Screenshot 2021-08-18 at 7.20.08 PM

File system and its disadvantages:
COBOL: COMMON BUSINESS ORIENTED LANGUAGE
File: collection of record
Record: A collection of fields
Use: to store information on disks
Disadvantages of file system:
1. Data redundancy or Data duplication:

2. Data inconsistency
3. Lengthy program development
4. Data dependency
5. No data sharing
6. No data security
Data Base Management System:
Data: Known facts or raw facts of an organization
Information: Data which is processed is called as information
Database: collect of interrelated data
Database management system: collection of interrelated data and some set of

programs which is used to access the data very efficiently.
Adv of DBMS:
1. Minimum data redundancy
Htno Name Mobile no Address

1 Yy 8888888888 guntur
2 Zz 8787878787 nrt
Htno Marks Emailid

1 45 Sddddd.gmt
2 47 Ddddd.d.d.d.d
K.V.R
Chebrolu Engineering College
2. Reduced inconsistency: By avoiding the redundancy we can eliminate
inconsistency.
3. Data independency
4. Data sharing
5. Efficient data access
6. Data integrity and security
7. Data administration
8. Concurrent access and crash recovery
9. Reduced application Development
Three schema architecture of DBMS: The overall Design of a database is called

a schema. A database system has three schema. They are
1. External schema
2. Conceptual schema
3. Internal schema
K.V.R
External schema: All the users and user interfaces is at external schema. There
are three types of users.
1. End user
2. Application programmer
3. Database Administrator
End user: is a person who operate the database without any prior knowledge
Application programmers: persons who develop the application programs
Database administrators: skilled person capable to manage all the resource of

the database
Conceptual schema: All application programs at conceptual schema. A

conceptual schema will specify what data is to be stored in the data base
Internal schema: how the data is stored in the database
The purpose of schema architecture is to achieve the data independency. There

are two types of data independency.
1. Logical data independency

2. Physical data independency
Logical data independency: the ability to modify external schema without

affecting the conceptual schema is called as logical data independency
Physical data independency: The ability to modify conceptual schema without

affecting internal schema is called as physical data independency.
Data Models: A data model will specify how the data is representing in the
database. The different data models are
1. Hierarchical model
2. Network model
3. Relational model
4. Object oriented model
Hierarchical model: In this model the data is represent like a tree structure. Each
record is called as a node. The top node is called as a root node. The bottom
nodes are called as leaf nodes. The intermediate nodes are called as internal
nodes.
K.V.R
Network model: In this model the data is represent in the form of linked list.
Each record is called as a node. The first node is called as header node. The last
node is called as end node.
Relational Model: In this model the data is represent in the form of tables or
relations. Each table is the combination of rows and cols .
Htno Name Marks

501 Ravi 56
502 Kkk 45
503 Rrr 89
504 Jjj 45
505 Ttt 34
This model will support one to one , one to many , many to one, many to many.
Each row is called as tuple . Each col is called as domain.
Oracle is a relational datamodel
Object oriented model: An object is a runtime entity type or an instance of type

class. Each object will contain data and methods. The properties are called as
data. Methods will operate on data.
Client/server architecture: Application logic mainly contains 3 components.

They are
1. Presentation logic
K.V.R
2. Processing
3. Data storage
Presentation logic: presentation logic is responsible for input and output.
Processing: the procedure to solve the problems
Data storage : it is used to store the data.
UG PG
SCIENCE ENGI M.TECH MBA
There are 3 types of client server architecture. They are
1. Single tier architecture

2. Two tier architecture
3. Three tier architecture
Single tier architecture: in this architecture all the application logic is performed
in one system.
Two tier architecture: In two tier architecture all the systems are interconnected.
In this architecture the application logic is divided between client and server.
The client system is responsible for presentation. The server system is
responsible for processing and data storage.
K.V.R
Client-1 Client-2 Client-3
server
Three tier client server architecture: the application logic is divided between
client, application server and data server. The client is responsible for
presentation. The application server is responsible for processing and data
server is used to store the data.
Client-3
Client-1 Client-2
Application server
Data server
Role Database Administrators: Database Administrator is a skilled person who

is responsible for all the critical issues in the database. The role of DBA is
1. Design of conceptual schema

2. Design of physical schema
3. Data security and authentication
4. Data availability and recovery from failure
K.V.R
5. Database tuning
Unit-1
1. Disadvantages of file system

2. Advantages of dbms
3. Data models
4. Three schema architecture of DBMS
5. Data independency
6. Role of DBA
Unit-II
ER diagrams(Entity Relationship diagram):
Entity: An entity is an object. An entity is represented in a rectangle. Ex:

student, customer, car. There are two types of entities. They are
1. Strong entity
2. Weak entity
Strong Entity: An entity which can be identified independently such an entity is

called as strong entity. The strong entity can be represented by
STUDENT
Weak entity: An entity which depends on some other entity type such an entity
is called as weak entity. A weak entity can be represented by double line
rectangle.
Attributes: The properties or characteristics of an entity type are called as an

attribute. The differ attributes are
1. Key attribute
2. Derived attribute
3. Composite attribute
K.V.R
4. Non key attribute
5. Multi valued attribute
Key attribute: An attribute value which is unique such an attribute is called as

key attribute. The representation of key attribute is
ROLL NO
Non key attribute: An attribute value which is not unique such an attribute is
called as non key attribute. It is represented by
NAME
Derive attribute: An attribute value which is derived from some other attributes
such an attribute is called as derived attribute. It is represented by doted ellipse.
Total Marks
Composite attribute: An attribute which can be further divided such an attribute

is called as composite attribute.
NAME
FIRST NAME MIDDLE LAST NAME

NAME
Multi valued attribute: For each instance an attribute which contains multiple
values is called as multi valued attribute. It is represented by double line ellipse.
K.V.R
Mobile no
Relationship: An association between entity type is called as relationship. There

are two types of relationships. They are
1. Strong relation ship

2. Weak relation ship
Strong relationship: The entity types of the relation is strong entities then it is
called as strong relationship. It is represented by
Weak relationship: When the entities are strong and weak in a relationship then
it is called as weak relationship. It is represented by
Ex: student join in a course
C_ID C_NAME DURATION

ROLL NO NAME MOBILE
STUDENT JOIN COURSE

K.V.R
Degree of a ER diagram: The number of entities that are participated in a
relationship is called as degree of a relationship. There are 3 types of
relationships. They are
1. Unary relationship
2. Binary relationship
3. Ternary relationship
Unary relationship: A relationship which contains only one entity type is called
as unary relationship.
Ex: person marry a person
P_id
MARRY
PERSON
name
Binary relationship: A relationship which contains two entity types such a

relationship is called as binary relationship.
Ex:
Student join course
student course
Join
Ternary relationship: A relationship which contains 3 entity types is called as

ternary relationship.
K.V.R
Ex: vendor supply material and ship to warehouse
qty
M_id Desc
material
v-id name
w-id Loc
supply warehouse
vendor
Types of relationships: An entity instance of one entity type that can be

associated with an entity instance of other entity type is called as type of
relationship. There are 4 types of relationships. They are
1. One to one relationship

