JEN 126 (2002)

J. Appl. Ent. 126, 355–365 (2002)

2002 Blackwell Verlag, Berlin
ISSN 0931-2048

The pest termites of South America: taxonomy, distribution

and status
R. Constantino
Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade de Brası́lia, Brası́lia, Brazil

Ms. received: February 23, 2001; accepted: March 20, 2002

Abstract: A total of 77 species of termites have been reported as structural or agricultural pests in South America.
These records are reviewed, with indication of the damage they cause, their pest status, distribution and sources of
information. Among these, 40 species are reported as structural pests, 53 species as agricultural pests and 15 species as
both. However, only 18 species are considered major pests and the status of most of the others is uncertain. Uncertainty
about status is much higher among agricultural pests. Specific taxonomic problems are discussed and distribution maps
of the main pest genera and species are presented. The most important structural pests are the introduced Coptotermes
havilandi and Cryptotermes brevis and the native Nasutitermes corniger. Reticulitermes was introduced into Uruguay
and Chile, where it is the only serious pest. The main agricultural pests are Heterotermes spp., Nasutitermes spp.,
Cornitermes spp., Procornitermes spp. and Syntermes spp., and the most affected crops are sugarcane, upland rice and
eucalyptus.

1 Introduction 1998; Ripa and Castro, 2000). In general, the taxonomy

of South American termites is far from complete, there
Termites are abundant and diverse in most parts of
are many undescribed species, and very few genera
South America, particularly in tropical lowland for-
have been properly revised.
ests, savannas and grasslands. Several native termite
Termite damage in South America was first repor-
species have been reported as structural or agricultural
ted by European naturalists (Pohl, 1832; Hagen, 1855).
pests, and some structural pests have been introduced
The work of Silvestri (1903) in Argentina, Brazil and
from other regions. As natural habitats are gradually
Paraguay, of Holmgren (1906) in Bolivia and Peru, of
replaced by urban and agricultural space, new pests are
Emerson (1925) in Guyana, of Snyder (1926) in Bolivia
discovered, while the increasing trade with other
and Brazil and of Araujo (1958a, b, 1977) in Brazil,
continents facilitates the introduction of new pests.
established the groundwork for the scientific study of
However, the information about the pest termites of
South American termites. A list of the pest termites
South America is still very limited. There are no
reported in Brazil was presented by Silva et al. (1968),
estimates of the economic losses caused by termites or
mostly based on the literature. Fowler and Forti
the relative importance of each species. Agricultural
(1990) reviewed the termite problem in Brazil, pre-
termite pests are more numerous and much less studied
senting a highly incomplete and incorrect list of
than urban pests. Furthermore, termite research and
species, which was severely criticized by Mill (1991,
expertise in South America are highly concentrated in
1992), who presented an overview of the termite pests
Brazil, whereas the fauna and termite problems of
of Brazilian Amazonia. Torales et al. (1997) review
large countries such as Colombia are virtually un-
the Argentinian termite fauna and Torales (1998) their
known.
economic importance, especially in the Corrientes
There are about 400 termite species recorded for
Province. The termite pests of Uruguay were reviewed
South America (Constantino, 1998). Five families are
by Aber (1998), where an introduced Reticulitermes
present: Kalotermitidae (53 species), Rhinotermitidae
seems to be the only important species. Lefeuve (1990),
(19), Serritermitidae (2), Termitidae (325), and Term-
surveyed the termites of French Guiana, indicating
opsidae (1). Nasute termites (Nasutitermitinae) are
some that cause structural damage. The termite
dominant both in abundance and diversity, comprising
problem of Trinidad was reviewed by Adamson
54% of all species. At least six species were introduced
(1946). For other countries, there are isolate records
from other regions and became established as urban
in publications dealing with taxonomy, control and
pests: Cryptotermes brevis, Cryptotermes dudleyi, and
biology.
Cryptotermes havilandi (Kalotermitidae) and Coptot-
In this paper, the taxonomy, distribution and status
ermes havilandi, Reticulitermes lucifugus and Reticulit-
of the pest termites of South America are reviewed,
ermes santonensis (Rhinotermitidae) (Constantino,
with new records.

