Complete Proceedings of The 17th Postgra

THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Proceedings
Seventeenth Postgraduate Student Conference

on MSc Dissertations
13 September 2011
(Papers in partial fulfilment of CIV6020 Dissertation Planning

and Paper Presentation)
Organised by:
Dr Steve Thornton: SMR CIV6020
Foreword
This internal student conference is organised to fulfil one of the aims of the Dissertation
Planning and Paper Presentation module (CIV6020), as part of the following MSc degree
courses at the University of Sheffield:
MSc (Eng) Structural Engineering
MSc (Eng) Structural and Concrete Engineering
MSc (Eng) Steel Construction
MSc (Eng) Earthquake and Civil Engineering Dynamics
MSc (Eng) Architectural Engineering Design
MSc Environmental Management of Urban Land and Water
MSc Contaminant Hydrogeology
MSc Urban Water Engineering and Management
The authors of papers included in these proceedings are students registered during
2010/2011 on the eight Civil Engineering MSc courses. The students are assessed on the
basis of their written work and quality of their oral presentation at the conference. The
students were responsible for producing the final documents in a fixed format, up to six
pages long, using a template and standard word-processing tools available on the
University network. The final versions of the papers were required to be submitted to a strict
deadline. The oral presentations were required to be given on Tuesday 13 September 2011.
i
Contents Page
Foreword i
Contents ii
Bonding between concrete aggregates and cement pastes in concrete

Suhia Abdalhamed 1-6
Comparison of the design of reinforced concrete cantilever walls under three codes of
practice
Fani Agathangelou 7-12
Vibration performance of long-span composite building floors featuring light-weight concrete

slab
Ajaz Ahmed 13-18
Bond strength models For FRP strengthened structures

Haris Akhtar 19-24
Steel beam-to-column connections designed for robustness

Kasim Emre Akova 25-30
Vibration serviceability assessment of a leisure centre floor

Ali Alskeif 31-36
The effect of non-structural partitions on the dynamic properties of the slab in Arts tower
Aiham Alskif 37-42
The behaviour of steel structures subject to seismic loading conditions

Sinan Altinkup 43-48
Effect of non-structural partitions on sway (vibration) performance of university Arts Tower

Christos Basagiannis 49-54
Seismic strengthening of reinforced concrete

Siavash Bayegan 55-60
Strut and tie modelling of concrete using truss layout optimisation

Cherian Bevin Varghese 61-66
CFD modeling of intrusion in water distribution systems

Vasiliki Boura 67-72
Finite element modelling of a section of Tamar suspension bridge (high resolution)

Sofia Bouziani 73-78
ii
Use of multiple tuned mass dampers to control human-induced vibrations in floors
Laure Cere 79-84
Numerical modelling of the dynamic response of composite materials

Eleftherios Charalambous 85-90
Sustainable concrete with low carbon footprint

Fakhar Chaudhry 91-96
Structural optimisation as a form finding tool

Feilong Chen 97-102
Analysis of reinforced concrete structures in fire

Shizhen Chen 103-108
Seismic performance of buildings with sliding base isolation systems

Bo Cheng 109-114
Dynamic performance of floors in multi-storey buildings

Chetan Chikkannaswamy 115-120
Design of retaining walls to Eurocode 7

Damian Conboy 121-126
Seismic design and analysis of reinforced concrete buildings

Cui Sheng 127-132
Structural concrete with minimum cement content

Olzhas Daurenbekov 133-138
Modified transformation factors for single degree of freedom analysis of structural response
to blast and impact
Raveesh Dubey 139-144
Developing a rational approach to intumescent fire protection of steel sections including

cellular beams
Mehmet Evram 145-150
Interaction of bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas putida with radionuclides: U (VI) and Re
(VII) as a surrogate of Tc (VII)
Jesús Adrián Fernández Reyes 151-156
A test for colliery spoil expansiveness

Xiaoguang Ge 157-162
iii
Size effect – smaller the stronger
Sudhin George Mathew 163-168
Controls on thaumasite sulfate attack in concrete

Hadria Ghanim 169-173
Optimization of MTMDs for low frequency floor

Evridiki Giamouzi 174-179
Comparison of geotechnical codes for shallow foundations

Christos Hadjiprodromou 180-185
Vibration serviceability assessment of a real-life laboratory floor

Atheer Hameed 186-191
Water quality analysis of combined sewer overflows and sensitivity testing

Bing Han 192-197
Building a teaching exercise for groundwater modelling

Caroline Hepburn 198-203
Electricity generation from biochemical energy transformation of microbial fuel cell (MFC)
utilising PAHs as carbon sources
Wen Sung Huang 204-209
Computational analysis of slabs using discontinuity layout optimisation

Laura Hulme 210-215
Flexural strengthening of concrete vehicular barrier using FRPs

Mohammadali Javaheriafif 216-221
Bearing capacity of eccentrically loaded shallow foundations

Xin Jie 222-227
Textile fibre reinforcement in mortar

Joseph Marian Richard Prashanth 228-233
Punching shear design in slabs

Babak Khajehvand 234-239
CFD modelling of a surcharged manhole with different pipe directions

Hasti Khazravi 240-245
Experimental determination of the advective zone in open channel flow

Michael Kidi-ikediashi 246-250
iv
Numerical modelling of damage
Konstantinos Kokkinakis 251-256
The influence of steel connections on the fire resistance of composite steel-framed buildings
Benjamin Thomas Leathley 257-261
The impact of organic content on the retention and detention properties of a green roof
substrate
Angus Leung Ho Yau 262-267
Passive control of the seismic response of reinforced frame building: influence of base
frame strength and stiffness on overall seismic performance of controlled structures
ChunHo Leung 268-272
The effect of ultrasound exposure on bacterial transformation

Mengjing Li 273-278
The performance of concrete made with large amounts of PFA and SF

Zihui Li 279-284
Heat exchange geostructure—the application of ground source heat pump system in China
Feng Lin 285-290
Filter-based whole cell biosensor for environmental contaminants detection

Yanjun Lou 291-295
IAPPS design aids for steel framed building design

Harish Maledath 296-301
Embodied versus operational energy in buildings

Michail Markogiannakis 302-307
Seismic resistance of RC flat slabs

Pantelis Matis 308-313
Semi-active control for mitigation of vibrations in structures

Mahsa Mirmomeni 314-319
Lighting adjustment to define preferred illuminances and user satisfaction

Khashayar Mohammadian 320-325
Walking excitation of floors housing vibration sensitive equipment

Ahmed Mohammed 326-331
v
Seismic design and analysis of reinforced concrete structures
Kamran Munir 332-337
High temperature performance of reverse channel connections to open section columns

Tomás Ó Loingsigh 338-343
Finite element modelling of full-height non-structural partitions when accessing the vibration
serviceability of building floors
Wilson Okaka 344-349
Mechanisms of progressive collapse of buildings attacked by fire

Emre Ozyurt 350-355
Optimum ductility assessment of earthquake resistant fire structures

Alexandros Papamichalopoulos 356-361
Concrete confinement with FRP systems

Georgios Patsalides 362-367
Steel fibre reinforced – roller compacted Concrete (SFR – RCC) road pavement design and
analysis for the improvement of the “ Tomb of the Kings” Avenue in Paphos
Pavlos Pavlaras 368-373
Seismic design and analysis of reinforced concrete structures

Yuanqing Qiu 374-379
Simple modelling of progressive collapse of column systems in fire

Melissa Richards 380-385
Thermal mass: fact or fiction?

Mary E. Rodgers 386-391
Use of FRP-reinforcement to improve in-plane shear behaviour of confined masonry walls

Anselmo Saldaña Correa 392-397
Screens in CSO chambers

Pelin Sertyesilisik 398-403
Assessment of dynamic response of a real-life grandstand

Qihui Shan 404-409
Concrete slab analysis using discontinuity layout optimization

Anurag Sharma 410-415
vi
Lightweight concrete
Dong Shen 416-421
The performance of vibrated stone columns

Hrishikesh Shinde 422-427
Development of whole cell biosensor array for the environmental monitoring of PAHs
metabolites
Ritu J. Shriyan 428-433
Why is the water quality in the Doe Lea River so poor?

Mark Stevens 434-439
The effect of water content on the strength of rock

Chatchanee Tamrongtamratn 440-445
Reducing noise by natural means

Soo Hong Teah 446-451
Influence of tensile membrane action on fire resistance of composite floors

Tian Tian 452-457
Modelling of Fatih Sultan Mehmet suspension bridge

Toygun Tirpan 458-463
Seismic performance of a building with a visco-elastic base isolation system

Panagiotis Tsamanis 464-469
Behaviour of reverse-channel connections in fire

Ioannis Andrea Tsapoutshis 470-475
IAPPS design aids for steel-framed building design

Mustafa Ucoz 476-481
Passive mitigation methods of human-induced vibration

Kevin Vazquez 482-487
Passive control of the seismic response of reinforced concrete frames: optimum friction
force distribution
Ioannis Violatos 488-493
The implementation of temporary effects of strain rate acceleration in the BRICK soil model
William Wholey 494-498
vii
The fate of copper, lead, nickel and zinc applied to a green roof substrate via wet
deposition.
Iain Wilson 499-504
Sustainability – the economic and environmental sustainability of concrete

Craig Wynne 505-510
Fire resistance of structural engineering

Wei Xia 511-516
Modelling discolouration in water distribution systems Using EPANET-MSX

Yiying Xin 517-522
The influence of steel connections on the fire resistance of composite steel-framed buildings
Zitong Yang 523-528
Active control of human induced vibrations in floors

Sina Yousefpour Moghadam 529-534
Screen in CSO chamber

Kai Zhang 535-540
Whole cell biosensor array and competitive model for BTEX contaminants detection
Yiyu Zhao 541-546
Sustainable concrete with low carbon footprint

Wu Zheng 547-552
Influence of proximity and sensory inputs on synchronisation effects among spectators

bouncing
Xin Zheng 553-558
Negative phase effects on blast response of flexible structures

Xindong Zhou 559-564
New developments in coupled multi-physics modelling

Yizhou Zhu 565-570
Near surface mounted FRP for shear strengthening of reinforced concrete beams
Min Liu 571-577
viii
Seventeenth Postgraduate Student Conference on MSc Dissertations 2010-11
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, University of Sheffield, 2011
Bonding between concrete aggregates and cement pastes in concrete

Suhia Abdalhamed
Candidate MSc(Eng) Concrete Engineering
ABSTRACT. This study investigated the bond between aggregate and cement paste at the interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) by studying the effect of many factors on the compressive strength, the tensile
strength and the shear strength such as the type of the aggregate, its roughness, the water/ cement ratio
and the cement quantity. Granite, limestone, and recycled aggregates were utilized for this
investigation. The compressive strength test was carried out by cubes of concrete (100x100x100mm)
with various water /cement ratio (0.45.0.55). Also, at water /cement ratio of 0.45, the cement quantity
was changed from 467Kg/ to 380Kg/ . Tensile and shear strength test were achieved with the
same materials for mortar (40x20x20mm) and cubes of aggregate (20x20x20mm) with rough and
smooth surface. Results indicated that water /cement ratio was main factor to reduce compressive
strength. . But for tensile strength, increment in water/cement ratio caused improving in tensile strength
.also type of aggregate had clear effect to increase or reduce strength, the highest strength was for
recycled aggregate (composite concrete) .the reduction in strength due to surface texture was strong ,
this was at changing surface of aggregate from rough surface to smooth surface. There is no effect from
cement quantity on compressive strength. But cement quantity had influence on tensile and shear
strength.
1 INTRODUCTION
The interfacial transition zone is formed by The interfacial transition zone plays an important
developing water-cement ratio (w/c) in fresh role in the mechanical behaviour of the concrete.
concrete. This development leads to the This means that the concrete in order to reach the
apparition of various microstructures between required performance should be of high density.
the aggregate and the hydrated cement at the For example, the properties of normal weight
time of casting. The formation of calcium concrete are improved through the interfacial
carboaluminates from the reaction of the calcium transition zone between aggregate and cement
aluminates of Portland cement paste to the paste [3]. Recently, there has been an interfacial
aggregate gives rise to improved microstructures transition zone between the aggregate and the
in the Interfacial transition zone [1]. By making cement paste in the concrete. A researcher has
a comparison between the bulk paste and the studied the effect of modification on the
interfacial transition zone, one can note that the microstructure of the properties of concrete
interfacial transition zone is more porous than because the interfacial transition zone between
the bulk paste. In addition, the thickness of the aggregate and the cement paste is an effective
interfacial transition zone is approximately region to develop the properties of the concrete.
between 20 and 100 . It is evident that the For example, strength , durability, and
thickness of the interfacial transition zone permeability[4]. Other properties for the
depends on the connection surface with the interfacial transition zone are necessary to
water-cement ratio, fresh paste, and chemical improve the strength of concrete are its adhesion
compounds in the concrete [2]. in interfacial transition zone between the cement
1
paste and the aggregate. However, the high These mixes were conducted on the bases of the
porosity of the interfacial transition zone results compressive strength of 40 Map at 28 days and
in micro-cracks within this zone and during the the slump of workability was between (30 to 60)
loading. These micro-cracks will become wider mm, the maximum size of aggregate was of
[5]. The interfacial transition zone between the 20mm.Two of these mixes are shown in Table 1.
cement paste and the aggregate which has higher
capillary porosity can be effective in protecting Two mortar mixes were designed for the two
the concrete against the freeze- thaw attack with quantities of the cement with water/ cement ratio
less portlandite crystals. It is useful to improve of 0.45. Relying on BER, these mixes were
the durability of the concrete and this designed to the different volumes of the mixes;
improvement is realized within the processes of the first mix was with the volume per mix of
transport, which can be controlled by the 0.0006m3 and the second mix was with the
properties of the interfacial transition zone volume per mix 0.0001 m3 . The Table 2
between the cement paste and the aggregate [6]. displays the amounts of used materials in the
According to [7] the roughness of the aggregate mortar design.
affected the bond strength in both shear and Table 1
tensile. This was documented by a study carried
out on mortar and aggregate with smooth and Proportions of mix for concrete
rough surface in order to investigate the type of
influence the aggregate surface has on the
interfacial transition zone. As a result, the bond Mix No cement water Fine Coarse
tensile strength increased with the increase in the aggregate aggregate
roughness of the aggregate. In addition, the bond
shear strength rose when the roughness of the Kg/Mix Kg/Mix Kg/Mix Kg/Mix
aggregate increases. Also, the sloping of the
interface at ITZ was another contributing factor A(0.45) 1.49 0.67 1.71 3.81
to improving the bond strength in the shear.
C(0.55) 1.22 0.67 1.97 3.82
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Materials
Table 3.6
The type of cement which was used in this study
was the ordinary Portland cement CIM1 Proportions of mix for mortar
according to BS (12:1996) The coarse aggregate
was chosen as it has two types: first, the
aggregate was crushed and it was utilized for the Mix No cement water Fine
compression test with a maximum size of 20mm. aggregate
The second type was the cubes, which were used
for tensile and shear test with the dimensions of Kg/Mix Kg/Mix Kg/Mix
20mm. On the whole, the Recycled aggregate,
lime stone aggregate, and Granite aggregate were A(0.45) 0.287 0.129 0.861
rocks as they were used in this investigation.
Recycled aggregate was a composite concrete for C(0.55) 0.078 0.035 0.233
rough and smooth surfaces; the rough surface
aggregate was broken into pieces. A quarry of
granite rocks (Cornish granite) is located in
Yorkshire while the quarry of the limestone
rocks lays in Derbyshire. According to BS 812,
2.3 Prepation of Specimens
the appropriate particle size of the normal sand
was applied to choose the fine aggregate.
The experimental work was carried out by using
2.2 Mix Design crushed aggregate size of 20 mm for
compressive strength to prepare the concrete
Depending on the Environmental Department, by specimens with size of (100x100x100mm) as
applying the method (DOE) in 1988, according shown in the Figure 1 below. The oiled plastic
to the British approach, three mixes were mould was used to cast this mixing. Cubes of
designed with two water/cement ratios (0.45, aggregate size 20mm were used for tensile and
0.55). Also, the quantity of the cement was shear strength test; the size of mortar specimens
changed with the fixing water/ cement ratio. for tensile strength test was 40x20x20 for both
2
sides but for the shear test, the size of mortar demoulded using the water tank at temperature
specimens was 20x20x20mm for both sides.
of 20 for 21 days to cure these tensile and the
Figure 2 illustrates these specimens for the
shear test specimens for the test.
tensile and shear tests. the mortar mixing was
employed for the tensile and shear test. In case of 2.4 The Tests Methods
the tensile test specimens, the Perspex mould
To measure the bond between the aggregate and
was used for casting using the blue-tag in order
the mortar, the compressive strength test, tensile
to prevent the aggregate and mortar from moving
strength test, and shear strength test were applied
during compaction because the aggregate was
for this purpose. In addition, the specimens were
put in the centre of the mould between the two
a saturated dry surface that stops the shrinkage
sides of the mortar, and this mould was pre- cracks at ITZ. Depending on BS 188: part
oiled. But the cast for the shear test specimens, 116:1983, the compressive strength test was
the Perspex mould, was utilized without screws . accomplished for concrete specimens with the
After casting, the specimens were cut to the size of 100x100x100m3.For tensile strength test
required size (mortar to two sides of 20x20x20 , The range of loading was 2000N and range of
mm and the aggregate of 20x20x20mm by saw.at extension was 1mm. Also, speed of loading was
casting for rough surface aggregate, plasticizers 5mm/min. The specimen was fixed between two
material was used to fill empty places into jaws, then test started by running it until failure
mould. of specimen. For shear strength test, the sample
size was 20x20x40 mm and box shear area was
about 60x60mm. , gypsum material was used to
fill this area for above mould and below mould .
Therefore, plastic material was utilized to
separate between them. Water was put in the
area around box, for speed 0.5mm during
30minut.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Compressive Strength
Compressive strength was studied in order to be
Figure 1: The compressive strength test cube
indicator to bond between aggregate and cement
paste at varying values of water/cement ratios of
0.45 and 0.55.At water/cement ratio of 0.45
,cement quantity was changed from 467 kg/m3
to 380 Kg/m3 to investigate the influence
cement quantity on compressive strength. Figure
3 depicts the relationship between the
compressive strength and the water/ cement ratio
for three types of aggregate (granite, limestone,
and recycled). There is a considerable decrease
in the compressive strength with an increasing
a b b
water /cement ratio of 0.55 especially for the
limestone aggregate, whereby the reduction of
Figure3.2 a: Specimen of tensile strength test b:
the compressive strength was approximately
Specimen of shear strength test 23% for the limestone aggregate but it was 5%
for the granite aggregate. These results were
expected according to the previous studies,
which presented relation between compressive
2.4 Curing of Specimens
strength of concrete and water/cement ratio for
For curing compression test specimens, [8] as shown in Figure 4. In addition, the
specimens were left in the laboratory for 24 compressive strength improved sharply with the
hours with the polythene sheet cover. After that, use of the recycled aggregate in the concrete
these specimens were demoulded and placed in a mix.
water tank at temperature of 20 for age of 28