2. One to many relationship
3. Many to one relationship
4. Many to many relationship
One to one relationship: An entity instance of Entity type-A is associated with

an only one entity instance of entity type –B is called as one to one relationship.
Entity type-A Entity type-B
K.V.R
One to many relationship: An entity instance of entity type –A is associated
with many of entity instances of entity type-B is called as one to many
relationship
Many to one relationship: Many entity instances of entity type-A is associated

with only one entity instance of entity type –B is called as many to one
relationship.
Many to many relationship: Many entity instances of entity type-A is associated

with many entity instances of entity type –B is called as many to many
relationship.
K.V.R
Generalization: Extraction of common properties from a set of entity types is

called as generalization. It is a bottom up approach. (Or) It is a process of
creation of super type from set of sub type entity types.
Ex: There are two entity types such as EMPLOYEE and STUDENT. The
properties of these two entity types is
Id
Name
EMPLOYEE
Name Fee
Id
STUDENT
The common properties from these two entity types is Id and Name.
K.V.R
The generalization of these two entity types is
Id Name
PERSON
IS a
Fee
EMPLOYEE STUDENT
Specialization: Identification of subtypes from a super type is called as
specialization. It is a top down approach.
Ex: The persons in an organization are either student or employee. The

specialization for the above example is
Id Name
PERSON
Is a
Fee
K.V.R
EMPLOYEE STUDENT
Aggregation: A relationship that associated with another relationship is called as

aggregation. (or) A relationship which act as an entity for another relationship is
called as aggregation.
Ex: project sponsor departments which is managed by employees
Employee
manage
pid pname pbudget deptid

budget
pbudget
project sponsor Department
Relational Algebra: It is a query language which is used to retrieve the data

from a relational model. The different operations that are performed on
relational model is
1. Selection
2. Projection
3. Cross product
4. Union
5. Intersection
6. Difference
K.V.R
7. Joins
8. Rename
9. Division
Ex:
sailors
Sid Sname Rating age

11 Ravi 5 45
12 venkat 6 38
13 sai 7 42
Boats
Bid Bname Color

101 xx Red
102 yy Green
103 zz Red
104 aa yellow
Reserves
Sid Bid day

11 103 21/7/2020
12 101 20/6/2020
Projection: it is a vertical subset of a relation. It is represented by π. The syntax

of projection is
Π(Colum list)
Ex: List names of all the boats
Π(bname)boats
Bname
Xx
Yy
Zz
Aa
K.V.R
Ex: List colors of all the boats
Π(colors)boats
Colors
Red
Green
Red
Yellow
Ex: List the names of all the sailors
Π(names)sailors
Sname
Ravi
venkat
sai
Ex-4: list name and age of all the sailors
Π(name,age)sailors
Output:
Sname age
Ravi 45
venkat 38
sai 42
Selection: It is a horizontal subset of a relation. It is represented by sigma σ
Sid Sname Rating age

12 venkat 6 38
13 sai 7 42
Ex: List the details of the sailors whose age is less than 40
K.V.R
σ (age<40)sailors
Sid Sname Reating age

12 venkat 6 38
Ex: List details of the sailors whose rating is >=6
σ(rating>=6)sailors
Ex: List the name and rating of sailors whose age is less than 40
Π(name,rating) σ (age<40)sailors
Sname Reating
venkat 6
Cross product: In this operation each row first table is joined with all the rows
of second table. It is also called as Cartesian product. It is represented by by × .
The syntax of this operation is
relation1 × relation2
Ex:
Table1
principle
1000
2000
3000
Table2
Time interest
12 3.5
15 4
Table1×Table2
K.V.R
Principle Time interest
1000 12 3.5
1000 15 4
2000 12 3.5
2000 15 4
3000 12 3.5
3000 15 4
Union: To perform this operation the two tables must have same cols. This
is called as union compatibility. The resultant table will contain the rows of
first table or second table or both.
Student1
Sid Name Marks

1 Sai 56
2 Venkat 67
3 Raju 89
Student2
Sid Name Marks

10 Rajani 89
11 Vyshnavi 45
3 Raju 89
2 Venkat 67
12 Lakshmi 45
Student1U student2
Sid Name Marks

1 Sai 56
2 Venkat 67
3 Raju 89
10 Rajani 89
11 Vyshnavi 45
12 Lakshmi 45
K.V.R
Intersection: The result of this operation is the rows which are common
under both the sets. To perform this operation the two tables must be union
compatible. The syntax of this operation is
Table1 ∩ table2
Ex: student1 ∩ student2
Sid Name Marks

2 Venkat 67
3 Raju 89
Difference: The resultant table which contains the element of first table but
not second table. The syntax of this operation is
Table1-table2
Ex:
Student1-student2
Sid Name marks

1 Sai 56
Ex-2:
Student2-student1
Sid Name marks

10 Rajani 89
11 Vyshnavi 45
12 Lakshmi 45
Joins: joins are used to retrieve the data from one or multiple tables. There
are two types of joins. They are
1. Inner join
2. Outer join
Inner join: This join retrieve the data from both the tables which satisfies
the condition. There are three types of inner joins. They are
K.V.R
1. Theta join
2. Equi join
3. Natural join
Theta join: This join retrieve data from both the tables which satisfies the
condition. The condition is either > ,>=,< or <=
Ex:
T1
Col-1 Col-2
1 5
2 4
3 8
T2
Col-1 Col-2
1 3
6 2
8 8
EX: Retrieve the data from the given tables where col-2 of T1 is greater
than col-2 value of T2
T1⋈T1.col-2>T2.col-2 (T2)
Col-1 Col-2 Col-1 Col-2
1 5 1 3
2 4 6 2
Equi join: In this join the condition is equal.
Ex: Retrieve the data from both the table where col-2 of T1 is equal to col-2
of T2.
T1⋈T1.col-2=T2.col-2 (T2)
Col-1 Col-2 Col-1 Col-2
K.V.R
3 8 8 8
Natural join: In this join we can’t use any condition.
T1
Num square
2 4
3 9
T2
Num cube
2 8
3 27
T1 ⋈T2
Num Square Cube

2 4 8
3 9 27
Outer joins: This join retrieve the rows of the table even there is no
matching value in another table. There are three outer joins. They are
1. Left outer join

2. Right outer join
3. Full outer join
Left outer join: In this join it produces all the rows of the table-1 even there
is no matching value in table-2. This is represented by
Ex:
T1
Num square
2 4
3 9
4 16
K.V.R
T2
Num cube
2 8
3 27
5 125
10 1000
T1 T2
NUM Square cube

2 4 8
3 9 27
4 16
T2 T1
Num Cube Square

2 8 4
3 27 9
5 125
10 1000
It produces all the rows of T1 and matching rows of T2
Right outer join: It produces all the rows of second table and matching
rows of first table. It is represented by
Ex: T1 T2
NUM Square Cube

2 4 8
3 9 27
5 125
10 1000
K.V.R
Full outer join: It produces all the rows of both the tables. It is represented
by
Ex:
T1 T2
Num Square Cube

2 4 8
3 9 27
4 16
5 125
10 1000
Rename: This operation is used to change the name of the table. It will be
represented by ->
DIVISION: Let us assume that there are two tables A and B. The table A
has two fields x and y. The table B has only one field y. The division A/B
will display all x values for every y value of B
Table: A
sno Pno
S1 P1
S1 P2
S1 P3
S1 P4
S2 P1
S2 P2
S3 P2
S4 P2
S4 P4
Table: B
pno
P2
P4
A/B
K.V.R
Sno
S1
S4
Table: B
pno
P1
P2
P4
A/B
SNO
S1
Sailors(sid,sname,rating,age)
Boats(bid,bname,color)
Reserves(sid,bid,day,)
Ex: List the details of the sailors whose rating is greater than 8
σ rating >8(Sailors)
Ex-2: List name and rating of all sailors
Πsname,rating(Sailors)
Ex: List name and rating of all sailors whose rating is greater than 8
Π sname,rating(σ rating >8(Sailors))

