Senior High School

General Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 - Module 3
Covalent Bonding II
Science- General Chemistry 1
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Quarter 2 - Module 3 : Covalent Bonding II
First Edition, 2020

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 Senior High School

General Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 - Module 3
Covalent Bonding II
 What I Need To Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you learn
about video provides a powerful way to help you prove your point. When you click Online
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The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

• Lesson 1 – Geometry of simple compounds
• Lesson 2 – Polarity of simple molecules
• Lesson 3 – Functional groups
• Lesson 4 - Structural Isomerism

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe the geometry of simple compounds;

2. determine the polarity of simple molecules;
3. describe the different functional groups; and
4. describe structural isomerism; give examples.
 Lesson 2 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Covalent Bond:
Geometry of Simple Compounds

What I Need To Know

In this particular lesson, you will learn about geometry of simple

compounds.

Objectives: At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. identify what are simple compounds.
2. determine the geometry of simple compounds.

What’s In
In the previous lesson, you learned about the importance of drawing the Lewis
structure and how this structure can be very helpful to understand the different
properties of a compound. Part of this lesson is having knowledge about the valence
of electrons to determinine the Lewis structure.

What’s New
In this lesson you learn about simple compounds. Simple compounds are compounds
that are made of not more than 2 elements. This simple compounds also has its own
geometry.

Molecular geometry or molecular structure describes the three-dimensional shape of

a molecule and the relative position of the atomic nuclei of a molecule. Understanding the
molecular geometry of a molecule is important because the spatial relationship between atom
determines its reactivity, color, biological activity, state of matter, polarity, and other properties.

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Activity
1. Draw the lewis structure of H20.
2. How many electron domain does it have?
3. How many is its bonding pair?
4. How many is tis non-bonding pair?

What Is It
Molecular geometry can be determined by experiment such as x-ray diffraction.
However, the geometry of simple molecules can be predicted even without experimentation.
While the results of the prediction is only qualitative and not as accurate as an experiment,
they still help in explaining the properties of chemical substances.

What is the basis of the prediction?

The prediction rests on the assumption that all electron pairs in the valence shell
around a central atom repel one another. They want to be as far apart from one another
as possible. These valence shell electron pairs are the ones involved in bonding. They
assume a geometry or orientation that will minimize the repulsions. This is the stable
orientation and the one with lowest energy. This approach in predicting molecular geometry is
called the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).

The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:

1. Electron pairs stay as far apart from each other as possible to minimize repulsions.
2. Molecular shape is determined by the number of bond pairs and lone pairs around the
central atom.
3. Treat multiple bonds as if they were single bonds (in making the prediction).
4. Lone pairs occupy more volume than bond pairs. Lone pair-lone pair repulsions are greater
than lone pair-bond pair repulsions which in turn are greater than bond pair-bond pair
repulsions

Table 1.1 Common orientations of electrons pairs (bond pairs and lone pairs) that minimize repulsions are shown
on the table below.

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MOLECULAR GEOMETRY OF SAMPLE MOLECULES

For this lesson, the following notation or generic formula is adopted: A refers to the
central atom and X refers to another atom bonded to it. If there are lone pairs attached to the
central atom, this is indicated by the letter E. Hence, AX2E2 means that A has two atoms of
X bonded to it and A also has two lone pairs of electrons.
1. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule BeCl2. This is of the type AX2.
a. The first thing to do before we can predict the molecular geometry is to draw the
Lewis structure of the molecule. This is shown below:

b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom of Be?

Two bond pairs surround Be.

c. How will two electron pairs orient themselves such that they will be as far apart from
one another as possible? Remember VSEPR Theory says they repel one another. To
minimize repulsion, the two electron pairs will be arranged in a linear arrangement as
shown in the figure below.

Figure 1.1

d. What is the molecular geometry?

The molecular geometry is determined by the arrangement of the nuclei of the atoms
in the molecule. The molecular geometry of BeCl2 is linear.
e. What is the Cl-Be-Cl bond angle? It will be 180o.

Figure 1.2 bond angle of BeCl2

2. Predict the molecular geometry of CO2. This is also of the type AX2 but with double bonds.
a. In determining molecular geometry, always start with the Lewis structure.

