge of the nature of the parent metal Normal, longitudinal-wave probes are generally used for the ultrasonic examination of the parent material. A recommended procedure for this examin- ation is given in para. 4.4 3.4 PARTICULARS OF WELDS TO BE EXAMINED ‘The applicable testing techniques depend largely on the type of weld to be examined and on other Particulars such as structure, dimensions, and weld preparation. 3.4.1 Material characteristics Even if the parent metal shows good sound trans- missibility the absorption in the weld metal may, because of its coarser structure, be such that wave penetration is reduced. In such instances the weld structure may also give rise to scatter effects at those frequencies normally used for weld testing. As a consequence, the signal-to-noise ratio which determines the defect detectability becomes smaller and may prevent the detection of small defects. Other aspects of a metallurgical nature may need consideration in the determination of the testing techniques and to facilitate interpretation. The welding procedure applied and particular weaknesses of the process, if any, e.g. sensitivity to cracking, increased risk of lack of fusion, etc. should be known prior to testing, It has already been indicated in Chapter 1 that this Handbook refers to the examination of welds in carbon and low-alloy steels or in light alloys. Nevertheless it seems appropriate to mention here that welds in austenitic materials may bring particular problems to ultrasonic testing because of their structure. 3.4.2 Types of joint The practices described below mainly refer to the ‘common types of butt welded joint and certain T joints. In practice a variety of other connections may occur and the techniques described may not always be applicable (see Chapter 11). 3.5 AGREEMENTS BEFORE THE START OF THE EXAMINATION To avoid misunderstanding and discussions about, the examination to be cartied out, a number of conditions or directives have to be established prior to the examination. 3.5.1 Extent of the examination Generally, the extent of the examination will be determined in the first place by the degree of cer- tainty to be achieved with regard to the absence of unacceptable defects. 6 However, the extent may refer to the total length to be examined, the degree of volumetric examina- tion, the necessity to examine particular zones more carefully, etc., and also to special requirements such as checks by other operators, or alternative tech- niques or different equipment. It is difficult to give directives having general validity as much depends (on the type of weld, the situation in which it has to be examined, its ultimate service, the possibilities of statistical control, and above all the cost of the examination. ‘The greater the extent of the examination, or the required sensitivity or details to be reported, the longer will be the examination time. To avoid unnecessary expense the aim should be to restrict these requirements to an acceptable mimi- mum. It is, therefore, advisable to adopt different classes of examination in such situations, whereby structures may be examined according to the importance of individual welds in the structure. 3.5.2 Sensitivity required The sensitivity is mainly determined by the smallest allowable defect and its position in the weld. However, not only size and distance of defects are important, but also their nature and orientation. This matter is very complex and closely connected with the problem of defect size estimation (see Chapter 7) Itis not only the sensitivity setting which determines the ability to detect certain defects but also the whole technique applied, i.e. the frequency used, the probe angle, the scanning technique (with one or two probes), etc. Nevertheless, the detectability will generally be enhanced with an increase of amplification. The best way to determine the required sensitivity is to use reference welds con- taining real defects of the minimum acceptable size. However this is often impracticable as the kind of defect to be detected is not known and therefore arbitrary levels of sensitivity which can be established with good reproducibility are mostly accepted as the more appropriate solution. These levels are based fon the reflections obtained from reference targets such as cylindrical drill holes or flat-bottom holes of specified size. The levels to be set should bear a realistic relationship to the importance of the weld to be examined and should be agreed upon prior to the examination. ‘Systems in use for sensitivity setting are described in para. 4.6.5 (see also para. 7.2) 3.5.3 Special conditions Before commencing the examination agreement should also be reached on the following points: Surface dressing (see para. 4.2) Coupling media to be used (see para. 4.3) System of marking welds System of indicating defects found Examination of welds or parts of welds to which access is difficult or which are, for other reasons, difficult to examine Use of other NDT methods3.5.4 Regular check of equipment The following documents provide guidance on checking the performance of ultrasonic defect detection equipment: 1 ASTM E 317-68 ‘Standard recommended practice for evaluating performance characteristics, ‘of pulse-echo ultrasonic testing systems’ 2 BS 4331 : Pt 1 : 1968 ‘Overall performance’ BS 4331 : Pt.2 : 1972 ‘Electrical performance’ BS 4331 : Pt 3: 1974 “Guidance on the in-service monitoring of probes (excluding immersion probes)’ 3.5.5 Reporting As indicated above the extent of the details to be recorded during the examination greatly influences the time required for a manual examination. It is not advisable to call for reports containing detailed information on all possible indications obtained, with the aim of subsequent analysis and selection of acceptable defects. After agreeing on the setting of sensitivity for 2 particular class of work, only those defects producing echoes exceeding an agreed registration level should be reported in detail Recommendations on the contents of a typical report are given in Chapter 8. The object of this paragraph is to make it clear that this matter should be agreed upon prior to the examination. CHAPTER 4 GENERAL PROCEDURE The following paragraphs describe the different phases of the examination and the techniques to be employed for normal butt welded joints in flat plates. However, the majority of the information given in paragraphs 4.14.6 is also applicable to the examination of other welds. 4.1 VISUAL INSPECTION The visual appearance of the welded joint should be recorded with particular reference to visible defects and the shape of the weld, eg. surface curvature, degree of root penetration, backing ring, different parent metal thicknesses, extent of the reinforcement, presence of undercut, weld finish and alignment of parts. 