Ex: find the names of the sailors who have reserve boat 103
Π sname((σbid=103(Reserves) ⋈Sailors)
Ex: List the names of the sailors who reserve red boat
Π sname((σcolor=’red’(BOATS) ⋈Reserves⋈Sailors)
K.V.R
Ex: List the colors of the boats reserved by lubber
Π colors((σsname=’lubber’(sailors) ⋈Reserves⋈Boats)
Ex: List the names sailors who have reserve at least one boat
Π sname(Sailors⋈Reserves)
Ex: find the names of the sailors who reserved a red or green boat
Π sname(σcolor=’red’˅ color=’green’(BOATS) ⋈Reserves⋈Sailors)
Ex: Find the sids of sailors with age over 20 who have not reserved a red boat
Πsid(σage>20(sailors))- Πsid((σcolor=’red’(Boats) ⋈Reserves⋈Sailors)
K.V.R
Unit-III
SQL: structured query language. It is a non procedural language. The

statements in SQL are divided into three types. They are
1. DDL statements
2. DML statements
3. DCL statements
DDL statements: DDL means Data Definition Language. These statements

are used to create, alter and delete database objects such as tables, views,
procedures, etc.
Creation of a table: The syntax to create a table is
Create table <tablename>
(column-1 datatype(size), column-2 datatype(size) , ………… column-n

datatype(size));
Datatypes:
Char---fixed length of character maximum of 256 characters
Varchar2 --- variable length of characters maximum of 2000
Number – it is used to store either integer or floating point numbers.
An integer can be defined as number(scale)
A floating point number can be defined as number(s,p)
Date : it is used to store date
Long: it is also used to store characters. It allows maximum of 2GB
RAW: It is used to store binary information
BLOB: Binary large objects
CLOB: character large objects.
Ex:
Student(rollno:number,name:character,gpa:number)
K.V.R
CREATE TABLE STUDENT(
ROLLNO NUMBER(3),
NAME VARCHAR2(30),
GPA NUMBER(2,1));
Employee(eno:number,ename:character,dob:date,mgr:number,deptid:nu
mber)
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(
ENO NUMBER(3),
ENAME VARCHAR2(30),
DOB DATE,
MGR NUMBER(3),
DEPTID NUMBER(2));
Alter table: This command is used to add a column, modify a column or

delete a column. The syntax of this statement is
ALTER TABLE <tablename>
([ADD column_name datatype(size)]
[MODIFY column_name datatype(size)]
[DROP COLUMN column_name]);
Ex: Add salary column to employee table
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE(ADD salary number(6,2));
Ex: change the size of employee name from 30 characters to 40 characters
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE(MODIFY ename varchar(40));
Ex: Delete the column mgr from employee table
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE(DROP COLUMN mgr);
K.V.R
DROP TABLE: This statement is used to delete a table. The syntax of this
statement is
DROP TABLE <tablename>;
Ex: Delete table student
DROP TABLE student;
Describe the table structure:
DESC <tablename>;
DESC employee;
DML statements: Data Manipulation Language. These statements are used

to insert, modify, read and delete the data.
student
Rollno Name gpa
Insert : This statement is used to insert a record into the table. The syntax
of this statement is
1) Insert into <tablename> values(value-1,value-2,value-3,…..,value-n);
When the value is a string or character it must be enclosed in quotes. This

syntax is used to insert entire record.
Ex:
Insert into student values(501,’sai’,8.9);
Insert into student values(502,’lakshmi’,7.8);
Insert into student values(503,’bhanu’,6.8);
2) Insert into <tablename>values(&column-1,&column-2,…..,&column-

n);
Interactive method to insert a record
Ex:
K.V.R
Insert into student values(&rollno,’&name’,&gpa);
Insert rollno:501
Insert name:sai
Insert gpa: 8.7
One record is inserted
Sql> /
To enter another record
3) Insert into <tablename>(col-1,col-2,…col-n) values(value-1,value-

2,…,value-n);
Ex:
Insert into student(rollno)values(504);
Insert into student(rollno)values(505);
Update: This statement is used to modify the data. The syntax of this
statement is
Update tablename
Set col=value
[where condition];
When where clause is not specified all the rows are updated. When where
clause is specified only condition satisfied rows are updated.
Ex:
Update student
Set gpa=9.2
Where rollno=501;
Delete: This statement is used to delete the rows from a table. The syntax of
this statement is
K.V.R
Delete *
From tablename
[where condition]
When where clause is not specified all the rows of the table is deleted. when
where clause is specified only the condition satisfied rows are deleted.
Ex:
Delete * from student where rollno=501;
Operators: An operator is a symbol which is used to perform a specific

operation. There are 4 types of operators in SQL. They are
1. Arithmetic operators
2. Relational operators
3. Logical operators
4. Special operators
Arithmetic operators: These operators are used to perform arithmetic

operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Operator Meaning
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
Mod Remainder
Relational operators: These operators are used to compare the values. The
relational operators are
Operator Meaning
< Lessthan
> Greaterthan
<= Less than or equal
>= Greater than or equal
= Equal
!= Not equal
K.V.R
Logical operators: These operators are used to combine two or more
conditions. The logical operators are
Operator Meaning
AND Logical AND
OR Logical OR
NOT Logical NOT
Special operators: The special operators are
Operator
IN
BETWEEN
LIKE
EMP Table
EMPN ENAM JOB MG HIREDAT SAL COM DEPTN

O E R E M O
101 Sai Sale 01-aug- 5600 10
s 1998 0
DEPT Table
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
Select statement: This statement is used to retrieve the data from a tables.
The syntax of this statement is
SELECT columnlist
FROM table name
[WHERE condition]
K.V.R
[GROUP BY column]
[HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY column]
Where clause is used to display only condition satisfied rows
Group by clause is used to display rows in group
Having clause is used to display values based on condition
Order by clause is used to display the values in either ascending or

descending order
Ex-1: List the details of all the employees
Select * from emp;
Ex-2: List employee no,name and salary for all the employees
Select empno,ename,sal from emp;
Ex-3: List the details of the employees who are working in dept 10
Select * from emp where deptno=10;
Ex-4: List name and salary of employees who are in sales;
Select ename,sal from emp where job=’sales’;
Ex-5: List name,sal and date of join of the employees who are working in
dept 10 or dept 20
Select ename,sal,hiredate from emp where deptno=10 or deptno=20;
Ex-6: List details of the employees whose job is sales and salary is>25000
Select * from emp where job=’sales’ and salary >25000;
Ex-7: List the details of all the departments
Select * from dept;
Ex-8: List the details of the departments whose loc is Guntur
Select * from dept where loc=’guntur’;
K.V.R
Ex-9: List deptname and loc of all the departments
Select dname,loc from dept;
Ex-10: List names of clerks who are working in dept 20;
Select ename from emp where job=’clerk’ and deptno=20;
Ex-11: List name of salespersons and analyst persons
Select ename from emp where job=’sales’ or job=’analyst’;
Ex-12: List details of the employees except managers
Select * from emp where job!=’manager’;
Ex-13: List the details of the employees who joined before 2000
Select * from emp where hiredate<’1-jan-2000’;
Ex-14: List the names of employees in ascending order.
Select ename from emp order by ename;
Ex-15: List names and salary of all employees in descending of the salary
Select ename,sal from emp order by sal desc;
Ex-16: List the details of the employees who are working in dept 10 in
ascending order of the salary
Select * from emp where deptno=10 order by sal;
Ex-17: List the names of the employees whose employee numbers are
7369,7521,6789,4567,2345
Select ename from emp where empno=7369 or empno=7521 or

empno=6789 or empno=4567 or empno=2345;
(Or)
Select ename from emp where empno in(7369,7521,6789,4567,2345);
Ex-18: List the details of the employees does not belongs to depts 10,30,40
Select * from emp where deptno not in(10,30,40)
K.V.R
Ex-19:List the details of the employees whose salary in between 10000 to
15000
Select * from emp where sal>=10000 and sal<=15000
(Or)
Select * from emp where sal between 10000 and 15000;
Ex-20: List the details of the employees who joined in 2010
Select * from emp where hiredate between ‘1-jan-2010’ and ’31-dec-2010’;
Ex-21: List the employee names who are not eligible for commission
Select ename from emp where comm Is NULL;
Ex-22: List the names of the employees who does not report to any body.
Select ename from emp where mgr is NULL;
Ex-23: List the employees does not assigned to any dept
Select * from emp where deptno is NULL;
Ex-24: list the employees who are eligible for commission
Select * from emp where comm Is not null
Ex-25: List the details of the employees whose salary is greater than 10000
and comm is null
Select * from emp where sal>10000 and comm Is NULL
Like operator: it is used for pattern matching. This operator has two wild
characters % and _.
% is used for Set of characters
_ is used for one character
Ex-26: List the names of the names of the employees whose name begins
with s
Select ename from emp where ename like ‘s%’;
Ex-27: List the name of the employees who name begins with sai
K.V.R
Select ename from emp where ename like ‘sai%’;
Ex-28: List names of the employees whose name ends with lakshmi
Select ename from emp where ename like ‘%lakshmi’;
Ex-29: List the names of the employees who name has exactly 5 characters
Select ename from emp where ename like ‘-----‘;
Ex-30: List names of the employees whose name second character is ‘e’
Select ename from emp where ename like ‘-e%’;
Aggregate functions: These functions produce single value from a group of