days. For curing tensile and shear test specimens
specimens were cured by butting in the mist
room with humidity of 95% at temperature of
(20 2) . Then, the specimens were
3
(granite, limestone, and recycled) with smooth
and rough surface for water/cement ratio of 0.45
and cement quantity of 380 Kg/m3 and the effect
water/ cement ratio was studied for limestone
and recycled with rough surface, but granite was
for both smooth and rough surface. The
influence cement quantity was just investigated
for granite with smooth and rough surface.
The figure 6 shows relation between tensile

strength and roughness of aggregate for granite,
limestone, and recycled aggregate at
water/cement ratio of o.45 and cement quantity
Figure 3 The relationship between the compressive
strength and the W/C for the different types of of 380 Kg/ . It is clear that tensile strength
aggregate. increases with rough surface for three types
aggregate. This was mentioned in literature
review for[7] that tensile strength can be
improved by roughness of aggregate, it might be
due to increase in surface area from surface to
rough area and mechanical interlocking
between aggregate and cement paste. Besides,
the highest tensile strength was for recycled
aggregate then limestone had high tensile
strength which was 1.1 MPa .But, granite had
low tensile strength and this may be resulted
from different chemical reaction between
aggregate and cement.
Figure 4: The relation between water/cement ratio

and the strength of the concrete [8]
The figure 5 demonstrates failure for specimen

of compressive strength test which failure was
clear at ITZ. The cracks were through interfacial
transition zone, it is means that weakness zone is
place which passes through it cracks in
beginning failure. This failure might be due to
big thickness of ITZ, because of size of
aggregate which was used in this study was big
size of 20mm. Figure 6 The relationship between aggregate type
and type of aggregate surface and tensile strength
The figure 7 illustrates the effect water/ cement

ratio on tensile strength for granite. There is no a
dramatic increase in tensile strength when
water/cement ratio changing from 0.45 to 0.55.
for rough surface ,the tensile strength was
1.99MPa at water/cement ratio of 0.45 and was
2.2MPa at water/cement ratio of 0.55.in other
words , the increase in tensile strength was about
9%.for smooth surface, the tensile strength
was1.7 at water/cement ratio of 0.45 and was 1.9
at water/cement ratio of 0.55. it is means that
Figure 5 Failure in sample of compressive strength there is a slight rise in tensile strength , it is the
test effect of increasing in workability .
3.2 Tensile Strength
Investigation of tensile strength was by pullout

test, this test was for three types of aggregate
4
aggregate. The reduction in shear strength
between recycled and limestone was by about
22% for rough surface and around 45% for
smooth surface, and the lowest level of shear
strength was for granite aggregate. Rough
surface was more effective to increase shear
strength for three types of aggregate. There was
a substantial increase in shear strength from
smooth surface to rough surface. The increasing
in granite and limestone was approximately 55%
Figure 7 The relationship between tensile strength and 65% respectively, and for recycled aggregate
and water/cement ratio was 51%.these results is similar to previous
results for [7], he reported that the increasing in
It is noticed that there is two type of failure, first roughness of aggregate leads to improve shear
one for smooth surface was through interfacial strength.
zone, which cracks were through this zone. The
figure 8 shows this type of failure. Second one
for rough surface as shown in figure 9, in this
case , cracks were through aggregate.
Figure 10 The relationship between shear strength

and type of aggregate
Figure 8 pattern of cracks through the interfacial zone
From inspection for failure of specimens can be
noticed that pattern of cracks was clear for two
types of failure .cracks were through interfacial
zone as shown in figure 11 especially for
smooth surface for all types of aggregate
.another failure was for cracks were through
interfacial zone and cement paste, these cracks
occurred for recycled aggregate with smooth
surface and rough surface for all kinds of
aggregate. The figure 12 displays this type of
failure.
Figure 9 pattern of cracks through aggregate
3.3 Shear strength
The effect roughness of aggregate on shear Figure 11 Pattern of cracks through interfacial zone
strength was studied for granite, limestone, and
recycled aggregate, but cement quantity factor
was just for granite aggregate.
The figure 10 indicates to impact of type of

aggregate and its surface on shear strength. The
highest level of shear strength was for recycled
5
REFERENCES
[1]Ollivier,Masoand Bourdette(1995), Interfacial

Transition Zone in concrete,Advan cem Bas
Mat.2:30-38
[2]Kuroda,Watanable and Tershi (2000) increase

of bond strength at interfacial transition zone by
the use of fly ash, cement and concrete
research.30:253-258
Figure12 Pattern of cracks through interfacial zone
and cement paste [3]Qzturn,GesogluandGuneyisi(2004),Characteri
stics of Interfacial Transition Zone in Plain and
4 CONCLUSION Silica Fume Light Weight Concrete,Ovidius
Unversity Annals Series Civil Engineering 1:6
Water/cement ratio and type of aggregate
surface (smooth, rough) play an important role [4]Ping and Beaudoin (1992) modification of
to improve bond between aggregate and transition zone microstructure-silica fume
cement paste. Then, type of aggregate and coating of aggregate surfaces. Cement and
cement quantity come in second order from concrete research. 22: 597-604
through their effect on bond between aggregate
and cement paste. This effect for all factors can [5]Prokopski and Halbiniak(2000), Interfacial
be as following: Transition Zone in Cementitious materials
Cement and concrete research.30:579-583
1-Compressive strength is influenced by [6]Cwirzen and Penttala(2004),Aggregate-
water/cement ratio because compressive cement paste transition zone properties affecting
strength decreases with increasing w/c. the salt-forst damage of high performance
concrete, Cement and concrete research.35:671-
2-Improve of compressive strength can be 679
enhanced by using recycled aggregate.
[7]Rao and Prasad (2002) Influence of the
3-size of aggregate has clear effect on roughness of aggregate surface on the nterface
compressive strength. bond strength, Cement and Concrete Research.
32: 253–257
4- Cement quantity is not major factor to
increase compressive strength due to a slight [8]Neville and Brooks, concrete technology,
second edition 2010, British library cataloguing-
variation and it has different effect on
in – publication data, Edinburgh
compressive strength for each type of
aggregate.
5- Tensile strength can be improved when

water/cement ratio increases
6- Cement quantity is more effective on tensile

and shear strength, which it leads to strength,
this might due to compaction because
compaction was by hand for both tensile and
shear strength test.
7-recycled aggregate had strong effect to

improve strength for shear and tensile.
ACKNOWLEDAGMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Dr John

Cripps for his support me .also, gratitude to all
the staff of Heavy structure laboratory for their
helping me during my work at the laboratory.
6
Comparison of the Design of Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Walls

Under Three Codes of Practice
Fani Agathangelou
Candidate MSc(Eng) Structural Engineering
ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to compare the design of reinforced concrete cantilever walls
using Eurocode 7 (EC7) with other codes of practice. The comparison is based on the design
approaches 1 and 2 of the EC7 with the Hong Kong Guide (HKG) and the BS8002:1994.
Homogeneous sand soil is chosen for comparison purposes. An excel program has been developed for
the design of a cantilever wall taking into account the requirements of each code. The program finds
out the factor of safety (FOS) for all failure types that a retaining wall is threatened with, for BS8002
and HKG as well as the overdesign factor (ODF) for the EC7. The geometrical proportions of a
cantilever wall play a significant role in the evaluation of the factors of safety (FOS) and also the over
design factors (ODF). Hence the geometrical variables have been examined and it was found that the
heel length of the cantilever wall plays a key role in improving the limit state failures of the walls.
1 INTRODUCTION
Many types of retaining wall exist with Nowadays most of the countries prefer to adopt
reinforced concrete wall being the most common the principles of EC7 in designing a cantilever
one; it’s called cantilever as its stem behaves as wall or any other type of retaining wall. Brian
a cantilever beam. The main function of a Simpson and Richard Driscoll (1998) mentioned
reinforced concrete cantilever wall is to hold in the EC7 Commentary that BS 8002 code
back soil on one of its side. includes material that in EC7 are not included
and is somewhat different from EC7. The
The geometry of a retaining wall should be
current literature suggests using Eurocode 7 and
considered carefully as it will affect the safety
having BS 8002 as additional advice. Hong
factors and the cost of construction of the wall.
Kong guide follows its own design method.
The key parameters from the aesthetic point of
view are the wall stem height, the longitudinal 2 Design uncertainties of retaining walls
elevation of the retaining wall and the concrete
In order to appreciate the apparent differences in
appearance in general.
approaches it is necessary to look at basic
Geotechnical engineers are designing retaining function of cantilever walls. Such walls are
walls for centuries by specifying high factors of constructed to retain soil at a higher level on one
safety to allow for the many uncertainties in the of its sides; this difference in soil level induces
soil parameters and the magnitude of the applied vertical and horizontal forces on the wall as
loads. The most important issue is that an shown on the figure below; the effects should be
engineer should ensure that the structure does understood and evaluated with sufficient degree
not collapse due to: overturning, sliding, bearing of certainty to ensure that the wall does not fail
and structural failure. All authors agreed (Ian in and of the four main failure types mentioned
Smith,2006;R.F.Craig(1997))with this statement in introduction.
and therefore all these failure types must be
examined to avoid the structure to collapse.
Throughout the years many different codes of
practice have been developed which describe
how the various design uncertainties are being
dealt by different countries.
Figure 2.1 Forces acting on the cantilever wall
7
The vertical loads, V, on the wall consist of the The angle of friction δ is also expressed as a
self weights of the concrete wall, the backfill soil function of φ’des whereby for the HKG is given
’
acting on the heel and the surcharge over the as 2φ /3 and for the BS8002 is given as:
heel whenever it applies; V is depended on the
concrete, soil and water weight densities. TAN(δ)=(TAN(φ’d))/1.2 (8)
The horizontal forces, H, consist of the effects of The angle of friction δ for the EC7 is given as:
the surcharge, soil and water pressures TAN(δ)= (TAN(Φ’d))/γΦ’ (9)
respectively. The shearing resistance, R, is
dependent on the soil angle of friction  at the where γΦ’=1 or 1.25 according to the design
soil wall interface, which is given by the Approach and Category adopted.
relationship: It is, therefore, quite evident that the soil
R = V* TAN() = V (1) properties play a significant role in the
assessment of the active and reactive actions on
The angle of internal friction of the soil is related the wall respectively.
to the effective stress, ’ and soil shear stress S’
The above uncertainties, in the soil parameter
by the expression as it is shown below:
Φ’, led to “ignorance factors” being applied in
S’=’ * TAN(’) (2) the name of “safety factors” or “partial factors”.
3 Factors of Safety
The factor of safety, as per H.K.G and BS8002
codes of practice, is given in its general form by
FOS = (Resisting Actions Effect)/(Disturbing
Actions Effect); no factors (safety or partial) are
applied to the Actions or to the material
properties with the exemption that Φ’des is
factored, as stated above, for the evaluation of
the friction angle δ. The factoring highlights the
uncertainty felt in evaluating the frictional
coefficient μ which is required for evaluation of
the Sliding FOS; in the case of BS8002 Фdes is
also factored as stated above
Figure 2.2 Soil shear versus effective stress EC7, however handles the matter in a novel and
original way. EC7, thus, applies specified
“partial factors” on to either the actions and or
In EC7 φ’ is taken as the “characteristic φ’ “ the material properties and/or Resistance forces
whilst the design φ’ is given by : as required; the resulting ratio (Resisting Actions
Effect)/(Disturbing Actions Effect) is denoted as
TAN(φdesign)=TAN(characteristic φ’)/γφ (3)
the “over design factor” and it is specified to be
where γφ is the coefficient of shearing resistance. equal or greater than one.
If combination DA 1/1 is used then γФ is taken as
This code of practice, for the first time, specifies
1 and if combination DA1/2 is used then γФ is
what an adequate design should be; thus the
taken as 1.25.
engineer is no longer required to depend on
In BS8002 the φ’design is related to the empirical methods to justify the adequacy of the
“representative φmax” and the connecting design.
relationship is taken as :
3.1 Overturning Stability
TAN(φdesign)=TAN(representative φ’)/1.2 (4)
The factor of safety for overturning stability is:
Thus, in the soil report the φmax value should be
specifically given. FOS= or ODF= (10)
In HKG the design φ’ is assumed to be:

Where Mstb is the Stabilizing Moments and Mdst
φdesign= φ’ (5) is the destabilizing Moments acting on the wall.
The appropriate partial factors are applied to the
The earth pressure coefficient Ka and the
actions.
frictional coefficient μ are functions of φ’; where
Ka= 1-sinφ’/1+sinφ’ (6) 3.2 Sliding Stability
and μ=TAN(δ) (7) The factor of safety for sliding stability is:
FOS= or ODF= (11)
8
Where Vstb represents the vertical stabilizing kept in mind that the stem height should not
forces of the cantilever wall (self-weights), Hdst exceed 7.0m.
represents the destabilizing horizontal forces due
Results were found for 4, 5 and 6m of stem
to backfill soil and µ is the frictional coefficient.
height.
3.3 Bearing Stability
Form the above mentioned variables of the
The factor of safety for bearing stability is: cantilever wall the ones that have a controlling
influence on the FOS and ODF are the stem
FOS= or ODF= (12) height and the heel length; the heel length is the
part of the wall over which the backfill soil rests;
Hstb= iγbγ(0.5γdBNγ)+iqbq(γdZNq) (13) it was found that for a given stem height, the
Where iγ, iq are the inclination of the loads cause magnitude of the heel’s soil weight, influences
by horizontal load H, bγ bq are the inclination of significantly the vertical weight action, the
the foundation base, Nq,Nγ are the bearing horizontal resistance force and moments actions
factors, B is the base length. and/or resistances on the wall depending on
which state of failure is considered.
The first term of the equation the bearing
capacity deals with the solid friction. The second 4.1 Influence of φ’ on the limit states of
term concerns the height of the soil above the collapse (no water present)
base on the toe side. The results presented are for Φ’=32o, 38o and 44o
Hdst= (V/B)*(1+6*e/B) (14) which represent to a large extend the range of
internal angles of friction expected to be found
Where, V=vertical force, B=base length of the in the soil examined. When the angle Φ’
wall, e=eccentricity of the vertical load increases TAN (Φ’) also increases (0.65 to 0.96)
3.4 Structural Stability for the range of Φ’ values; thus the friction
coefficient μ, that is operative at the interface
The factor of safety for structural stability is: between the wall base and the soil, is increased
FOS= (15) and hence the corresponding resisting action V
resisting sliding failure is also increased.
Where BMstb is the stabilizing moments and The coefficient of the active pressure Ka on the
BMdst is the destabilizing moments. other hand reduces (0.31 to 0.18) when the range
4 Analysis of Results of Φ’ value increases; thus the horizontal forces
corresponding to the surcharge and the earth
The excel calculation program, is quite a general pressure reduce; similarly the moments induced
one and is capable to treat as variable the: by the above forces are similarly reduced; thus
i. stem height the value of Ka affects all the failure states.
ii. heel length The bearing capacity of the soil is significantly

increased by the increase in Φ’; for Φ’=32 o, 38o
iii. angle of internal friction φ’ and 44o the values of the factors Nq and Nγ are
(12.58, 23.18, 46.92) and (11.58, 27.72, 70.95)
iv. water level above the bottom of the
respectively.
wall base
In addition, due to the reduction of Ka, the ratio
The geometrical data of the cantilever wall were
of the Horizontal/Vertical forces on the wall
arranged as it is shown below:
reduces with increasing Φ’ due to the reduction
of Ka; thus substantial increases in the bearing
capacity are expected.
The results are presented in bar chart form which
is shown below and represent the FOS and/or the
ODF for the angles Φ’=32o; 38°,44°. In this
paper the overturning, bearing sliding and
structural results for each code of practice are
presented in the figures below.
Figure 4.1 Geometry of the cantilever wall
It was, as a result, possible to produce a variety

of results, with view to compare the three codes
of practice more reliably. It should, however, be
9
OVERTURNING STRUCTURAL
COMPARISON WITH φ COMPARISON WITH φ
3
12 2
8 FOS 1
FOS 0
4
BS800
0 H.K.G EC7
BS800 2:1994
H.K.G 2:199 EC7 φ=32° 1.97 1.45 1.05
4
φ=38° 2.18 1.39 1.00
φ=32° 5.15 5.15 3.12
φ=44º 2.16 1.6 1.15
φ=38° 6.65 6.65 3.88
φ=44º 8.78 8.78 4.95
Figure 4.2 Overturning comparison with Ф Figure 4.5 Structural comparison with Ф
4.2 Excel Results (with water level)

BEARING
COMPARISON WITH φ The results are presented in bar chart form and
represent the FOS and/or the ODF for only
60 Φ’=32o, stem height=5.0m and a heel
40 length/stem height=0.96.
FOS
20
0
BS800
4.3 Influence of φ’ on the limit states of
H.K.G 2:199 EC7
collapse (with water level)
4
The figures below illustrate and compare the
φ=32° 3.67 3.67 1.18 three codes for each of the limit states separately
φ=38° 12.27 12.27 3.49 with respect of each of the three angles
mentioned before. The water level is assumed to
φ=44º 44.11 44.11 11.03
be at 3m.
Figure 4.3 Bearing comparison with Ф
OVERTURNING
COMPARISON WITH φ
SLIDING 8
COMPARISON WITH φ 6
6 FOS 4
4
FOS 2
2
0 0
BS800 BS8002
H.K.G 2:199 EC7 H.K.G EC7
:1994
4
φ=32° 4.97 4.97 3.47
φ=32° 1.74 2.08 1.19
φ=38° 6.01 6.01 4.32
φ=38° 2.72 3.36 1.93
φ=44º 7.27 7.27 5.50
φ=44º 4.26 5.48 3.14
Figure 4.6 Overturning comparison with Ф
Figure 4.4 Sliding comparison with Ф
10
be invariant; if, however is taken into account
BEARING that the water level is uncertain due to
COMPARISON WITH φ climatologically conditions, it is logical for a
30
partial factor to have been applied; an
20 uncertainty however exists in the definition and
FOS distinction between the “normal” and “highest”
10
levels of water which is practically impossible to
0 do; thus a wise engineer would take the water to
BS800
be at the soil surface and use no partial factor as
H.K.G 2:199 EC7
the code allows. In the Excel program the partial
4
factor of 1.35 has been applied and is left up to
φ=32° 2.85 2.85 1.01 the engineer to decide where the water level is
likely to be.
φ=38° 8.41 8.41 3.20
φ=44º 4.5 Effect of water on the bearing capacity
26.64 26.64 10.68
The bearing capacity in the EXCEL program
was evaluated using the Terzaghi’s formula
Figure 4.7 Bearing comparison with Ф described before given in the EC7 Annex D
which for dry sand is iqbqγdNq+ iγbγdBNγ where
the symbols have their usual meaning.
SLIDING Neither EC7 and/or the other two codes seem to
COMPARISON WITH φ give guidance, as to how or if the bearing
capacity formula is modified for saturated sand.
4
3 It appears common sense that the bearing
FOS 2 capacity should reduce. After searching the
1 internet (S.K.Prasad) it was found how the
0 above formula for the bearing capacity is
BS800 modified.
H.K.G EC7
2:1994
This is achieved by simply introducing two more
φ=32° 1.23 1.48 1.19 coefficients Rw2 and Rw1 in the above formula as
φ=38° 1.73 2.13 1.66 indicated below:
φ=44º 2.35 3.02 2.31 (iqbqdZNq)Rw2+(ibdBN)Rw1. (16)
Figure 4.8 Sliding comparison with Ф

4.6 Cost Implication Versus Design Codes
The pie-chart presented below for Φ’=32o, stem
STRUCTURAL height=5.0m and heel length/stem height=0.68
show that the % main reinforcement required at
COMPARISON WITH φ
the stem base section to resist structural failure
3 according to the EC7 and for ODF=1.05 is
2 0.31%; for the HKG the engineer is left to
FOS decide what FOS greater than one is to adopt; for
1
0 the cost comparison to be done the FOS chosen
BS800 should be known; similarly for the BS8002. If,
H.K.G 2:199 EC7 however, the FOS >1 used for both the HKG and
4 BS8002 are close to one, it could be concluded
that the EC7 is more expensive. If however for
φ=32° 2.02 1.76 1.24 both the HKG and the BS8002 the FOS chosen
φ=38° 2.14 2.14 1.51 by the engineer is around two, EC7 will be
cheaper.
φ=44º 2.62 2.62 1.86
Figure 4.9 Structural comparison with Ф
4.4 Water Treatment by EC7

EC7 treats the water as a permanent
unfavourable load and applies a partial factor of
1.35 which on a first look appears unreasonable
due to the fact the density of water is known to
11
increases, while the bearing capacity increases
% Steel Ratio for φ=32° drastically. These changes cause on one hand a
50% reduction of the lateral forces and on the other
40% hand increases in the sliding and bearing
resistances. Due to the uncertainty in the value
30% EC7 of φ EC7 has imposed partial factors on sliding
20% and bearing resistances of 1.1 and 1.4
BS8002
10% respectively in the design approach 2.
0% HKG
The effect of the presence of water is to reduce
EC7 BS8002 HKG the vertical force, V due to submergence of the
Codes of Practice soil above the heel, and reduce the bearing
capacity of the sand due to saturation. Thus
Figure 4.10 % Steel Ratio for Ф=32º
greater stabilizing force is required to maintain
As the shearing angle φ increases the percentage the reasonable FOS which can only be achieved
reinforcement require drops due to the expected by enlarging the heel length to achieve a
reduction of active pressure coefficient. satisfactory factor of safety. From the study it
was confirmed that for a given stem wall height
the heel length lies in the region of 0.90 times its
5.Conclusions stem height
The first task for a successful retaining wall
design is the choice of the “best” geometrical
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
proportions for the wall; the heel length over
which the backfill soil rests plays a key role in This thesis was developed under the supervision
improving the limit state failures of the wall. of Dr. Colin Smith and I would like to express
my gratitude to my supervisor for his guidance
In the EQU (overturning) limit state an increase
and his useful suggestions in order to accomplish
of the heel length increases the resistance
my thesis.
overturning moment about the toe point.
For the GEO (sliding) limit state an increase in
the heel length increases the vertical load on the REFERENCES
base and hence the value of the frictional
BSI (2004). BS EN 1997-1:2004 Geotechnical
resisting force μV is also increased.
Design. General Rules
For the GEO (bearing) limit state an increase in
BSI (1994). BS 8002: Code of practice of earth
the heel length increases the vertical load on the
retaining structures
base and hence the value of the resisting bearing
pressure V/(B) (1 + 6*ecc./B) increases. From Geotechnical Control Office Engineering
the study it was confirmed that for a given stem Development Department Hong Kong(1982).
wall height the heel length lies in the region of Geoguide 1.Guide to retaining wall.
0.65 times its stem height.
Simpson,B. & Driscoll R. (1998).Eurocode 7, a

For the STR limit state the stem base cross commentary, BRE.
sectional thickness is important as much as its
bending moment and shear resistance capacities Ian Smith (2006).Smith’s Elements of Soil
govern its limit state. The shearing capacity is Mechanics. 8th edition, Blackwell Publishing
normally well above the nominal, while the
section needs to be reinforced to sustain the S.K.Prasad,
bending moment. If the stem base cross sectional http://www.google.com/search?hl=&q=bearing+
thickness dimension is moderately changed it capacity+of+soil++dr.+s.+k.+prasad+professor+
does not affect the value of the calculated FOS of+civil+en
and or the ODF. Thus if the check on the value
of the minimum cross-sectional dimension is
exceeded, it is quite in order to increase the stem R.F.Craig (1997). Soil Mechanics. 6 th edition,
base cross sectional thickness dimension to E & FN Span.
satisfy the failure and/or the amount of the %
reinforcement to be accommodated.
The variation of the shearing angle ’ plays the
most significant role in the evaluation of the
FOS and ODF; the reason being that with for
example φ increasing Ka decreases and μ
12
Vibration Performance of Long-Span Composite Building Floors

Featuring Light-Weight Concrete Slab
Ajaz Ahmed
ABSTRACT This dissertation was focused on light-weight composite floors that do not seem to
have good vibration serviceability record. The issue under concern here is that there is a light-weight
concrete floor that acts as a low and high-frequency floor at the same time. From the literature review it
is quite evident that the cut-off frequency between low and high-frequency floor is 10-12 Hz. In a low-
frequency floor, most of the modes show high response in frequency less than 10 Hz but the response
does not dies out after 10 Hz. Although the magnitude is too low that according to most of the
guidelines (Pavic and Willford, 2005, Smith et al., 2007, Willford and Young, 2006), it can be ignored.
Similarly, for high-frequency floor, there is some response even before 10 Hz but again due to low
magnitude, it is ignored. Now light-weight composite floor, being a low-frequency floor does shows
high response before 10 Hz, like a normal low-frequency floor, but at the same time, it also shows a
high-frequency floor response as well. This issue will be explained in this dissertation through
modelling a proto-type light-weight composite floors with FE (finite element) package (ANSYS). Then
the analysis work will be done with the help of MATLAB using real human-induced forces. The results
will be explained using FRS (frequency response spectrum) graphs, and response factors.
1 INTRODUCTION different guidelines published all around the