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356 R. Constantino

2 Methods

Table 1. Dry-wood termites (Kalotermitidae) reported as pests in South America. Some of these identifications are doubtful; see text. The question mark indicates that the

Araujo (1958a); Bandeira et al. (1998); Lefeuve (1990); Silva et al. (1968)
Most pest records presented here come from a critical review
of the literature, but some are based on the author’s own,
unpublished data. The lists in tables 1–5 cover mainland
South America and Trinidad; other islands are not included.
In some cases the identifications have been corrected by
re-examination of relevant specimens. It is very difficult to
present an accurate list due to taxonomic uncertainties.
Specific taxonomic problems are discussed in the text. The
determination of pest status in tables 1–5 is based on

References
qualitative information. A species is considered a major pest

Goetsch (1933); Ripa and Castro (2000)

if it consistently causes significant damage and a minor pest if

Araujo (1977); Bandeira et al. (1989)

it causes damage only occasionally. A question mark
indicates that the information available is insufficient to

Constantino (unpublished data)

Constantino (unpublished data)

Silva et al. (1968); Mill (1992)
Silva et al. (1968); Mill (1992)
determine status. However, most of these species are prob-

Araujo and Fontes (1979)

ably minor pests or not pests. Specimens examined are
deposited in the entomological collection of the University of

Araujo (1958a, 1977)

pest status of a given species is unknown, but most of these are probably very minor pests. All Kalotermitidae are wood-feeders
Brası́lia. Taxonomic authorities and additional taxonomic

Constantino (1997)

Silva et al. (1968)

data can be found in Constantino (1998). Distribution maps

Bequaert (1925)
Weidner (1980)

Araujo (1977)
(figs 1–7) were prepared with the Generic Mapping Tools

Mill (1991)

Mill (1991)

Mill (1992)
(Wessel and Smith, 1998).

3 Taxonomy and distribution of pest termites

A total of 77 termite species reported as pests in South

Brazil?, Chile, Colombia, Trinidad, Venezuela

America are presented in tables 1–5, corresponding to
19% of all species. Among these, 40 species (10%) are

Brazil, Colombia, Trinidad (introduced)

reported as structural pests, 53 species (13%) as Colombia, Peru, Trinidad, Venezuela
agricultural pests and 15 species (4%) as both. How-
ever, only 18 species (4%) are considered major pests
Species distribution

Brazil, Guianas (introduced)

and 14 (3.5%) minor pests. The status of the rest is

Guyana, Venezuela, Brazil?

uncertain and most are likely to be very minor or not
widespread (introduced)

Trinidad (introduced)

pests. Uncertainty about status is much higher among

agricultural pests (73% uncertain) compared to struc-

Brazil, Argentina

Brazil, Argentina
Guyana, ?Brazil

tural pests (40%).

3.1 Kalotermitidae
Brazil
Brazil

Brazil
Brazil

Brazil
Brazil
Chile

A few introduced Cryptotermes (fig. 1) are the main

structural pests of this family. This genus was revised
by Bacchus (1987) but there are several undescribed
Agricultural damage

Status

species in South America and some may represent

?

?
?

?
?
?
?

minor pests. Cryptotermes domesticus has been recor-

ded in Trinidad (Araujo, 1977), but this record has not
fruit trees

fruit trees
fruit trees

trees
trees
trees
trees

been confirmed (Scheffrahn and Krecek, 1999). The

Crops

time and place of introduction of these species is

coffee

fruit
fruit
fruit
fruit

uncertain, but C. brevis has probably been present for

more than 100 years.
pest status
Structural

3.2 Rhinotermitidae
minor

minor

minor
minor
major

major
major

The important pest species belong to genera Coptot-

?
?

ermes, Heterotermes and Reticulitermes (table 2).

There are at least two native Coptotermes species in
South America: Coptotermes niger and Coptotermes
Cryptotermes domesticus
Cryptotermes cubicoceps

testaceus, but apparently under the second name there

Eucryptotermes wheeleri
Glyptotermes pellucidus

Rugitermes occidentalis
Cryptotermes havilandi
Comatermes perfectus

Cryptotermes dudleyi

Neotermes fulvescens

is a complex of several similar species, most of which

Neotermes castaneus

Neotermes paraensis
Cryptotermes brevis

Neotermes chilensis

Tauritermes vitulus
Neotermes wagneri

are undescribed. Coptotermes havilandi was intro-

Cryptotermes sp.

