6 Landscape design Michael Littlewood Michael Litlewood is a landscape architect and a consultant KEY POINT: (© The design of space between buildings is as important as that of the buildings themselves Contents 1 Introduction 2 Walkways 3 Steps 4 Ramps 5 Landings 6 Handrails 7 Seating 8 Strect furniture 9 Barriers 10 Gates and doors 11 Children’s play equipment 12 References 1 INTRODUCTION Low ‘The design of extemal spaces outside and between buildings, ‘whether urban or rural, public or private, covers a wide variety of elements and requires considerable knowledge of the location, ‘materials and construction. All to0 often parsimony results in schemes which are unsatisfactory both aesthetically and practically. 1.02 Basic human dimensions ‘The space requirements of people ouside buildings are generally similar to those inside as illustrated in Chapter 2. A family group fof six people on a lawn or terace occupy a rough circle 4m diameter, for ten people (the largest convenient simple group) the —1200— 200 wide-two peop pos eonforaty —— 4 1700" 1700 wide wo prams or wheres ban confeiete ‘en 64 Characteristics of various footway widths62 Landscape design wal or forge ‘2200 —| 3200. | 62 Pedestrians benween walls or fences, double fle tree abreast ‘minimum dimensions. Add 25 per cent for free ‘movement, prams, wheelchairs and bicycles A path with 2m Anion fine ode 63 Narrow path across open space 65 Walking between clipped hedges with careful movement. Planting beds should be 400mm wide for clipped hedges GES eof as ot gord Teel 64 Minimum path widths between low planting, but not suitable 66 Minimum dimensions for pedestrians berween free-srowing for prams. Planting beds should be 600mm wide for herbaceous shrubs. Where there are prams allow 3m berween the centres of plants plantingpedestrians that use these paths must also be considered, 6.1 ‘Minimum requirements between walls or fences are shown in 6.2; 63 illstrates a path over open ground. Other situstions are shown in 64 10 66. Pedestrians typically do not use the entire width of footpaths ‘The edge adjacent to a Kerbed roadway about 75m wide tends to be avoided, as is the 0.5 t0 0.75m width directly alongside a building, 6.7. Only under conditions of congestion would these edges be used. Street furiture such as tees, bollards, direction sign, parking meters, telephones, litter bins, fountains, sculpture and kiosks ean also reduce footpath effective width. They should preferably be situated in the avoidance zones. 2.04 Slopes 68 and 69 provide longitudinal and cross-slope criteria for Footpaths under various circumstances. Longitudinal slope criteria ‘gradients are based on user abilities and design objectives. Cross-slope criteria are based on the need for positive drainage (depending on paving material). Porous paving, for instance, does not require as much of a crossslope for drainage as does & non porous paving material 2.08 Surfacing ‘The location ofthe footpath and its intensity of use will determine the surfacing material and its thickness. Some paths are also used for service vehicles and should be designed accordingly, paarcvlarly the edge details. Several factors influence the uiding kerb side edge zone 6.7 Zones avoided by pedesrians 5 68 Walking along a longitudinal slope: up to 3 per cent referred, generally 5 per cent maximum, 5-10 per cent possible depending on climate. Between S per cent and 8 per cent slopes are considered to be ramps | ( | 6.9 Paths with crossfall:1 per cent minimum for drainage, depending on material of finish; 2 per cent is typical, 3 per cent Landscape desien 633 durability of paving materials; even high-quality materials can ‘wear out or disintegrate if subjected to extremes of heavy traffic or inadequate maintenance. Surfacing iregularties should. be ‘minimized, ‘Some footpaths or walkways are required to have high traction ratings for safety use. Highly textured surfacings usually require steeper slopes for drainage (.e. 2 per cent minimum) but every Footpath must seek to achieve its design purpose in all weather conditions. A multitude of design pattems is now possible with the ccurent wide range of unit pavers. Colour affects the degree to ‘which eat and light are absorbed or reflected, and requires ‘consideration The edges ofa footpath play an extremely