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Ultrasound effect on salt reduction in meat products: a review

Julián Andrés Gómez-Salazar, Andrea Galván-Navarro, José M

Lorenzo, Marı́a Elena Sosa-Morales

PII: S2214-7993(20)30120-X
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2020.10.030
Reference: COFS 642

To appear in: Current Opinion in Food Science

Please cite this article as: Gómez-Salazar JA, Galván-Navarro A, Lorenzo JM, Sosa-Morales
ME, Ultrasound effect on salt reduction in meat products: a review, Current Opinion in Food
Science (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2020.10.030

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© 2020 Published by Elsevier.

Ultrasound effect on salt reduction in meat

products: A review

Julián Andrés Gómez-Salazar1, Andrea Galván-Navarro1, José M. Lorenzo2,3, and

María Elena Sosa-Morales1

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1Departamento de Alimentos, División de Ciencias de la Vida, Campus Irapuato-

Salamanca, Universidad de Guanajuato. Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico

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Centro Tecnológico de la Carne de Galicia, Avd. Galicia Nº 4, Parque Tecnológico de
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12Galicia, San Cibrao das Viñas, 32900 Ourense, Spain

3 Área de Tecnología de los Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias de Ourense, Universidad de

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Vigo, 32004 Ourense, Spain

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*Corresponding authors:
msosa@ugto.mx
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Graphical abstract
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Highlights

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► The processed meat industry is looking for alternative solutions for salt replacement
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► Ultrasound has been applied for brining, marinating, tumbling, and cooking, with

promising results
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► Ultrasound has a great potential to decrease the NaCl content in meat products

► The application of ultrasound can increase the lipid oxidation in meat products
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 Abstract

Health concerns have motivated salt reduction on diverse foods. Salt in processed meat

usually reach high levels, and its reduction is not an easy task, due to its preservative action and

expected sensory characteristics in them. Meat industry is looking for alternative solutions for

both salt reduction and replacement. The curing time needed to reach the required salt content in

meat products can be reduced by the application of ultrasound. Ultrasound technology has been

applied for brining, marinating, tumbling, and cooking, with promising results as a useful

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strategy to reduce the salt content in meat products, such as dry-cured ham, bacon and chicken

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breast. However, ultrasound parameters should be optimized for each meat product, because

structure and composition are diverse among products and the US effects be different. The

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purpose of this review is to highlight and summarize recent studies on ultrasound application to
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obtain low salt meat products.
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Keywords: salt reduction; ultrasound treatments; meat products

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 Introduction

Salt can be found in a wide variety of foods such as meat, and meat products for

technological and sensory purposes. As they are processed, salt levels tend to increase, i.e. raw

beef meat contains 0.16 g salt/100 g and beef burgers 0.7-1 g salt/100 g of product [1]. Sodium

chloride (NaCl) is the main source of dietary sodium (around 90%) [2], and it has been proven

that its excessive intake is related to several health conditions such as high blood pressure,

inflammatory disorders, stomach cancer [3], and can increase the risk of strokes and death from

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vascular diseases [4].

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According to the World Health Organization (WHO), people consume an average of 9-12

g salt/day; around twice the recommended maximum level intake (5 g salt/day equivalent to 2 g

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Na/day) in adults. These amounts represent a health risk, hence the importance of reducing salt
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content in processed foods, including meat products. However, salt reduction in meat products

would limit their technological functionality and sensory effects. As an ingredient, it plays an
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important role in meat products, enhancing their sensory properties (flavor, texture, and color)

and water holding capacity (WHC), as well as contributing in the extraction of myofibrillar
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proteins to increase tenderness and juiciness [3]. Also, salt acts as a binding agent in emulsions

and extend the shelf life of meat products [4]. Thus, salt is an essential compound to achieve a
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good quality meat product.

The main concern related to the dietary sodium intake is the large amount obtained from
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processed foods, approximately 77% in developed countries, from which, processed meat

products (PMPs) contribute with 16.3% [3]. Several approaches to reduce its use have been

carried out throughout the years. One of the most accepted and currently studied strategy for salt

reduction is ultrasound application. Studies on food have proven that there are desirable effects

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towards the ultrasound effects, without damaging the quality and improving the process yield of

meat [5]. Nonetheless, the reduction of this ingredient in meat products, is not an easy task, as it

cannot be eliminated completely from meat products [6]. The objective of this review was to

collect the latest research articles and associate the effect of ultrasound in the reduction of salt in

meat products and the changes this may promotes in their physical, chemical and sensory

properties.