Tauritermes sp.

duced from Asia and became established along the

coastal region of Brazil. It was first recorded in Rio in
1923 (Araujo, 1970) and its range seems to have been
Species

continuously expansing since then (fig. 2). Six species

of Heterotermes occur in South America and their
 Pest termites of South America 357

Table 2. Subterranean termites (Rhinotermitidae) reported as pests in South America. Some of these identifications are doubtful; see text. The question mark indicates that taxonomy was revised by Constantino (2001). All of
them are pests, but Heterotermes tenuis and Heterot-

Torales (1998), Bandeira et al. (1998); Constantino (unpubl. data)

Dominguez-Gil and McPheron (1992); C.J. Rosales (pers. comm.);
ermes longiceps are the most important (fig. 3).
Reticulitermes lucifugus was reported as a major

Bandeira (1981); Bandeira et al. (1989); Santos et al. (1990);

Bandeira et al. (1989); Constantino (2001); Lefeuve (1990);

introduced pest in Uruguay by Aber and Fontes
(1993), who estimated that it was introduced in the
Araujo (1970); Mill (1992); Snyder and Zetek (1946)
1960s. More recently, Reticulitermes santonensis was

Novaretti and Fontes (1998); Silva et al. (1968)

introduced in Chile (Ripa and Castro, 2000). How-
Araujo (1958a); Costa-Leonardo et al. (1999)

ever, according to Jenkins et al. (2000), R. santonensis

is a synonym of R. flavipes and it is likely that both
References

introductions into South America correspond to the

Bandeira et al. (1989); Mill (1991)

same species.
Guagliumi (1962); Mill (1992)
Snyder and Zetek (1946)

3.3 Termitidae

Aber and Fontes (1993)

Ripa and Castro (2000)
3.3.1 Apicotermitinae
Silva et al. (1968)

Constantino (2001)

Constantino (2001)

Most species are harmless humus-feeders, and only

the pest status of a given species is unknown, but these are probably very minor pests. All Rhinotermitidae are wood-feeding

Mill (1991)

Anoplotermes pacificus and a few unidentified species

of Anoplotermes, Aparatermes and Grigiotermes
(table 3) have been reported as pests of several crops
(Mill, 1992; Czepak et al., 1993). The taxonomy of
the Neotropical Apicotermitinae, all soldierless, is
chaotic and species identification is impossible in
Guianas, Peru, Trinidad, Venezuela
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,

most cases.
Species distribution

3.3.2 Nasutitermitinae
Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela

These can be divided into true nasutes (table 4), which

Uruguay (introduced)
Venezuela, Colombia

Amazonia, Guianas
Brazil (introduced)

are pantropical, and mandibulate nasutes (table 5),

Chile (introduced)
Colombia, Brazil?

Brazil, Argentina

which are endemic to the Neotropics. The taxonomy of

Bolivia, Brazil?

Nasutitermes, the most diverse nasute genus, is con-

widespread

fused and species identification is difficult. Nasutiter-

Brazil

Brazil

mes corniger, the most important pest of this genus,

has often been misidentified. Nasutitermes araujoi,
Nasutitermes globiceps, Nasutitermes tatarendae and
possibly N. costalis are all synonyms of N. corniger
Status

minor
major
major

major
major

(Constantino, unpubl.). The species identified as

?
?

?
?

N. nigriceps in South America is probably either

Agricultural damage

N. acajutlae or N. macrocephalus. Nasutitermes acajut-

sugarcane, peach palm

sugarcane, eucalyptus
fruit trees, palm trees

lae was considered a synonym of N. nigriceps, but was

eucalyptus, cassava,

passion fruit, maize

revalidated by Thorne et al. (1994). The records of

Crops

N. rippertii (Silva et al., 1968) and of ÔObtusitermes sp.Õ

rubber tree

(Dietrich, 1989; Berti-Filho, 1995) in Brazil are most

sugarcane

likely incorrect because these are outside their known

distribution.
Among the mandibulate nasutes (table 5), the most
important species are in the genera Cornitermes
(fig. 5), Procornitermes and Syntermes (fig. 6). These
pest status
Structural

major?
minor

minor

minor
minor
minor

minor
major

major

major
major

were revised by Emerson (1952), Cancello (1986,

1989) and Constantino (1995) and identification is
?