world but their detailed description is not the
As the building design progressively moves
scope of this document. The reason for paying
toward innovations and new design, the issue of
attention to human-induced vibrations is because
vibration serviceability is becoming more and
it is the most common source of vibration that
more governing for new building structures.
occurs in these types of structures. The
Structural vibration issues are presenting major
structures like office floors or school floors use
hazards and consequently limiting the design of
these sorts of light-weight composite floors and
the structure. Long slender structures are
in these kinds of structures the functionality of
typically showing a major concern towards
the structure requires lot of human walking.
vibration issues, thus arising suspicion towards
structural integrity. These vibrations can either Another much more interesting reason to
cause malfunction of some instruments or consider human-induced walking is because of
perhaps cause enough nuisance to create its frequency. The normal range of pacing
discomfort in the environment. This is seen frequency of walking seems to be in the range of
typically in long-span office floors, floors 1.8-2.22Hz. Any harmonic from these forces can
spanning more than 5m, made of lightweight excite a lot of response in floors with low-
concrete and steel material. Although these kind frequencies. Different guidelines (Pavic and
of floors tend to satisfy the ultimate limit state Willford, 2005, Smith et al., 2007, Willford and
criteria which is more related to strength and Young, 2006) suggest different mathematical
stability and allowable static deflection criteria, criteria to calculate this response. The short-
excessive vibration may easily occur due to comings of these guidelines is that they do not
human walking and create a vibration explain how to calculate response of light-
serviceability problem. Thus, an important weight composite floors that will be dealt in this
serviceability criterion is to consider the dissertation and if we use the criteria’s
vibrations that are induced by humans walking mentioned in these guidelines for light-weight
on these types of floors and engineers these days composite floors, we may not justify the
have to make sure that their design satisfies response properly. This phenomenon will
certain criteria’s. These criteria are mentioned in explored with great depth in this dissertation.
13
This phenomenon is important to understand Equation -1
from structural performance point of view
Here m is modal mass, c is damping coefficient,
because once the structure is constructed, it’s
k is stiffness. is amplitude of harmonic force
fairly difficult to mitigate these vibration
serviceability issues at later stages. and , where f is pacing frequency at any
time step t. ẍ, ẋ and x are acceleration, velocity
and displacement.
2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The equation of motion will be following the
concept of linearity and property of
The first aim would be to design an experimental
superposition.
structural model (proto-type) to explain the
phenomenon under investigation. The floor 3.1.2 SDOF and MDOF System
would be a light-weight composite floor with a
low natural frequency which can be excited by Two systems mostly used for vibrations analysis
first or second harmonic of a walking force. The are single-degree-of-freedom systems (SDOF)
reason to do this is to get as close as we can to and multiple-degree-of-freedom systems
the response of a real-life light-weight floor. (MDOF). SDOF systems are usually implied at
the earlier stages of analysis when the structure
Once the phenomenon under investigation is under analysis is still in the building stage since
observed, it will be modified to bring down the it is proved that each mode may be treated as an
level of understanding to a basic level so that a independent one-degree system (Biggs,
reader with just a basic knowledge about 1964).Thus here in this dissertation it was tried
dynamics of structures can understand the at the initial stage to reduce the model to SDOF
concept. Since this phenomenon is relatively system to confirm the response. SDOF response
new, if it can be explained successfully, it will was verified through different ways, one of them
stress the need of revising the published was using NDOF which is a MATLAB based
guidelines (Pavic and Willford, 2005, Smith et SDOF software provided by the academic
al., 2007, Willford and Young, 2006) to include department of the university. Other ways that
mathematical equations for light-weight were used to verify the scripts that were written
composite floors. for MATLAB were to compare the results for
FE models that are presented in guidelines like
SCI P354(Smith et al., 2007) and Arup’s
3. DATA AND METHODS guideline (Willford and Young, 2006).
It is important to explain some important 3.1.3 Modal Analysis
concepts and data parameters that will be used in
According to majority of the literature, the right
this dissertation. The most crucial ones are
way forward is to carry out the modal analysis of
explained in sections below.
the structure in FE software ANSYS and then do
3.1.1 Vibration Analysis the harmonic analysis using MATLAB.
Vibration issues can be investigated through The major concern while measuring vibrating
number of analysis techniques depending on the behaviour of the structure is to understand its
kind of response like free-response, forced dynamic properties. Properties like mode shapes,
response etc. Free response is usually implied modal mass, modal frequencies and modal
when properties like natural frequency or damping ratios are termed as dynamic properties
damping are required from a system. Forced of a structure. These dynamic properties can
response is implied when the idea of the output provide us an insight into the structures dynamic
of results is in frequency domain or time- capability and can improve our understanding of
domain. Forced response occurs due to modifying the behaviour of structure to cope
application of external force in the form of either with vibrations. Vibrations can be produced
a harmonic force or an impulse force etc. We through different sources like mechanical
will be using forced response technique using vibrations by vibrating machines or a harmonic
harmonic force that represents a walking a force. force excitation that can be applied due to
A general representation of harmonic force is walking of a person. To carry out testing for
shown in the Figure 1. harmonic type of forces, usually the practise that
is employed in the field is to apply an excitation
The harmonic response will be analyzed by
force on the structure under controlled
using closed form solution of dynamic equation
conditions to yield accurate results. This is the
of motion (Equation -1) for displacement and
practise that is employed in most of the research
then solving for first and second derivative for
papers and combined with FE analysis; we can
velocity and acceleration. The numerical method
verify these modal properties of the structure.
used is the Newmark’s (Average) acceleration
This type of testing is usually termed as modal
method.
testing and by definition it is ‘the process
14
involved in testing components or structures later for further analysis. The assumption of
with the objective of obtaining a mathematical using a low value of damping would be suitable
description of their dynamic or vibration here since the floor is considered to be bare. The
behaviour’ (Ewins, 2000). value is taken to be 1.1% from Table -1.
Thus having a mathematical model to correlate
with the theoretical model that is obtained
through FE analysis is a good way to be sure
about the conclusions of the structure. Although
for this dissertation the proto-type floors will be
used, we will stick with the FE modelling of the
floors and the modal testing will be carried out
in the software using modal analysis. The results
for modal analysis will be verified using best
Table -1 Critical damping ratios of different
engineering judgement since ample amount of
types of floors (Smith et al., 2007)
data is present because of tests carried out on
real slender structures by the analysts. Thus if We will use a harmonic force representing a
FE modal testing represents accurate results then walking force for analyzing our floors. The
we can move on to our further analysis. nature of the force that will be applied can be
understood as discrete signals, signals that are
3.1.4 Human-Induced Dynamic Forces
available at discrete time intervals usually
Some knowledge of the dynamic forces is also equally spaced. One of the reasons for using
required that are applied to the structure during discrete time signals is that since we will be
mathematical modelling. For our theoretical performing our harmonic analysis in MATLAB,
model we can use measured forces, like using this software can only process discrete signals.
test subjects that walk on treadmill and we can Another reason for using discrete system is that
record the data at varying pacing frequencies and we do modal analysis to get modal mass for each
later use it in the analysis. These kinds of forces mode of the floor, so we can express our system
are multi-harmonic forces. Also if this multi- as a series of discrete SDOF systems(Smith et
harmonic force is applied to all the relevant al., 2007). The pacing frequencies (fp) of the
modes of the structure, different modes can be forces that will be used are 1.77Hz and 2.22Hz.
excited by energy present around different For Slimdek model, force of fp=2.52Hz will be
harmonics of this force. This technique is used in used as well. The graphical representation of
this dissertation to carry out harmonic analysis. force with fp=1.77Hz can be seen in Figure 1.
All other forces have the same graphical
When applying the excitation force to the
representation with different amplitudes.
structure, the correct interpretation of the force
and the response is necessary in order to arrive at
a proper conclusion. Thus to improve the quality
of the decisions, the processing of the data has to
be done properly and in order to make the
response much more feasible to be understood
by the reader, plotting the response in terms of
frequency spectrum is a good way forward since
any reader with a sound theoretical concept can
understand the phenomenon.
3.2 Data Used
The data that is required out of modal testing is
the natural frequencies of the structure and the
approximate prediction of the mode shapes of
the structure. Since we will be doing modal
analysis of our models, natural frequencies and Figure 1 Graphical Representation of force,
the mode shapes will be provided by the fp=1.77Hz
software (ANSYS).
For modelling the proto-type models in ANSYS,
4 DESIGN AND MODELLING OF FLOORS
most of the information that is required for
modelling stage is taken from the ANSYS Some details of the physical properties of the
guide(ANSYS, 1997). composite floor is necessary to mention since the
major details about the construction of the floor
At the stage of FE modal testing it is difficult to
type were considered while modelling the floor
get an idea about damping which can be used in ANSYS.
15
The most common composites floors are made The material properties used for steel are Elastic
of a cold-formed profiled sheet on which modulus=1.99x Pa, density=7850kg/ ,
concrete is poured. Mostly the concrete portion poison ratio =0.3. For light-weight concrete,
also has some nominal anti crack reinforcement. Elastic modulus=20.5x Pa, density=1800
The composite action is provided by the kg/ and poison ratio= 0.2. For ultimate check
provision of studs that are interlocking device, the imposed load was taken to be 25 kN/m.
capable of resisting horizontal shear and
preventing vertical separation at the After, the initial ULS checks were confirmed,
steel/concrete interface(Narayanan, 1988). the floor was modelled in ANSYS. For
Figure 2 shows a typical steel/concrete modelling the secondary beams, ANSYS 3-d
composite slab. element beam44 was used since we require this
beam to act composite with the slab. For
modelling primary beams and columns, ANSYS
3-d element beam4 was used. For modelling the
slab, shell63 was used. The structural
representation of the model 1.1 in ANSYS is
shown in the Figure 3. Model 1.2 has a similar
model.
Figure 2 (floor)
There are various ways about which the column
and slab connection can be considered but for
simplicity, here we will assume that all joints are
Figure 3 Model 1.1
rigid joints. It has been experimentally proved
that while designing a floor in a FE package, the Slimdek floor (Figure 4) is a pre-cast slab floor
columns should always be modelled as fixed to that was designed for comparison purposes with
the slab (Pavic and Reynolds, 2002). the results of model 1.1 and model 1.2. The
specifications for this floor were taken from
The design details of the floors used for the
guidelines by Slimdek construction. Each panel
dissertation work are explained briefly in section
is 8x8m and slab is 250mm deep. The secondary
4.1.
beams (8m) in this floor are asymmetric
4.1 Model 1.1, Model 1.2 and Slimdek Model beams(300 ASB (FE) 249) and tie beams (8m)
are simple UKB sections (UKB 203x102x23).
Model 1.1 and 1.2 are two composite floors,
For columns (3.7m), UKC section (UKC
steel beams and light-weight concrete floor
203x203x46) was used.
providing a composite action through studs. The
initial design of the floor was carried out in SAP
2000 which is a structural design software. All
the specifications of euro code were used to
verify the ultimate limit state checks of the
structure as well the deflection check of the
floor. After carrying out all the necessary
checks, member optimization was performed to
get optimum members for the floor.
The floors have 4 panels each of 19x5m
dimensions. The secondary beams (UKB
838x292x226) are spanning in the 19m direction
and primary beams (UKB 457x191x106) are
spanning in 5m direction. The columns are 3.7m
high UKC sections (UKC 203x203x71). The Figure 4 Slimdek Model
floor slab depth is 150mm for model 1.1 and
100mm for model 1.2.
16
The initial design of this floor was carried out in pacing frequencies are shown in Figure 7 and
Corus software for designing floors. The Figure 8.
Modelling in ANSYS was done in the same
5 Discussion of Results
The mode shapes of first four modes from modal
analysis of model 1.1 are shown in Figure 5. The
mode shapes for model 1.2 and slimdek model
have the somewhat similar shapes with
difference natural frequencies and modal mass.
Figure 7 FRS, 21 modes, model 1.2, fp=2.22Hz
Figure 5 Mode Shapes, Model 1.1, modes 1-4

For the purpose of accurate analysis a definite
number of modes were considered for each
floor. This was done to restrict the response till
20Hz. For model 1.1, first 17 modes were
considered. For model 1.2, first 21 modes and
for slimdek model, first 19 modes were
considered. The excitation force was applied to
each model and the acceleration time histories Figure 8 FRS, 19 modes, slimdek model,
were calculated for all the relevant modes at the fp=2.52Hz
node (node 779 in Figure 3, node 778 in Figure It can be seen in Figure 7 and Figure 8 that there
4) in the centre of floor panel of each model. The is enough energy in modes after 12Hz clearly
acceleration response of model 1.2 for indicating the phenomenon under investigation
fp=2.22Hz can seen in Figure 6. These time in this dissertation. To make things clearer, we
histories were used to get FRS (frequency can divide the response in Figure 7 and Figure 8
response spectrum) plots by using Fourier into two zones. A low-frequency zone(<12Hz)
transformation in MATLAB. This plot can and a high-frequency zone(>12Hz). This
show us that how much energy is being division is also adopted by most of the
transferred at each mode. The FRS plots for guidelines. It can be shown in the form of
model 1.2 and slimdek model for different response factors (R) that how much response is
going into the second zone. Response factors are
usually used to present the intensity of vibrations
and can be used to compare with guidelines.
Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4 show the weighted
and un-weighted response factors for model 1.1,
model 1.2 and Slimdek model for each zone.
Weighting is used to lower the frequency
response in zones that are not so sensitive for
humans. Here the weighting factor of 0.6667
was used according to guidance from (Smith et
al., 2007). It can be seen in Table 2, Table 3 and
Table 4 that much energy is being transferred to
high-frequency zone which is being ignored by
most of the guidelines.
Figure 6 Acceleration Response, model 1.2,
fp=2.22Hz, modes 5-8
17
Un-weighted Weighted The results for Slimdek Model are of particular
Pacing Frequencies Modes
R R importance. The construction manual from
(1-17) 1.7123 1.1416 Slimdek claim that their floor specifications
1.77 Hz (1-7) 1.389 0.926 have sound vibration performance. However, it
(8-17) 1.1464 0.7643 can be seen in Figure 8 and Table 4 that in
(1-17) 5.0234 3.3506 reality the response is contradicting the
2.22 Hz (1-7) 2.3953 1.5977 companies claim. Thus, these manuals need to
(8-17) 4.4763 2.9857 be revised as well.
Table 2 Response factors for Model 1.1
Un-weighted Weighted ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
R R
I would like to thank my supervisor Prof.
(1-21) 7.0091 4.673 Aleksandar Pavic (lecturer of Vibration
1.77 Hz (1-6) 2.1916 1.4612 Engineering) and Kevin Vazquez (MSc
(7-21) 6.8337 4.556 Structural Engineering) for their technical
(1-21) 15.0348 10.0237 support and guidance.
2.22 Hz (1-6) 6.1073 4.0718
(7-21) 14.207 9.4718
Table 3 Response factors for Model 1.2 REFERENCES
Un-weighted Weighted
R R
(1-19) 1.6527 1.1019
ANSYS, M. 1997. Structural Analysis User’s
1.77 Hz (1-6) 1.6057 1.0705
Guide. Reversion.
(7-19) 0.4394 0.293 BIGGS, J. M. 1964. Introduction to structural
(1-19) 3.9847 2.6566 dynamics, McGraw-Hill.
2.22 Hz (1-6) 3.4804 2.2304
(7-19) 1.9583 1.3506 EWINS, D. J. 2000. Modal testing: theory,
(1-19) 4.5266 3.0179 practice and application, Research
2.52 hz (1-6) 4.0874 2.725 Studies Press, Ltd.
(7-19) 2.4445 1.6297
Table 4 Response factors for Slimdek Model FLOOR, F. C. composite floor [Online].
Available:
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.c
6 Conclusions and Recommendations om/composite+beam.
The guidelines mainly used in UK(Pavic and NARAYANAN, R. 1988. Steel-concrete

