CHAPTER 5 – Network Models

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Layered Tasks
5.3 OSI Model
5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
5.5 Addressing

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5.1 Introduction
Network

Hardware Software

It consists of the physical It consists of instruction

equipment that carries sets that make possible the
signals from one point of services that we expect
the network to another. from a network.

Discussing about the layers of a network and the functions

of each layer.

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5.2 Layered Tasks

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 5.2 Layered Tasks Contd..

Layered Models

Open Systems Interconnection TCP/IP Protocol Suite

(OSI Model)
• It was used and
tested extensively in
• It was never fully the Internet.
implemented. • It became the
dominant
commercial
architecture
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5.3 OSI Model

5.3.1 Introduction

• Established in 1947.
• The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement
on international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model.
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.1 Introduction Contd..

• Open System -
A set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.
• Purpose –
To show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic
of the underlying hardware and software.
• OSI model is not a protocol.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.1 Introduction Contd..

• It’s a model for understanding and designing a network

architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
• It’s a layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types
of computer systems.
• It consists of 7 layers, each of which defines a part of
the process of moving information across a network.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.1 Introduction Contd..

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.2 Peer-to-Peer Processes

Layer X Communicates Layer X

(Machine A) (Machine B)

Peer-to-Peer Processes

Communication is governed by an agreed-upon

series of rules and conventions called Protocols

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.3 Organization of the Layers

User Support
Layers

Links the 2 Subgroups

Network Support
Layers

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.3 Organization of the Layers Contd..

• Network Support Layers

 Deal with the physical aspects of moving data from
one device to another. (electrical specifications,
physical connections, physical addressing etc.)
 Combination of hardware and software, except for
the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.3 Organization of the Layers Contd..

• User Support Layers

 Allow interoperability among unrelated software
systems.
 Almost always implemented in software.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.4 Encapsulation

• The data portion of a packet at level (N-1) carries the

whole packet (data and header may be trailer) from
level N.
• Level (N-1) is not aware of which part of the
encapsulated packet is data and which part is the header
or trailer.
• For level (N-1), the whole packet coming from level N
is treated as one integral unit.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model

1. Physical Layer

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

1. Physical Layer Contd..

• Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream

over a physical medium.
• Deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications
of the interface and transmission medium.
• Defines the procedures and functions that physical
devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission
to occur.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

1. Physical Layer Contd..

• Defines the characteristics of interfaces and the type of

transmission medium.
• Defines the type of encoding.
• Defines the Data Rate.
• Defines the synchronization of bits.
• Defines the type of line configuration.
• Defines the type of Physical topology.
• Defines the type of transmission mode.
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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

2. Data Link Layer

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

2. Data Link Layer Contd..

• Transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission

facility, to a reliable link.
• Responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
• Divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units (Frames)
• Adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. (Physical Addressing)
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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

2. Data Link Layer Contd..

• Imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid

overwhelming the receiver.
• Adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames. Recognizes duplicate frames. (Adding a trailer
to the end of the frame)
• Provides access control using data link layer protocols.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

3. Network Layer

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

3. Network Layer Contd..

• Responsible for the delivery of individual packets from

the source host to the destination host, possibly across
multiple networks.
• This is required, if the two systems are attached to
different networks (links).
• Adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver.
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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

3. Network Layer Contd..

• Routing – When independent networks are connected

to create a large network, the connecting devices
(routers/switches) route or switch the packets to their
final destination.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

4. Transport Layer

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

4. Transport Layer Contd..

• Responsible for the delivery of a message from one

process to another.
• Process – An application program running on a host.
• Network layer does not recognize any relationship
between the packets.
• Transport Layer ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, overseeing both error control and
flow control at the source-to-destination level.
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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

4. Transport Layer Contd..

• Source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only

from one computer to the next but also from a specific
process (running program) on one computer to a
specific process (running program) on the other. The
transport layer header must include a type of address
called a service-point address
• A message divides into transmittable segments, with
each segment containing a sequence number.
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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

4. Transport Layer Contd..

• Connectionless transport layer treats each segment as

an independent packet and delivers it to the transport
layer at the destination machine.
• Connection oriented transport layer makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

4. Transport Layer Contd..

• Flow control at this layer is performed end to end

rather than across a single link.
• Error control at this layer is performed process-to-
process rather than across a single link.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

4. Transport Layer Contd..

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

5. Session Layer

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

5. Session Layer Contd..

• It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the

interaction among communicating systems. (network
dialog controller)
• It allows the communication between two processes to
take place in either half-duplex/full-duplex mode.
• It allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points to a stream of data.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

6. Presentation Layer

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

6. Presentation Layer Contd..

• It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the

information exchanged between two systems.
• Translation – The information (Character strings,
numbers etc.) must be changed to bit streams before
being transmitted. At the sender it changes the
information from its sender-dependent format into a
common format. At the receiving machine it changes
the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