relatively easy. Records of Cornitermes snyderi as an

agricultural pest in Brazil are incorrect. Cancello
(1989) suggested that C. snyderi and Cornitermes
Dolichorhinotermes latilabrum

Heterotermes convexinotatus

silvestrii are synonyms and the first was informally

Reticulitermes santonensis

adopted as the valid name. However, if they are

Reticulitermes lucifugus
Rhinotermes marginalis
longiceps
Coptotermes havilandi

Coptotermes testaceus

sulcatus
crinitus

synonyms, C. silvestrii is the older name and if not,

tenuis
Heterotermes assu
Coptotermes niger

the species that occurs in Brazil is C. silvestrii anyway

(C. snyderi is originally from Bolivia). Syntermes
Heterotermes
Heterotermes

Heterotermes
Heterotermes

nanus and Syntermes molestus were treated as a single

Species

species for a long time (Constantino, 1995), and most

published records of S. molestus as an agricultural
pest apparently refer to S. nanus.
 358

Table 3. Termites of Subfamilies Apicotermitinae (soldierless termites) and Termitinae reported as pests in South America. Some of these identifications are doubtful; see
text. The question mark indicates that the pest status of a given species is unknown, but these are probably very minor pests

Agricultural damage
Structural
Species pest status Crops Status Feeding habit Distribution References

APICOTERMITINAE
Anoplotermes pacificus eucalyptus, ? humus? Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Mill (1992); Silva et al. (1968)
various crops Paraguay, Peru
Aparatermes sp. rice ? leaf or grass-litter Brazil Czepak et al. (1993)
Grigiotermes sp. rice ? humus Brazil Czepak et al. (1993)
TERMITINAE
Amitermes amifer minor leaf or grass-litter Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay Bandeira et al. (1998); Torales (1998)
Amitermes excellens ? peanut, soybean, ? decaying wood Brazil, Guyana Bandeira (1998); Mill (1992); Silva et al. (1968)
cassava, cashew
Amitermes foreli passion fruit ? ? Colombia, Venezuela Dominguez-Gil and McPheron (1992)
Amitermes sp. sugar cane ? ? Brazil Novaretti and Fontes (1998)
Cylindrotermes sp. sugarcane, ? wood Brazil Novaretti and Fontes (1998); Berti-Filho (1995)
eucalyptus
Microcerotermes arboreus minor passion fruit minor wood Amazonia, Guianas, Trinidad Bandeira et al. (1989); Dominguez-Gil and
McPheron (1992)
Microcerotermes exiguus ? wood Brazil, Colombia, Trinidad, Venezuela Guagliumi (1966); Mill (1991)
Microcerotermes strunckii minor fruit trees minor wood Argentina, Brazil Mill (1992); Torales (1998)
Neocapritermes opacus eucalyptus major intermediate Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Silva et al. (1968); Berti-Filho (1995)
Paraguay, Peru
Neocapritermes parvus sugarcane major intermediate Brazil, Paraguay Novaretti and Fontes (1998)
Termes fatalis ? fruit trees ? decaying wood Amazonia, Guianas, Trinidad Mill (1992)
Termes saltans sugarcane ? decaying wood Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay Silva et al. (1968)
R. Constantino
Table 4. Nasute termites (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae) reported as pests in South America. Some of these identifications are doubtful; see text. The question mark indicates
Pest termites of South America

that the pest status of a given species is unknown, but these are probably very minor pests

Agricultural damage
Structural Feeding
Species pest status Crops Status habit Distribution References

Convexitermes convexifrons minor wood Brazil, Peru Constantino (unpubl. data)