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Salt reduction strategies in meat products

In the last decade, different approaches for salt reduction in meat products have been

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explored in the research field in order to evaluate the effect on their physical, chemical and

sensory properties as well as the yield of the raw material [1, 7]. (i) The salt reduction based on

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sensory assays and acceptance of the final product has shown to be successful; however, this
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approach has some limitations as it is time-consuming; salt reduction must be gradual and there

is a restricted amount of salt realistically reduced, but most importantly there is a reduction in the
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product shelf life [1, 3], (ii) The partial substitution or mixture of salt alternatives such as

potassium, calcium, magnesium chloride (KCl, CaCl2 and MgCl2) and lactate are also used to
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replicate the role of salt without affecting the taste of the product [1]. Bitterness can represent a

problem with metallic salts in meat products when added, hence salt mixes are often used [3].
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(iii) The use of flavor enhancers, such as monosodium glutamate (MSG), hydrolysates vegetable

protein (HVP), yeast extracts, and amino acids (arginine, lysine, taurine) are used to intensify the
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perceived saltiness in low sodium meat products or to mask their bitter flavor (i.e. KCl and CaCl2

with MSG). However, the addition of flavor enhancers must be limited as they contain a salt

level up to 40% [1]. (iv) The use of alternative non-thermal (high-pressure, pulsed X-ray and

ultrasound) and electrical (pulsed light and pulsed electric fields) processing green technologies,

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as they can modify protein and muscle structure alongside with improving diffusion of salts [8].

The principle of these methods is to enhance mass transfer through their mechanisms (i.e.

cavitation in ultrasound). Their major disadvantage is the lack of information and literature

available applied to meat products and the parameters that work for each type of food matrix.

Ultrasound as a strategy for salt reduction in meat products

Ultrasound (US) is considered as a form of vibrational energy, turned from electrical

energy to acoustic energy by a transducer [8,9]. US can be classified as a non-thermal method,

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although mechanical frictions generate heat as a result of the mechanical oscillations during its

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propagation increasing the temperature in a range of 1-10 °C [10]. The US apparatus consists of

three main parts as shown in Fig. 1: a generator; to provide the energy to the system, a transducer

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o converter; to convert energy from the electric energy from the power source to acoustic energy,
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and an ultrasonic bath (degas, normal and sweep) or probe or horn (silica glass probe, spiral

probe, cup probe; aluminum or titanium material) to emit the sound waves to the medium and or
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sample [11].

US can be classified into low – intensity ultrasound, LIU (frequencies 20-100 kHz, and
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intensities < 1 W/cm2) and high-intensity ultrasound, HIU (frequencies >100 kHz and intensities

> 1 W/cm2) [12]. The first one is considered as non-invasive, accurate, fast, inexpensive and easy
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to implement on-line [13]. On the other hand, HIU modifies food physically, chemically and

mechanically [12]. It enhances heat and mass transfer, and it is used in the industry mostly in the
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range of 20-40 kHz [10]. Both US intensities have been applied to meat products to measure the

composition of meat products and increase mass transfer and equal diffusion throughout the

product, it also confers several desirable technological properties to meat products, such as

texture (flesh tenderization), increasing of water hold capacity (WHC) and process yield as

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auxiliar in drying, cooking or curing processes [14]. However, the propagation of HIU induces

different ultrasonic mechanisms including acoustic cavitation and sponge effect as shown in Fig.

1. These can vary depending on the nature of the sample and the ultrasound equipment [10].

The sponge effect is related to direct effects on the food sample, when sound waves travel

through the product, they provoke an alternating compression and decompression of the tissue

sample, which is compared to a sponge squeezed and released constantly. This phenomenon

keeps micro channels and pores unobstructed, facilitating mass transfer and mass flow due to

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pumping [15]. Acoustic cavitation is related to indirect effects [15]. Cavitation is considered the

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main mechanism in which ultrasound enhances heat and mass transfer phenomena [16] occurring

only in liquid mediums [10] producing intense physical forces such as shear forces, shock waves