Willford, 2005, Smith et al., 2007, Willford and composite structures: stability and
Young, 2006) explain some mathematical strength, Routledge.
methods of calculating response of the floor due PAVIC, A. & REYNOLDS, P. 2002. Vibration
to forced excitations. These methods are based serviceability of long-span concrete
on principle of superposition dividing the building floors. Part 1: review of
response of the floor in two separate zones. background information. Shock and
However, it has been proved here experimentally Vibration Digest, 34, 191-211.
that such approach is not adequate for light-
weight composite floors as it can be seen in PAVIC, A. & WILLFORD, M. 2005. Vibration
Figure 6, Figure 7, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4. serviceability of post-tensioned
Lot of energy is being transferred to higher concrete floors. Appendix G in Post-
frequency region even though the floor itself is a Tensioned Concrete Floors Design
low-frequency floor. If we were to analyze the Handbook. Technical Report 43.
floor shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 according Concrete Society, Slough, UK.
to the these guidelines, we will be ignoring all SMITH, A. L., HICKS, S., DEVINE, P. J. &
the response in the higher frequency region. INSTITUTE, S. C. 2007. Design of
Thus this approach is not feasible because even floors for vibration: a new approach,
though we might be able to mitigate the drastic The Steel Construction Institute.
response of the floor like resonance or beating,
but there will be enough annoyance to cause WILLFORD, M. & YOUNG, P. 2006. A Design
nuisance. Thus these guidelines need to be Guide for Footfall Induced Vibration of
revised. There is a need to include extra Structures. The Concrete Centre.
mathematical equations to calculate the vibration
response of light-weight composite floors.
18
Bond Strength Models For FRP Strengthened Structures

Haris Akhtar
Candidate MSc Structural Engineering
ABSTRACT Lack of maintenance and ongoing deterioration with time, affects the serviceability of
the structures. Degradations due to environmental impact, increased service loads, poor initial design
and construction, and other natural hazards like earthquakes make it impossible for the structures to
service further without rehabilitation, restoration and strengthening. All these problems coupled with
revision in structural codes, demands development of successful structural retrofitting technologies. In
all these cases, repair and rehabilitation strategies prove to be a better alternative then to total
demolition of the structures, especially when repairing time and installation is dramatically reduced.
The most common and simplistic of all techniques for retrofitting and strengthening of RC beams is the
use of FRP as EBR. FRP plate or sheet is applied on the soffit of the beam with adhesive layer as a
bonding agent. Despite several advantages, it suffers from premature failure or debonding of the plate
from ends. Plate end debonding generally occurs due to stress concentrations near plate end region,
therefore as a measure to provide anchorage to reduce the stress concentrations, which was the aim of
the study. Use of FRP U-wraps at ends or over the entire length proved to be most simplistic and
effective technique to prevent or delay premature failures and was studied in detail. With very little in
the literature a very small database of 41 beams strengthened with FRP performance of existing models
were checked with modifications to cater for the added u-wraps as anchorages. In the next section 3-D
non-linear finite element program is used to model a tested beam. Parametric study is performed to
clearly see the effect of distribution of stresses near the end plate region due to various configurations
of u-wraps. Conclusions are drawn at the end of the paper.
older concrete and casting new sections of

1 INTRODUCTION
concrete reinforced with steel or by fastening
Structural elements composed of reinforced steel plates to extreme tension surface of the
concrete are frequently rated as inadequate due damaged concrete members. The major
to loading conditions beyond the capacity of the disadvantage of both the technique is the amount
original designs, therefore rehabilitation of of work that must be invested into their
deteriorated civil engineering infrastructure installation (ACI-440, 2008).
such as bridge deck, buildings, beams, girders
2 FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS USED
and roads etc has been a major issue in the last
AS EXTERNALLY BONDED FIBERS
decade. Deterioration of these structures might
be due to aging, poor maintenance, lacking in With the purpose of avoiding all these
initial design, corrosion and accidental situations inconveniences, a newer technology has
like earthquakes. All these problems coupled emerged within the past few decades using Fibre
with revision in structural codes demands Reinforced Polymers (FRP) to rehabilitate or
development of successful structural retrofitting retrofit existing RC structures. The use of FRP
technologies. In all these cases, repair and for structural repairing presents several
rehabilitation strategies prove to be a better advantages, such as high strength to weight ratio,
alternative then to total demolition of the ease of application of FRP due to less weight
structures, especially when repairing time and and labour required, improved durability and
installation is dramatically reduced. corrosion resistance, electromagnetic resistance,
high stiffness, substantially less material
Restoration has not always been an easy task to
required to develop the same strength and brings
be accomplished, sometimes even harder than
minimal change in structural geometry, therefore
creation of new structures. Therefore selecting
making them suitable material for repairing or
the material for the purpose of restoration is a
retrofitting.
very serious problem. Traditionally,
rehabilitating, repairing or retrofitting RC Even though the initial cost of FRP is higher
structures was accomplished by removing the than using a steel plate but it becomes more
19
economical considering the overall cost which externally bonded FRP in form of sheet, fabric
includes labour, maintenance and equipment. or laminate at the tension side of the RC beam
However use of the FRP‟s for the purpose of with resin/adhesive as a bonding agent.
retrofitting and strengthening of concrete „Increases in overall flexural strength from 10 to
elements could not reach up to expectations due 160% have been documented (Meier and Kaiser
to lack of knowledge and understanding of the 1991; Ritchie et al. 1991; Sharif et al. 1994)’
behaviour of structures or elements retrofitted (ACI-440, 2008). Although the technique is
with FRP‟s or these composites. The fig 1 below fairly simple yet complete understanding of
shows the behaviour of the FRP compared to behaviour of the beam after strengthening is yet
mild and high strength steel. to be developed.
The biggest problem associated with application
of FRP EBR is the problem of premature failure
or debonding of the applied FRP plate. Although
extensive experimental and analytical work has
been done in the past, the available models have
failed to make true prediction of the
strengthened in terms of the failure load or the
load at which the debonding occurs, and the
results are way too conservative.
(FIB, 2001) classifies the modes of failure
Figure 1: Stress strain curves of some FRP composites associated with FRP as EBR in to two distinct
and steel (Pilakoutas et al., 2011) categories:
Full composite action: This failure occurs due
2.1 Bond Between Concrete & FRP to either crushing of concrete at the top or failure
of FRP in tension as the full composite action
The term “debonding Failure” is often defined as
between FRP and concrete is maintained till
a significant drop in member capacity due to
failure occurs. This sometime may also be
initiation or propagation of crack along the
characterized as “classical failure modes”.
interface. (Büyüköztürk & Yu, 2006) Despite
Loss of composite action: This failure occurs
increase in the application of FRP‟s for flexural
due to peeling-off of the FRP or debonding of
and shear strengthening or retrofitting due to its
the flexural plate, when the composite action
suitability for this purpose, there is still some
between concrete and FRP is lost prior to failure.
challenges being confronted by the engineers
Debonding in FRP strengthened structures
using FRP‟s for strengthening. One of which is
always occurs in regions of high stress
the premature failure or debonding, which can
concentrations which may be due to an
be classified in to end plate debonding,
occurrence of a crack nearby. Whereas the
intermediate crack debonding and debonding
propagation of the debonding that occurs due
due to cover separation. This premature failure
stress concentrations is totally dependent upon
of the FRP plate or sheet is the direct
the elastic and strength properties of the
consequence of the regions of high stress
concrete, FRP and the interface fracture
concentrations, and as a result failure occurs
properties (Buyukozturk et al., 2004). Bonding
before the full capacity of the FRP is utilized.
between concrete is very essential for effective
Other complications associated with the use of
transfer of stresses between the interfaces. The
FRP are risk of fire, softening of the FRP‟s at
fig 2 below shows the possible types of
high temperature and brittle failure as these
deboning at different interfaces that may occur
materials are linear elastic. Although the later
in RC strengthened member.
can be accommodated one way or the other the
major threat remains the problem of premature
failure, which needs greater attention, and
further experimental and theoretical
investigations to be completely understood.
2.2 Flexural Strengthening of RC
Rectangular beams Figure 2: Different interfaces for bond failure (FIB, 2001)
A simple technique to enhance the ultimate
capacity of an existing RC beam by applying
20
Figure 3: Debonding failure mechanism (Büyüköztürk & Yu, 2006)
2.3 Failure Modes of Plate Bonded
Strengthened Beams
(Fig 3(e)). An alternative failure mode with
beams strengthened in flexure using prestressed
Fundamental deboning mechanisms that may
and non-prestressed FRP plates with or without
result in premature failure of FRP strengthened
plate end anchor bolts was also observed (Fig
beams with and without plate end anchorage are
3(f)). This failure mode was due to a large
shown in Figure 3. They are (a) shear failure
flexure-shear crack within the shear span of the
with concrete cover debonding, (b) FRP
beam, leading to debonding of the external FRP
debonding from plate end, (c) FRP debonding
reinforcement and shear failure of the beam.
from flexure-shear crack, (d) FRP debonding
(Büyüköztürk & Yu, 2006)
from flexural crack, (e) plate end shear failure,
and (f) shear failure and debonding. The 3 DATA TABLE
mechanism of shear failure with concrete cover
With a very little amount of experimental data
debonding (Fig 3(a)) is usually associated with
available in the literature, relatively smaller
high interfacial stresses, low concrete strength,
database consisting of 41 beams was built. These
and/or with extensive shear cracking. If the
41 beams included control beams (un-
concrete strength and the shear capacity of the
strengthened beams), reference beams
beam are sufficiently high, potential debonding
(strengthened in flexure only) and beams with u-
failure is most likely to take place through FRP
wraps at ends or over the entire length of the
debonding (Fig 3(b)), which initiates at the plate
beam to anchor the FRP plate or sheet. The data
ends and propagates towards the center of the
table was then used to compare the performance
beam. If the shear span of the strengthened beam
and accuracy of different models available in the
is sufficiently long to enable proper bond
literature.
development, or the plate ends are anchored by
some means, debonding may initiate at flexure- 4 BOND STRENGTH MODELS
shear cracks and propagate towards the ends of
Various bond strength models are available in
the beam (Fig 3(c)). If the shear capacity of the
beam is sufficiently high, debonding may also the literature which are categorised distinctively
initiate from flexural cracks (Fig 3(d)). upon the principle upon which they work to
predict the debonding. They can be classified as
However, this failure mechanism is very rare,
(1) Shear capacity based models, (2) Limiting
especially in four-point bending tests.
Strain models, (3) Concrete tooth models and (4)
Shear failures in flexurally strengthened beams Fracture mechanics based models. Four bond
with insufficient shear capacities become more strength models were used to compute and
compare the performances, three of shear
distinct when plate end anchorage methods are
capacity based models and one limiting strain
employed to prevent debonding failures. Plate
model. Shear capacity based models were used
end anchor bolts are able to prevent debonding
as they were declared to be better performing
from plate ends, in which case the beam may fail
through shear outside the plated length models by the previous researches at the
university and one limiting strain model (ACI)
21
was chosen because of its simple adaptability
and approach, these are briefly discussed below. 5 PROPOSED MODIFICATIONS
1) Smith & Teng 2002 (a)
Two distinct modifications were proposed,
performances of the models were checked and
Smith and Teng found that no interaction exists
compared with the original models.
between shear force and moment by plotting
Modifications were necessary as neither of the
equation proposed by Oehler (1992) against
model incorporated the effect of additional u-
experimental data and as a result modified and
wraps that were used at the plate ends for
simplified model due to its conservativeness.
anchorage.
He proposed a model based on the shear
capacity of the beam and used a factor ( ) to be 5.1 First Modification
multiplied. Where shear capacity (Vdb) is given
by Simply in the first modification, initially the
shear capacities of the beams form the data table
Vdb= bcd[ (1) were computed which were the same as given by
the original models. Then using guidelines
and =1.4 provided by (FIB, 2001) for shear strengthening
using FRP EBR, the ultimate shear capacities of
externally bonded u-wraps were determined. The
2) Smith & Teng 2002 (b)
capacities of the u-wraps were also checked
using guidelines by (ACI-440, 2008) for u-wraps
With further experimental investigation Smith &
for reliability of the results. Performance of each
Teng used a factor =1.5 that gave more reliable
model was then checked by adding the computed
results in eq (1) above. Where bc, d, ρs and f‟c
shear capacities of the u-wraps with the shear
are width of beam, effective depth, longitudinal
capacities given by the original models.
reinforcement ratio and compressive strength of
concrete.
5.2 Second Modification
3) Jansze (1997)
The second proposed modification was rather
applicable to the first three models. As all the
A fictitious shear span concept was introduced
three shear capacity based models originally
which simplified the approach for FRP end shear
used reinforcement ratio for the internal steel
failure including concrete rip-off failure.
only to predict the debonding shear force, in
addition to the reinforcement ratio of the internal
V db, end = dbc (2)
tensile steel equivalent reinforcement of FRP
flexural plate was added and then the modified
model was used to predict the debonding shear
=0.18 (3)
force and compared with the experimental shear
force.
Equivalent area of FRP EBR was simply
αL= dL3 fictitious shear span calculated as follows;
4) ACI 440-2R-08 ρs = , ρf =
It is one of the limiting strain models, (ACI-440, ρtotal = ρs + ρf (5)

2008) also limits the effective strain levels in
FRP EBR to prevent the intermediate crack eq (5) was substituted in eq (1) and (3) to
induced failure modes by the equation; calculate shear force after modification.
fd= 0.41 ≤ 0.9 fu (4) 6 ANALYTICAL RESULTS
n = number of laminate layers. A total of 11 beams with u-wraps to anchor the

The equation (4) is applicable to all kind of plate ends were gathered from the data table.
debonding. Where Ef, tf are the elastic modulus Performance and accuracy of each model was
and thickness of FRP plate and f‟c is the then plotted on graph for each of the 11 beams
compressive strength of concrete. The against the ratio of (Vexp/Vpre) for the original
reliability of the contribution of FRP to and modified models. The result and
strengthening is further addressed in design performance of models are shown in the graphs
procedure by incorporating a reduction factor below.
ψf which accounts for different failure modes
22
Figure 4: Ratio of (Vexp/Vpre) versus strengthened Figure 7: Ratio of (Vexp/Vpre) versus strengthened
specimen specimen
Although the selected models and the applied

modifications gave satisfactory results, there is
considerable increase in ultimate capacity of the
beams with u-wraps has been observed
experimentally. Increase in moment capacity as
high as 136 % with an average of 64 % for 11
beams was observed. There is noticeable change
in failure mechanism of the beams with FRP
rupture and crushing of concrete, showing that
u-wrap helps to stretch the FRP plate to ultimate
strains.
7 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT
MODEL
Figure 5: Ratio of (Vexp/Vpre) versus strengthened Nothing exclusively could be concluded in
specimen
context to the effect of u-wrap used as anchorage
With relatively small database nothing was to the flexural plate using strength models from
conclusive, but the modifications in the original the literature, only that there is considerable
models provided better predictions which were increase in the ultimate moment capacity and
closer to the experimental values. Although the that absolutely no debonding has been observed
results even after the modifications were in some cases with rupture of FRP flexural plate.
conservative in most of the cases, with so small Finite element modeling holds unique ability to
and inconsistent data it can only be commented demonstrate the behavior of composite
that the current models available in the literature materials. In order to better understand the effect
still lack complete understanding and are still of u-wrap and the distribution of stresses at the
conservative. Jansze‟s (1997) model was the end of the flexural plate non-linear three
beast performing model before and after dimensional finite element modeling was done
modifications, followed by ACI 440.2R-08. using specimen 1 from the database. Abaqus
6.10 student edition was used for modeling to
report the change in the distribution of stresses
with the use of u-wrap.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6: Ratio of (Vexp/Vpre) versus strengthened Figure 8 (a&b): Configurations of u-wraps.