4.2 SURFACE PREPARATION ‘The material surfaces to be used for the scanning procedures chosen must allow free movement of the probe(s) and provide satisfactory conditions for the transmission of the ultrasonic waves. Therefore, the surface roughness should generally not exceed Gum to avoid disturbance of the shape of the ultra- sonic beam which could reduce the sensitivity and also result in errors in defect location (see also para. 10.2.1). Furthermore, the surfaces should be free, on each side of the weld for a minimum of 1 skip distances, from weld spatter, loose scale, machining and grinding particles, dirt, paint, or other foreign matter. It may be necessary to clean and smooth the surface with a flexible wheel sander. Scale itself, if reasonably ‘smooth and securely bonded to the metal, is not usually removed for testing. It may also be necessary to remove gross weld surface irregularities, undercut, sharp ridges, or valleys that will interfere with the interpretation of the test. 4.3 COUPLANTS A couplant, usually a liquid or semi-liquid, is required between the face of the probe and the surface to permit transmission of the acoustic energy from the transducer to the material under test. Typical couplants include water, oil, grease, and glycerine. The couplant used should form a film between the probe and the test surface. It should not be injurious to the material to be tested or disturb postscanning surface treatment. ‘When glycerine is used a small amount of wetting agent can be added to improve the coupling properties. When water is used it should be clean. Inhibitors and/or wetting agents may be used, Table 1 Approximate surface roughness, jm Viscosity similar to material 01-25 SAE 10 motor oil 1-5 SAE 20 motor oil 2-15 Glycerine 25-20 SAE 30 motor oil 6 -17 SAE 40 motor oil 317 Greases ‘The viscosity of the coupling medium to be used may vary with the surface finish and with the position of the surfaces to be scanned. As far as surface roughness is concerned, Table 1 is presented as a guide. In performing the examination it is generally advisable for the same couplant, under similar conditions, to be used to compare the response between the calibration or reference blocks and the production material. 4.4 EXAMINATION OF THE SCANNING ZONES The area of the parent material through which the sound will travel in the shear-wave examination of the weld should be completely scanned with alongitudinal-wave probe to detect reflectors, such as laminations and other defects, which might affect the interpretation of angle probe results by obstruct- ing the sound path. Consideration must be given to these reflectors during the interpretation of weld examination results, but their detection is not necessarily a basis for rejection of the parent material. During this preliminary work confirmation of the metal thickness is obtained and an appreciation gained of the attenuation characteristics of the material and of the influence that surface condi- tion will have on coupling, ‘The procedure for checking the parent metal is: Technique: a pulse-echo reflection technique using a longitudinal-wave probe with a single or double crystal Frequency: the examination is made at a frequency in the range of 2 to 6MHz Probe: the transmitter/receiver crystal should have a diameter within the range of 10 to. 25mm the minimum sensitivity to be used that which will give a_ full-scale backwall echo signal in the absence of defects all defective areas found which may cause interference with weld examina- tion should be marked and their Positions recorded Records: 4.5 SELECTION OF ANGLE PROBES Probe selection is a matter of compromise to obtain the maximum information from any examination in minimum time. Probe frequency should be selected with regard to the grain structure of the material to be tested, beam path distances, defect orientation, measuring accuracy required, etc. and in general should be between 2 and 5MHz. ‘The angle of the probe has to be selected to take into account the: thickness of material weld preparation type of defect to be detected Probe size and shape are determined by the specific application. Probes are generally round, square, or rectangular. Probe sizes recommended for weld testing range from a minimum of 6mm diameter or 5mm square to 28mm diameter or 24mm. square. Rectangular probes having a length-to-width ratio greater than 2 are not recommended. The influence of the following factors must also be taken into account in choosing the probes to be used. 4.5.1 Influence of geometry (2) Probe angle The angle of refraction is selected to ensure that an optimum echo will be obtained from the most 8 significant defects to be expected, e 9. lack of fusion on sidewalls and atthe root, and cracks. Careful consideration should be given to those effects which produce refracted waves of different velocities within the test material, or mode con- version producing compressional’ waves and/or Rayleigh waves. For recommended probe angles to be used for specific techniques see also para. 4.7 and Chapters 5 and 6, (b) Beam spread Beam spread is a function of frequency (or wave- length) and crystal size as shown in Fig. 1 A Deft ip 10% SHEP Siem Oa intensity. Crystal diameter 10m eo See Frequency (shear waves in ste!), MH n A lower frequency is better on a rough surface from the point of view of coupling efficiency. (4) Surface contour ‘Small probes rock less than large on uneven sur- faces. 4.5.2 Influence of material properties Attenuation is a term used to denote all energy losses in the sound beam except that lost as a result of beam geometry, and is made up primarily of loss as a result of scatter and absorption. The amount of attenuation depends on the material charact tics, e.g. grain size and the frequency of the ultrasoni beam: the higher the frequency the greater the attenuation In most materials within the scope of this Handbook attenuation may be ignored when using a suitable frequency if the sound path is less than 75mm. If the material is very coarse-grained, or for some other reason exhibits a high attenuation, the operator may wish to consider using a sound path of less than 75mm, in which event the procedure outlined in this Handbook may be used with proper con- leration and correction for thickness and depth (see para. 4.8.1). Where welds in carbon and low-alloy steels are to be tested using shear waves at 4MHz, a correction of 0.648/10mm is suitable. Normally for 2MHz shear waves no correction is required (see also para. 7.2.3) for path lengths smaller than 200mm,4.5.3 Influence of measuring- accuracy required In general, high-frequency probes have superior resolution characteristics so that defects can be distinguished more readily than with low-frequency probes. High-frequency probes also provide greater accuracy in the determination of the position of a defect. On the other hand, low-frequency probes generally provide a better probability of defect detection. Where large areas are to be covered, as in the initial detection of defects, large probes of low frequency provide rapid scanning. 