important part in both its appearance and function. Flexible materials such as macadam ‘or sprayed chippings particularly need the suppor of an edging; so do unit paving blocks and bricks 2.06 Tactile warning strips ‘These ate used to give advance notice to people with impaired sight of abrupt grade changes, vehicular areas, dangerous exis, pools or water fountains, and the like 6.10, They ae recommended at the top and botiom af steps and in fromt of doors that lead to hazardous areas. However, such warnings should not be used at ‘emergency exits, as they ean inhibit their proper use. Street fumiture, including tees, should be located within « defined zone along the outer edge of walkways, leaving a clear path without obstruction. linear tactile warning strip can define this zone. 6.11 shows a blind person using x white stick, hazardous area recessed grooves raised stipe 6.10 Tactile warning pavings. These have value as devices to ‘warn visually impaired people of hazards. They need to be in strips or areas large enough to be detectable64 Landscape desi 6.11 Visually impaired person walking. The Typhlo cane is primarily used by those with limited vision. It will detect objects ‘only within a specific range. Nothing should project into a pedestrian pathway above a height of 680mm 3 STEPS 301 Steps provide great opportunities for creating character and drama; ‘good examples abound. They can be divided into three main, types: (© Those steps which are sculptural as they have been literally cazved out ofthe ground: earth or rock (© Those which are part ofan element or structure: retaining wall, or a building ~ usually a plinth ~ eg the steps of St Paul's, London (@ The cantilevered kind, sometimes no more than a ladder between levels, 3.02 Design The design and materials of steps should sim :0 reinforce the character of their site. However, steps constitute a formidable barrier and safely hazard for those with visual or mobility impairment, Forty-four per cent of all accidents to visually impaired people occur at level changes. Locate any unexpected level changes out ofthe main line of pedestrian trafic Never have a single step in a walkway, except for kerbs Preferably, use flights of at least three steps; their presence should, be announced conspicuously, with visual and textural wamings at the top and botiom, 3.03 Nosing and shadow line profiles Shadow lines are often included in seps for reasons of appearance. “They can be hazardous if large enough to catch the oes of, Pedestrians. Nosings can also catch toes unless they are rounded. 12 shows various nosing and shadow line profiles some of which are hazardous, particularly to disabled people, and are therefore not recommended. The nose of each step should be easy {0 ec, not obscured by confusing surfacing patterns. Treads should be visually distant from one another. Open treads and shadow line recesses can cause tripping and should be used with diseretion, 204 Treadiriser ‘The steepness of a flight of steps has a crucial influence on its character. Outdoor scale makes it difficult to have a rule for the square nosings catch toes of ‘shoes, braces, ate ‘edges should be ‘Shadow lines ‘should be kept toa minimum recesses catch toes of shoes, — braces, etc open risers catch oes of shoos, ~~ braces, ete. ——3 = cs these profes are considered relatively safe these profles can be hazardous 6.12 Various tead profiles tteadjtser ratio, although some guidance can be provided. Interior standards such as given in Chapter 2 should not be used externally: eps with those ratios become precipitous when descending. Also, people tend to move faster outdoors than they do indoors. Inherent toa particular wead-riser ratio is the ease at which the steps can be used in relation tothe person's natural pace and his oF her sense of rhythm, 6.13. In dimensionally tight situations an appropriate tead-—risr ratio has (o be determined that will allow a given number of steps (includine landings if necessary) to fit the available space. Risers for outdoor stairways should be a minimum of 112mm, a ‘maximum of 175mm. ‘Most examples show a more generous tread-riser than that achieved by formula. The steps to the Acropolis in Athens are 494mm tread (going) X 173mm rise; the Spanish Steps in Rome, ae 400 X 150mm, 305 Surfacings ‘Textured