specimen
The investigation was only for the end plate
region. Numbers of u-wraps were applied at a
23
centre to centre distance of 279mm and their plate and concrete as the interface slip is reduced
effect on the stress concentration near the end of due to external anchorage in form of u-wraps,
the flexural plate was observed. Results were which makes it possible for the strengthened
plotted for the maximum principle tensile stress system to fail at higher load. (Amery & Mahaidi,
at plate end against the applied load with 2006)
different arrangements of u wrap. No significant
The best performing model was of Jansze
change was observed in the stress distribution
(1997). Although the database is fairly small to
due to applied simplifications, which were the
compare performances of the model.
smeared crack approach used to define the
cracking pattern of the RC beam and the tie In order to better understand the effect of u-
constraint used to define the surface to surface wraps at the ends or over the entire length, non-
contact between concrete and FRP, ignoring linear finite element model of beam specimen 1
slippage and not allow it to debond at any load. was created using Abaqus 6.10 student edition.
Parametric study was performed using various
configurations of 1, 2, 3 and 4 u-wraps and
distribution of stresses were observed in
concrete, FRP plate and u-wrap, which did not
show much change using u-wraps, and the
reasons were smeared crack approach, tie
Figure 9: Distribution of stresses in concrete and FRP
constraints used for modeling. More realistic
plate cracking pattern and contact between FRP and
concrete will result in better results.
The graph below shows the distribution of
maximum principle tensile stresses at the end of
FRP u-wrap, where flexural plate ends, at
REFERENCES
different loads for various configuration of FRP
U-wraps. Negligible difference was observed in ACI-440, (2008). Guide for the Design and
stress distribution due to simplifications Construction for Externally Bonded FRP
mentioned before as limited data was available. systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures.
Amery, R.A. & Mahaidi, R.A., (2006). Coupled
flexural–shear retrofitting of RC beams using
CFRP straps. Composite Structures, Vol. 75,
pp.457-64.
Büyüköztürk, O. & Yu, T.-Y., (2006).
Understanding and Assessment of Debonding
Failures in FRP-Concrete Systems. In Seventh
International Congress on Advances in Civil
Engineering, October 11-13, Istanbul.
Buyukozturk, O., Gunes, O. & Karaca, E.,
(2004). Progress on understanding debonding
problems in reinforced concrete and steel
Figure 10: Load versus stress distribution in FRP plate members strengthened using FRP composites.
Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 18,
8 CONCLUSIONS pp.9-19.
Use of FRP u-wrap is one of the simplest and FIB, (2001). Externally bonded FRP
effective techniques to anchor the ends of the reinforcement for RC structures. Bulletin 14,
flexural plate or sheet, which helps in (Task Group 9.3 FRP).
maintaining the composite action between FRP
and concrete for higher loads. Pilakoutas, K., Guadagnini, M. & Andreea, S.,
(2011). FRP Composites In Construction: T2
Use of FRP u-wrap or strap works compositely Materials And Constitutive Relationships. CIV
with internal steel stirrups to enhance the shear 6170 Lecture Notes. University of Sheffield.
capacity, but excessive amount does not always
leads to enhancement and also changes the Rabinovitch, O. & Frostig, Y., (2003).
failure mechanism to the brittle mode, therefore Experiments and analytical comparison of RC
maximum limit has to be established in order to beams strengthened with CFRP composites.
maximize its use. FRP u-wrap provides an extra Journal of Composites: Part B Engineering, Vol.
anchorage to the FRP plate and prevents the 34, pp.663-67.
occurrence of debonding making it possible for
the FRP plate to utilize its ultimate strength.
Full composite action is utilized between FRP
24
Steel Beam-to-Column Connections Designed for Robustness

Kasim Emre Akova
Candidate MSc Steel Construction
ABSTRACT A parametric finite element modelling study of flexible endplate connections has been
performed in order to comprehend the joint behaviour under tying forces by varying connection
geometry. The geometric changes were based on differing bolt spacing and plate thickness in order to
develop ideas and recommendations in terms of robustness. Abaqus finite element package was used
for numerical modelling. Firstly, the mesh accuracy was discussed by comparing the results with
design calculations. In this sense, tying resistances and rotation abilities of connections were observed
in the way of different load cases such as axial and angled pulling variations. The mentioned load
consideration is the present robustness approach in terms of a column loss. The results were evaluated
according to experimental tests which performed in the literature. Finally, by contemplating on the
Abaqus results, it has been found that rotation is needed in terms of ductility. Additionally, occurrence
of catenary is a key point for the raise of strength in the case of angled loading. Finally, decreasing
plate thickness with widening bolt distance has been found as the most robust design.
failure. The necessity of reaching a balance

1 INTRODUCTION
between ductility and robustness is being
Generally, engineering and construction researched especially in United Kingdom and
technology have been developed related to United States.
hazards whose origin derive from natural or
Eventually, it is needed to judge whether a
human sources. In the history, the events which
ductile connection is more robust than a brittle
have caused catastrophes by terrorist attacks or
but stronger one. In this sense, a parametric
unintentional mistakes such as the collapse of
study is necessary in order to make a
World Trade Centre, Ronan Point Building and
contribution to the discussion mentioned.
Alfred P. Murrah Building necessitated to design
robust buildings due to the risk of an impact. 1.1 Aims
Therefore, study and research on the area of
The major aim of this study is designing a robust
progressive or disproportionate collapse is
connection by considering its static tying
needed.
resistance and energy absorption ability. In
It is known that progressive collapse is a global addition, it is necessary to understand the
downfall which is a result of failed local connection behaviour under axial and angled
connections caused chain reaction in the load cases in a case of column loss.
building. According to an Institution of
Structural Engineers` report, the importance of
connections in a steel building is defined as “the 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
vulnerability to collapse propagation depends
mainly on the redundancy of the structure, and 2.1 Robustness
the strength, ductility and hence energy- According to BSEN 1990:2002, robustness is
absorption capacity of the structure, that is of mentioned as “The ability of a structure to
the vertical and horizontal structural elements withstand events like fire, explosions, impact or
and, most importantly, the connections between the consequences of human error, without being
them.”(ISTRUCTE, 2002). So, there have been damaged to an extent disproportionate to the
various researches on steel beam to column original cause.”
connections and it has been noticed that when
strength is increased ductility decreases and 2.2 Progressive Collapse
consequently, it obstructs the energy absorption When an important structural member fails, the
in the structure. The previous assertion means adjoining elements also fail gradually. This is
that the building is under a risk of a brittle the causation of progressive collapse. In other
25
words, a proportional collapse grows in a 3.1 Geometry of Models
progressive way when the close rows collapse as
The components of the connection are:
a domino effect. An Arup report categorizes
a) Beam: UB 356x171x45
progressive collapse as ‘horizontal’ or ‘vertical’.
b) Column: UC 254x254x132
The lateral proportional failure is the collapse of
c) Bolts: M20
a structural bay which disseminates the impact
d) End plate: 220x150x8
effect to the adjacent structural frames (ARUP,
March 2010). Moreover, a vertical progressive The variations of dimensions which were used in
failure is possible. the parametric study for flexible end plate
2.3 Structural integrity approach connection are shown in Table 1.
The provisions of designing multi-storey
structures for structural integrity, generates a
strategy where the columns are tied into the
remnant of the building (SCI, 2009).
In order to understand the connection behaviour
under tying forces, column removal method is
used. In addition, the approach is shown in
Figure 1.
Table 1: Dimension variations of connections
The variations of connections are based on

changing plate thickness and bolt spacing.
Figure 1: Concept of robustness rules (SCI p365, 2009) Additionally, it is necessary to mention that,
2.4 Tying Force Method plate and bolt spacing dimensions of FEP2 is
same as FEP1. However, the depth of plate is
The method was developed after the collapse of changed in order to judge ductility-strength
Ronan Point building. The idea of tie-forced relationship.
based design indicates that the structure is
conceded to meet the structural integrity 3.3 Material Properties
compulsions through slightest levels of Most of experimental tests are based on
continuity, tying and ductility (ARUP, March engineering stress and strain relationship for
2010). In addition, this is estimated in a raised steel material. However, in consideration of
degree of ductility, continuity and load transfer regarding the deformed area and nonlinear
to further parts of a building so that the relationship, Abaqus requires the true stress and
comprehensive structural integrity of the strain curve while defining material properties
structure is presumed to be enhanced. (Hu et al., 2008).
Byfield & Paramasivam (2007) note the tying Hence the material properties defined for
capacity of connections is usually induced in the modelling are tabulated in Table 2.
deficiency of beam rotations. Summarized
properties of tie-force based design:
- Can be applied for low-risk structures.
However, high risk buildings require more
quantitative method
- High possibility of low cost
- Catenary action can cause prying action
which leads to rapid failure Table 2: Plastic material properties of components
- Tying makes a positive contribution to
3.4 Contact Modelling
robustness
Striving contact modelling difficulties has a
significant importance in numerical designing.
In consideration of surmounting these problems,
3 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
surface to surface interactions were defined in
Three dimensional flexible endplate connection Abaqus. Moreover, if two surfaces are in contact
was used in consideration of performing on the initially, they were assigned in the initial step.
numerical parametric static analysis. In order to On the other hand, when the interaction occurs
perform the analysis, finite element software during the analysis, the contacts were defined in
Abaqus was used. The components were the static step which starts after the initial. In this
considered as solid members. sense, separation allowance was considered for
26
interactions. If a gap should occur between two the solution, more iterations are needed. On the
contacts during the analysis, separation was other hand explicit technique has important
permitted. Also sliding formulation is another advantages against implicit while analysing three
important issue. Two options can be chosen in dimensional contact problems (Prior, 1994).
Abaqus which are small and finite formulations. Additionally, explicit method necessitates less
Small sliding was considered where the drifting system resources compared to implicit hence it is
is expected to be modest. In addition the static more economic according to time consuming
friction coefficient was assumed as 0.3 between (Hu et al., 2008). However, explicit method is
the surfaces. applicable for dynamic analysis. Eventually, the
necessity of performing parametric static
Moreover, slave and master surfaces was
analysis reasoned to choose implicit technique.
considered according the mesh quality and
dominancy of members. Basically, the stronger Moreover, Newton-Raphson method is used for
component was assumed as the master surface. nonlinear analysis.
Tie constraints were defined between weld and
plate also weld and beam. Tying option excludes
the degrees of freedom on slave surfaces by 4 ANALYSIS
tying each node to the nodes on the master Design calculations (according to EC3) and
surface (Ashakul, 2004). Hence tied nodes rotate numerical results have been performed.
and deflect together.
4.1 Numerical Static Analysis
3.5 Element Types
Static ramp load which imposes a linear curve
3D stress elements were used which are more was applied. In more details, it can be said that
realistic in bolted connection behaviour (Bursi ramping the load linearly over step is a dynamic
and Jaspart, 1997). force application in static condition thus it is
Although eight node linear brick elements possible to control or obtain the
(C3D8R) represent sensible joint behaviour rotation/displacement values in a specific load
(Bursi and Jaspart, 1997), four node tetrahedron case by multiplying the peak load with the time
elements (C3D4) were used in numerical step.
analysis as well. C3D4 elements are easier to The implicit technique generates a problem
assign and geometrically versatile so it can be which is the inability to simulate the failure.
said that they are more economic in time Additionally, expected failure is not indicated
consuming in terms of modelling. However, when the material fracture as `ductile damage of
tetrahedron elements are too stiff and they can metals` defined in Abaqus. Although the
represent real solutions when the mesh density is incompetence of the implicit technique it is
extremely intensive. Due to their stiff behaviour, possible to notice the yielding. Once ultimate
C3D4 elements are usually used for stress plastic strain is achieved in some elements, the
analysis. On the other hand, C3D8R elements elastic modulus reduces to zero hence Abaqus
generally provide adequate solution and they are Standard cannot recognise any failure and the
usually used for displacement analysis. Hence analysis aborts. In addition, when the aborted
both tetrahedral (C3D4) and reduced integration step is multiplied by the peak load, failure force
brick elements (C3D8R) were used in numerical can be obtained as an assumption.
models. Eventually, it is beneficial to mention
the geometric order of both elements is linear. Numerical static analysis was based on two
types of loading conditions. Firstly, the axial
It has been suggested that while modelling load has been applied to the surface of the beam
hyperbolic problems such as plasticity type, first as a distributed load per area. Secondly, angled
order elements are successful for reproducing load was applied as a surface traction (parallel to
strain field discontinuity and yield lines (Bursi the area) combined with pressure (perpendicular
and Jaspart, 1997). to the area). In this sense, the load has been
3.6 Solution Strategy separated to the vertical and horizontal
components which depend on the force angle.
Explicit or implicit technique can be chosen.
Implicit method is usually applied for
unconditionally stable problems. Moreover, it is 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
not suitable for the models which include highly
discontinuous nonlinearities such as perpetual 4.1 Axial loading Comparisons
changes of contact and slip or stick frictional Firstly, the results of tetrahedral elements will be
sliding (Prior, 1994). Furthermore, convergence discussed. Figure 2 illustrates the force-rotation
may occur if there are frequent changes on the relationship for all connections that modelled.
contact condition. Hence, in order to converge
27
Table 3 indicates the relationship between
calculated tying capacity and Abaqus results.
Table 3: List of calculated tying capacities and

resistances obtained from Abaqus (C3D4 elements )
According to Table 3, it can be seen that the