4.6 CALIBRATION AND SETTING OF EQUIPMENT 4.6.1. The use and limitations of calibration and reference blocks ‘The equipment has to be calibrated with respect to: probe index. angle of refraction time base sensitivity To this end, use is made of a variety of calibration and reference blocks. The values determined for the probe index and the angle of refraction, as well as the adjustment of the time base, hold only if the ‘material of the calibration block is identical with that, of the items to be examined. So, when inspecting ‘materials in which the acoustic characteristics differ appreciably (by more than 3%) from those of the calibration block, a reference block of the same material as that of the testpiece is required, unless calibration procedures can be carried out on the testpiece itself. It is also possible, however,. to adjust the time-base range taking into account the ratio between the sound velocity in the object to be examined and that in the available calibration block. 4.6.1.1 CALIBRATION BLOCKS ‘The most versatile calibration block is lIW block 1." For field applications and for the inspection of welds in thin material a smaller version is available, designated IIW calibration block 2 4.6.1.2 REFERENCE BLOCKS AND TESTPIECES In all situations in which these calibration blocks cannot be applied it is permissible to carry out the determination of the probe index and the angle of refraction, as well as the adjustment of the time-base range and sensitivity, by means of reference blocks which are suitably adapted to the geometry, surface condition, and the material characteristics of the object to be examined, and which have one ‘or more cylindrical holes drilled parallel to a contact, surface at a discrete depth located so that the sound beam can strike the hole perpendicularly (see para 72) “The use of IW ealitvation blocks 1 and 2 explained in Appendices 1 and 2 respectively. If a reference piece of pipe material is used its wall thickness and curvature should not differ from that of the object to be examined by more than 10%. 4.6.2 Determination of probe index and angle of refraction of a probe 4.6.21 DETERMINATION OF PROBE INDEX AND. ANGLE OF REFRACTION OF A PROBE WITH A PLANE CONTACT SURFACE To determine the probe index and angle of refrac- tion of a probe with a plane contact surface, IIW calibration block 1 must be used (see Appendix 1). It is important to note that IW calibration block 2 should be used only to check the probe index and the angle of refraction of miniature probes. This block is not recommended for the determination of the value of these characteristics because its accuracy is not as high as that of calibration block 1. 4.6.22 DETERMINATION OF PROBE INDEX AND ANGLE OF REFRACTION OF A PROBE WITH A CURVED CONTACT SURFACE ‘The probe shoe must be adapted to the curvature of the object to be examined when the external radius of the object is R: YW (see Chapter 5) (R and W, mm) ‘An accurate determination of the probe index and the angle of refraction is then not possible with the IW calibration blocks or with flat reference blocks. For this purpose use must be made of reference blocks with the same curvature and thickness as the object to be examined (see para. 4.6.1.2). Where the axis of curvature of the probe is perpen- dicular to that of the incident sound beam and the thickness to be examined exceeds 20mm it is recommended that the following procedure should be adopted. Fig. 2 A reference block should be made according to Fig. 2. Ahole of sufficient depth (20mm or more) a diameter of 2 to 3mm should be drilled at #t distance from the surface. The outer cylindrical surface should be marked where the radius drawn through the centre of the hole intersects this surface (0 line in Fig. 2)The maximum echoes from the hole are sought in Positions 1 and 2 and pencil-marks made on the reference block to mark the front edge of the probe in both positions. For Position 1 this is the distance an and for Position 2 the distance a2 measured along the curved surface from the zero line on the block. The distance a,~a1 is necessary for the determination of the probe angle. This angle can be derived from Fig. 3, introducing tand R as the other parameters. 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.06} 0.02 +. © 0.02 0.06 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 _t oy Ly ee sles nfl mes # Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Once the angle is found the beam index can be determined on the reference block with the use of a centre finder with a protractor, Fig. 4. From the beam index the measure X can be found and con- sequently the probe index. 10 If the angle of refraction is too large the main beam will not strike the inner surface and angle determina- tion will require a thinner reference block. Where the axis of the curvature and that of the incident beam are in the same plane a reference block as shown in Fig. 5 should be used. x Fig. 5 The probe is placed successively in Positions 1 and 2 and is adjusted so as to give an echo from the hole with the maximum amplitude. The distance between the front of the probe and the hole is measured. The angle of refraction is calculated from the formula tan p= 22-4 where an is the distance between the front of the probe and the hole when the probe is in Position 1 a2 is the distance between the front of the probe and the hole when the probe is in Position 2 t is the thickness of the reference block. The probe index is calculated from the formula X= aan 4.6.3 Adjustment of the time base 4.6.3.1 INTRODUCTION The time base can be adjusted in such a way that from the horizontal axis of the screen can be directly read, Fig. 6, the: path length projection of the path length reduced projection depth of the defect below the surface or a combination of the above sorIf the time base has been calibrated in accordance with a, more scales can be added so that the dis- tances P and d can be read directly from the screen indication, Fig. 7. This facilitates interpretation. The time base has to be chosen so that the maximum distance of interest is no shorter than two-thirds of the horizontal scale. ° = Too 180 7200250 Seale P Fig.7 4.6.3.2 TIME-BASE ADJUSTMENT WHEN USING A PROBE WITH A PLANE CONTACT SURFACE Application of the IIW calibration blocks 1 and 2 is recommended to adjust the time base where probes with a plane contact surface are used (see Appen- dices 1 and 2). 