Cortaritermes fulviceps minor wood; litter Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay Torales (1998)
Nasutitermes acangussu ? wood Brazil Bandeira (1998)
Nasutitermes aquilinus minor eucalyptus wood Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay Laffont et al. (1998); Torales (1998)
Nasutitermes bivalens coffee ? ? Brazil Silva et al. (1968)
Nasutitermes brevioculatus sugarcane ? ? Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay Silva et al. (1968)
Nasutitermes callimorphus ? wood Brazil Bandeira et al. (1989)
Nasutitermes corniger major fruit trees wood widespread (Fig. 7) Bandeira et al. (1989); Bandeira et al. (1998);
Costa-Leonardo (2000); Snyder and Zetek (1946);
Torales (1998)
Nasutitermes costalis ? fruit trees ? wood ? Guagliumi (1966); Mill (1992)
Nasutitermes ephratae minor fruit trees ? wood widespread Lefeuve (1990); Mill (1992); Snyder and Zetek (1946)
Nasutitermes guayanae ? wood Brazil, Colombia, Guianas, Trinidad, Bandeira et al. (1989)
Venezuela
Nasutitermes meinerti Ficus sp. ? ? Venezuela Guagliumi (1966)
Nasutitermes nigriceps minor wood ? (see text) Bandeira et al. (1989); Lefeuve (1990); Mill (1992)
Nasutitermes octopilis fruit trees ? wood Guyana, Brazilian Amazonia Mill (1992)
Nasutitermes peruanus fruit trees ? ? Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru Mill (1992)
Nasutitermes surinamensis ? fruit trees, maize ? wood Amazonia, Guianas Lefeuve (1990); Mill (1992)
Subulitermes sp. eucalyptus ? humus Brazil Dietrich (1989)
Velocitermes glabrinotus soybean, cassava ? grass-litter Brazil Mill (1992)
359
 Table 5. Mandibulate nasute termites (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae) reported as pests in South America. Some of these identifications are doubtful; see text. The question
360

mark indicates that the pest status of a given species is unknown, but these are probably very minor pests

Agricultural damage

Species Crops Status Feeding habit Distribution References

Armitermes euamignathus eucalyptus
Cornitermes bequaerti pasture
Cornitermes cumulans pasture, sugarcane,
eucalyptus
Cornitermes silvestrii sugarcane, pasture
Embiratermes sp. eucalyptus
Procornitermes araujoi eucalyptus, rice
Procornitermes striatus eucalyptus, rice, pineapple
Procornitermes triacifer sugarcane, rice, coffee,
eucalyptus, maize
Rhynchotermes sp. eucalyptus
Syntermes grandis sugarcane
Syntermes insidians eucalyptus
Syntermes molestus sugarcane, rice
Syntermes nanus eucalyptus, rice
Syntermes obtusus pasture
? intermediate Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay Silva et al. (1968)
? intermediate Brazil Fernandes et al. (1998)
major intermediate Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay Fernandes et al. (1998); Novaretti and Fontes (1998);
Silva et al. (1968)
major grass Bolivia, Brazil Guagliumi (1971); Fernandes et al. (1998); Silva et al. (1968)
? intermediate Brazil Dietrich (1989)
major intermediate Brazil Silva et al. (1968)
? intermediate Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay Silva et al. (1968)
major intermediate Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil Silva et al. (1968)
? leaf- or grass-litter Brazil Dietrich (1989)
? grass-litter Bolivia, Brazil, Guianas Guagliumi (1971); Silva et al. (1968)
? grass-litter Brazil Fonseca (1949)
? leaf- or grass-litter Amazonia, Guianas Guagliumi (1971); Mill (1992)
major grass-litter Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay Fonseca (1949)
? grass-litter Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay Mariconi et al. (1976); Silva et al. (1968);
Valerio et al. (1998)

3.3.3 Termitinae
data); Costa-Leonardo et al. (1999)
(1999); Constantino (unpublished data)

are wood-feeders and can damage wood (table 3). The

mes, Microcerotermes and a few species of other genera
(1977); Bandeira et al. (1989); Fontes and Araujo
most urban areas within the grey zone. Sources: Araujo
Fig. 1. Distribution of introduced Cryptotermes species