materials are most suitable for treads as they provide a sip in wet and icy weather. Itis also an advantage if they are in 6.13 Stair height and landing proportions: at least 6¥0, preferably three steps to be provided. Longer flights should preferably be in multiples of five treads to alternate the fet. Landings should be long enough to allow an easy cadence, at least three strides. Longer landings should be in multiples of 15m. The rise between landings should not exceed 1.5m $0 ‘hat the next landing is visible: greater heights are psychologically uninvitin. fit unavoidable, provide a landing atleast every 20 treads 10 minimise fatigue‘lighter colour than the risers, as the nosings will contrast with their background, 3.06 Abutments ‘While many steps will have no abutments, others will have one or two, In some instances they may be retaining walls, especially where treads cannot fade away into adjoining ground. Where the ‘light projects out from the slope or bank, the construction below the treads should be carefully considered. 3.07 Landings Long flights of steps are frightening and exhausting. Landings should be provided after twelve to fourteen steps to provide @ pause or a change of direction. The height between stairway landings isan important factor for psychological reasons as wel as for human endurance, The maximum should be 1.Sm for vi coherence and invitation between adjacent levels. Lower heights are preferred 6.14 and 6.15, 3.08 Landing widths Landings should allow for the convenient movement of people, especially for those who need assistance negotiating steps. Except inthe case of very wide steps, such as those in front of imposing buildings, they shouldbe atleast as wide in both directions asthe flights they serve, and may be wider. {6.14 Seeing over the landing from the bottom of the flight of steps textured pavement Cohn ot Soden minimar wath am 4 minim with i (@m) ‘maximum stair height, elevation (15m) view 6.15 Vertical height berween landings should be minimised to ‘accommedate people with limited stamina, Note that the ‘minimum widths do not include the wall thicknesses Landscape design 65 locates to project beyond gutter weet 19 wal ‘ace utter section through tread at wail tuead with nosing plan section through tread and riser {6.16 in areas of heavy rainfall andior hard frosts, the treads to 4a flight of steps might be given a slight backfll with tiny ‘gucters which themselves fall to larger gutters atthe flight edge 3.09 Drainage ‘Surface water must be shed off steps as quickly a5 possible, especially in winter, and treads should fll by at last 2 percent. in areas of heavy rainfall a detail such as shown in 6.16 could be used, ‘Landings are needed to moderate the flow of water down stair flights, and should incorporate gullies. 4 RAMPS 4.01 Pedestrian ramps ‘These are used 10 allow whocled vehicles such as trolleys, ‘wheelchairs and buggies to change levels. The important criteria is the angle of slope, the typeof surfacing and the drainage of surface Ramps are essential for those who use wheelchairs. The angle of slope may vary depending upon the location. steep angle that is satisfactory for a short length will be unacceptable for a longer ramp. A zig-zag ramp which goes up a long bank needs to be almost level tits bends; otherwise the gradients on the insides of those bends will be very step. Ramps should have a landing at least every 9.0m of length, 6.17, Visual and textual indications should be provided at top and bottom, 4.02 Slopes ‘Ouidoor ramps should generally be no steeper than 5 per cent; ‘when enclosed and protected the maximum gradient is 8.5 per cent, Dropped kerbs are an exception, 12 per cent being acceptable if the running distance less than 1m.66 Landscape design [ fy max 450 # 3% om 4565 5% 1480 3% [aso 9000 max 1500 min 6.17 External ramps, straight and dog-tee 4.03 Widths These are determined according to type and intensity of use. One- way travel requires a minimum width of 900mm clear, whereas twosvay travel needs 1500mm, 6.18, Where tums occur at landings adequate space for manoeuvring wheelchairs must be provide 4.04 Rages Usually one or both sides of a ramp will be higher or lower than ‘adjacent ground. Where the side is lower than the ground, there will be a bank or a retaining wall. The base of a