4.6.3.3 TIME-BASE ADJUSTMENT WHEN USING A PROBE WITH A CURVED CONTACT SURFACE The IIW calibration blocks cannot be employed to adjust the time base when using a probe with a curved contact surface. For this purpose use must be made of a reference piece of which the diameter and wall thickness are respectively the same as that of the object to be examined (see para. 4.6.1.2) If the axis of curvature of the probe is perpendicular to the axis of the incident beam the time base can be adjusted, Fig. 8. With the adapted probe the maximum echo from the cylindrical reflector is determined directly (Position 1) and via the inside surface (Position 2). The time base is adjusted in such a way that ky and ke with respect to the point of incidence at maximum echo correspond to: path length, P; and Pz projected path length, a; and az reduced projected path length, ar and ara The distances a and a can be measured, as can the distances a1 and a2 if the probe index has been determined (see para. 4.6.2.2). ‘The distances P; and P2 are to be determined either by construction, calculation, or see Chapter 5 (pro- jed the probe index and angle of refraction are determined). If the axis of curvature of the probe and the axis of the beam lie in the same plane, the time base can be adjusted in a way similar to that described in the foregoing paragraph, Fig. 9. Position 2 Position 1 Position 2 Fig. 9 4.6.4 Adjustment of the time base using two probes in tandem ‘The tandem technique is schematically shown in Fig. 10. Fig. 10 1"Pe To avoid having the two probes very far apart an angle of refraction of between 35° and 55" is often chosen. To obtain optimum reflection from lack-of- sidewall fusion in welds in thick plates it may be of advantage to choose different angles for the probes involved, but the angle of incidence and reflection at the defect surface should always be greater then 35°. When nominally identical angles are used they should preferably be within 4°; the differences in distance from the probe index to the front of the probe should preferably be less than 2mm. The two probes should be mechanically inked in such a way 28 to allow for slight rotational movement. For the tandem technique the time-base range is calibrated in the same way as described in para 4.6.3 for one probe. It should be realised, however, that, if the probes. ‘are moved and reflections obtained from defects at various depths in the weld, all subsequent echo signals will be indicated at half the skip distance. To determine the projection of the distance from the defect to the probe index as well as the defect depth on flat plate, Fig. 11, the following formulae can be used vn p-¥ aaee TianB Forcurved objects in accordance with0.02-2A. This type of reflectors to be preferred when reference blocks are used. (c) Flat-bottom holes Flat-bottom holes are in general to be avoided as reference targets in view of the difficulties with their fabrication. However they can be advantageously applied for sensitivity setting as well as for the determination of the reference level when the tandem technique is used. Special DGS diagrams can be constructed for this application, Fig. 16. (d) Notches The effect of notches depends very much on their geometry, the angle of incidence on them, and the notch depth-to-width wavelength ratio. Conse- quently these targets are not recommended for general use. Epa im Fig. 16 4652 SENSITIVITY SETTING USING THE DGS DIAGRAM. The DGS system makes use of the relationship between echo height and beam path as a function Of target size. Such a relationship is given in Fig. 17. ° 60 ope 7 8910 20a Fig. 17 @78 910 20.30 40 80 607080 100 13In Fig. 17: A = is the beam path related to near-field length (relative distance) v H : Hw is the amplification, dB, required to obtain a defect-echo amplitude equal to H~ produced by an infinite reflector in the immediate vicinity of the probe G= BE is the reflectivity relationship between defect size and crystal size When using the DGS system a definite point in the iagram must be taken for reference so that, for a Particular probe, the equipment setting can be made. This is performed for a certain path length with respect to the reference target, preferably that described in the foregoing paragraph, but cylindrical holes can also be used. This echo with an amplitude H~ is sot at 40, 50, ‘or 80% of the total screen height, and the value of the gain setting noted The extra gain required to bring the amplitude of the defect echo to the H~ value detormines V in Fig. 18. Taking into account the path length (in Fig. 18 this distance is six near-field lengths), the reflectivity value can be taken a8 0.6. Fig. 18 For a certain application, taking into account the probe characteristics, such diagrams can be used to specify the minimum detectable diameter of an ideal reflector. In this event the coupling losses, attenuation, and noise level should be considered. When the sensitivity is set on the quadrant of an IW calibration block the coupling condition on the smooth and flat surface is almost ideal. Also, the attenuation due to the material specified for this block is rather low. Therefore, correction factors for coupling differences and for differences in attenuation for the actual ‘object under test should be introduced. To this end, so-called transfer correction should be applied (see also para. 7.3) after time-base calibrations for the intended examination distance, the shear-wave probe to be used and a similar probe both connected to the equipment as for a transmission technique. 14 On both the calibration block and the object under test the probes are placed as shown in Fig. 14, The difference in amplification required to obtain the same echo height should be noted. Should the thickness of the the object be the same as that of the calibration block (+ 10%) the value of the gain difference found is the correction factor. For other thicknesses the difference in attenuation losses, which can be derived from the backwall echo of the DGS diagram, should also be taken into account, ‘A negative value of “Vt points to lower coupling losses on the object under test than on the lIW calibration block. 4.6.5.2.1 Curved surfaces The curvature of the surface affects the geometry Of the ultrasonic beam. If the probe is placed on a convex surface the near field will be decreased owing to extra divergence. This may lead to too low an assessment of the defects present, especially when matched probes are used. For these applications the use of reference blocks is recommended in preference to the DGS system, 4,6.5.2.2 Tandem technique For the tandem technique special DGS diagrams should be used as indicated in para. 7.3.1. In these diagrams the path length, Ps, corresponds to the distance between crystal and target. As the path length is always the same, the attenuation can be neglected. As a reference, the echo of the direct reflection from the bottom of the plate can be used as indicated in Fig. 14. This system can also be used when the tandem technique is applied to curved objects. 4.653 SENSITIVITY SETTING BY MEANS OF REFERENCE BLOCKS To adjust the sensitivity, reference blocks with cylindrical drill holes as shown in Table 2 (page 25) can be used. For the examination of welds in objects with curved surfaces which require an adapted probe shoe, the reference blocks must be curved accordingly. In general, the thickness of the reference block must be equal to the object thickness within +£10%, The width of the reference block must fulfil the condition Prax c= 2a Where Prax, is maximum path length, mm Dar is effective crystal diameter, mm, or, in a rectangular crystal, the dimension parallel to the block thickness The surface condition and the attenuation of the reference blocks must be identical with those of the object under test. A deviation of +248 maximum in the attenuation for the same path length is, however, acceptable. Again, the diameter of the reference holes utilised must be at least twice the wavelength: D.