values. These functions are
1. COUNT ----Determine the number of rows

2. SUM---------- It returns sum of all the selected rows
3. MAX---------- It returns the maximum among all the selected rows
4. MIN----------- It returns the minimum among all the selected rows
5. AVG---------- It returns the average of all the selected rows
Ex-31: List total number of employees in the organization
Select count(*) from emp;
Ex-32: list the maximum salary among all the employees
Select max(sal) from emp;
Ex-33: List the minimum salary among all the employees
Select min(sal) from emp;
Ex-34: list maximum salary ,minimum salary and average salary
Select max(sal),min(sal),avg(sal) from emp;
Ex-35: List the avg salary of dept 20
Select avg(sal) from emp where deptno=20;
Ex-36: List maximum salary of a clerk
Select max(sal) from emp where job=’clerk’;
K.V.R
Ex-37: List no of employees in deptno 10
Select count(*) from emp where deptno=10;
Ex-38: list no of employees, max sal,min sal,avg sal ,total salary of dept 10
employees
Select count(*),sum(sal),max(sal),min(sal),avg(sal) from emp where

deptno=10;
Group by: This clause is used to divide the rows of table into smaller
groups
This clause is used with select statement
Having clause is used to retrieve the rows from a group result with a
specific condition.
Ex-39: List no of employees in each department
Select deptno, count(*) from emp group by deptno;
Ex-40: list dept no and total salary of each dept
Select deptno,sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;
Ex-41: List jobs and no employees in each job. The result should be
descending order of no of employees
Select job,count(*) from emp group by job order by 2 desc;
Ex-42: List total salary, maximum, minimum, avg salary of employees job
wise
Select sum(sal),max(sal),min(sal),avg(sal) from emp group by job;
Ex-43: List average salary for each job excluding manager
Select job, avg(sal) from emp where job!=’manager’ group by job;
Ex-44: List total salary, maximum salary, minimum salary, and average
salary of employees job wise for dept 20 only
Select job,sum(sal),max(sal),min(sal),avg(sal) from emp where deptno=20

group by job;
K.V.R
Ex-45: List avg monthly salary for each job type with in department
Select deptno,job,avg(sal) from emp group by deptno,job;
Ex-46: List avg salary for all departments employees more than 5 people
Select deptno,avg(sal) from emp group by dept having count(*)>5;
Ex-47: list jobs of all the employees where maximum salary is greater than
5000
Select job,max(sal) from emp group by job having max(sal)>5000;
Set operators: These operators are used to combine information of similar

type from one or more tables. There are 3 set operators in SQL. They are
1. Union
2. Intersect
3. Minus
Union: This statement merges the outputs of two or more queries into a
single set of rows and columns. The syntax of this statement is
Select <statement-1>
Union
[order by column]
Ex-48: list the names of employees in dept 20 and 30
Select ename from emp where deptno=20
Union
Select ename from emp where deptno=30;
Ex-49: list ename, salary for the employees who are working in dept 20
and dept 30 order by descending order of salary.
K.V.R
Select ename,sal from emp where deptno=20
Union
Select ename,sal from emp where deptno=30
Order by 2 desc;
Intersection: This statement returns all the rows which are common in
both the sets. The syntax of this statement is
Intersect
[order by column name]
Ex-50: List the jobs which are common in dept 20 and dept 30
Select job from emp where deptno=20
Intersect
Select job from emp where deptno=30;
Minus: This operators return the rows unique to first query. The syntax of
this operator is
Minus
[order by column]
Ex-51: List the jobs which are unique to deptno 20
Minus
Select job from emp where deptno=10;
Ex-52: find the jobs which are unique to dept 20
K.V.R
Minus
Select job from emp where deptno in(10,30);
Sub queries: A query which contains another query is called as sub queries.
Sub queries are used to write the queries very efficiently. Sub queries are
very useful when the required information in one table and condition is in
another table.
Ex-53:
List the names of the employees who were working in CSE in department
Select ename from emp
Where deptno=(select deptno from dept where dname=’CSE’);
Ex -54:
List the names of the who is drawing highest salary
Select ename from emp where sal=(select max(sal) from emp);
Ex-55: List name of the who is drawing min salary
Select ename from emp where sal=(select min(sal) from emp);
Ex-56:
List names of the employees who were drawing greater than average salary
Select ename from emp where sal>(select avg(sal) from emp);
Ex-57:
List the details of the employees whose salary is greater than avg salary
and hiredate is before 01-apr-2000
K.V.R
Select * from emp where sal>(select avg(sal) from emp where hiredate<’01-
apr-2020’)
Ex-58:
List the jobs with highest avg salary
Select job,Avg(sal)
From emp
Group by job
Having avg(sal)=(select max(avg(sal)) from emp group by job);
Ex-59: List name of the employees who earn lowest salary in each dept
Select ename, sal, deptno from emp
Where sal in( select min(sal) from emp group by deptno);
Correlated queries: A correlated query is also a nested query which is

executed once for each candidate row. There must be correlation column in
main query and subquery.
Ex-60:
List the employee numbers and names who earn salary greater than the
avg salary for their department
Select empno,ename,sal,deptno
From emp e
Where sal >(select avg(sal) from emp where deptno=e.deptno);
Ex-61:
List all employees who have at least one person reporting them
Select empno,ename,job,deptno
From emp e
K.V.R
Where exists( select empno from emp where emp.mgr=e.empno)
Order by empno;
Ex-62:
List the employee details if and only if more than 10 employees are present
in department 10
Select * from emp
Where deptno=10 and exists(select count(*) from emp where deptno=10
Group by deptno
Having count(*)>10);
Functions in SQL: The different functions in SQL is
1. Arithmetic functions
2. Character functions
3. Date functions
4. General functions
Arithmetic functions: These functions are used to perform arithmetic

operations. The various arithmetic functions are
1. ABS(N)
2. CEIL(N)
3. FLOOR(N)
4. MOD(m,n)
5. POWER(m,n)
6. SIGN(n)
7. SQRT(n)
8. TRUNC(n)
9. ROUND(n)
10.EXP(n)
ABS(n): This function will return absolute value of the column
Select abs(-65) from dual;
K.V.R
Output:65
CEIL(n): This function return the smallest integer greater than or equal to
n
Select ceil(88.9) from dual;
Output: 89
Floor: This function return the largest integer greater than n
Select floor(88.9) from dual;
Output: 88
MOD(m,n): This function will return the remainder when m is divided by

n
Select mod(5,2) from dual;
Output:1
Power(m,n): This function returns m raised to the power n
Select power(5,3) from dual;
Output:125
Sign(n): This function returns -1 when the number is negative . It return 1

when the number is positive.
Select sign(123) from dual;
Output: 1
Select sign(-123) from dual;
Output:-1
Sqrt(n): This function will return the square root of a number
Select sqrt(9) from dual;
Output:3
Trunc(m,n): This function truncates the m with n decimal positions
K.V.R
Ex: select trunc(123.456,1) from dual;
Output:123.4
Ex:
Select trunc(123.4567,2) from dual;
Output: 123.45
Round(m,n): This function rounds the column to n decimal places. If n is

not specified then the decimal places is truncated
Select round(1234.78,1),round(1234.678) from dual;
Output:
1234.8 1234
Exp(n): This function will return exponent value of the value n
Select exp(4) from dual;
Output:54.59
Character functions: These functions are used to perform operations on