bank will need some form of kerbing. ‘Where the ramp is higher than adjacent ground, guarding will be necessary. See Section § of dis chapter for detail 4.08 Surfacing The surfacing of the ramp depends on its slope and location, A {grassed ramp is suitable where the use is minimal and the slope is gentle as in a garden. In an urban situation with steep slopes a sealed surface of tarmac with chippings rolled in would be more appropriate. On extreme slopes bricks or blocks can be used, combined with drainage channels and gullies, A. useful form of surface is shown in 6.19. Surfacings should have grip, with low Kerbs (at least S0mm high) along the edges of ramps and landings for detection by 4.06 Drainage Unless checked, rainwater will run rapidly down a ramp: landings are used to break the flow. Gullies should be placed where they will not cause problems to people or wheels. Linear drains are helpful at the bottom of « ramp. andrallngs 37 mm min diameter handralings 37 mm min gistance from wall 300 min extension of handraiings 41500 clear width in 6.18 Dimensional criteria for a two-way ramp for wheelchairs For one-way travel the minimum width is 900 mm orignal wal ‘roundline brick kero smooth brick gutters 7 diagonal patterned paving Nags *- section 6.19 Diagonaly rilled slabs can be used t0 pave a ramp surface. This provides grip, and rainwater drains 10 the side ‘exposed aggregate paving fags brick on edge sotin « cmowehcincire | i J oors tet fe BEES olors 350 6.20 A perron, or stepped ramp. May be used where prams, pushchairs and trolleys are expected but not suitable for most wheelchair users 4.07 Ramped steps or perrons These can be useful for long hills where a ramp would be t00 steep. They are not suitable for wheelchairs. SO mm risers can be negotiated by prams and buggies. Allowing dheee paces on each tread (2.2m) an overall gradient of 7 per cent can be achieved, 620, 5 HANDRAILS S01 Handrails should be provided to all stairway’ and ramps, and may also be installed along paths to assist less mobile people. They are important for safety, for support and for guidance of those with visual difficulties In recreational settings, ropes with periodic knots have been tused as location devices enabling the visually impaired to enjoy areas and places which were previously inaccessible, Handrails should not be an afterthought, of seen purcly as a safety factor. It is preferable to provide handrails on both sides of a stairway or ramp because some people have one-sided strength Extra-wide stairways should have centre railings ao more than 6 m apart ‘The ends of railings should extend beyond the top aad bottom steps of stairways by 300 10 450mm. They should be continuous across intermediate landings and should be capable of supporting 114kg of mass. Handrails should be easy and confortable to grip, 621. There should be no sharp or protruding ends, edges or fixings. When fixed to walls they ean obtrude or be inset, 6.22251030 diameter 4 828 {6.21 Handrail profiles: preferred and deprecated, The preferred profiles allow a secure and comfortable natural grip ain tm) | )+6in mn (130mm) i ain Sirace | end Should be sooth Cnaconuste dleornce, 6.22 Fixing handrails 760-800 670max 6.23 Handrail heights Handrailing heights for outdoor steps and ramps range from 750 10 850mm, 6.23. Below the top ral of handrailings there should be a second rail at a height of 670mm or lower for children and for detection by cane users 6 SEATING 6.01 Benches and other forms of outdoor seating ‘These are important, Reasons to sit vary widely, and many people find it essential to find a readily available place to rest. ‘The placing should be carefully considered. Avoid situations attractive f0 vagrants and alcoholics. Benches should be designed for comfor. 