>2A. ‘The sensitivity setting can now be specified in terms of echo height related to the echo height of the reference hole with diameter, D., ata path length, PProviding the attenuation in the reference block is identical to that in the object under test (as specified above) no correction is required. However, if the surface condition of the reference block differs appreciably from that of the object a transfer correction should also be made. When the sensitivity setting is made in this way the evaluation, of defect-echo amplitude takes place as described in para. 7.2.2. 4.7 PROCEDURE FOR DEFECT DETECTION IN BUTT WELDS To detect all possible defects the weld should be examined over its entire cross-section and along the length specified. For the detection of longitudinal defects, the shear-wave probe should be placed on the contact surface and kept perpendicularly to the weld centre line. In a fixed probe position the ultrasonic beam is directed at only a part of the weld; to examine the entire weld the probe should be moved over the scanning zone as foliows. (2) Traversing motion This movement is necessary to examine the complete cross-section of the weld and heat-affected zone (HAZ). The extent of such movement — the scanning zone ~ is normally equal to the skip distance, Fig. 19 In Fig. 19 the scanning zone is shown at a quarter of a skip distance from the centre line of the weld. In certain circumstances this distance can be too small, for a particular type of probe, so that the scanning zone has to be taken at a greater distance from the weld centre line, ‘The skip distance can be calculated from the formula s = 21. tanB (b) Lateral motion, This movement should be made to scan the specified length of the welded joint. The two previous movi ments should be suitably combined, e.g. using the zigzag scanning technique, Fig. 19, so that each successive probe displacement parallel to the wold direction is no greater than the width of the probe. (c) Swivelling motion During the movement both towards and away from the welded joint the probe should be oscillated over an angle of 10° to 15° on each side of a line normal to the centre line of the weld. (d) Transverse motion Special considerations should be given to welds which are likely to contain defects having smooth, flat surfaces positioned at right angles to the sur- faces of the plate. Such defects may behave as specular reflectors and may be difficult to detect. In these circumstances two probes in tandem, Fig. 20, may be used which should be moved transversely along the weld. Fig. 20 For a full examination scanning should be carried out from both sides of the weld or, alternatively, from both surfaces on the same side. When there are doubts about the nature or size of defects it may be necessary to scan the weld from more than two Positions, i. from both sides and from both surfaces. This may also be necessary in the event of high absorption in the parent metal or with thicknesses ‘over 100mm (see para. 4.7.3). (e) Supplementary scanning Defects transverse to the weld direction may not be detected during such scanning. To reveal these defects the beam must be directed along the length of the welded joint. When the surface of the weld is sufficiently smooth and flat for when it has been dressed flush with the parent ‘metal a shear-wave probe can be placed directly upon it. The weld should be scanned by moving the probe over the weld surface in both directions along the centre line of the joint. For thick welds, scanning from both surfaces may be desirable. A technique with two probes in tandem is, however, recom- mended in this instance. When the weld surface is such that the probe cannot be placed directly on it a straddle scan, as indicated in Fig. 21, or a similar technique should be used. a 1 Roush Smooth surfece Fig. 21 4.7.1 Procedure for defect detection in weld thicknesses less than 10mm. The use of frequencies of at least 2MHz for this thickness range is necessary. The weld is scanned 15with 70° shear-wave proves having crystal dimen- sions of approximately 10 x 10mm. This scanning should preferably be carried out from both sides of the weld on the same surface. The total width of the scanning zone should be equal to twice the skip distance. The ultrasonic examination of welds in plate thicknesses less than 10mm is often difficult because of echo indications from the excess weld metal. When the possibility exists of transverse cracking, a straddle scan of the weld should be made. 4.7.2 Procedure for defect detection in thicknesses from 10-100mm Depending on the plate thickness, the geometry, and the position and nature of the defect, scanning may be carried out with shear-wave probes of a frequency of at least 2MHz and 70°, 60°, or 45° angle. ‘The weld is scanned on both sides from one surface, the scanning zone being a full skip distance. For thicknesses above about 40mm, scanning with two different probe angles is recommended When it is believed that the weld contains planar defects at right angles to the plate surface, a scanning technique with two probes in tandem should be used, preferably with 45° probes. When the possibility exists of transverse cracking, a straddle scan of the weld should be made, Fig. 21 4.7.3 Procedure for defect detection in thicknesses over 100mm When using a single-probe technique the path length for a full skip distance in thicknesses over 100mm becomes too great to exemine the entire cross-section of the weld from one plate surface, In these circumstances the weld should be scanned, from four sides, i.e. from both sides of the weld on each surface of the plate. The position of the scanning zone is largely deter- mined by the geometry of the preparation. The width of the four scanning zones is given by: Jstin+y/t. To ensure full coverage of the weld and the HAZ the probe should be moved as near as possible to the centte line of the weld, Fig. 22. MN sang +/8 md ey bd fg 22 ‘The examination should be carried out with shear- wave probes at a frequency >2MHz. At least two different probe angles (45° and 60° or 70°) should be used. To examine welds in the thicknesses under 16 consideration an additional scanning technique with two probes in tandem, positioned at right angles to the centre line of the weld, should prefer- ably be used. Tandem-technique scans should be made with 45° probes from the four sides of the weld. To detect transverse defects the weld should, depending on its surface condition, be examined with one of the techniques described