Most species are humus-feeders and only Cylindroter-

Fig. 2. Distribution of Coptotermes species in South
in South America. Cryptotermes brevis is present in

taxonomy of most neotropical genera of this subfamily

America. Sources: Constantino (1998 and unpublished
R. Constantino
Pest termites of South America
Fig. 3. Distribution of Heterotermes (grey area)
and Reticulitermes (triangles) in South America.
Heterotermes tenuis occurs in most of the grey area.
Sources: Aber and Fontes (1993); Constantino (2001);
Ripa and Castro (2000)
Fig. 4. Distribution of Nasutitermes (grey area) in
South America. Sources: Bandeira et al. (1989),
(1998); Costa-Leonardo (2000); Torales (1998);
Torales et al. (1997); Constantino (unpublished data)
is confused and species identification is difficult.
Among the economically important ones, only Neo-
capritermes was taxonomically revised and is relatively
easy to identify (Krishna and Araujo, 1968).
361
Fig. 5. Distribution of Cornitermes (grey area) in
South America. Sources: Cancello (1989) and Con-
stantino (unpublished data)
Fig. 6. Distribution of Syntermes (grey area) in South
America. Source: Constantino (1995)
4 Urban pests
Urban pests are fewer and relatively better known than
the agricultural ones. With the exception of N. corniger
in a few cities, the most important species were
introduced: Cryptotermes brevis, Coptotermes havilandi
and Reticulitermes spp. Cryptotermes brevis can be
found in most cities except in southern and colder
ones, and has been estimated to be the most important
362
Fig. 7. Main pest termites in some South American cit-
ies. Sources: Bandeira et al. (1989) (Bele´m); Bandeira
et al. (1998) (João Pessoa); Constantino (unpublished
data) (Coro, Brası´lia and São Paulo); Fontes (1995)
(São Paulo); Torales (1998) (Corrientes); Aber
(1998) (Montevideo). For Brası´lia and São Paulo, the
number of species corresponds to all termites found in
these cities, most of them not pests. Introduced species
are in bold face
termite pest in several of them. Coptotermes havilandi
causes much more serious damage, but its distribution
is more limited. In addition to the structural damage,
termites may also affect urban trees and their mounds
may be a nuisance in some areas. Trees hollowed by
Coptotermes are a potential cause of serious accidents.
Coptotermes testaceus has been occasionally reported
as causing severe structural damage in some cities, but
it seems to be relatively rare in urban areas. Several
species of Nasutitermes are able to damage wood and
N. corniger seems to be the most important structural
pest of this group, having adapted well to the urban
environment. It occurs from Mexico to northern
Argentina, and is mentioned as a major, widespread
urban pest in South America here for the first time. A
summary of the problems reported in some cities is
presented below. The locations of these cities are
indicated in fig. 7.
4.1 Brazil
4.1.1 Bele´m
The largest city in Amazonia, with about 1.2 million
people. It differs from most Brazilian cities in that
wood houses are very common, especially among low-
income families. Bandeira et al. (1989) studied the
R. Constantino
wood pests of this city, recording 12 termite species.
Nasutitermes spp. caused more than 50% of the
damage, and the single most important pest termite
was N. corniger. Coptotermes cf. testaceus was also
common and very destructive. Cryptotermes dudleyi
was the only common dry-wood termite there. They
also mention Heterotermes tenuis, Rhinotermes mar-
ginalis and Microcerotermes arboreus as minor pests.
4.1.2 João Pessoa
A large city in the north-east of Brazil, with about
500 000 people. Bandeira et al. (1998) recorded 10
wood pests. The most important were Cryptotermes
brevis and Nasutitermes corniger (identified as Nasut-
itermes sp. B, near N. tatarendae) followed by Hete-
rotermes longiceps (listed as Heterotermes sp.). Minor
pests include Amitermes amifer, Microcerotermes sp.
and other Nasutitermes spp.
4.1.3 Brası´lia
A large city built in the savanna (Cerrado) of central
Brazil about 40 years ago, with nearly 500 000 people
and more than 2 million in the metropolitan region.
More than 20 termite species live in the urban area of
Brası́lia (Constantino and Dianese, 2001). Cryptotermes
brevis is the most important wood pest, followed by
Heterotermes longiceps and H. tenuis. Cornitermes
cumulans builds large mounds, which are considered
an aesthetic problem in lawn and gardens. Syntermes
nanus is a large termite which is abundant, can damage
living vegetation and its soldiers can bite people and
domestic animals.
4.1.4 São Paulo
The largest city in South America, with about 17
million people. At least 20 termite species occur in the
city (Fontes, 1995; Constantino, unpubl.). The most
important pests are Coptotermes havilandi and Crypt-
otermes brevis. Several other species have been repor-
ted as pests, probably minor, including Nasutitermes
sp., Eucryptotermes wheeleri, Heterotermes assu and
one undescribed Tauritermes.
4.2 Argentina: Corrientes
According to Torales (1998), the most important wood
pest is Nasutitermes corniger, followed by Heteroter-
mes longiceps. Minor pests include Amitermes amifer,
Microcerotermes strunckii and Cortaritermes fulviceps.
4.3 Uruguay: Montevideo
According to Aber (1998), the only important termite
pest in this city is Reticulitermes lucifugus, which was
introduced in the 1960s. Before that time, termite
problems were probably very minor in Uruguay.
Bacchus (1987) reports the presence of Cryptotermes
brevis in Uruguay from a sample collected in 1920, but
this species is not mentioned by Aber and its current
status there is uncertain.
Pest termites of South America 363