strings or characters. The different character functions are
Chr(x): This functions return the character for the given ascii value.
Ex: select chr(100) from dual;
Output: d
Concat(string1,string2): This function concat two strings
Ex:
Select concat(‘good’,’morning’) from dual;
Output:
Goodmorning
INITCAP(string): This function capitalize the first character of a string
Ex: select INITCAP(ename) from emp;
K.V.R
LOWER(string): This function convert the string into lower case
Ex: select LOWER(ename) from emp;
UPPER(string): This function convert the string into upper case
Ex: select UPPER(ename) from emp;
SUBSTR(string,m,n): This function return the substring starts from m th

position.
Select substr(‘goodmoring’,2,4) from dual;
Output:oodm
ASCII(char): This function return the ascii value for the given character
Select ascii(‘A’) from dual;
Output:97
LENGTH(): This function returns the length of the string.
Ex: select length(‘venkat’) from dual;
Output:6
Date functions: These functions return date data type as a result. Some of
the date functions are
1. SYSDATE
2. ADD_MONTHS(d,n)
3. MONTHS_BETWEEN(d1,d2)
4. LAST_DAY(d)
5. NEXT_DAY(d)
6. TO_CHAR(d,f)
7. TO_DATE(char,f)
Sysdate: This function returns the system date
Select sysdate from sys.dual;
ADD_MONTHS(d,n): This function add the number of months to the date.
K.V.R
Ex:
Select hiredate,add_months(hiredate,4) from emp;
MONTHS_BETWEEN(d1,d2): This function return the number of months

between two dates.
Select MONTHS_BETWEEN(‘4-AUG-2020’,’4-DEC-2020’) FROM dual;
Output: 4
Last_day(d): It returns the last day of the month
Select last_day(sysdate) from dual;
Output:31-aug-2020
Next_day(date,day):
Select next_day(sysdate,’MONDAY’) FROM dual;
TO_CHAR(d,f): This function converts the date into character format
Select sysdate,TO_CHAR(sysdate,’day’) from dual;
Output: Tuesday
TO_DATE: This function converts the character string into specific

format.
Select TO_DATE(SYSDATE,’MON’) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT: SEP
CONSTRAINTS: A constraint is a condition which is used to maintain

good quality of data. The different constraints in SQL is
1. Unique
2. Not null
3. Primary key
4. Check
5. Default
6. Foreign key
K.V.R
Unique constraint: When we define unique constraint to a column then the
column value must be unique i.e the column value can’t be repeated. A
unique constraint allows null values.
Not null: When we define not null constraint to a column then the column
value can’t be null.
Primary key: primary key is key which is unique and not null.
Check constraint: This constraint is used to validate the column value
Default constraint: This constraint is used to set the default value of a

column.
Ex:
Create table student ( Regd_no number(3) primary key, name

varchar2(30) not null, marks number(3) check marks>=0 and
marks<=100);
Foreign key: A foreign key is a non key attribute in one table and it is a
primary key in another table. It is used to establish the relationship
between two tables.
Ex:
Emp(eno,ename,salary,deptno)
Dept(deptno,dname,loc)
Here deptno is a foreign key. This key is a non key attribute in emp table
and primacy key in dept table.
Create table Dept( deptno number(3) primary key, dname varchar2(20)

not null, loc varchar2(10));
Create table emp(eno number(3) primary key, ename varchar2(20)
K.V.R
Not null, salary number(7,2) not null, deptno number(3) references
Dept(deptno));
Integrity constraints: Constraints are used to maintain good quality of

data. There are two integrity constraints in DBMS. They are
1. Entity integrity
2. Referential integrity
Entity integrity: The primary key value can’t be NULL. This is called as
entity integrity.
Ex:
Employee(eno,ename,salary)
Here eno is primary key. This value can’t be NULL. This is called as entity
integrity.
Referential integrity: Foreign key is a non key attribute in one relation and
it is a primary key in another relation. The value if the foreign key is either
null or match the primary key.
Ex:
Emp(eno,ename,salary,deptno)
Dept(deptno,dname,loc)
Here deptno is a foreign key. The value of the deptno in emp table is either
null or match with the deptno of dept table.
Self join: A table which join the table itself is called as self join. The syntax
of self join is
Select columnlist
From table t1,table t2
Where t1.column=t2.column
Ex: list the names of the employees and its manager
Select t1.ename,t2.ename
From emp t1,emp t2

K.V.R
Where t1.mgr=t2.empno;
Inner join: An inner join will display the rows which satisfies the
condition. The syntax of inner join is
Select columlist
From table1
Inner join on table2 condition;
Left Outer join:
Select columnlist
From table1
Left join on table2 condition;
Right outer join
Select columnlist
From table1
Right join on table2 condition;
Full outer join:
Select columnlist
From table1
Full join on table2 conditon;
Trigger:
A trigger is a stored procedure that will be executed automatically when

the event is occured. The syntax of trigger is
create trigger [trigger_name]
[before | after]
{insert | update | delete}
on [table_name]
[for each row]
[trigger_body]
K.V.R
Ex:
Create trigger stu_total
Before
Insert
On student
For each row
Set student.total=student.sub1+student.sub2+student.sub3;
UNIT-IV (NORMALIZATION)
Normalization: The disadvantages of redundancy are data inconsistency

and wastage of storage. Normalization is used to avoid redundancy.
Normalization is the process of decomposing a relation into smaller and
well defined relations. A well defined relation is a relation with no
anomalies during insertion, deletion and update. The different normal
forms are
1. 1 NF(Normal Form)
2. 2 NF
3. 3 NF
4. BCNF
5. 4 NF
6. 5 NF
FIRST NORMAL FORM (1 NF): A relation is said to be first normal

form iff all attributes must be atomic (which can’t be decomposable) and
there is no multi valued attributes.
STUDENT
SID NAME MOBILENO
501 Ramya 9877889910
8988990011
502 Lakshmi 8899888800
503 Sai 8877554430
K.V.R
9966330011
The above relation is not in first normal form because mobile no is a multi
valued attribute and some students has multiple mobile no. The above
relation can be modified by
SID NAME MOBILENO

501 Ramya 9977889910
501 Ramya 8988990011
502 Lakshmi 8899888800
503 Sai 9966330011
503 Sai 8877554430
The above relation is in first normal however it has redundancy. Sid and
name will appear multiple numbers of time.
Ex:
SID NAME MOBILE

firstname lastname
501 Kenn sai 9997776660
502 bommala Rakesh 8899669900
503 Ch Srivani 7778889990
The above relation is not first normal form because the name column is not
atomic. The first normal form for the above relation is
Sid First name Last name mobile

501 Kenn Sai 9997776660
502 Bommala Rakesh 8899669900
503 Ch Srivani 7778889990
Second normal form (2NF): A relation is said to be second normal form iff
it is in first normal form and every non key attribute is fully functional
dependent on primary key.
Functional dependency: Let us assume that x and y are the attributes in a

relation R, an attribute y is functional dependent on x iff for each value of x
there is a unique value of y. The functional dependency is represented by
X Y.
K.V.R
Ex:
SID NAME MARKS

501 Sai lakshmi 78
502 Vyshnavi 67
503 vyshnavi 69
504 Rajya lakshmi 78
The above relation is in second normal form. The key attribute is sid and
non key attributes are name and marks. The attributes name and marks is
fully functional dependent on sid. The functional dependency for the above
relation is
SID NAME
SID MARKS
Ex:
EID NAME SALARY CITY PINCODE

101 Raju 89000 Guntur 522001
102 Sai 78000 Guntur 522001
103 Vyshu 77000 Guntur 522001
104 Lakshmi 67000 Nrt 523090
The above relation is first normal form but not second form because
pincode dependent on city. The key attribute is ‘EID’. The non key
attributes are name, salary, city and pincode. For the above relation one
non key attribute dependents on another non key attribute. So this relation
is not in second normal form. The functional dependencies for the above
relation is
EID NAME, SALARY, CITY, PINCODE
CITY PINCODE
The above relation is decomposed into two relations.
EID NAME SALARY CITY