in para 4.7(c). Scanning should be carried out from both surfaces in two directions with two different probe angles (45° and 60° or 70). Wher it is practicable to scan from only one surface ‘and/or from one side it should be understood that such @ technique gives a lower standard of defect detectability 4.8 PROCEDURE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF DEFECTS ‘The purpose of inspection is to prove that the quality of a weld is suitable for its intended service. A rational approach to acceptance or rejection is possible only if discontinuities in a weld are not only indicated but are identified and their size estimated. The purpose of defect identification is to determine the nature and shape of the detected discontinuities and to avoid wrong interpretations of echoes which do not originate from weld defects. The important data for the identification of a defect are its exact location, its orientation, the appearance of the defect echo, together with the behaviour of the echo during movement of the probe. For this reason it is essential that the ultrasonic operator is acquainted with the various irrelevant indications that may arise and that he has a good knowledge of the welding method employed and the possible weld defects associated with it. Further- more, he should be familiar with the factors affecting the intensity of the ultrasound reflected from a defect. Defects in welds can be classified into a number of groups such as cracks, cavities, solid inclusions, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, imperfect shape, etc. as described in documents IIS/IIW— 340-69 ‘Classification of defects in metallic fusion welds with explanations’ and _11S/lIW-369-71 “Parameters characterising defects in metallic fusion welds’. Within each of these groups a subdivision can bbe made according to the situation and shape of the defects, 4.8.1 Defect location ‘The accurate determination of the position of a defect in a welded joint is important not only when repairs have to be made but, in an ultrasonic examination, it can give, together with defect orientation, useful information for the determination of the type of defect. The position of a defect is determined by the distance (projected path length between probe index and reflector) and depth from the surface, Fig. 23.Fig. 23, 4.8.1.1 METHOD OF CALCULATION The distance and depth can be easily calculated from the path length, probe angle, and thickness. ‘The path length can be tead from the screen of the cathode ray tube (CRT). When an echo is received from a defect the probe is moved backwards and forwards at right angles to the centre line of the weld until the maximum amplitude is found. The projected path length is then found from the formula: a| (P1+P2) sin B = Pain p, Fig. 24. Fig. 28 The depth can be calculated from dy =t—de dy =t-(d2—1) da = PcosB dy = t~ (P cosB = t) dy = 2t-P cos B The accuracy of the calculated distances depends on the correct calibration of the time base, the true position of the probe index, and the actual probe angle. Moreover, consideration should be given to the effect of beam displacement on reflection, particularly for 70° probe angles where a correction may be required as soon as one or more reflections ‘occur from the material surface, Fig, 25. 4.8.1.2 GRAPHICAL METHOD. To locate the position of a defect the probe is moved. backwards and forwards until an echo signal of ‘maximum amplitude is obtained on the screen, The beam axis must be maintained normal to the weld direction to ensure accurate location. ‘The position of the reflector can then be determined by measuring the path length read from the signal position on the screen and the distance between the i My 48 Yh \ Myo XY a MB 'BXXO. (a) B <450 9 SS ~ 4 EEN 30 40 50 60 70 90 (1B >450 8 Fig. 25 probe index and the centre line of the weld,” and representing these distances graphically on a drawing of the cross-section of the weld. This procedure should be carried out from both sides of the weld, Fig. 26. Fig. 26 4.8.1.3 SPECIAL SCALES AND SLIDE RULES. Various systems have been devised and described in the literature to facilitate the location of defects. ‘Some of these diagrams and defect-location scales are mentioned below. It is possible to use trans- parent diagrams mounted in front of the CRT to obtain a direct indication of the path length, the depth of the reflector and its distance from the probe index, measured along the surface, Fig. 7. ‘Separate location diagrams are required for different probe angles and different weld preparations and thicknesses. Instead of these transparent diagrams a simple defect-location slide can be used. It consists of a clear Perspex base piece of a depth corres- ponding to the maximum thickness to be examined and of a length to accommodate the longest beam path required. A cursor of transparent Perspex slides along the base, Fig. 27. ‘The centre line ofthe excess weld metal does not necessarily coincide with the geometry of the weld preparation. 7con pin eof Distance seate | Bottom of material t L__ 4 For defect location the centre line of the cursor is brought to the position on the distance scale corres- ponding to the distance between the measured probe index and the centre line of the weld. The defect will then be located at the point on the scale for the path length corresponding to that read from the time base of the CRT. 8.1.4 ORIENTATION AND SHAPE OF THE REFLECTOR This system of defect location will generally give reliable results when it is applied to small reflectors, of the order of a few wavelengths. Since they have relatively smooth surfaces in relation to the wavelength these reflectors normally give good directional reflectivity. However, because of their orientation and shape, large defects may have several reflecting surfaces where beam in- idence is favourable. From these defects, signals of different amplitudes and at varying positions may be ‘observed The determination of the approximate orientation and shape of the reflector is an important part of the procedure for defect location and requires more extensive measurements using different probe angles and scanning from various directions. For each scanning procedure the path length and the distance from the probe index to the weld centre line should be carefully measured and represented on a drawing of the cross-section of the weld. In this respect the special scanning procedure, as described in para. 7.4, may be applied to determine the shape of a defect. Special attention is drawn to the influence of the surface condition of the material on the accuracy of defect location. Surface pitting may give tise to double refraction of the ultrasonic waves and con- sequently the angle of refraction in the material may vary. ‘These deviations in the angle of incidence may lead to errors in defect location when plotting the beam along the presumed axis for the particular probe angle (see para. 4.2) 4.8.2 Appearance of defect