Figure 1.3 Lewis structure of CO2

Unbonded pair of
electrons

Unbonded pair of
electrons

Figure 1.4 Illustration od unbonded pair of electrons

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 b. How many electron pairs are around the central atom of carbon? We have indicated
earlier that in applying the VSEPR theory, we will treat multiple bonds to be like
single bonds. Therefore, there will be two pairs around carbon.

c. What will be the orientation of the electron pairs: Answer: Linear

(Carbon)
Central atom

Figure 1.5 orientation of electron pairs and molecular geometry

d. What will be the molecular geometry of CO2? Answer: Linear

e. What will be the O – C – O bond angle? Answer: 180o.

Figure 1.6 Bond angle

Repulsion of bonded pair of

electrons and unbonded
pair of electrons

Unbonded pair
of electrons Unbonded pair of electrons
(repulsion) (repulsion)

Bonded electrons
Figure 1.7 Repulsion bonded pair and unbonded pair of electrons

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Table1.2 Molecular Geometry table.

What’s More
Answer the following:
Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule H2O
______ a. Identify the type of notation of H2O.
______ b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom?
______ c. What will be the orientation of the electron pairs?
______ d. What will be the molecular geometry?

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 What I Have Learned
Explain the importance of molecular geometry concept.

A rubric is provided as a guide for your answer.

(Content – 4 organization – 4 Spelling and Grammar – 2 )

What I Can Do
In this activity, draw the VSEPR prersentation of water (SO2) and explain its
molecular geometry.

Lesson 3 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

Covalent Bond:
Polarity of simple molecules

What I Need To Know

Objectives: At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. identify what is polarity..
2. determine the polarity of simple molecules.

What’s In
In the earlier topics, molecular geometry of simple molecules was discussed. In this
topic, we learned that geometry of a molecule is important because the spatial relationship
between atom determines its reactivity, color, biological activity, state of matter, polarity, and
other properties.

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 What’s New
Electronegativity and Polarity

Electronegativity is the property of an atom which increases with its tendency to attract
the electrons of a bond. The strength of an atom to attract bonding pair to itself depends
on the electronegativtity of an element. When an atom of an element such as chlorine
covalently bonds with another chlorine atom, the shared electron of the chlorine atom is
shared equally.

Activity:
Identify the following scrambled words.

N E T I V I G A R C O L E y E G
_________________________

C A V O E L N T
______________________

N T R E O L E C
________________
D O B N
_____________

What Is It
In chemistry, polarity refers to the way in which atoms bond with each other. When
atoms come together in chemical bonding, they share electrons. A polar molecule arises
when one of the atoms exerts a stronger attractive force on the electrons in the bond. The
electrons get drawn more towards that atom, so that the molecule exhibits a slight charge
imbalance.

Table 1.1 Electronegativity table

Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond Formed
0.0 to 0.2 nonpolar covalent
0.3 to 1.4 polar covalent
> 1.5 ionic

Electronegativity example:
Electronegativity Electronegativity Electronegativity
of 1st element of 2nd element Difference Type of Bond
Ca – 3.0 Cl – 1.0 2.0 Ionic
C – 2.5 S – 2.5 0 Non-polar covalent
C – 3.5 O – 2.5 1.0 Polar covalent

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Determining Polarity
The polarity of a bond is determined by a periodic concept called electronegativity.
Electronegativity is an expression of an atom's tendency to attract electrons in a chemical
bond. In order to determine the polarity of a bond, you must find the difference in the
electronegativies of the atoms involved. If the difference is between 0.4 and 1.4, the bond
will be polar covalent. If the difference is greater, the bond will have an ionic character.
This means that the electrons will be taken from the less electronegative element, and spend
all of their time orbiting the more electronegative element. If the difference in
electronegativities is smaller than 0.4, the bond will be nonpolar covalent. This means
that the electrons will be shared equally between the atoms and the bond will not have a
polar character.

Example: Determine the Polarity of Carbon dioxide (CO 2)

1. Draw a Lewis structure CO2

2. Use the no. of electron pairs and VSPER to determine the shape around each
central atom. Linear
Photo credit https://tinyurl.com/y2tc63b9

3. Use Electronegativity differences to determine the polarity of each bond.

Carbon Oygen Difference Type of bond

3.5 2.5 1.0 nonpolar

What’s More
TRUE or FALSE.iff In the space provided below, write true if the statement is
correct. Write false if the statement is incorrect.