6.24 illustrates preferred height and the seating angle for outdoor benches. Consider the needs of elderly and disabled people. Some, for ‘example, require armrests when getting into or out of a seated position. Heel space is necessary when rising from the seat, 628, Landscape design 67 50 x 30 normal size hardwood sats sanded finish — | hot dip oe, oe \ 810 \\\ (60 x 40 steel Ff \ tubeleaset | | so. r2st0e 400 mewn || 2 tea eee at | Sen oonad a 760 t 6.24 A good park bench: from the GLC South Bank. Standard length modules I'm, 1Sm, 2m, 2.5m and 3m. Longer lengihs «as special SIDE VIEW igh back s important for support 450 max ‘360 min provide pore armeess toreate in forease in ting Ui peinaup getting up + 400 foal ‘minimum ae 450.500 FI 6.25 Park bench seat, designed t0 suit people of limited strength, Armrests and heelspace are especially important +200 pitched surface for crainage provide heel space for ease of geting up 6.26 Wall seating. Although wall heights can vary, they should be designed for a range of users68 Landscape design Wheelchair users require places to stop and rest off the pedestrian flow, and somewhere to set packages. These should be Adjacent to benches for their fiends and cares, ‘Outdoor seating should be designed for easy maintenance and cleaning, and materials should resist vandalism, Surfaces should, be pitched to shed water, but weep holes should not drain onto walking surfaces where wetness orice may constitute a azar, 6.02 Wall seating ‘Walls designed for sitting on are typically 400~4S0mm wide, and between 350 and 550mm in height, 400 mm being most common, 6.26, For the elderly a greater height is prefered. 7 STREET FURNITURE 701 ‘Street furiture should be carefully organised for safety and easier ‘negotiation for those with visual impairments. Elements should be casily detectable by cane, either in themselves or by way of a hazard strip. A linear textured surface can be used to separate a zone with furniture from clear walking space. 7.02 Litter bins Provide types that ae usable by disabled people, 6.27. Open-top varieties are the easiest but allow snow and rain to collect. Sen ‘open tops prevent entry of snow and rain and are relatively easy to ‘operate, Hinged-door varieties prevent entry of snow and rain, but, many people find them difficult to use. 8 BARRIERS 801 ‘The purposes of bariers are © Privacy © Safety © Security ‘© Boundary definition ‘© Circulation control ‘© Environmental modification ~ climate, noise, ete © Appearance ‘Tble Choe of barrier related to fonction 900 toopening ‘semi-open top ‘900 oF 6 ee hinged-deor openings | 627 Liner bins 8.02 ‘The type, size and the materials will largely be determined by the prime purpose (see Table 1) The site and local character should influence the styl, especially iit is not level. The design should also consider scale, proportion, thythm, colour and texture. Practical mater, such as Building Regulations, accurate boundary surveys, easements, fire and safety access as well as economic factors, construction methods and maintenance, must not be overlooked. 8.03 Posts and bollards ‘These are mainly used to prevent vehicles encroaching on pedestrian areas. They should preferably not be placed in the main line of pedestrian travel and should allow free pedestrian movement, 6.28. Form of enlonure Physical Viel ‘Windbreak To Durability Cimbable Permanence Remarks arier barrier ie (cory) (pracy) syece Toe x y xy yo te x igh Walle: mock, sone conerte 7 7 vo tee Hien 0 rot Fence: timber ‘ ‘ moe owe yw OC propery paced ond Fencer: pecan connie ‘ coe Fo Me) Ma (Depending on design ‘eat ibe parse Fences pecmconcse x x x Hey Met Mest: wrught won and x x x 4 te xh (6 Depencing on design ‘mi wel (Chin hk and woven wire 7 Py GG 4 Med vty Me () Woven wi an be fence ‘Sectoral visa ue, 8 (Bae fcr on anor {ich f ig mesh Sraned wie fence ‘ x x x yom Med Gear le oes! Ree x Met tow Only fore la aiding ods tak Oe me ial ee Mea {0 Unless very igh (GU tigh enough Hate ¢ x x x peewee 7) Low Cae it to x x x pete eee High (Fee animate ote hubs wo7 x OF vo Me x Met Gi Ipyee banter, ‘kare ots x x x x on MotZs 75 ps Fe 42504. 2 ae » BA |x 0 [ew 6.28 Various styles of precast concrete bollards. Some of these can be supplied in alternatiove version with built-in lighting ground level 8.04 Chain barriers ‘These, especially when lower than 790mm in height, are hhazardous to pedestrians, cyclists, and motoreyclist since they are difficult to see, 6.29. They are also difficult to detect by visually impaired cane users unless they are lower than 670mm. 805 Guardrails ‘These can also be hazardous. They should be constructed high ‘enough to be easily seen, but should also be designed for easy detection by those who are visually impaired, 6.30, 8.06 Fences ‘The various types of fences are shown in Table TI and 6.31 to 6.39. ‘They come in small, medium and all heights Table II), in closed, ‘open, omamental and security types, and in various styles. Higher fences should be designed with wind forces in mind ~ a plastic- ‘coated wire chain link is 14 per cent solid. maxim height fli inenain 400 min height 630 Low barriers and the hazards they present gravel board 6.31 Close boarded fence with capping and gravel board capping 41800 + 150 +1800 100. 