101 Raju 89000 Guntur
102 Sai 78000 Guntur
103 Vyshu 77000 Guntur
K.V.R
104 Lakshmi 67000 Nrt
CITY PINCODE
Guntur 522001
Nrt 523090
Third normal form (3NF): A relation is said to be third normal form iff it is
in second normal form and there is no transitive dependency.
Transitive dependency: A non key attribute which is functional dependent

on some other non key attribute then it is called as transitive dependency.
EID NAME SALARY CITY

101 Raju 89000 Guntur
102 Sai 78000 Guntur
103 Vyshu 77000 Guntur
104 Lakshmi 67000 Nrt
The functional dependencies for the above relation is
EID NAME, SALARY, CITY
The above relation is 3 rd normal form because it is in second normal form

and no transitive dependency. The key attribute is ‘EID’ and non key
attributes are name, salary and city.
BCNF(Boyce codd normal form): A relation is said to be BCNF iff it is in 3

NF and every determinant is a candidate key.
Candidate key: A key which has unique property such a key is called as
candidate key.
Determinant: An attribute which appear left side of the functional

dependency such attribute is called as determinant.
Ex:
SID SUBJECT TEACHER GPA

123 CP KVR 8.9
123 JAVA RAM 9.0
124 CP KIRAN 8.8
K.V.R
125 JAVA SAI 9.2
125 DBMS LAKSHMI 9.1
SID, SUBJECT TEACHER, GPA
This relation is in 3NF but not BCNF because determinant is not a

candidate key. Here subject is determinant and it is not a candidate key.
SID SUBJECT TEACHER GPA
The above relation is decomposed into two relations.
SID TEACHER GPA

123 KVR 8.9
123 RAM 9.0
124 KIRAN 8.8
125 SAI 9.2
125 LAKSHMI 9.1
SID, TEACHER GPA
TEACHER SUBJECT
KVR CP
RAM JAVA
KIRAN CP
SAI JAVA
LAKSHMI DBMS
TEACHER SUBJECT
Fourth Normal Form (4NF): A relation is said to be 4NF iff there is no

multi valued dependences.
Multi valued dependency: A multi valued dependency is exist when the

relation will contains at least three attributes. Let use assume ‘A’, ‘B’ and
‘C’ are the attributes in the relation R, for each value of A there is set of
values of B and Set of values of C.
K.V.R
Subject Teacher textbook
DBMS Ram Korth
venkat Ramakrishna
date
Java Sai Dietel
Kiran ramchandrea
raj
The normalized relation for the above example is
SUBJECT TEACHER TEXTBOOK

DBMS Ram korth
DBMS Ram ramakrishna
DBMS Ram date
DBMS venkat korth
DBMS venkat ramakrishna
DBMS venkat date
java sai dietel
java Sai ramchandra
java kiran dietel
java kiran ramchandra
java raj dietel
java raj ramchandra
The above relation is not in 4NF because it contains multi valued

dependencies. This relation is decomposed into two relations.
SUBJECT TEACHER
DBMS ram
DBMS venkat
Java sai
Java kiran
Java raj
SUBJECT TEXTBOOK
DBMS Korth
DBMS ramakrishna
DBMS date
Java dietel
Java ramchandra
K.V.R
Fifth normal form (5NF): fifth normal form is a lossless join dependency. It
is also called as DKNF (Domain key normal form). This normal form is
used to join the relations.
Subject teacher Subject textbook

DBMS ram DBMS Korth
DBMS venkat DBMS ramakrishna
Java sai DBMS date
Java kiran Java dietel
Java raj Java ramchandra
SUBJECT TEACHER TEXTBOOK

DBMS Ram korth
DBMS Ram ramakrishna
DBMS Ram date
DBMS venkat korth
DBMS venkat ramakrishna
DBMS venkat date
java sai dietel
java Sai ramchandra
java kiran dietel
java kiran ramchandra
java raj dietel
java Raj ramchandra
Schema Refinement: The overall design of a database is called as schema. A

schema refinement is intended to address and refinement approach based on
decomposition. Redundant storage is the root cause of these problems. The
problems for redundant storage is
1. Redundant storage: some information is stored repeatedly. This is called

as redundant storage. It leads wastage of storage.
2. Insertion anomalies: An error or inconsistency that is occurring during the
data insertion is called as insertion anomaly.
K.V.R
3. Deletion anomalies: An error or inconsistency that is occur during data
deletion is called as deletion anomaly
4. Update anomalies: An error or inconsistency that is occurring during data
update is called as update anomaly.
Eno Name Rating Hourly_wage Hours_worked

101 Ravi 10 1500 40
102 Kiran 8 1000 45
103 Sai 10 1500 48
104 Ram 8 1000 42
105 Sasi 10 1500 48
For the above example hourly_wage depends on rating. Hourly wage is a
redundant storage. When hourly_wage is increased then it is necessary to update
all the rows. This is called as update anomaly. To avoid this problem the
relation is decomposed into two relations.
Eno Name Rating Hours_worked

101 Ravi 10 40
102 Kiran 8 45
103 Sai 10 48
104 Ram 8 42
105 Sasi 10 48
Rating Hourly_wage
10 1500
8 1000
The problems related to decomposition are when to decompose a relation and

what problems does a given decomposition cause. A relation is decomposed
when there is a transitive dependency. The decomposition must be loss less join
property.
Properties of decomposition: Decomposition is tool that allows us to eliminate

redundancy. There are two properties of decomposition. They are
1. Loss less join decomposition

2. Dependency preserving decomposition
Loss less join decomposition: All decompositions used to eliminate redundancy

must be loss less.
K.V.R
Let R be a relation and F be as set of FDs that held over R. The decomposition
of R into the relations with attribute sets R1 and R2 is loss less if and only if F+
contains either the FD R1∩R2 R1 or R1∩R2 R2.
For example
Employee(eno,name,rating,hours_wage,hours_worked)
This relation is decomposed into two relations
R1(eno,name,rating,hours_worked)
R2(rating,hours_wage)
Eno Name Rating Hourly_wage Hours_worked

101 Ravi 10 1500 40
102 Kiran 8 1000 45
103 Sai 10 1500 48
104 Ram 8 1000 42
105 Sasi 10 1500 48
The above relation is decomposed into two relations. They are
Eno Name Rating Hours_worked

101 Ravi 10 40
102 Kiran 8 45
103 Sai 10 48
104 Ram 8 42
105 Sasi 10 48
Rating Hourly_wage
10 1500
8 1000
This decomposition is loss less decomposition because when we join the

relations then we get new get the existing relation.
Dependency preserving decomposition: The decomposition of a relation schema

R with FDs into schema with attribute set X and Y is dependency preserving
if(FxUFy)+=F+ . i.e when a relation is decomposed with two relations ,when we
K.V.R
combine the functional dependencies two relations is same as the functional
dependencies of original relation.
Ex:
Employee(eno,name,rating,hours_wage,hours_worked)
The functional dependences are
Eno name
Eno rating
Eno hours_worked
Rating hours_wage
The above relation is decomposed into two relations and the functional
dependencies are
Emp_work(eno,name,hours_worked)
Eno name
Eno rating
Eno hours_worked
Emp_wage(rating,hours_wage)
Rating hours_wage
When we union these functional dependencies then we get the original table
functional dependencies
Ex-2: Let R be a relation with attributes A,B and C. The functional

dependencies of the relation is A B, B C, C A. The above
relation is decomposed into two relations with attributes AB and BC. Then the
functional dependencies on FAB is A B, functional dependencies on FBCis
B C . FABUFBC F
Surrogate key: surrogate key is unique key generated by database management

system. It is a primary key and it can’t be derived from other attributes.
K.V.R
Unit-v
Transaction: A transaction is an execution of user program. It is a series of read

and write operations. A transaction has four properties to maintain data in
concurrent access and system failures. The four properties of a transaction is
1. Atomic
2. Consistency
3. Isolation
4. Durability
Atomic: An execution of each transaction either all actions carried out or none.
User should not worry about incomplete transaction.
Consistency: Each transaction run by itself with no concurrent execution of

other transactions must preserve the consistency of data base. The DBMS
assumes that consistency holds for each transaction.
Isolation: Transactions are isolated or protected from the effects of concurrent

scheduling other transactions.
Durability: Once the transaction has completely successful its effects should be
persist even if the system crashes. This is called as durability.
Transaction log:
A DBMS uses a transaction log to keep track of all transactions that
update the database. The information stored in this log is used by the
DBMS for a recovery requirement triggered by a ROLLBACK statement, a
program’s abnormal termination, or a system failure such as a network
discrepancy or a disk crash. While the DBMS executes transactions that
modify the database, it also automatically updates the transaction log.
The transaction log stores:
[1] A record for the beginning of the transaction.