indications Important indications with regard to the shape and orientation of a defect can be obtained from the 18 CGC CET ih , \ i t | we Fig. 28 appearance of the signal and its behaviour when the defect is scanned from various directions. Figure 28 illustrates the probe movements normally carried out for defect identification: 1 a lateral motion to determine its dimension in the weld direction 2 a traversing motion that may reveal some information about the height of the defect. When moving the probe towards the defect the amplitude will increase to @ maximum and then drop again At the same time the echo will travel 2 certain distance across the screen. The echo envelope of this so-called ‘dynamic image’ is a function of the height of the defect 3 a rotational scan, and 4 an orbital scan around the defect as centre, determine the directional sensitivity ‘These manipulations have to be performed from both sides of the weld. ‘The echo signals obtained from planar defects, such as cracks and lack-of-sidewall fusion, will mostly appear as narrow indications. They are characterised by their directionality to the incident beam in both directions of their two main dimensions. Orbiting the probe from the position which ensures maximum ‘echo height will result in a sudden amplitude drop. Fig. 29. Position 1 Positions 2+ Le Noticeable differences in echo height may be obtained by the successive use of different probe angles. When the defect orientation is perpendicular to the plate surface about the same echo height will be noticed with a scan from both sides of the weld. ‘An inclined orientation, however, may result in an echo height difference, Fig. 30. The echo height obtained from slag inclusions does not necessarily differ from those received from cracks or lack of fusion, but may be distinguished by different echo shape and directional sensitivity Because of the ragged surface of this type of dis: continuity the defect intercepts successive regions in the beam and gives rise to a succession of echo signals, Fig. 31 ‘An orbital movement with the probe will cause little Fig. 29Position 1 Position 2 L Lo Position 1 Position 2 Fig. 30 Fig. 31 change in this echo appearance. The individual signals of which the echo is composed, however, will change and consequently will give a variation of echo height. A scan from the opposite side of the weld is likely to give a similar echo appearance. Spherically shaped discontinuities such as gas pores reflect only a small part of the incident beam in the direction of the receiver. Moreover the dimensions of this type of defect are small. Low- amplitude signals with narrow echo shape charac- terise this type of defect. The echo will remain almost constant when the probe is moved around the defect and when scanning from the opposite side. In the event of porosity a number of these small ‘echoes may appear close together, depending on the number and distribution of the pores, Fig. 32. 4.8.3 Supplementary methods for defect identification Useful characteristics for defect identification are the directional sensitivity and the position and orientation of the defect in the weld. Lack of sidewall fusion may be readily identified from its position and directional sensitivity when a probe angle is selected with the beam axis normal to the weld preparation, Fig. 33. Position 1 Position 2 Fig. 33, With the probe in Position 1 a well-defined echo signal of maximum amplitude may be obtained, but with the probe at Position 2 little or no energy from the incident beam will be reflected. However, with increasing material thickness the angle of weld preparation will tend to a more normal orientation with the plate surface. This is a dis- advantage for detection and identification. Therefore in the event of planar defects lying nearly perpen- dicular to the plate surface a scanning technique should be selected ‘two probes of 45° in tandem as described in para. 4.7.3. Accurate location is necessary in the event of reflections originating from discontinuities at or near the weld surface. It is often difficult to dis- tinguish between echo signals which originate from reflecting surfaces of the edge of the weld and from defects positioned near the HAZs. a 2 4 2 (see Fig. 24 Figure 34 illustrates a means of distinguishing between the echo signals from an excessive rein- forcement of the weld and a possible planar defect in the HAZ. The reinforcement of the weld at both toes may act as a good reflector, particularly when scanning with 45° probes. 19Fig. 35, ae Fig. 97 Fig. 38 Fig. 39 The examination of a weld which has been made from one side only generally involves many diffi- culties in the identification of the echo signals ‘obtained from the root. In this part of the weld various kinds of defect may occur such as an excess or lack, of penetration, lack-of-sidewall fusion, root concavity, and linear misalignment. For a reliable identification it is essential to know the exact position of the root faces before testing, and it is strongly recommended that the parent metal on both sides of the joint is marked before welding, at a known distance from the root faces. The path length and the projected distance, Fig. 35, must be accurately determined for the relevant probe angle and thickness. After accurate time-base calibration the position fon the screen corresponding to the path length should be marked. The reliability with which the reflecting surfaces in the root area can be identified depends mainly on the accurate measurement of differences in path length, in conjunction with the distance between the probe index and centre line of the weld, Figs 36-39, Incomplete root penetration, Fig. 36: the path length determined from both sides of the weld corresponds with that measured according to Fig. 35. The projected path length will, from both sides, indicate the defect in front of the centre line. Tight incomplete root penetration, Fig. 37: the path length determined from both sides of the weld corresponds with that measured according to Fig. 35. The projected path length will, from both sides, indicate the defect at the centre line. Excessive root penetration, Fig. 38: an equal path length from both sides of the weld but longer than that in Fig. 35 may be determined. The projected from both sides, indicate the reflec- ide of the centre line, Linear misalignment, Fig. 39: when, from the root area of a full-penetration weld, signals of high amplitude are observed only from one side at a path length as in Fig. 35, and the projected path length indicates the reflector as lying on the other side of the centre line, a deviation, as shown in Fig. 39, may be present. This type of deviation may also be caused by differences in thickness of the two plates or pipes to be joined. General observations To improve defect location and identification the use is recommended of probes operating at a frequency of at least 4MHz and having a narrow beam. Higher resolution may thus be obtained. When