100mm post ‘600mm min depth 6.32 Woven wood fence ‘mortced post and ail {6.3 Morticed post and rail fence + 2700. ‘Staining post intermediate post +000) } ut 6.34 Fence of chesmut palings supported on straining and intermediate posts “ote Fac ‘Timber - Met Com Onn Oman se One (me band 631 ‘Pov 39 Sia rings 636 Chik 637 tan wi Soe est Gsm pe 634 Stet pate 638 Prasad 635max 2.740mm ers 6.8 Timber palisade fence s (nr co 6.36 Mild steel railings, hairpin top intermediate posts at max 3.660 ors —— 6.38 Pointed top round bar fencing 8.07 Walls ‘Walls, whether free-standing, retaining or sereen, can be builtin sinw in concrete, concrete blocks, bricks, stone, timber and even ‘metal either on their own or in combination. Table IV and 6.40 to 6.48 list the main types. Careful attention to detail is necessary for pleasing appearance, ‘especially brick walls. Damp-proof courses and copings must be provided Heights should not exceed the safe limits given in Table V, based on the wind strength zones in 6.49. Piers at intervals along wall can increase its capacity to withstand wind, but staggering Tale Heights fencing Type Height in Mina fr che’ pliyounds: penal sca 2 ‘owe garden lying fie ooesien ron iran Commer rope Inara su fesing eye bots Intermediate baseplate post 75 dia. {639 Sirained wire fence, end and corner posts braced coping pe {6.40 Brick wall (showing various bonds and pointing details) poh coping as Selected ‘vertap 50. 6.1 Brick perforated sereen wall the wall as in 6.50 is more efficient. By this method a half-brick wall can be built up 19 2.25m high in Zone 1 8.08 Open-screen walls ‘Scale, texture and pattern should decide the type of open-screen ‘unit required. Since any large area would become boring, aa open screen is usually more successful when used sparingly as“able IV Wale sea Sereen ow Donne 642 Rand aie pers) eas Sone hae 647 Tinta 6s overlap joints- ‘void stacking long vertea joints atten both faces. header stones to comprise 11 10 14 of wal oe mortarana ~ double Stone chip ter wall tit stones downward toward ‘cenive Tor added stabity vatiable store feet variable sage tier wall 642 Drysione wall 6.3 Random rubble stone wall 644 Ashlar stone wall ‘decorative element ina solid wall or in short lengths. These walls Took their best when there is strong contrast of light and shade and especially when used with large foliage plants “This type of walling is quite easy to erect and reinforcement is rot usually necessary, Conerete blocks are available in several standard designs, but in general they are approximately 300mm square, and 90mm thc Landscape design 6 6.5 Concrete block wall eaulen| lesa = 7 on] aan] Talula i ml one cone boks 6.46 Perforated concrete block screen wall 210 > ae ee 7 = Seo 80980 ‘gress slope Fin3 ein 6.48 Ho-ha 649 Map of the United Kingdom showing zones for design of arden walls612 Landscape design Thble V Heights of masonry garden walls rom DEE leat Your garden walt) dose sm iit (nm) Wall ype and thickness 1 2 3 + Hat bask iota) a ee ee Ome tick 2200) sms ars One snd aback 23mm 24O)— BITS 00S 1o.mm sosk 4) 0S 200. lek mos ss 5e0 nm sk moo SSO aS 6.50 Staggered brick wall 8.09 Stone walls ‘The two basic methods of stone wall construction are dry wall and ‘mortar-laid. Dry stone walls have no mortar, the stones are invegular in shape, and the stones are laid flat. Mortar-laid stone walls have continuous footings (and therefore aze stronger and can ‘be higher) and require fewer stones than dry walls, Stonework patterns Stonework can be random rubble or ashlar. The former has the stone as found, or cu by the mason in the field, while fo the latter the stones are pre-cut and dressed before delivery to the site ‘Stones for a wall should be similar in size, of, if im a variety of shapes and sizes, should be evenly distributed to give a balanced appearance to the wall Soyles ‘The British Isles is fortunate in having a variety of styles for stone walls based upon geographical regions. For new walls itis best to retain the local character. 