[2] For each transaction component (SQL statement):
[3] The type of operation being performed (update, delete, insert).
[4] The names of the objects affected by the transaction (the name of
the table).
[5] The “before” and “after” values for the fields being updated.
[6] Pointers to the previous and next transaction log entries for the
same transaction.
[7] The ending (COMMIT) of the transaction.
K.V.R
Transaction management using commit ,rollback and save point:
The COMMIT Command

The COMMIT command is the transactional command used to save changes invoked by a transaction to the
database. The COMMIT command saves all the transactions to the database since the last COMMIT or
ROLLBACK command.
Ex:
SQL> delete * from emp where eno=101;
SQL>COMMIT
To Make changes permanent it is necessary to apply commit otherwise the changes will not be permanent
ROLLBACK
The ROLLBACK command is the transactional command used to undo transactions that have not already been
saved to the database. This command can only be used to undo transactions since the last COMMIT or
ROLLBACK command was issued.
SQL>select * from emp where eno=101;

SQL>ROLLBACK
Save point:
Concurrency Control
o In the concurrency control, the multiple transactions can be executed simultaneously.
o It may affect the transaction result. It is highly important to maintain the order of
execution of those transactions.
Problems of concurrency control
Several problems can occur when concurrent transactions are executed in an uncontrolled
manner. Following are the three problems in concurrency control.
1. Lost updates
2. Dirty read
3. Unrepeatable read
1. Lost update problem

o When two transactions that access the same database items contain their operations in
a way that makes the value of some database item incorrect, then the lost update
problem occurs.
o If two transactions T1 and T2 read a record and then update it, then the effect of
updating of the first record will be overwritten by the second update.
Example:
K.V.R
Here,
o At time t2, transaction-X reads A's value.

o At time t3, Transaction-Y reads A's value.
o At time t4, Transactions-X writes A's value on the basis of the value seen at time t2.
o At time t5, Transactions-Y writes A's value on the basis of the value seen at time t3.
o So at time T5, the update of Transaction-X is lost because Transaction y overwrites it
without looking at its current value.
o Such type of problem is known as Lost Update Problem as update made by one
transaction is lost here.
2. Dirty Read
o The dirty read occurs in the case when one transaction updates an item of the
database, and then the transaction fails for some reason. The updated database item is
accessed by another transaction before it is changed back to the original value.
o A transaction T1 updates a record which is read by T2. If T1 aborts then T2 now has
values which have never formed part of the stable database.
Example:
o At time t2, transaction-Y writes A's value.

o At time t3, Transaction-X reads A's value.
o At time t4, Transactions-Y rollbacks. So, it changes A's value back to that of prior to
t1.
K.V.R
o So, Transaction-X now contains a value which has never become part of the stable
database.
o Such type of problem is known as Dirty Read Problem, as one transaction reads a
dirty value which has not been committed.
3. Inconsistent Retrievals Problem

o Inconsistent Retrievals Problem is also known as unrepeatable read. When a
transaction calculates some summary function over a set of data while the other
transactions are updating the data, then the Inconsistent Retrievals Problem occurs.
o A transaction T1 reads a record and then does some other processing during which the
transaction T2 updates the record. Now when the transaction T1 reads the record, then
the new value will be inconsistent with the previous value.
Example:
Suppose two transactions operate on three accounts.
K.V.R
o Transaction-X is doing the sum of all balance while transaction-Y is transferring an
amount 50 from Account-1 to Account-3.
o Here, transaction-X produces the result of 550 which is incorrect. If we write this
produced result in the database, the database will become an inconsistent state
because the actual sum is 600.
o Here, transaction-X has seen an inconsistent state of the database.
Concurrency Control Protocol
Concurrency control protocols ensure atomicity, isolation, and serializability of concurrent

transactions. The concurrency control protocol can be divided into three categories:
1. Lock based protocol

2. Time-stamp protocol
3. Validation based protocol
Concurrency control protocols:
In this type of protocol, any transaction cannot read or write data until it acquires an
appropriate lock on it. There are two types of lock:
1. Shared lock:
o It is also known as a Read-only lock. In a shared lock, the data item can only read by
the transaction.
o It can be shared between the transactions because when the transaction holds a lock,
then it can't update the data on the data item.
2. Exclusive lock:
o In the exclusive lock, the data item can be both reads as well as written by the
transaction.
o This lock is exclusive, and in this lock, multiple transactions do not modify the same
data simultaneously.
There are four types of lock protocols available:
1. Simplistic lock protocol
It is the simplest way of locking the data while transaction. Simplistic lock-based protocols
allow all the transactions to get the lock on the data before insert or delete or update on it. It
will unlock the data item after completing the transaction.
2. Pre-claiming Lock Protocol

o Pre-claiming Lock Protocols evaluate the transaction to list all the data items on
which they need locks.
K.V.R
o Before initiating an execution of the transaction, it requests DBMS for all the lock on
all those data items.
o If all the locks are granted then this protocol allows the transaction to begin. When the
transaction is completed then it releases all the lock.
o If all the locks are not granted then this protocol allows the transaction to rolls back
and waits until all the locks are granted.
3. Two-phase locking (2PL)

o The two-phase locking protocol divides the execution phase of the transaction into
three parts.
o In the first part, when the execution of the transaction starts, it seeks permission for
the lock it requires.
o In the second part, the transaction acquires all the locks. The third phase is started as
soon as the transaction releases its first lock.
o In the third phase, the transaction cannot demand any new locks. It only releases the
acquired locks.
There are two phases of 2PL:
Growing phase: In the growing phase, a new lock on the data item may be acquired by the
transaction, but none can be released.
Shrinking phase: In the shrinking phase, existing lock held by the transaction may be
released, but no new locks can be acquired.
In the below example, if lock conversion is allowed then the following phase can happen:
1. Upgrading of lock (from S(a) to X (a)) is allowed in growing phase.

2. Downgrading of lock (from X(a) to S(a)) must be done in shrinking phase.
K.V.R
Example:
The following way shows how unlocking and locking work with 2-PL.
Transaction T1:
o Growing phase: from step 0-3

o Shrinking phase: from step 4-7
o Lock point: at 3
Transaction T2:
o Growing phase: from step 1-5