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and turbulence product of the constant compression and rarefaction of the bubbles formation in
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medium (Fig. 2), which cause the formation of micro fissures within the myofibrillar structure

and improve mass diffusion in meat products [8]. However, due to the cavitation mechanism,
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chemical changes such as free radicals, lipid oxidation acceleration and changes in food matrix

structure and sensory characteristics (color, metallic taste and off-flavors) may take place [14].
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The main characteristics of sound waves, such as frequency, intensity, power, amplitude,

wavelength and propagation speed are often omitted in papers, and make it difficult to describe
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and compare different research results [10]. The US parameters during processing affect the salt

diffusion, as well as the structure of the meat tissue leading to the reduction of salt and changes
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in hardness and water retention [17]. Hence, more research is necessary and control towards the

US parameters, besides to specify the sample characteristics (thickness, geometry, dimensions,

porosity) [10]. The study of combined effect of ultrasound with other technologies is suggested

in order to reach higher salt reduction levels.

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 Treatments of salt reduction with US

US + salting in brining

Brine is widely used in meat to facilitate salt-soluble proteins release and increase WHC,

juiciness, tenderness and yield to meat, it is added through curing, immersion and injection.

However, it can be a long and slow process, causing increasement in costs, energy consumption

and undesirable microbial growth [18]. US-assisted brining has positively showed to be an

effective method to accelerate brining process and increase NaCl uptake compared to standard

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procedure [19].

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Zhao et al. [19] evaluated the effect of different US intensities on NaCl diffusion

coefficients in beef during immersion brining, finding no significant results between sonicated

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samples and concluding no connotations in the US intensities range applied (Table 1).
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Acoustically activated brines can also be an alternative to accelerate and intensify the salting

process for whole muscle raw meat and increase the WHC of raw meat biopolymers as it has
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been shown by [20]. Furthermore, Inguglia et al. [21] explored the effect of different conditions

of US (probe size and distance from sample) concluding that a lower US intensity and a larger
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emitting area is suggested as a good strategy to maximize NaCl uptake from brine to whole-

muscle meat.
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US + acidic marinating

Marinating is used to add value to meat products since it enriches flavor and color, and
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increases the binding properties of meat and textural properties; (i.e. tenderness and juiciness)

[22, 23]. In this process NaCl uptake and distribution are important factors since they contribute

to increase yield, thus mass transfer mechanism is essential to control [23]. However, it can be a

slow and uneven process that can impact product quality and cost due to be time-consuming

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[22]. US has proven to be a viable strategy in accelerating mass transfer compared to the

traditional processes [22-24].

Processed chicken is the most common meat used to process through this method, it

contains around 1.2 - 2% NaCl, while in a typical chicken marinade there is around 4 -10 %

NaCl [23]. Inguglia et al. [23] explored the 50% salt reduction in chicken breast in ultrasound-

assisted marinating process, having a significantly higher sodium uptake compared to control.

Nevertheless, the highest rate sodium uptake (0.24%) was measured in 1 h of US treatment,

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following by a significant decrease at increasing treatment time. As well as a significant decrease

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in lipid oxidation in sonicated samples. Moreover, Gómez-Salazar et al. [22] suggested that there

are other types of meat such as rabbit meat that can diversify and increase its value and

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consumption with this process. The results showed that US application increased weight loss and
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meat hardness, but reduced WHC and pH compared to control. NaCl content was influenced by

marinating time and US application.

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Sample characteristics take an important in the effect on their quality characteristics after

US application. In this regard, Contreras-Lopez et al. [25] studied the impact of thickness in
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sonicated samples (Table 1) on the marinating absorptivity of the steaks, having as a result

significant differences in the 1.27 cm samples, possibly due to the physical characteristics of the
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area/volume ratio, which promoted a higher NaCl diffusion in meat. On the other hand, the use
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of ultrasound as a pretreatment of meat for the salting process is an option to modify the

microstructure of the meat tissue, and thus affect the propagation of salt [18]. Ultrasound breaks

the structure of the myofibrils, increasing the interfibrillar spaces and the degree of actomyosin

dissociation, which generates channels that allow the acceleration of the salt ion flow during the

salting process. This mechanism lets that the concentration gradient between the brine and the

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meat tissue reach the equilibrium condition quickly [22], which prevents the accumulation of salt

on the surface of the meat. This would reduce the salt content mainly in meat products where the

salting is carried out with saturated brines.