4.4 Venezuela: Coro present may cause severe damage to some crops.
Syntermes nanus, for example, which is abundant in
One of the oldest cities built by the Spanish in South
the Cerrado, is a pest of eucalyptus, upland rice and
America, it has many historic buildings under official
other crops. Fonseca (1949) reported that, in a locality
protection. These buildings are constantly attacked by
in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, termites of the genus
termites (Constantino, unpubl.). The wide adobe walls
Syntermes killed up to 70% of the young eucalyptus
contain straw, creating a very favourable environment
trees in a Cerrado area. Cornitermes spp., Procornit-
for termites. The most common species found in those
ermes spp. and Heterotermes spp. are also common in
buildings were Amitermes foreli, Nasutitermes cf.
the Cerrado.
acajutlae and Heterotermes convexinotatus. Amitermes
The third biome in size is the Brazilian Atlantic
foreli is a soil termite not expected to be found in a
Forest, which has already been mostly destroyed and
house, but it seems to live well inside the adobe wall.
replaced by cropland and urban areas. Termites are
less abundant and diverse in comparison with both the
Amazon and the Cerrado. The termite pests present
5 Agricultural pests are not very different from those of the Cerrado in
generic composition, but the species may differ. Neo-
The most affected crops in South America are sugar-
capritermes opacus is a dominant species in some areas
cane, upland rice, and eucalyptus. A termite effect on
and a pest of some crops.
pastures is controversial. Other crops affected include
The Caatinga, a xerophytic open forest or savanna
maize, cotton, peanuts, soybean, coffee, cassava, fruit
of north-eastern Brazil, is not an important agricul-
trees and some vegetables such as carrots. Termite
tural region, and its termite fauna is poorly known,
damage includes: (1) injury to roots; (2) injury to leaves
with estimates of more than 60% of undescribed
and stems; (3) injury to woody tissue by kalotermitids;
species. The Chaco, a xerophytic open forest of Bolivia,
(4) injury to woody tissue by arboreal nesting species
Paraguay and northern Argentina, is also not import-
such as Nasutitermes and Microcerotermes; (5) hol-
ant for agriculture, and information on its fauna is
lowing of tree trunks by Coptotermes. The most
very limited. It seems to be similar to that of the
important pests belong to genera Heterotermes, Na-
Cerrado. The colder, southern region which includes
sutitermes, Cornitermes, Procornitermes and Synter-
the Pampa, Patagonia and temperate forests seems to
mes. Besides injuring living plants, most Cornitermes
be relatively free of termite problems. The forests of
build large mounds, which are considered a mechanical
north-eastern Colombia and northern Venezuela are
problem for the use of machinery in agriculture, reduce
connected to those of Panama, with similar termite
the useful soil surface and provide shelter for snakes,
fauna. The main pests are Nasutitermes corniger,
scorpions and spiders, among other problems. Fer-
N. ephratae and Heterotermes convexinotatus. The
nandes et al. (1998) claim that, at least in pastures,
termite fauna of the Llanos (grassland) of Venezuela
Cornitermes spp. are best defined as aesthetic pests,
seems to be composed mainly of mound-building
because farmers dislike their presence but they cause
Nasutitermes and Velocitermes, but their importance
little or no real damage to grass production. Coptot-
in agriculture is unknown.
ermes testaceus can damage cassava (Bandeira, 1981)
and living trees (Santos et al., 1990). However, a large
number of termite species is present in agrosystems,
their identification is often uncertain, and the fauna 6 Discussion
varies among different regions. These are all native
Introduced structural pest termites are becoming a
species and, unlike the urban pests, they are associated
major problem in South America. Cryptotermes brevis
with their natural biomes.
became the ubiquitous house termite a long time ago.
The largest biome of South America is the Amazon,
Coptotermes havilandi is still expanding its range and is
with nearly 6 million km2 (33%). Agriculture in this
likely to eventually invade most of tropical South
region is mostly small-scale shifting cultivation and
America. Temperate South America, which was relat-
extensive pastures. There are also natural savannas in
ively free from termite problems, now faces the