8.10 Stone and hedge banks ‘Stone hedges ae bull with two faces of battered rubble stonework bbedided on thin grass sods, with the centre filled with rammed earth, With time a stone hedge disappears behind naturalising vegetation. The construction of a hedge bank follows the same principle as a stone hedge but using turf instead of stone to form, the faces. This limits height and so a simple post and wire fence is often incorporated when stock has to be contained. 8.11 Ha-has ‘These are useful devices for separating formal gardens from livestock without a visual barrier, using a retaining wall in stone, brick or timber with a link batter and the opposite ground graded to 233 per cent slope. 9 RETAINING WALLS. 9.01 ‘These are used to make an abrupt change of level where there is insufficient room fora slope. Table V shows the principal types. In general they require careful structural design combined with an elfcient drainage system, 9.02 Reinforced earth ‘This is « recent innovation consisting of a geotextile membrane tied back into the sol with anchors, 61. 9.03 Masonry Masonry structures for reigning ground can be constructed in ‘many materials, both on their own ot reinforced with steel bars © In-situ concrete, 6.52 © Concrete blocks (© Precast conerete © Brickwork (© Natural stone. 9.04 Concrete erib This is constructed of precast reinforced concrete units laid in interlocking stretchers and headers to form vertical bins which are filed with crushed stone or other granular material, 6.3. They are 4 particularly utilitarian solution for retaining fills in situations Where excavation is not necessary, Reinforced projecting lugs on the headers are typically used to lock the headers and steichers together. 9.03 Timber crib CCxib walls may be built of timber when a more natural appearance of wood is desired, 6.84, All units should be pressure-treated with «preservative. Used railway sleepers were commonly used in gootextlo anchor spacing varies with slope 651 Reinforced earth retaining structure ot Tf expansion jot [ia bbe: drainage pipes back ‘ng ~ = 6.52 Mass concrete retaining wall. Note rubble backfill and through pipes to faciluate drainage. Failure can occur if water pressure is allowed to build up behind the wallprocast rot concrete unit (yp) crushed stone 30 max He 480 x 225 coné: Smates -10"da underdrain compacted ‘randar fil, 6.53 Precast concrete crib wall 180 cia, underdrain granular fil 654 Timber crib wall carly crib wall construction and continue to be employed for low walls. However, timber units cut to size and pressure-teated with copper salts or other non-bleeding preservatives are now widely availabe 9.04 Timber Retaining walls can be constructed using timbers driven into the ‘round, 6.88, Since the wall’s resistance to overturning depends ‘upon one-half of its height being below finished level, i s often ‘not economical or practical to use this type for retained heights ‘greater than 1.Sm. The timber units in the horizontal wall can be (of variable lengths over 15m. The retained height shoul be less ‘than 10 times the thickness of the timbers, and atleast SO per cent ‘of their overall length should be buried below the lower ground, level in average soil ‘A structural engineer will need to be consulted. 9.06 Gabions Gabions are rectangular baskets in standard sizes made of ‘galvanised steel wire or polyvinyl-coated (PVC) wire hexagonal mesh which are filled with stone and tied together to form a wall Each gabion has a lid and is sub-divided into I m cells, After being Landscape design 613 150 x 150 (typ) walee (8 max) waler may be placed on back Instead of on face aimber weated ——_—— refered location 6.55 Timber retaining walls of vertical railway sleepers anton ci > gators wes tego 6.56 Gabion wall filled with stone, the lid i closed and laced to the top edges of the agabion. Each gabion is then laced to the adjacent gabions, 6.56 Gabion walls, being Mexible, can adapt to ground settlement Their permeability allows water to drain through. making gabions especialy suitable along stream and river banks where variations in water depths occur between flood and dry weather conditions. ‘Volunteer vegetation establishes itself quickly in gabions, softening the structure's appearance in the landscape while also adding durability 10 GATES AND DOORS 101 ‘A gate must relate 10 the wall of fence jn which itis placed, and state visually that there is an entrance or exit Its construction and the supporting posts must be robust enough o withstand the effects ‘of gravity and use, and it must be convenient to open and close. 