US + tumbling

Conventional atmospheric pressure and vacuum-based tumbling processes have limited

improvements on meat characteristic attributes (texture, WHC, NaCl and marinating

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absorptivity) during its process [24, 26]. In this regard, Li et al. [24] explored the redesign of a

tumbler equipped with a vacuum pump unit and an ultrasonic bath. There were significant

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differences in the gain of marinating liquid between the vacuum-tumbled sonicated samples, and

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the vacuum-tumbled samples, concluding that there is a high potential in combining these

methods.
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Likewise, Pan et al. [26] combined two different physical methods; vacuum-tumbling and
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ultrasound-assisted dry curing (UDC) to accelerate curing and improve the quality of reduced-

sodium bacon. UDC+ tumbling proved to be a potential technique to be used for the product of

healthier meat products such as the reduced-sodium bacon (1.5% NaCl) while traditional bacon
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contains 6-8% NaCl and a dry-curing time from 6 to 8 weeks.

US + cooking
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Beef is a type of meat that needs to be heated much longer to achieve the expected NaCl
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content from marinade during the traditional cooking methods. In this regard, Zou et al. [5]

evaluated the effects of ultrasonic-assisted cooking on the NaCl content in spiced beef. The

authors describe that ultrasound increases permeability of muscle tissue, getting greater

migration of the salt and improves its stability in the meat product. The combination of

ultrasound and heat treatments produces a disruption of the meat fibers, which facilitates the

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mobility and distribution of salt in the tissue. Regarding process time, a reduction in cooking

time (100 min) was observed with the US-assisted treatment. On the other hand, sonication in

high intensities had a positive impact on the chemical profile (taste and flavor) of the final

product, although cavitation may increase the lipid oxidation in the product.

Other applications of US on salt reduction in meat products

Different variables in US technology can be explored in order to reduce salt content in

meat products. In this regard, Leães et al. [27] explored the effects of based electrolyzed water

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(BEW) as a replacer of water in a NaCl solution in the formulation of meat emulsions to an

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alternative to reduce NaCl content in the product without impairing its physicochemical and

sensory properties. It was found that the replacement of water with BEW significantly reduced

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the fat and water exudation in the sonicated samples as well as a similar NaCl concentration in
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samples with 1.75% NaCl compared to control. Further studies as the microbiological

characteristics, oxidative stability and sensory properties are needed to consider it to applied at
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an industrial level. On the other hand, García-Pérez et al. [13] proposed an online monitoring of

time of flight (TOF) in the dry-cured salting process of ham assisted with ultrasound (UDC). It
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was possible to progressively shorten the TOF during the UDC method compared to control. The

high value of whole ham pieces obstructs the use of conventional destructive techniques to
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measure salt content, therefore this methodology could be an accurate assessment on the TOF,

which is critical to estimate the evolution of salt gain in meat. As it is a simple, non-invasive,
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non-destructive and reliable technique for the industrial monitoring of the ham dry-salting

process. Cichoski et al. [28] reported the use of ultrasound as an effective tool to improve the

quality of meat emulsions. Ultrasound favored the formation of a good gel, and it positively

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affected the protein interactions and emulsion stability, allowing an adequate mixture of

ingredients, including salt, reaching better efficiency in the distribution of ingredients.

Sensory studies on low salt meat products treated with US

Besides its preservation effects, salt improves important sensory parameters in meat, such

as color, taste and texture. Salt reduction may affect the expected sensory attributes in some meat

products. Thus, studies on sensory acceptance in low sodium meat product are necessary in order

to satisfy consumer demands besides the recommendations from health agencies [29].

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Contreras-Lopez et al. [25] studied the sensory attributes or pork loin after US-assisted

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brining (US bath, 37 kHz, 22 W/cm2, 30 or 90 min) by using a quantitative descriptive analysis

(QDA), aimed by eight trained judges. When panelists evaluated colorfulness, toughness,

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density, juiciness, flavor, aftertaste, springiness and even salty, no statistical differences were
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found regarding the type of marination (US-assisted or traditional immersion).

The addition of KCl (0.5%) and the use of US (titanium probe, 20 kHz, 10 min) on the
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sensory acceptance of low sodium restructured cooked hams was evaluated by Barretto et al.