scanning the root area of a weld which has been made from one side only, a movement of the probe parallel to the weld while maintaining a constant probe-to-weld distance may be useful. Some form of probe-guidance device may be ‘employed to maintain the correct probe distance. If the tests described do not yield reliable results additional examinations should be made to gather more information for identification, e.g. visual, magnetic particle examination, radiography, or sometimes local surface dressing, 20CHAPTER 5 APPLICATION TO BUTT WELDED CURVED SURFACES In an ultrasonic inspection of a curved surface the gap between the curved and contact surfaces of the probe should not exceed 0.5mm. The probe may be suitably adapted to match the curved surface so as. to comply with this requirement, Adaptation of the probe is not required where We mY In this formula R is the radius of the curved surface under examination, mm. W is either the length of the probe (mm) if the beam is incident in the longitudinal direction of the curved surface, or the width of the probe (mm) if the beam is incident per- pendicular to the direction of the curved surface (see para. 7.2.1) If the probe is adapted, the probe index and probe angle as well as the skip distance must be accurately determined (see para. 4.6.2.2). The IW calibration blocks cannot be used for curved probes, and appropriate testpieces should be prepared, ‘The relationship between the depth of a defect, the path length for both convex, Fig. 40, and concave 41, surfaces at a given radius, and the probe angle can be determined from the curves shown in the Figures. on 03 02] oa ° 0510 5 Pla Fig. 40. Convex surface din 19 oa os oa 02] 0” 0204 0608 101214 Pip Fig. 41 Concave surface 5.1 CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDS. Circumferential welds are examined using the techniques described in paras 4.7 and 4.8. Shaped probe shoes may render swivelling impracticable (see para. 4.7 [c}). If shaped probe shoes are used the possibility of a greater beam spread as well as of mode conversion must be taken into account. 5.2 LONGITUDINAL WELDS Examination of longitudinal welds in curved surfaces should be carried out in accordance with the procedure outlined in paras 4.7 and 4.8 and the same precautions must be taken as for para. 5.1 In addition, the choice of the probe angle should be based on both the radius of curvature and the thickness of the material to ensure coverage of the full depth of the weld. Moreover, the angle of inci- dence of the beam at the opposite side should not exceed 70°. The probe angle can be determined with the aid of the nomogram given in Fig. 42. RR ratio 0 © 0.00 0 0 eof” 70 60 70 0.05. % 60, 030 40 50 ons. so 40 020 028. 30 Fig. 42 2CHAPTER 6 APPLICATION TO OTHER FORMS OF WELD One of the advantages of ultrasonic testing com- pared to radiography is its versatility with respect to the geometry of the weld to be examined, Abrupt changes in material thickness or weld section can be accommodated by the appropriate selection of probes and scanning technique. Fig. 43 Fig. 44 As a rule the same techniques as for the examination of ordinary butt welds can be followed, but som times these are restricted because the scanning area is insufficient. In other instances the geometry provides a greater choice of scanning zone enabling the weld to be approached from different sides (compare Figs 43 and 44). The following guidelines can_be given for the commonly used fillet welds and T joints. 22 6.1 FILLET WELDS The examination of fillet welds is mostly applied to check the extent of penetration or the gap between the welded parts. Incomplete penetration can be readily revealed by using 45° to 60° probes, depending on the thickness of the plate, utilising the comer effect, Fig. 45. For rapid scanning it is advisable to provide a guidance system which holds the probe at_an optimum distance from the vertical member. The distance should be about full skip but needs to be established empirically. Such a guidance device is also useful for the detection of excessive gaps, Fig. 46. r — To be kept constant Fig, 45 Fig. 46 To determine the distance in this situation it is only necessary to depend on the end face of the hori- zontal member and make use of the beam spread in the incident and reflected signal, ‘The gap, I-a, can generally be estimated with an accuracy better than 1mm. To examine a fillet wold in a lap joint a similar technique can be applied to that described in the second section of this paragraph, Fig. 47. ThePosition 1 Position 2 Fig. 47 probe can be placed in Positions 1 or 2 depending ‘on the thickness of the plate. Generally this tech- nique is practical for thicknesses over 10mm. 6.2 DOUBLE-BEVELLED T JOINTS The examination of double-bevelled T joints is mostly applied to check the extent of root pene- tration. Even in partial penetration welds it may be desirable to check whether the height of the land exceeds a specified value because of insufficient fusion or root cracking. For this kind of examination either shear- or com- pressional-wave probes can be used, Fig. 48, Positions 1 and 2. Fig. 48 ‘The accuracy of the test depends very much on the quality of the weld preparation and the thickness of the welded plates. Generally, in a range from 10-50mm plate thickness, the shear-wave probe should have an angle of 70” For greater thicknesses it may be advisable to use two 45° probes in tandem. To minimise the influence of probe manipulation a probe-guidance system is almost indispensable if a Practical rate of testing is to be achieved, ‘Where partial penetration is acceptable the examina tion requires more care, and it may be necessary to make two parallel scans to determine the extremities of the unwelded portion, Fig. 49, Positions 1, 2, and 3. Position 2 Position 1 Position 3 Fig. 49 Examination with a compressional-wave probe should be based on amplitude comparison: favour- able conditions are offered for size estimation as the reflector lies at a fixed distance and in a plane perpendicular to the beam, Fig. 49, Position 3. The application of 45° shear-wave probes is most appropriate to reveal longitudinal cracks. It is important to note that in this way underbead cracking can easily be detected, Fig. 50, Positions 1 and 2. Examination can also take place from the vertical member. Lamellar tearing may be detected in different ways depending upon the configuration and material thickness. Position 1 Position 2 Fig. 50 Figure 51 illustrates applicable techniques by use of cither a compressional-wave probe (Position 1) or a shear-wave probe (Positions 2 or 3) In the condition given in Position 3 the distance, |, should be marked as that giving optimum reflection from the weld surface if there is no large defect, Lamellar tearing will also cause positive reflections from Positions 2 and 3 because of its particular step-like form, In other types of joint such defects can be found by similar techniques. 23