10.02 Wiath ‘The appropriate width for a gate, or combination of gates, will be parially @ matter of appearance and partially a matter of functional necessity: it must be wide enough for any vehicle needing to use it, A gate which, due to functional necessity, has to be large will‘Table VI Widths of gates Pasting ‘oath mm) Pra ph eye io eo people st) 900 Woes 1000 Pram rpc pos «walking cid us ‘Teo eck pas 100 Sale mein ar 2100 Lge cic ambolnce, medi van smal or medio incor 24 (Gran yee pe racer Som Fre eng daca ry aon Teo car fo ps ht) ‘oo Combine hares tects Comforabl) ca an ony us) 4800, ‘Any ean oats a to veil 5500 900 + Agoongpy 900) ooood 1 traditional wood brace [ZOAXILEIE| Hi | Mh booerrecy tT steel rodiwire with 4 plywood panel turnbuckle 657 Single garden gates 1018 hits 1955 685 Tt 6 |__ 100 1004.6 ‘galv ms. post {6.61 Medium-duty car park barrier gate also have a degree of presence, even if that function is relatively, humble, ‘Table VI gives some minimal dimensions for the passage of people and vehicles. These dimensions will allow people and Vehicles to pass through a gate and each other, Clearance is not necessarily simply between gate posts ~ the open gate may, itself, ‘occupy some of the available space. The dimensions assume straight tavel but if a vehicle i also negotiating a bend, thea ‘widths will need to be greater. {657 to 6.62 show gate designs of different sizes and in various materials galvanised after manufacture 658 Farm ppe gate te ¢ a 6.59 Single and double farm gates 200% 200% B mms. Plata welded to post and whole galvanised {6.62 Angle framed gates with spiked top 2400alternative entrances i area to be covered by impact absorbing surface under each swing ‘entrances approx 6000 wide / \ eel potential impact area ‘where H = height of ‘Swing-crossbat f \ }+-1200-4 8 circulation space pavimoier of playground 6.463 Arrangement of barriers and impact absorbing surface for ehldren’s swings L distance from swing pivot to swing Seas) + 1.75 3600" 0 limit of manufacturers recommended safely area 6.64 Arrangement of fal-sze swing in a park. Smaller sizes are AL CHILDREN’S PLAY EQUIPMENT. 01 ‘There are now many suppliers of play equipment whose design tnd appearance has changed dramatically over the last ten years, However, what has not changed is the need for the safety of children playing around the equipment. 6.63 10 6.67 show the distances required for safety around conventional equipment. All equipment should have impact- 64 166 Roundabout 6.65 Large slide for park. These are mow normally installed on an earth mound t0 reduce the risk of falls 6700.616 Landscape design 10 05 ‘op of platform or ramp (en. ‘minimum height of guarérall rom os 6.67 Rocking horse. Only safe designs of this device may now be used absorbing surfaces wherever a child can fall. To a small child, falling on its head a distance of no more than 150mm can be fatal. ‘There are a variety of impact-absorbing surfaces available, including loose materials, foam rubbers, etc, but each as disadvantages. Many are subject to damage by deliberate vandal: ism, some are prone to fouling. ‘Wherever possible, guardrails should be provided even where ‘an impact-absorbing surface is used. 6.68 gives the recommended heights of such guardrails. serene eee ee (eee ret eens eee ee 10 15 platform or ramp height above ground level (n) 6.68 Heights of guardrails for children's play equipment 12 REFERENCES Charles W. Harris and Nicholas T. Dines,Time-saver Standards for Landscape Architecture, McGraw-Hill, 988 Michael Litlewood, Landscape Detailing, Buterworths, 1986 A. E, Weddle, Landscape Techniques, Van Nostrand Rheinhold, 1979 A.A. Pinder, Beacley’s Design and Detail of the Space between Buildings, E. F. Spon, 1990 BICY, Dry and Stone Walling, British Trust for Conservation Volunteers, 1986 TRADA, Timber fencing, 1978 Fencing by Goodman, M. 1. Goodman & Son (Bristol) Lid, 1980