6. Presentation Layer Contd..

• Encryption – To carry sensitive information, a system

must be able to ensure privacy.
• Compression – It reduces the number of bits contained
in the information. It’s important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio and video.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

7. Application Layer

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

7. Application Layer Contd..

• It enables the user, whether human or software, to

access the network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such
as e-mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management and other types of distributed
information services.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

7. Application Layer Contd..

• Network Virtual Terminal – It allows a user to log on to

a remote host.
• File transfer, access and management – It allows a user
to access files in a remote host, to retrieve files from a
remote computer for use in the local computer and to
mange files in a remote computer locally.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

7. Application Layer Contd..

• Mail Services – It provides the basis for e-mail

forwarding and storage.
• Directory Services – It provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various
objects and services.

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5.3 OSI Model Contd..

5.3.5 Layers – OSI Model Contd..

Summary of Layers

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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

5.4.1 Introduction

The original TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Host-to-Network Application

Internet Transport

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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Contd..

5.4.1 Introduction Contd..

• When compared to OSI,

TCP/IP Protocol Suite OSI

Host-to-Network Physical + Data Link
Internet Network
Application Session + Presentation +
Application

Assumption – TCP/IP Protocol Suite is made of five layers.

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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Contd..

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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Contd..

5.4.2 Layers

5.4.2.1 Physical and Data Link Layers

• It does not define any specific protocol at these layers.

• It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
• A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a LAN or a
WAN.

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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Contd..

5.4.2 Layers Contd..

5.4.2.2 Internet Layer

• It supports the Internetworking Protocol (IP), in turn,

uses four supporting protocols:
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Contd..
Protocol Usage of the Protocol
IP Transports data in packets (datagrams), each
of which is transported separately.
ARP Use to find the physical address when the
logical address is known.
RARP Use to find the logical address when the
physical address is known.
ICMP Use to send notification of datagram
problems back to the sender.
IGMP Use to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of
recipients.
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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Contd..

5.4.2 Layers Contd..

5.4.2.3 Transport Layer

• It is represented in TCP/IP mainly by two protocols:

 User Datagram Protocol
 Transmission Control Protocol
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol

• UDP and TCP are responsible for delivery of a

message from a process to another process.

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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Contd..

5.4.2 Layers Contd..

5.4.2.3 Transport Layer Contd..

Protocol Usage of the Protocol
UDP It adds port address, check error control and
length information to the data from the upper
layer.
TCP It divides a stream of data into smaller units
(segments) and transmit.
SCTP Provides support for newer applications such
as voice over the internet.
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5.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Contd..

5.4.2 Layers Contd..

5.4.2.4 Application Layer

• It is equivalent to the combined session, presentation

and application layers in the OSI model.
• It defines many protocols:
 SMTP
 FTP
 HTTP
 DNS etc.

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5.5 Addressing

5.5.1 Introduction

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

5.5.1 Introduction Contd..

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

5.5.2 Physical Addresses (Link Address)

• It is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or

WAN.
• It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
• It is the lowest-level address.
• The size and the format of these addresses vary
depending on the network.
• It is not adequate in an internetwork environment
where different networks can have different address
formats.

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

5.5.2 Physical Addresses (Link Address) Contd..

Example1:

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

5.5.2 Physical Addresses (Link Address) Contd..

Example2:

Most local area networks use a 48-bit(6 byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

5.5.3 Logical Addresses (IP Addresses)

• It is necessary for universal communications that are

independent of underlying physical networks.
• A universal addressing system is needed in which each
host can be identified uniquely, regardless of the
underlying physical network.
• It is a 32-bit address.
• The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

5.5.4 Port Addresses

• It refers to the label assigned to a particular process.

• The end objective of Internet communication is a
process communicating with another process, not only
to send data from the source to the destination.
• The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the
logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

5.5.4 Port Addresses Contd..

Example:

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as follows:

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

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5.5 Addressing Contd..

5.5.5 Specific Addresses

• These are user-friendly addresses that are designed for

that specific address.

Examples:
 Defines the recipient of an E-mail
- forouzan@fhda.edu
 Find a document on the Internet
- www.mhhe.com

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Review Questions

1. List the layers of the Internet model.

2. Which layers in the Internet model are the network
support layers.
3. Which layer in the Internet model is the user support
layer?
4. What is the difference between network layer delivery
and transport layer delivery?
5. What is a peer-to-peer process?
6. What are headers and trailers?
7. What are the responsibilities of the Physical Layer in
the OSI model?

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Review Questions

8. What is the difference between a port address, a logical

address and a physical address?
9. Which layer converts the information from the user to
a bit stream?
10. How do the layers of the Internet Model correlate to
the layers of the OSI model?

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