__________1. When an element is bonded to by itself, it bonded unequally.

__________2. Chemical bonding is sharing electrons.
__________3. Electronegativity difference is not relevant in determining polarity.
__________4. The electronegativity of an element is found in the periodic table.

What I Have Learned

1. Discuss the importance of electronegativity difference in determining polarity
of molecules.

A rubric is provided as a guide for your answer.

(Content – 4 organization – 4 Spelling and Grammar – 2 )

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 What I Can Do
1. Give 3 compounds and give its electronegativity difference and its polarity

Lesson 3 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

Covalent Bond:
Functional Groups

What I Need To Know

Objectives: At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. identify the different functional group
2. describe the different functional group.

What’s In
In the previous lesson, the importance of electrocnegativry in the bonding process of
molecules. Part of the discussion is how to determine the polarity of molecules using the
difference of the electronegativity.

What’s New

In this lesson, you will learn about the functional groups. Functional groups are specific
groupings of atoms within molecules that have their own characteristics properties, regardless
of the other atoms present in a molecule. Common examples are alcohols, amines, carboxylic
acids, ketones and others are shown below.

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Table 1.1

Table 1.1 Illustration of the Different functional groups.

Activity:
Idenify the type of Functional group of the following structures.

1. 2. 3.

What is It
Functional groups are often used to “functionalize” a compound, according to its
different physical and chemical properties than it would have its original form. It will undergo
the same type of reactions regardless of the compound of which they are a part; however, the
presence of certain functional groups within close proximity can limit reactivity. Likewise,
functional groups can be used to distinguish similar compounds from each other.

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 R group: An abbreviation for any group in a functional group which a carbon or
hydrogen atom is attached to the rest of the molecule. R is an abbreviation for radical, when
the term radical applied to a portion of a complete molecule (not necessarily a free radical),
such as a methyl group.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

1. ALCHOL or HYDROXYL - Alcohols are classified as primary secondary, or tertiary,

based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the
hydroxyl group.(OH group)
2. KETONE (Carbonyl)– is a functional group with the structure RC(=O)R’, where R can
be a variety of carbon-containing substituents. Ketones contain a carbonyl group ( a
carbon-oxygen double bond). The simplest ketone is the acetone.
3. ALDEHYDE (Carbonyl)- a compound containing a functional group with the structure
–CHO, consisting of a carbonyl center ( a carbon doubled-bonded to oxygen) with the
carbon atom also bonded to hydrogen and to an R group, which is any generic alkyl or
side chain
4. CARBOXYLIC ACID (Carboxyl)– an organic compound that contains a carboxyl
group attached to R-COOH, with R referring to the alkyl group.
5. ETHER – consist of an oxygen atom that forms single bonds with two carbon atoms.
Ethers are good solvents for other organic compounds because of their low reactivity.
6. ESTER – a chemical compound derived from an acid in which at least one –OH group
is replaced by an – O – alkyl group. Usually, esters are derived from substitution
reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.
7. AMIDE – consists of a carbonyl group bonded to a nitrogen. In simple amides, two
hydrogen atoms are bonded to the nitrogen (-CONH2) while more complex amides, the
nitrogen is bonded to one or two aliphatic or aromatic groups (-CONR).
8. AMINES – contains a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons. As such, the
group is derivative of ammonia, in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been
replaced by a carbon-containing substituent.

What’s More
Identify the type of functional group presented.

____________1. The functional group that has belongs to the OH-group.

____________2. The –CHO structure belongs to what fuctional group?
____________3. What structure is attach in a carboxylic acid.?
____________4. It is an abbreviation of any of the functional groups.

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 What I Have Learned
Discuss the importance of a functionl group in determining the properties of
different compounds.

A rubric is provided as a guide for your answer.

(Content – 4 organization – 4 Spelling and Grammar – 2 )

Lesson 4 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

Covalent Bond:
Structural Isomerism

What I Need To Know

Objectives: At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. identify structural isomerism;
2. give examples of structural isomerism.