the Amazon, which have been used as natural pastures
introduction of Reticulitermes spp., which are likely
and, more recently, to grow soybean. Nasutitermes
to invade Argentina, Paraguay and southern Brazil.
spp., Coptotermes testaceus and Heterotermes tenuis
Native urban pests are, in general, less important.
may cause variable damage to crops such as cassava,
Exceptions are Nasutitermes corniger, which is the
maize and fruit trees. Some pastures show a high
most important structural pest in some places (Ban-
density of Cornitermes mounds, which are considered a
deira et al., 1989; Torales, 1998) and some Heteroter-
problem. However, this is a large and heterogeneous
mes. New records of minor pests have been relatively
region and studies on the impact of termites in
common in many cities, and some of these may
Amazonian agriculture are very limited.
eventually become important. Heterotermes assu, for
The second biome in South America is the Cerrado,
example, seems to have recently invaded cities from the
a kind of savanna which occupies about 2 million km2
neighbouring forests (Constantino, 2001).
(12%). Termites are extremely abundant and diverse in
The termite problem in tropical agriculture was
this region, which is the most important agricultural
reviewed by Wood (1996). Compared to Africa and
frontier in Brazil. Large areas of Cerrado have been
the Indo-Malayan region, where some Macrotermit-
replaced by agrosystems, and the termites already
inae are major agricultural pests (Wood, 1996),
364
termites are a lesser problem in South America. The
Macrotermitinae are absent in the New World, and
the major agricultural pests are Nasutitermitinae and
Rhinotermitidae. In general, knowledge about pest
termites in agriculture is more limited in South
America than in the Old World tropics. In addition
to these differences, the major patterns are the same as
those mentioned by Wood (1996) and the most
affected crops are also the same. Apparently, in some
cases termites do not become pests because pesticides
used to control other pests reduce their populations.
For this reason, the termite problem seems to be more
severe in small-scale subsistence cultivation where
pesticides are rarely used, such as reported by Mill
(1991) in the Amazon.
Pest status is much easier to determine for structural
pests because they cause direct damage. Damage in
agriculture and forestry, however, is usually indirect.
Many authors assume that a species is a pest if it is
observed injuring a living plant, or worse, just because
it is present in the agrosystem. More accurately, it
should be considered a pest only if it causes economic
damage, which is rarely estimated. Termites can injure
roots, stems and leaves, but this may or may not result
in real loss of production. Damage by a given species
may be too rare to consider it a pest. Sometimes it is
also difficult to distinguish consumption of dead tissue
from attack to living tissue. For these reasons, many
reports of termite problems are false.
Taxonomy has been a major impediment to the
study and control of termites in South America due to
the large number of species, high proportion of
undescribed or poorly described species and lack of
proper taxonomic training of many authors. Very few
specialists are able to identify neotropical termite
species and many of the economically important
groups lack proper taxonomic revision, resulting in a
large number of incorrect, doubtful or incomplete
identifications. The use of invalid or unavailable names
and misspellings are also very common. Under these
conditions it is very difficult to accurately store and
retrieve information on the biology and economic
importance of each species. Several doubtful pest
records have been repeatedly cited and even included
in entomological textbooks. A proper pest record
should contain the following information: (1) an
estimate of the economic damage; (2) the geographic
distribution of the problem; (3) how the species was
identified; (4) place where voucher specimens are
deposited. Without voucher specimens, it is impossible
to verify any published identification.
Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported by a grant from the
Brazilian National Council for the Development of Science
(CNPq no. 301423⁄87–3). I thank Og DeSouza for reviewing
the manuscript.
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Author’s address: Reginaldo Constantino, Departamento de
Zoologia, Universidade de Brası́lia, Brası́lia, DF, 70910–900,
Brazil. E-mail: constant@unb.br