PE/PC ratio changes between 1.17 and 2.56.
Although calculated values are factored, it is fair
to state the rates are in similar range as the
Figure 2: Force-Rotation relationship for all connections
values obtained by Owens & Moore (1992).
(C3D4 elements )
It is necessary to discuss the results about
It is needed to debate on the relationship hexahedral element types. Figure 3 represents
between connection geometry and the force-rotation relationship of finite element
ductility/strength. First of all, it is obvious to models.
notice FEP2 which is perfectly symmetric plate
absorbs the minimum energy compared to the
other connections due to its inability to rotate.
Furthermore, when the plate thickness is
reduced, the response is more ductile which
means the rotation capacity of the connection is
enhanced (FEP5 is compared to FEP1 and
FEP6). However, regarding to strength, the
situation is vice versa. Moreover, the ductility
also increases when the bolt spacing is widened.
The plate becomes more capable to bend hence
the ability to absorb the energy rises (FEP4 is
compared to FEP1 and FEP3). On the other
hand, strength decreases when the bolt spacing is
expanded. Apparently, FEP8 and FEP7 are Figure 3: Force-Rotation relationship for all connections
figured in the opposite sides of the graph as it
(C3D8R elements )
was expected. FEP7 is considered as the most
ductile connection due to its dimensions (6mm As it was mentioned earlier, C3D8R is generally
plate thickness and 100 mm bolt spacing) and it used to simulate connection analysis. However,
is predicted to observe the highest strength from although the shapes of FEP1 and FEP 2 are
FEP8 according to design calculations. reasonable as they were discussed earlier, it is
Additionally, it is necessary to compare the not logical to mention the same idea for the rest.
ductility of expanded bolt spacing and thinned As it can be noticed from the Figure 3, the
endplate. It is clear to notice high tying force connections which mentioned as senseless
capacity of FEP4 compared to FEP5 as (FEP3, FEP4, FEP5, FEP6, FEP7, FEP8),
calculated according to Eurocode (all calculated behave like their components` elasticity modulus
results will be given in Table 3). In addition, are insufficient. It is expected to observe a linear
their capacity to absorb energy is almost same. behaviour until yielding then a curve is
In this sense, FEP3 and FEP6 can be compared demanded according to experiments made by
as well. As it can be observed from Figure 2, Owens & Moore (1991). Thus, angled loading
FEP 3 is more ductile than FEP6. However the comparisons were based on C3D4 elements.
tying resistance of FEP6 is slightly higher.
Eventually it can be resulted that increasing bolt 4.2 Angled loading Comparisons
distance rather than decreasing plate thickness is Once axial loading case was performed for all
a better observation in terms of strength (FEP4 connections, it is necessary to analyse the
compared to FEP5). Additionally, according to models under different load angles hence several
comparison between FEP3 and FEP6, shortening judgements can be done in terms of robustness.
bolt spacing rather than thickening plate
In this sense, three models were analysed (FEP1,
responses better in terms of ductility.
FEP7 and FEP8).
28
bolt spacing, beam touches to the column easier
and the rotation of connection become strict
hence plate cannot bend. Once the connection
cannot rotate, due to high vertical loads
compared to the other load cases, probably beam
sustains bending combined with shear. That is
why the stiffness of the joint increases
significantly.
4.3 Strength and rotation judgements
Figure 4: Force-Rotation relationship of FEP1 under

different angled loading
According to Figure 4, the tying capacity of

connection reduces reasonably when the force is
applied with an angle. Moreover, as it can be
recognized from the figure, when the applied
load angle is increased, the resistance of
connection drops. This response can be Figure 7: Capacity comparison of connections for angled
explained as the rising moment or rotation with load cases
prying force, reduces the capacity.
As it can be perceived from Figure 7, the
The increase of stiffness can be clearly noticed decrement for FEP7 is less than FEP1 and FEP8.
for 15, 30 and 45 degrees of load angle while the In the case of 45 degrees loading, a special
connection response is in the plastic range. The situation can be observed for FEP7 as it was
reason of mentioned response can be justified explained in previous part thus its resistant is
based on the touch of beam to column (due to higher than 15 and 30 degrees of applied load
effecting moment) as shown in Figure 5. angle. Additionally, the reduction of FEP8 is
more than the others for each pulling action.
Moreover, it can be noticed for 15 and 30
degrees load cases that the reduction of
resistance between connections increases. The
mentioned observation can be discerned between
Figure 5: Beam touch to column FEP1 and FEP8 in terms of 45 degrees of
It is essential to declare the interaction between loading as well.
beam and column occurs earlier when the load Eventually when the thickness of endplate
angle is increased due to the augmentation of increases and bolt spacing decreases the tying
vertical force component. resistance of connection reduces in terms of
different load angles. On the other hand, the
mentioned situation is vice versa when the
thickness of plate lessened and the horizontal
distance between the bolts enhanced.
Figure 6: Force-Rotation relationship of FEP7 under

different angled loading
Although similar observations can be said for the Figure 8: Rotation comparison of connections for angled
load cases
response of FEP7, as it shown in Figure 6,
behaviour of the connection with 45 degrees According to Figure 8 it is fair to assert that
pulling action is completely different compared maximum rotation increment can be perceived
to FEP1 and FEP8. Mentioned behaviour cannot from FEP8 in terms of applied load angle.
be observed from other connections` 45 degree Furthermore, the rotation growth for FEP1 is
load cases due to the thickness of plates and bolt less than FEP8 as expected. Additionally,
spacing. When the thickness is 6mm with larger
29
minimum rotation increase can be observed from Thickening the plate causes a difficulty to rotate
FEP7. under moment hence catenary occurs later than
connections with thinner plates. The same
behaviour can be observed when the bolt spacing
6 CONCLUSIONS decreases.
First of all, it is fair to state that although The reduction of the strength for FEP7 is less
hexahedral elements are used in the previous than the others in terms of varying pulling
research for connections, the results of six out of action. In addition, the resistance decrease of
eight models did not make sense hence the FEP8 is higher than FEP1 and FEP7. Moreover,
discussions were based on tetrahedral elements in the case of 45 degrees of load angle, FEP7
generally. subjects catenary action earlier than other cases
and connections due to its geometry. In this
Design calculations based on Eurocode are quite
sense, it can be articulated that catenary action is
conservative according to tying capacity of
a key point in terms of robustness. In the light of
models performed. It is understandable that
results, it can be concluded that, lessening plate
tetrahedral element type is stiffer due to their
thickness with increasing bolt spacing can result
geometry but models with hexahedral mesh
a robust design. In addition, thickening the plate
resulted fairly higher resistances which is
with widening the distance between bolts also
actually expected. Another reason of obtaining
can result ductile behaviour in terms of varying
reasonably stiffer results for both element types
pulling action. However, the resistance reduction
also can be explained as the fracture
is higher than previously mentioned geometry
development inability of implicit solution. It
case and it is difficult for connection to subject
could be possible to observe an earlier failure
catenary action thus the same amount of tying
with C3D4 mesh types but due to the
capacity increase cannot be observed.
incapability of implicit procedure, element
deletion also cannot be performed thus the
elements which achieved ultimate strength were
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
still existed on the model.
I profoundly grateful to my supervisor, Dr.
Although tetrahedral meshing concluded stiffer
Buick Davison for his help, support and patience
results, the obtained data can be assumed as
during the time of study.
comparable in order to judge connection
behaviour under axial and angled loading
conditions. Additionally, the conclusions in REFERENCES
following paragraphs could be almost similar if
the results were less stiff. ARUP March 2010. Review of International Research
on Structural Robustness and
In the case of axial loading, it is needed to Disproportionate Collapse. Final Report.
consider some rotations due to plate depth London.
eccentricity in terms of ductility. ASHAKUL, A. 2004. Finite Element Analysis of
It can be pronounced that for all load cases, Single Plate Shear Connections. PhD,
when the horizontal bolt spacing of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University.
connection decreases, the strength raises but
energy absorption reduces. In addition, this BURSI, O. S. & JASPART, J. P. 1997. Benchmarks
statement is opposite when the bolt distance is for finite element modelling of bolted steel
increased. Moreover, increment on plate connections. Journal of Constructional Steel
thickness causes less ductility but more strength. Research, 43, 17-42.
However, the mentioned situation is vice versa HU, Y., BURGESS, I., DAVISON, B. & PLANK, R.
in the case of decreasing the thickness of plate. 2008. Modelling of flexible end plate
connections in fire using cohesive elements.
The angle variations are extremely important in In: Fifth International Workshop Structures
terms of robustness due to predicting the in Fire, Singapore.
behaviour of joint in a case of column loss.
When the load angle increases the moment ISTRUCTE 2002. Safety in tall buildings and other
buildings with large occupancy. The
subjecting to the connection amplifies due to the Structural Engineer, 80.
raise of vertical load component hence the
response can be changed according to the PRIOR, A. M. 1994. Applications of implicit and
connection geometry which will be concluded explicit finite element techniques to metal
later. The subjecting moment rotates the system forming. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 45, 649-656.
then beam touches to the column thus increase
of stiffness can be observed. SCI 2009. Medium Rise Braced Frames. p365 ed.:
The Steel Construction Institute.
30
Vibration Serviceability Assessment of a Leisure Centre Floor

Ali Alskeif
ABSTRACT Long-span buildings with light materials, like the Harlequinns Centre in Exmouth, are
susceptible to excessive vibrations due to human dynamic excitation.
The Harlequinns Centre is a new leisure centre which includes rooms that may be used for dancing
events and aerobics classes.
The aim of this study is to assess this structure with respect to its vibration serviceability using Finite
Element model of the structure. Using ANSYS finite element software, a modal analysis has been
performed and the modal properties of this structure have been compared to real field measurements
from the centre itself, in order to validate the created model. Several model modifications in order to
improve the extracted modal properties from the analysis and make the results close to the real
measurements have been discussed.
Having performed the modal analysis, extracted modal properties were used to calculate the response of
the building's floors to the assigned human dynamic loading. According to the obtained responses and
by comparing them to the acceptable criterion, assessment has been carried out and remedial measures
have been suggested.
dynamic excitation in order to assess the

1 INTRODUCTION
acceptability of the structure.
In the recent years, reported vibration problems
The structure in question is a two-storey leisure
in buildings have risen significantly.
centre which includes rooms that might be used
Consequently, many structural engineers now
for dancing events and aerobics classes. The
pay more attention to these serviceability
floor system used in this structure is composite
problems in parallel with ULS design. These
slab. All of the columns are steel with the
vibrations are often an acute annoyance to
existence of a concrete core and the beams are
people and they often affect buildings’
either universal or cellular beams. If the structure
functionality. In many cases, vibration problems
passes its evaluation, comments should be made
can affect buildings such as hospitals, gyms and
to clarify to what extent this structure is
high-tech labs. It can even compromise building
acceptable with respect to its vibration
safety in normal buildings when the measured
serviceability. If it does not pass, remedial
vibrations are considered excessive. It can
measures will be suggested and
impact on all features of a structure but a
recommendations made.
building’s floors are often the most sensitive
component of any structure as floors are directly
in contact with humans. Since many floors tend
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
to be thin and flat surfaces, the excessive amount
of energy beyond damping ability is interpreted 2.1 Background to the Study
as vibrations.
The recent vibration problems mentioned above
This dissertation focuses on analysing and are often due to the change in human activities
assessing an existing structure subjected to which are the main source of the vibrations in
human-excitation which involves highly normal buildings, as well as the change in
rhythmic activities such as dancing and aerobic dynamic properties of structures. In addition,
activities. Thus, the structure will be assessed architects nowadays have the tendency to design
and checked in terms of its vibration buildings with long spans which can cause the
serviceability. A Finite Element Model will be natural frequency of floor structures to be
created to simulate many types of human decreased, and thus making these floors more
31
sensitive to human excitation due to prolonged 2.3 Finite Element Analysis
everyday activities. The modern architects’
The Finite Element method is an approximate
design preferences tends to result in the use of
analysis method so that each part of a structure
fewer partitions (or even large halls without any
(which is a continuous structure) is divided into a
partition), as less columns as possible.
finite number of parts/elements. These elements
Moreover, the use of stronger, lighter materials
are connected to each other by means of nodes.
often leads to a decrease in friction between
Each of these nodes has at least one or more
building components (Allen, et al., 1987:438).
degrees of freedom expressed by displacements.
This can also cause decreased damping. These
Nodes displacements express the movement
factors make it very important for structures to
which may be translations or rotations. In this
be checked for vibration problems. This check
study, the finite element analysis is carried out
should be considered during the design period
by a software called ANSYS (version 12).
because once the structure is constructed, it is
ANSYS has been recommended for many
very difficult to change its properties in order to
reasons. First, it is available in The University of
modify the main parameters related to vibration
Sheffield. Furthermore, it is a powerful software
(e.g. stiffness and mass of floors or other
with a very good performance in doing linear
elements).
dynamic analysis.
2.2 Human Loading
When 'dance-type' loading contains jumping with
2.2.1 Walking Excitation music beats, a high dynamic force is generated.
This is one of the most critical cases in terms of
The main source of vibrations in residence
'dance-type' loads. It can be considered as a
buildings is human loading. Most often it is
series of 'toe off' phase. For example, running up
caused by footsteps but sometimes it could be
stairs generates a successive half-sine pulses with
another type of loading. An accurate description
gaps in between during "in flight" moments
of the vertical walking loads and forces is
(Smith, 1988:299). Ji, et al (1994) suggest that
provided by (Skorecki, 1966 cited in Smith,
the load function should be formed in terms of a
1988: 286). This description shows two peaks
Fourier series as the following:
which occur under "heel strike" and "toe off".
This point of contact changes continuously with  
2n 
time. However, Smith (1988) argues that if the F (t )  G 1   rn .sin( t  n )  (eq 1)
 n 1 Tp 
span along the direction of walking is long, the
forcing function could be represented as a where:
periodic force in a good and acceptable
approximation. Recent studies by (Ellis, 2000 rn  an2  bn2
cited in Smith, 1988: 288) show that for light
an is the phase lags
damping floors, resonance with the Fourier n  tan 1 ( )
components of walking force is the most bn
important factor which affects the floors
 cos(2n  1)  1 cos(2n  1)  1 
response. While in high damping floors, an  0.5   
 2n  1 2n  1
individual feet strikes dominate.
 sin(2n  1) sin(2n  1) 
bn  0.5  
2.2.2 Rhythmic Excitation  2n  1 2n  1 
Human activities in buildings go beyond walking Figure 1 below shows the time history of 'dance-
and stepping on floors. Other activities such as type' loads. It describes the Fourier series model
dancing, aerobic, gymnasium activities or even in Equation 1, above, taking three and six terms.
jumping are expected in some buildings. Such As it appears in Figure 1, taking the first three
activities are rhythmic and may be well terms leads to a good approximation.
coordinated by music or gymnasium practices or
other similar activities. This kind of excitation is
categorized as 'dance-type' loading which is
periodic. For rhythmic human activities such as
jumping, dancing and aerobics, Ji, et al (1994)
(cited in Smith, et al., 2009:16) consider
specific frequencies depending on the coherence
between the occupancies (individuals or groups
of people). These suggested frequencies are [1.5-
3.5 Hz] for individuals; and [1.5-2.8 Hz] for
groups.
32
3. Before starting the ‘solve’ process, it may be
beneficial to use "nall" command. This command
redefines the nodes which were previously
defined. In the current study, before using this
command, the ANSYS software used to
immediately shut down once the "solve"
command is executed. This could be due to
numbering and duplicate errors occurred after
generating the mesh nodes.
Fig.1: Forcing function for dance-type loading.