What’s In
In the past lesson, we learned about the different types functional groups. We also
learned that there are several functional groups that composes a particular compound. This
functional groups helps determine the different properties either physical and chemical.

What’s New
In this lesson, the structural isomerism of compounds is the emphasis. Isomers are
molecukes that have the same molecular formula, but have a different arrangement of the
atoms in space. That includes any different arrangements which are simply due to the
molecule rotating as a whole, or rotating about particular bonds.

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Acitivity

Determine the follwoing isomers if chain isomer or postion isomers.

1. 2. 3. 4.

What Is It
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM

In structural isomerism, the atoms are arranged I a completely different order. This is
easier to see with specific examples. What follows looks at some of the ways that structural
isomers can arise. The names of the various forms of structural isomerism probably don’t
matter all that much, but you must be aware of the different possibilities when come to draw
isomers.

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM

Chain isomerism
These isomers arise because of the possibility of branching in carbon chains. For
example, there are two isomers of butane, C4H10. In one of them, the carbon atoms can be
seen in a "straight chain" whereas in the other the chain is branched.

Do not be confused not to draw "false" isomers which are just twisted versions of the original
molecule. For example, this structure is just the straight chain version of butane rotated about
the central carbon-carbon bond.

Position isomerism
In position isomerism, the basic carbon skeleton remains unchanged, but important
groups are moved around on that skeleton.

For example, there are two structural isomers with the molecular formula C3H7Br. In
one of them the bromine atom is on the end of the chain, whereas in the other it's attached in
the middle.

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 Position of Bromine
was changed

If you made a model, there is no way that you could twist one molecule to turn it into the other
one. You would have to break the bromine off the end and re-attach it in the middle. At the
same time, you would have to move a hydrogen from the middle to the end.

What’s More
Give at least 2 structural isomers of the following hydrocarbons.

1. C5H12
2. C6H14

What I Have Learned

Why are some compounds limited in terms of their structural isomerism?

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 Assessment

I. TRUE or FALSE. Write “TRUE” if the statement is correct and “FALSE” if

the statement is incorrect.
________1. Molecular geometry can be determined by experiment such as x-ray
diffraction.
________2. In the VSEPR theory, multiple bonds is treated as if they are signle bonds.
________3. In determining the VSEPR model, the Lewis structure is not part of the
process.
________4. The strength of atom to attract bonding pair to itself depends on the
electronegativity of an element.
________5. A polar molecule with two atoms exerts a stronger attractive force on the
electrons in the bond.
________6. An electronegativity of 0.2 is considered a polar covalent bond.
________7. Functional group are specific groupings of atoms within molecules that
their own characteristics , properties regardless of the other atoms present in a
molecule.
________8. Amines are derivative of ammonia.
________9. The esters are from the substitution reaction of a carboxylic acid and an
alcohol.
________10. In a carboxylic acid, the R refers to the hydroxyl group.
________11. All compounds has its own isomers.
________12. Isomerism arises because of branching of carbon chains.
________13. Isomerism is dependent on the carbon chain of a compound.
________14. A VSEPR model that has 2 electron has a linear orientation.
________15. Alcohol is one common example of a functional group.

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References

Clark, J. (2012, November).

https://www.chemguide.co.uk/basicorg/isomerism/structural.html. Retrieved October
2020

https://press.rebus.community/introductorychemistry/chapter/molecular-geometry/. (n.d.).
Retrieved November 2020

Interest, C. (2014, January 24). https://www.compoundchem.com/2014/01/24/functional-

groups-in-organic-compounds/. Retrieved October 2020

mrtangextrahelp. ( 19, 2016, Feb 19). https://www.slideshare.net/mrtangextrahelp/09-

polarity-2016. Retrieved October 2020

Patricia B. Licuanan, P. (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 1 . Quezon City, C.P. Garcia Ave., Diliman, Philippines.

Patricia Eldredge, R. H. (2011). General Chemistry: Principles, Patterns, and Applications.

Saylor Foundation.

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Telephone Nos.: (038) 412-4938; (038) 411-2544; (038) 501-7550
Telefax: (038) 501-7550
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