Electric Power Generation and Distribution

Heat Recovery Steam Generators: Vulnerable to Failure

Victor Rogers
28 July 2016
Combined-cycle natural gas generation is displacing King Coal. And although renewables promise a bright future, combined-
cycle power plants (CCPP) are efficient, clean and inexpensive generating sources with the capacity to replace base-load
generation in large scale.

The recent growth U.S. shale gas production along with pipeline network expansions have lowered and stabilized natural
gas prices to the point where they are competitive with coal generation. Combined-cycle plants are relatively inexpensive to
build and can achieve thermodynamic efficiencies exceeding 60%. Additionally, their fast-start ramping capabilities enable
hundreds of megawatts to hit the grid faster than other sources.

(Read “Combined Cycle Power Plants: Is Their Reign Assured?”)

The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) projects that 2016’s power generation from natural gas, for the first time
ever, will surpass coal’s share at 33% to 32%, respectively. Correspondingly, 2015 was the first year when domestic natural
gas plant utilization exceeded that of coal at a capacity factor of 56% versus 55%.

The initial wave of CCPP construction that began in the 1990’s, anticipated low generating costs through baseload
operation. Instead, natural gas price volatility and electricity demand variation forced most of these plants to catch emerging
power sale opportunities by cycling (meaning they were off at night and on weekends). In recent years, with gas price
stabilizing at around the $3 - $4/MMBtu range, many CCPPs are called on to follow load demand and even for baseload
operation as they originally were designed.

At the same time, their associated heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) have been used (and sometimes abused) to
suit market needs. The HRSG is the boiler placed after the gas turbine to absorb remaining hot exhaust gasses and produce
steam to drive an additional turbine/generator set. It enables the added generation and efficiency made possible by
combined-cycles in the power plant.

Highly flexible operational practices--from periodic baseload operation to cycling the plant every day-- take their toll on
HRSG pressure parts. Most in current operation were not designed with the flexibility to withstand the stress levels caused
by faster startups, low-load operations and repeated thermal cycling. And the stressors are intensified by today’s larger,
more efficient gas turbines.

Located directly downstream of these turbines, HRSGs sustain greater thermal and mechanical stress from increased
exhaust gas temperatures and pressure changes. In addition to damages from failure mechanisms that have long-plagued
conventional boilers, HRSGs are also prone to design, construction, operation and water chemistry deficiencies. Pressure
part failures of tubes, headers and connecting piping represent some of the greatest reliability threats. Of critical importance
are regular internal inspections to proactively identify failure mechanisms and root causes so that forced outages can be
mitigated.

The following summarizes some of the most common types of HRSG system failure mechanisms and their causes.

HRSG tube failures (HTF) are the primary source of unavailability among combined cycles causing an average of six forced
outage events per unit year as indicated by recent NERC GADS data. HTF repair events don’t necessarily require lengthy
outages, but they can have large effects on in-market availability and prove costly, especially for merchant generators.

 Thermal Fatigue is a common damage mechanism among superheaters and reheaters caused by the thermal
expansion and contraction of cyclic operation. Thermal fatigue occurs primarily at dissimilar metal welds and tube
to header connections. Attemperator overspray and residual condensate among LP economizer sections cause
steaming and quenching during startup and exacerbate thermal fatigue.
 Short-term Overheating results from exposures to highly elevated temperatures or when tubes are starved of flow
as a result of some blockage. Improving temperature controls, preventing tube internal exfoliation or upgrading tube
materials may mitigate overheating.
 Long-term Overheating (Creep) accumulates from temperature exposures in excess of design. Even minimal
temperature exceedances accrue cumulatively and with time form microstructural creep voids that can shorten tube
life. Improved temperature controls or upgrading tube materials are two strategies to mitigate creep.

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  Creep Fatigue occurs due to the combined effect of overheating and cyclic stress. Often tough to diagnose, it
typically initiates along the outside diameter of tubing in high-temperature locations. It can be mitigated by reducing
cyclic loading and localized overheating.
 Bowing is a common failure mechanism caused by differential expansion, quenching and tube fabrication
disparities. Reheater tubes in close proximity to attemperators or duct burners are especially susceptible to bowing.
Some units experience tube bowing to the degree that crimping and local yielding results in premature tube failures.
 Acid Dewpoint Corrosion occurs from gas turbine exhaust gas moisture which condenses to water vapor and
sulfuric acid. The corrosive mix rests upon the tubes and wastes away metal over time. This mechanism may be
spared by upgrading tube materials or changing operation to increase tube temperatures.

Cycle Chemistry (CC) influences approximately 70% of the HRSG tube failures (HTF). Oxide growth and progressive
deposition of water/steam impurities or oxide scale buildup contribute to a variety of damage mechanisms. Unfortunately, the
system design or mode of operation increases susceptibility to tube internal deposition. The shutdowns and poor layup
practices from cyclical operation introduce elevated temperatures, flow disruptions and contaminants. A suitable water
treatment program helps to ensure feedwater quality maintains tube internal surfaces free of contamination and corrosion
among all areas of the HRSG.