[29]. A test with structured 9-points hedonic scale was performed by 105 untrained judges. The
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treatment with KCl obtained the highest score for color, and improved the acceptance for salty

taste and flavor. US alone did not affect the texture, but increased the scores for salty taste
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attribute. Results are in agreement with the findings from Barreto et al. [4], who reported higher

scores for flavor in restructured low sodium cooked ham treated with US at 600 W/cm2.
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Conclusions

Ultrasound has a great potential to decrease the NaCl content in meat products,

accelerating the brining process, mass transfer, curing process and reduction cooking time. On

the other hand, the ultrasound parameters should be optimized for each meat product, because

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structure and composition are diverse among products and the US effects be different. However,

the application of ultrasound in the production of meat products may increase the lipid oxidation.

Further studies are needed to assess the effect of the ultrasound application in protein changes

and sensory properties of processed meat products.

Conflict of interest statement

Nothing declared.

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Acknowledgements

Thanks to GAIN (Axencia Galega de Innovación) for supporting this study (grant number

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IN607A2019/01). Authors are members of the Healthy Meat network, funded by CYTED (ref.

119RT0568).

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products: benefits, risks and evolving practices. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2019 (in
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physicochemical properties by ultrasound application to restructured cooked ham with salt
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(NaCl) reduction. Meat Sci 2018, 145: 55–62.

**Explored the reduction of salt content in restructured ham with US treatment.

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the chemical profiles of taste and flavor of spiced beef. Ultrason Sonochem 2018, 46: 36-45.

**Explored different US conditions (intensities) to see the effects on the meat product.

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6. Raybaudi-Massiliaa R, Mosqueda-Melgarb J, Rosales-Oballosc Y, de Petriconed RC, Frágenase
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**Studied the effect of BEW + US to reduce the salt content in meat emulsions.

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Ultrasound: A promising technology to improve the technological quality of meat
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29. Barretto TL, Bellucci ERB, Barbosa RD, Pollonio, MAR, Romero JT, Barretto ACS: Impact of
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 Caption to figures

Figure 1. a) Ultrasonic bath equipment and main parts. b) Direct immersion ultrasound and

parts. c) Different probes or horns used in direct immersion ultrasound

Figure 2. Acoustic cavitation phenomenon occurring during ultrasound

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 Figure 1
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 Figure 2
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 Table 1. Latest studies on the effect of ultrasound on salt reduction in meat and meat products

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US parameters
Meat product NaCl (Freq., power, intensity, time, T issue changes Main findings Ref.
description concentration temperature, probe)

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Beef
Spiced beef flanks 20 kHz. Intensities; 63, 74.8, 93.3 Disruption of beef tissue due to Even diffusion of brine into meat after 100 min at 74 W/cm 2. [5]
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(8 x 8 x 8 mm ) and 109.7 W/cm . US assisted mechanical effects (cavitation) Cooking loss increased at 80 min and high intensities (93.3

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cooking for 120 min.  66 mm promoted penetration of NaCl from and 109.7 W/cm 2).
probe. brine to beef.
Beef in brine 6 % (w/v) 20 kHz. Intensities; 7.5, 10 and Increased moisture content in Samples treated with 7.5 and 12.7 W/cm 2 had a higher NaCl

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(30 x 30 x 15 mm 3) 12.7 W/cm 2. For 10, 20 and 30 min samples due to myofibrillar content than 10 W/cm 2 at 20 min. Brine penetration increased [19]
at 20 °C.  6 mm probe and 2 cm swelling and the used brine as the time and US intensity increased. T he moisture of the
concentration. samples increased with US treatment.
Pork
Reduced-sodium
bacon
1.5 % (w/w) lP
distance above packed sample.

20 kHz. 300 and 800 W. For 30 and

60 min at 10 °C.  15 mm probe
Smoother muscle tissue resulting in
higher NaCl penetration. Favorable
US assisted in dry curing (UDC) and tumbling can promote
NaCl uptake in meat. Favorable changes in texture and [26]
na
(120 x 90 x 30 mm) and 55 mm distance above packed myofibril changes. sensory quality at 300 W for 60 min.
sample.

Cured pork loin in 15 % (w/w) 20 kHz. At calculated intensities 0.3 and 0.5 distances had a higher Results showed that 0.3 cm was the most efficient distance to
ur

brine (22.21 and 41.22 W/cm 2). For 60 impact on meat surface (white mark ensure salt diffusion and maintain meat quality parameters. [21]
(8 x 4 x 2 cm) min at 2.5 °C.  2.5 and 1.3 cm formation) appeared to be A lower intensity but with a larger emitting area is suggested

probe. Different distances above denaturized or cooked. to maximize NaCl uptake in meat. No significance between
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meat surface (0.3, 0.5 and 0.8 cm). probe size.