o Shrinking phase: from step 7-8
o Lock point: at 6
K.V.R
Strict Two-phase locking (Strict-2PL): There are two rules in strict two phase locking
protocol. They are
If a transaction T wants to read an object it first request shared lock on that object. If the
transaction T wants to modify an object it first request exclusive lock on that object.
All the locks held by the transaction are released when the transaction is completed.
Example-1: Transaction T1 obtain an exclusive lock on object A then the transaction can perform
read and write operations on that object. When transaction T2 request a lock on A however this
request can’t be granted until T1 release exclusive lock on A
T1 T2
X(A)
R(A)
W(A)
Ex-2: Transaction T1 obtain exclusive lock on object A and B then the transaction can perform read
and write operations on the objects. The transaction T2 can process the objects after T1 release the
locks.
T1 T2
X(A)
R(A)
W(A)
X(B)
R(B)
W(B)
COMMIT
X(A)
R(A)
W(A)
X(B)
R(B)
W(B)
COMMIT
Ex-3: Transaction T1 obtain a shared lock on object A, Transaction T2 obtain shared lock on object A
and exclusive lock on object B. The transaction T1 obtain exclusive lock on object C.
K.V.R
T1 T2
S(A)
R(A)
S(A)
R(A)
X(B)
R(B)
W(B)
COMMIT
X(C )
R(C)
W(C)
COMMIT
Dead Lock: Let us assume that there are two transactions T1 and T2. Transaction T1 set
exclusive lock on object A and request exclusive lock on Object B. Transaction T2 set
exclusive lock on object B and request exclusive lock on object A. Now T1 waiting for T2 to
release its locks and T2 waiting for T1 to release its locks. Such a cycle of transaction waiting
is called as deadlock.
The DBMS keep track of the locks issued to the transaction is called as lock manager. The
lock manager maintains lock table. The lock table contains the number of transactions
currently holding a lock on the object, the nature of the lock (shared or exclusive) and pointer
to queue of lock requests.
Dead lock detection: Deadlocks can be detected by using wait-for graph. The nodes
represents the transactions and edges represents the request objects hold by other
transactions. For example transaction Ti Tj indicates that transaction Ti requesting
resources which is held by transaction Tj When there is cycle found in the graph indicates
there is a deadlock in the system otherwise no deadlock. Before issuing lock to the object the
lock manager will add the request to the graph and check weather there is any cycle or not.
When cycle is found the lock can’t be issued otherwise issue the lock to transaction for the
object.
T1 T2
T3 T4
K.V.R
For the above example there are four transactions T1, T2, T3 and T4. The transaction T1
requesting objects which is hold by transaction T2. The transaction T2 requesting objects
which is hold by Transaction T4. The transaction T4 requesting objects which are hold by
transaction T1. In the above graph the cycle is found and hence the system is in deadlock.
Deadlock Prevention
o Deadlock prevention method is suitable for a large database. If the resources are
allocated in such a way that deadlock never occurs, then the deadlock can be
prevented.
o The Database management system analyzes the operations of the transaction whether
they can create a deadlock situation or not. If they do, then the DBMS never allowed
that transaction to be executed.
Wait-Die scheme
In this scheme, if a transaction requests for a resource which is already held with a conflicting
lock by another transaction then the DBMS simply checks the timestamp of both transactions.
It allows the older transaction to wait until the resource is available for execution.
Let's assume there are two transactions Ti and Tj and let TS(T) is a timestamp of any
transaction T. If T2 holds a lock by some other transaction and T1 is requesting for resources
held by T2 then the following actions are performed by DBMS:
1. Check if TS(Ti) < TS(Tj) - If Ti is the older transaction and Tj has held some
resource, then Ti is allowed to wait until the data-item is available for execution. That
means if the older transaction is waiting for a resource which is locked by the younger
transaction, then the older transaction is allowed to wait for resource until it is
available.
2. Check if TS(Ti) < TS(Tj) - If Ti is older transaction and has held some resource and if
Tj is waiting for it, then Tj is killed and restarted later with the random delay but with
the same timestamp.
Wound wait scheme

o In wound wait scheme, if the older transaction requests for a resource which is held
by the younger transaction, then older transaction forces younger one to kill the
transaction and release the resource. After the minute delay, the younger transaction is
restarted but with the same timestamp.
o If the older transaction has held a resource which is requested by the Younger
transaction, then the younger transaction is asked to wait until older releases it.
Transaction Recovery: Transaction recovery is used to recover the data when the system is
crashed. The recovery manager of a DBMS is responsible for ensuring two important
properties of transactions. They are atomicity and durability. It ensures atomicity by undoing
the actions of the transactions that don’t commit and durability makes sure that all actions of
committed transactions survive system crashes and media failures.
K.V.R
ARIES is a recovery algorithm which is conceptually simple, works well with wide
range of concurrency control mechanism. The recovery manager is invoked after crash,
restart proceeds in three phases. They are
1. Analysis
2. Redo
3. Undo
Analysis: Identifies dirty pages in the buffer pool and active transactions at the time of crash.
Redo: Repeat all actions starting from appropriate point in the log and restores the database
state to what it was at the time of crash
Undo: undoes the actions of transactions that did not commit, so that the database reflects
only the actions of committed transactions.
Ex;
LSN LOG
10 update: T1 writes P5
20 update: T2 writes p3
30 T2 commit
40 T2 end
50 update: T3 writes p1
60 update: T3 write p3
Crash, Restart
When the system is crashed the analysis phase identifies transactions T1 and T3 are the active
transactions and P1,P3 and P5 are dirty pages. All updates for the transactions T1 and T3 are
reapplied in the order shown during the redo phase. Finally the actions of T1 and T3 are undo
in the reverse order during undo phase.
The main three principle of ARIES algorithm is
Write-Ahead logging: Any change in the database object is first recorded in the log. The
record in the log must be written to the stable storage before the change to the database object
is written to disk.
Repeating history during redo: When the system is crashed the algorithm retraces all actions
of the DBMS before the crash and brings the system back to the exact state that it was at the
time of crash. It undo all the actions of the transactions still active at the time of crash
K.V.R
Logging crash during undo: Changes made to the database while undoing a transaction are
logged to ensure such an action is not repeated in the event of repeated restarts.
K.V.R

Screenshot 2021-08-18 at 7.20.08 PM

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Screenshot 2021-08-18 at 7.20.08 PM

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

File system and its disadvantages:

COBOL: COMMON BUSINESS ORIENTED LANGUAGE

File: collection of record

Record: A collection of fields

Use: to store information on disks

Disadvantages of file system:

1. Data redundancy or Data duplication:

Data Base Management System:

Data: Known facts or raw facts of an organization

Information: Data which is processed is called as information

Database: collect of interrelated data

Database management system: collection of interrelated data and some set of

1. Minimum data redundancy

Htno Name Mobile no Address

Htno Marks Emailid

Three schema architecture of DBMS: The overall Design of a database is called

Application programmers: persons who develop the application programs

Database administrators: skilled person capable to manage all the resource of

Conceptual schema: All application programs at conceptual schema. A

Internal schema: how the data is stored in the database

The purpose of schema architecture is to achieve the data independency. There

1. Logical data independency

Logical data independency: the ability to modify external schema without

Physical data independency: The ability to modify conceptual schema without

Htno Name Marks

Each row is called as tuple . Each col is called as domain.

Oracle is a relational datamodel

Object oriented model: An object is a runtime entity type or an instance of type

Client/server architecture: Application logic mainly contains 3 components.

Presentation logic: presentation logic is responsible for input and output.

Processing: the procedure to solve the problems

Data storage : it is used to store the data.

SCIENCE ENGI M.TECH MBA

There are 3 types of client server architecture. They are

1. Single tier architecture

Role Database Administrators: Database Administrator is a skilled person who

1. Design of conceptual schema

1. Disadvantages of file system

ER diagrams(Entity Relationship diagram):

Entity: An entity is an object. An entity is represented in a rectangle. Ex:

Strong Entity: An entity which can be identified independently such an entity is

Attributes: The properties or characteristics of an entity type are called as an

Key attribute: An attribute value which is unique such an attribute is called as

Composite attribute: An attribute which can be further divided such an attribute

FIRST NAME MIDDLE LAST NAME

Relationship: An association between entity type is called as relationship. There

1. Strong relation ship

Ex: student join in a course

C_ID C_NAME DURATION

STUDENT JOIN COURSE

Ex: person marry a person

Binary relationship: A relationship which contains two entity types such a

Student join course

Ternary relationship: A relationship which contains 3 entity types is called as

Types of relationships: An entity instance of one entity type that can be

1. One to one relationship

One to one relationship: An entity instance of Entity type-A is associated with

Entity type-A Entity type-B

Entity type-A Entity type-B

Many to one relationship: Many entity instances of entity type-A is associated

Entity type-A Entity type-B

Many to many relationship: Many entity instances of entity type-A is associated

Generalization: Extraction of common properties from a set of entity types is

Ex: The persons in an organization are either student or employee. The