 Flow-Assisted Corrosion (FAC), a chemistry-related failure, causes 40% of all HRSG tube failures. It involves the
single (water only) and two-phase (water/steam) variations. FAC originates from the loss of protective metal oxides
within the tubes which enables wall loss. Proper boiler water chemistry is critical. In contrast to conventional boilers,
FAC among HRSGs is found predominantly among tubes, headers and risers in low-pressure (LP) economizers
and LP evaporators. External feedwater piping is also susceptible among HRSGs which take feed pump suction
from the LP drum. The best approach to managing FAC metal loss is a combination of correct water chemistry
control and regular assessment and trending of wall thicknesses among susceptible locations (most of which are
internal to the HRSG box). Additionally, materials containing chromium are resistant to FAC. Increasing numbers of
utilities are simply upgrading materials to chromium to enact a permanent fix.
 Under-Deposit Corrosion (UDC) occurs exclusively among HP evaporator tubing. It encompasses several water
chemistry-related failure mechanisms which commonly cause significant problems when not adequately controlled.
A combination of deposited material and corrosion products adhere to the internal tube surface and waste away
tube material until eventual failure occurs. An understanding of these corrosion mechanisms is necessary to
prohibit or reverse active corrosion. Appropriate cycle chemistry with negligible feedwater corrosion products and
avoidance of localized elevated temperatures are the best defense against UDC.

o Acid Phosphate Corrosion is defined by a combination of internal deposits and phosphate salts leading
to UDC and eventual tube failure. Chemistry controls using mono- or di-sodium phosphate is problematic.
o Caustic Gouging occurs when chemistry controls employ too highly concentrated caustic or caustic
ingress occurs from the regeneration ion exchange process. The excess caustic dissolves the protective
magnetite layer. The water in contact with iron attempts to restore this magnetite and traps the high
caustic concentration. A continuous loss of metal ensues.
o Hydrogen Damage refers to a combination of internal deposits and contaminant ingress or an acidic
concentration. Chloride frequently enters the cycle through condenser leakage.
 Pitting  is characterized by localized corrosive metal loss illustrated by deep pits. The most common cause of
pitting is poor drainage and layup between cycles. Oxygenated, stagnant water within numerous tube circuits is the
usual culprit. It’s imperative during lengthy shutdowns that procedures are in place to drain and/or evacuate all
water and protect the tube internals from any remaining moisture through dehumidification or nitrogen blanketing.
 Corrosion Fatigue is a leading cause of failures among LP evaporators and economizers. It’s usually identified
where expansion is restricted such as among tube to header welds. Groups of cracks appear on the internal
surface in a position perpendicular to the major strain. Corrosion fatigue is an “on again, off again” mechanism that
reemerges when oxide laden cracks are exposed to concurrent strain along with poor water chemistry.

Grade 91 steel poses a particular problem. Containing 9% Chromium, it exhibits enhanced creep rupture, yield and ultimate
tensile strengths in addition to toughness. Grade 91 enables elevated temperature operation, better lifetime performance
and thinner materials in the design and manufacture of piping systems.

(Read “P91 Piping: A Panacea-Turned-Nightmare for Power Plants?”)

During the boom years of new HRSG construction, Grade 91 materials were viewed as a panacea for cycling-related
thermal fatigue. Unfortunately, many complications have emerged since then. Grade 91 is more sensitive to variations in
metallurgy and heat treatment than traditional materials. In particular, its material integrity was frequently compromised from
microstructural damages sustained during manufacture, erection or as a result of operational issues experienced among
HRSGs.

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Premature cracking from creep degradation, especially among welds, is widespread. A majority of large HRSGs built from
the 1990s have tubes, headers and high energy piping constructed from Grade 91. Failures among the larger components
such as headers, major connecting piping, and steam piping frequently require lengthy outages with significant repair costs
not to mention the loss of generation.

The recommended course of action, regarding P91 piping, is two-fold: First, for repairs, pay close attention to any and all
heat treatment activities such that the correct microstructures are developed and maintained and, second, assess current
risk(s) through timely and aggressive piping and weld inspections to determine creep degradation and confirm material
properties.

Problematic designs and operating constraints introduce additional causes of HRSG failures. As previously discussed,
the HRSG is located downstream of the combustion turbine. The consequences of sporadic temperature and pressure
swings from exhaust gasses and the effect they have on tubes are an obvious place to recognize. But where else?

 Water Hammer occurs among many HRSGs. Improper steam attemperator spray controls, premature valve
actuation or inadequately design condensate drain lines are often culprits. Water hammer can be a destructive
force, often taking a toll on piping supports and sometimes exacerbating piping failure mechanisms.
 Thermal Quenching-Induced Fracture  ensues when significant “off-design” events occur resulting in rapid
thermal quenching and/or overloading failures, primarily at tube-to-header connections. Faulty control logic or
damaging operational practices are often to blame. A root cause of failure analysis should be conducted following
any such event to mitigate future occurrences.
 HRSG Economizers are vulnerable to a number of issues.

o Tube-to-Tube Stressors can occur from unbalanced economizer flow distribution. Upon initial startup, HP
evaporators are yet to produce steam and do not require makeup water. Thus, since the feedwater control
valve is closed, no water enters the economizer. Without this needed heat transfer, economizer metal
temperatures can reach flue gas temperatures of 500–600F.
o Cold surges among the economizer pose significant sources of stress. They create large temperature
differences between contiguous tube sections. Cooler tubes contract while the adjacent warm tubes do
not. This phenomenon introduces stress risers, particularly among areas of tube geometrical changes,
such as at a weld. These events, although short-lived, shorten the economizer’s remaining useful life at
each instance.

HRSG reliability is maximized by understanding the conditions giving rise to potential damage mechanisms. HRSG design,
along with its feedwater and attemperator control systems, water chemistry, and component materials, are variables critical
to operational flexibility. By ensuring correct operational methods, such as controlled startups/shutdowns, the damaging
thermal transients can be mitigated. Proactive, risk-based inspections of failure-vulnerable locations are critical to issue
identification, necessary repair(s) and preventing unexpected outages.

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