Steak thickness and marinating time significantly influence

37 kHz. Intensity 22 W/cm 2. For 30 physicochemical quality and sensory perception of marinated [25]
2 % (w/w) and 90 min at 4°C. Microagitation and microchannels meat. T hinner steaks (1.27 cm) had a higher NaCl content ,
formation due to cavitation

20
Cured pork meat increased the NaCl transfer in lower shear force, higher WHC and were perceived as juicer
(thicknesses; 1.27 or muscle. and tender, but their color decreased strongly.

of
2.54 cm)
20 kHz. Intensity 600 W/cm 2. For A reduction of 32 % in NaCl content in treatment with US
0.75 % (w/w) 10 min. T i-6Al-4 V titanium Connective tissue rupture and compared to control (1.5 %). No impairment in the physical [4]

ro
probe. greater dispersion of fibers due to and sensory properties. Yield increasement, T FR reduction
Restructured cooked cavitation. Myofibrillar fissures, and color improvement without affecting oxidative st ability
ham sponge effect observed.

20 kHz. 200 W/L in RKU-type
3, 4 and 5 % (w/v)
industrial plant with a piezoceramic
-p
Activated brine positively influences brine kinetics and
Sarcolemma swelling, fiber significantly decreases aging time in whole-muscle raw meat [20]

re
thickening, myofibrillar by ensuring a uniform distribution of the brine throughout the
radiator to activate brine.
Medium-fat pork fragmentation and loose connective muscle tissue compared to control.
meat in activated tissue. Small amount of protein
brine

Poultry
Chicken breast fillets 4 and 8 % (w/v)
lP
T hree frequencies (25, 45 and 130
mass in interfibrillar spaces.

Cavitation and microjet formation At 130 kHz and 6 h a concentration of 0.68 % Na + was
na
in marinade kHz) with corresponding power in liquid medium promoted damage reached compared to 0.63 % Na + (25 kHz), 0.58 % Na + (45 [23]
+
(4.7, 5.5 and 7.2 W). For 1, 3 and in the meat surface improving kHz) and 0.77 % Na (24 h) with traditional marinating.
6h at 2.5 °C. US bath. diffusion mechanisms.
ur

Chicken breast in 7% (w/w) 40 kHz. 140 W. For 5 min at 4 °C. Myofibrillar fragmentation and T he tumbling assisted with US improved marinating
marinade  12 mm probe + tumbler and perimysium destruction due to absorption, texture, taste and WHC during marinating process. [24]
(5 x 5 x 2 cm)
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vacuum unit. cavitation and tumbling marinating. T he application of adjustable pressure accelerated the
Endogenous lysosomes released permeation of brine and reduced moisture loss in the product.
and proteolysis occurred. Reduction in tenderness time.
Other meat products
Rabbit meat (legs) in 70, 40 and 220 g/L Marination time and US application influenced NaCl uptake [22]
marinade rate, within the first 60 a higher NaCl content was observed.

21
(50 x 30 x10 mm) 40 kHz and 110 W output power, at T issue damaged due to mechanical NaCl content in meat increases when NaCl content in
2
12.25 W/cm calculated intensity. effects of US, increasing hardness marination solution increases.

of
For 15-120 min at 4 °C. US bath. and affecting WHC.

Beef (43.75 %) + 2.5, 2.25, 2, 1.75, T he combination of BEW and 20 min US allows to reduce up

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Pork meat (33.75 %) 1.50 and 1.25 % to 30% the NaCl content, resulting 1.75 % NaCl the limit
and fat (10 %) (w/w) basic 25 kHz. 175 W. For 10 and 20 min T he mechanical effect of US waves concentration without compromising the technological quality [27]
emulsions electrolyzed water at 18 °C. US bath. promoted changes in protein of meat emulsions. NaCl concentrations below 2% favor

-p
(BEW). structure, exposing polar and non- metmyoglobin formation.
polar groups. Allowing to use

re
lower amounts of NaCl and
forming a firmer, elastic and
cohesive gel.

lP
na
ur
Jo

22
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ur
na
lP
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-p
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of

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