Cited in (Smith, 1988:301) 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Model Updating
2.4 Assessment Criterions The computational modal analysis results are

compared with real measurements of an existing
Usually, the mode shape amplitudes due to structure, it could be reasonable to take into
vibration are relatively small so that they are account that the materials of the existing
within few micrometers rather than millimetres. structure are not at its perfect status. Steel could
Such amplitudes will most likely not have a be subjected to corrosion and concrete may
significant effect in terms of vertical possibly be cracked, at least partially. Hence, it
displacements. However, these few micrometers is reasonable to reduce the modulus of elasticity
or millimetres of vibration amplitudes could be in modal analysis input up to 35-40% of the
very perceptible and annoying to humans when design value(De Battista, 2009:11). In this study,
the related acceleration is higher than a specific the modulus of elasticity was reduced by 25% of
range. The obtained acceleration response of the the design value. Selecting a proper mesh size is
floor should be compared to the recommended essential. The accuracy of the results is highly
peak acceleration due to human activities. dependent on the mesh size in most of the cases.
Inadequate mesh size, however, may cause a few
problems. Very fine mesh may lead to
3 MODELLING METHODOLOGY computational complexity and huge stiffness
In order to perform a good floor assessment, it is matrices, while a decreased element size may
not necessary to model the whole structure. lead to inaccurate analysis results. Hence, a
Modelling ,and assessing, only the most sensitive adequate care should be taken when choosing
parts of the structure can give a good estimation mesh size and its effect on the output data. A fast
and enough approximation to judge if the floors comparison of the fundamental mode shapes in
pass or fail the serviceability criterions. One of terms of between different element sizes is
the most important procedures of the analysis is shown in Figure 2 below. The element sizes used
to interpret the structural geometry and in this comparison are 1.5, 1, 0.5, 0.25m.
properties into a certain form. This refers to a
form which is proper to be entered as a
computational input data. Several procedures
could help improve the model and the modal
analysis. These procedures are:
1. It is common practice that the same mesh size
is used for the beams and the slab of the
structure.
2. Meshing the beams (lines) should be carried
out before meshing the slabs (areas).
It is important to take these two procedures into
account as several errors could occur if these
procedures are ignored. By making sure that Fig.2: The first mode shape of the first floor for
these procedures are checked, the nodes of the various element sizes
slab will follow the nodes of the beams at the
contacting edge. This reduces the errors in terms
of mesh nodes and common inconsistencies
which may occur.
33
As for an element size (E.Size) =1.5m, it is
obvious that this mesh size is not adequate. It
should be thus refined. As for 1-m-element size,
the fundamental mode shape is substantially
improved. As for the last two refinement steps
(0.5 and 0.25-meter-element size), the results
changed slightly. Element size = 1m is a good
approximation and gives enough accuracy.
Moreover, it does not lead to large amount of
data which will to be processed later in
MATLAB. Fig.4: The first mode shape of the first floor
Regardless of the difference of the amplitudes of
4.2 The Modal Analysis Results Compared to the two parts of the floor, each part of the floor
the Field Measurements at the first mode shape corresponds to a "half
sine wave" (as Figure 5 below shows) which
Figure 3 below shows a comparison between the makes sense.
first mode shape that was taken from the real
measurements and the first mode shape extracted
from the modal analysis ,in ANSYS, of the first
floor slab.
Fig.5: The first mode shape corresponding to

"half sine wave"
This is similar to what happens to simple

supported beam as Figure 6 below shows
Fig.3: ANSYS results compared to real
measurements
The first mode shape which was taken from the
modal analysis seems to be reasonable, and very
close to the real measurements. As Figure 3
shows, each part of the floor between two rows
of columns, moves in a "half sine wave". This is
predictable tendency for the fundamental mode
shape. However, the amplitude of one part of the
floor (presented in red) is larger than the other
one (presented in blue), and here the main Fig.6: The first three mode shapes of a simple
difference between the real measurements and supported beam (Willford, et al., 2006:8)
modal analysis results can be seen. The reason of
this difference was simple. The row of the Figure 6 above shows the first mode shape of the
columns, which are frames in red in Figure 4 first floor (on the left side) compared to the first
below, were previously assumed to be fixed at mode shape of a plain slab. The half sine wave
the base and top. It was discovered in a very late which appeared in the first mode shape becomes
stage that these columns were not fixed at their a full sine wave in the second mode shape. This
tops. There is nothing but a ceiling slab above corresponds to the full sine wave which is
that particular area of the slab. This was because presented in the second mode shape of a simply
of the very limited information and geometry supported beam. In general, for higher mode
available about the structure. shapes, this phenomenon (of sine and half sine
waves) could repeat itself but in other parts of
the slab. Half a sine wave appears at a particular
area. It then splits into a full sine wave, then into
a series of sine waves. Then, another "half sine
wave" appears in other place and probably in
other direction else on the slab and starts
splitting again. It should be noted that in terms of
34
mode shapes, this is not always an ideal
phenomenon. Mode shapes are not always
predictable. For other cases, it could be more
complicated.
5 APPLYING FORCES AND RESPONSE

CALCULATION
5.1 Methodology
Having performed modal analysis, modal
properties of the floor can be extracted from the
analysis such as modal frequencies fn, modal
masses mn and mode shapes amplitudes φn for
each mode shape. The equation of motion can be
described as follows:
.. .
mn q(t )  cn q (t )  kn q (t )  f n (t ) (eq 2)
In order to solve the equation, all other required

parameters can be obtained. As for the damping,
it is the most difficult value to be calculated.
Hence, for this study, it is acceptable for this
value to be assumed to be 1-2% as common
practice. However, since the site measurements
are available, damping values could be taken
from the measurements in order to make this
study correspond with the real measurements and
assessments. Thus, from the measured damping
ratio, damping values (C) could be calculated.
Calculating the stiffness is an easy procedure. Fig.7: Comparison between the responses of the
fundamental mode alone and a combination of
Modal forces fn: Depending on the activities that the first 10 mode shapes for the same node.
the floor is expected to experience, forces can be Forcing frequency of 3 Hz
generated. Multiplying these generated forces by
mode shapes amplitudes gives the modal forces 5.3 The Response of the Second Floor
fn which can be used for solving the equation of The response will be calculated for two forcing
motion. After generating the forcing function of frequencies of 2.33 and 3 Hz. One of the most
'dance-type' loading, the equation of motion can critical cases which has been checked is when
be solved and the response can be obtained. the second floor slab is excited by a frequency of
5.2 The Response of the First Floor 2.273 Hz. This is the half fundamental
frequency. This means that the second harmonic
The response will be calculated for two forcing component of this forcing frequency will excite
frequencies of 2.33 and 3 Hz. A comparison the floor at resonance as Figure 8 below shows:
between the response obtained from the
fundamental mode only, and the response
obtained for the first few modes was made.
Figure 7 shows that a significant change in terms
of how the resonance response builds up can be
observed between measuring the response in
terms of the fundamental mode shape alone and
taking into account the first ten mode shapes.
Hence, it is not always accurate to take only the
fundamental mode shape into account.
Fig.8: Acceleration response for five modes of

the second floor. Forcing frequency: 2.273 Hz
35
The response factor (R) should be calculated in improvements that could be made to the FE
order to assess the floors in terms of vibration model. This clarified how a finite element model
serviceability. Response factor (R) is calculated could be optimized to simulate the real structure
by dividing the acceleration (RMS) by the which was being modelled. Comparing between
baseline RMS acceleration as mentioned in the the analysis results and the real field
literature review. This gives the following measurements showed that sometimes a different
results: assumption in one of the elements' properties
R1  41.64 R 2  56.76 R3  83.76
might lead to considerable differences. Thus, a
good care should be paid when creating the FE
R 414.96 R5  233.04
model. Generating the human dynamic forces is
5.4 Comparing results to the criterion an essential step in order to calculate the related
response of the buildings floors. Using the
The AISC (Murry, et al., 2003 cited in Smith, et related modal properties of the structure (e.g.
al., 2009:32) recommends that a multiplying modal frequencies, mode shapes amplitudes and
factor of 55 to 97 could be acceptable. Recent modal masses) and assigning the damping ratio
researches argues that a response factor up to makes it possible to solve the equation of motion
120 could be acceptable for dance floors in and thus to calculate the response. The response
nightclubs. This is due to the perception factor (R) should could be compared to the
reduction which is caused by the low lighting proper criterion and assess the floor depending
and loud music in such places. However, on it.
according to Ellis, B.R (2000) (cited in Smith, et
al., 2009) this value is described as 'disturbing'
even for grandstands. Judging should be carried
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
out very carefully. It depends on each structure
and its requirements as an individual case. I am sincerely grateful to Dr Paul Reynolds for
his supervision and support. I am also grateful to
Comparing these values to the results obtained Dr Donald Nyawako for his help.
above leads to be concerned about few cases.
Response factor (R3) = 83.76 which is for the
second floor when excited by forcing frequency
REFERENCES
fn= 2.33 Hz seems to push near the suggested
Allen, D.E, Rainer, J.H and Pernica, G. 1987.
limit. However, exciting this (second) floor at Building Vibration Due to Human Activities.
the frequency of 2.273 Hz leads to massive s.l. : National Research Council Canada, 1987.
response factor (R5= 233.04) which is definitely Reprinted from "Building Structures"
excessive and ,consequently, refused. As for the Proceedings Structures Congress '87.
first floor, it seems to be better than the second
floor, but still it suffers from perceptible De Battista, N. 2009. Dynamic investigation of
vibrations when fn= 3Hz. Hence, as for remedial a grandstand under crowd-induced loading.
measures, the second floor definitely needs to be
Structural Engineering. 2009. The University of
damped. As for the first floor, it could be
acceptable in terms of the acceptable limits, but Sheffield.
this does not necessarily mean that it will not
experience perceptible vibrations during Ji, T and Ellis, B.R. 1994. Floor vibration
particular activities. Using Tuned Mass Dampers induced by dance-type loads: Theory. s.l. : The
(TMD) is the most proper suggestion to be used Structural Engineer, 1994.
for this structure.
Smith, A L, Hicks, S J and Devine, P J. 2009.
Design of Floors for Vibration: A New
Approach - SCI Guide P354. s.l. : The Steel
6 CONCLUSION
Construction Institute, 2009. (Revised Edition,
Harlequinns Centre in Exmouth which is a new Feb 2009). ISBN 10: 1-85942-176-8 - ISBN 13:
leisure centre, includes many rooms that may be 978-1-85942-176-5.
used for various activities such as dancing and
aerobics classes. Such activities imposes the fact Smith, J.W. 1988. Vibration of Structures:
that the vibration serviceability of this structure Applications in civil engineering design. First
should be checked. FE model was created in Edition. s.l. : Spon Press, 1988. ISBN-10:
ANSYS using the proper elements. Modal 0412280205 , ISBN-13: 978-0412280207.
analysis was performed in order to extract the
modal properties of the structure. These Willford, M R and Young, P. 2006. A Design
extracted results were discussed and compared to Guide for Footfall Induced Vibration of
the field measurements for any possible Structures. s.l. : The Concrete Center, 2006. 1-
904482-29-5.
36
The effect of non-structural Partitions on the Dynamic Properties of the

slab in Arts tower.
Aiham Alskif
ABSTRACT This study examines the effect of the non-structural partitions on the dynamic
properties of the slab. The case study chosen for this dissertation was the Arts Tower located in the city
of Sheffield. The study aims at establishing a Finite Element Model that gives an accurate
representation of the real behaviour of the floor vibration. The study investigates only one floor of the
building and runs a modal analysis. The results obtained from the model have been compared and
correlated with the measurements of the Arts Tower itself before and after the removal of partitions.
Several attempts are carried out to improve the accuracy of the FE model. Different software
programmes are used to achieve accurate results, and verification of these programmes is also carried
out to examine the quality of the model. Useful information and pictures has been utilised in realising
the previous conditions of the structure; hence forming a better vision on how to create an accurate FE
model. Various cases of partitions are considered in this study. Tests on the effect of full-height
partitions, disconnected partitions and cantilever partitions on the floor vibration are also conducted.
The tests resulted in a conclusion that addition of partitions will contribute to the increase of structural
stiffness except in the case of cantilever partitions.
masonry partitions of 75mm thickness. (Gifford,

1 INTRODUCTION
BAM Construction, 2009).
Figure.1: Photo of The Arts Tower

The Arts Tower is one of the tallest buildings in Figure 2: plan of Level 8
the city of Sheffield. It is a concrete structure
which comprises two underground stories and
twenty-one stories above ground level. Each 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
floor slab has a thickness of 250mm surrounded
by a perimeter of up stand beams of 170 x 570 2.1 General Background
mm. The columns are located at the perimeter of Vibration serviceability is one of the most
the Tower. Moreover, the columns are divided important criteria in structure design. Hence,
into two groups: the first group consists of intensive studies have been conducted in this
sixteen columns of 965 x 965 mm, Positioned field in order to analyse the various problems of
underground, and they stop under the transfer vibration related phenomena. There is a lack of
slab. The second group comprises ninety-four information regarding the various factors which
columns placed on the slab perimeter with can affect the vibration performance in multi-
rectangular cross sections of 230mm x 460mm story buildings. One of these factors concerns
and support on the transfer slab before reaching non-structural partitions; These partitions have
the last floor. The core walls have a thickness of thus become the focus of much research,
300mm. The floors are fitted with full height However, no final, definitive answers have been
37
agreed upon, though there is a general agreement partitions was usually estimated by FE since no
regarding the effect of non-structural partitions measurements were available. Hence no precise
on the dynamic properties of the slab. evaluations were obtained relevant to this
subject. Moreover, no clear FE model was
2.2 Review of Literature
performed before including the modelling of the
Reynolds (2000) emphasizes the point that there partitions. Recently, the Arts Tower has
is indeed a lack of conclusive data regarding the undergone refurbishment. There is, however, the
effect of partitions. On the other hand, Parnica ability to correlate measurements with FE model
(1987) claimed that the modal shapes of bare before and after removing the partitions in order
slab and partitioned floor are similar. to determine the effect of the partitions on the
dynamic properties of the slab.
This claim has been challenged. For example,
Bachmann et al (1995) recommend adding full-
height partitions in order to cure floor vibration
3 THE ARTS TOWER MEASURMENTS
problem. However, they did not determine the
effect on stiffness and frequency. Moreover, they 3.1 Gifford Study
did not estimate the effect of the partitions on the
In 2009 Gifford office analysed the Arts Tower
modes shapes of the floor.
from different sides including the dynamic
In contrast, Falati (1999) concluded that the non- issues. However they did not survey the
structural walls at the mid span behaved as influence of the partitions on the dynamic
spring support increasing the fundamental properties of the slab.
frequency dramatically.
3.2 Ngonda Experiments 2009:
Other experiments and tests were carried out on
Arts tower by Ngonda in 2009. Ngonda(2009)
Figure‎.3: Analytical model approximation of a did test on the floor level 8 which fitted was with
full-height partitions (Falati 1999) partitions. However, only two rooms in the floor
were tested, Room 8-1 and Room 8-29:
On the other hand, Falati (1999) found that there
was no effect of the cantilever walls on the Mode 1: f=15.8Hz Mode2: f=20.1 Hz
vibration properties if they were located parallel
to the span. Overall, these findings suggest the
need for further research
Based on comparisons with measurements,
Miskovic et al., (2009) found that the frequency Figure.4: Measurements plot of modes shapes
of floor was initially increased up to 25% after when floor cleared from partitions
adding the partitions. Moreover, and in order to
correlate FE of partitioned floor with From the figures.4 Nagonda(ibid) observed that
measurements, they updated the model by the natural frequencies of the floor were
changing some of the structure parameter such as increased significantly when partitions were in
beam stiffness. This updated version may affect place. Moreover, The modes shapes of two cases
the modal properties of the bare floor. were different.
Unfortunately, no measurements were performed 3.3 Brownjohn experiments 2011:
on the floor when cleared from the partitions in
order to check the quality of this update. Brownjohn (2011) did vibrations measurements
on floor level 8 which was almost without
More recently Setareh (2010) argued that the partitions. Few cantilever partitions were located
existence of non-structural elements including parallel together. The data of the measurements
the partitions have, in fact, no effect on the were collected, frequencies were calculated and
stiffness or even the damping ratio of the floor. It set of modes shapes were plotted. These modes
is claimed that it only leads to an increase in the shapes are essential in order to make good
mass and the weight of the floor. analysis and comparisons between floors with
2.3 Conclusion and without partitions. This is explained in detail
in section 5.1
In conclusion, it is evident that there are no
conclusive studies which have investigated the
dynamic properties of the slab before and after 4 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
adding the partitions. This is because the studies
and measurements were carried out after adding In this study, the vertical vibration of the floor
the partitions. The behaviour of the floor without in the Arts Tower will be thoroughly discussed
38
and analysed. The main software used in
establishing FE models for the Arts Tower, was
ANSYS 12. In addition, SAP 2000 was used to
verify the quality of ANSYS model. Only one
floor (Floor Level 8) in the Tower with column
above and below the floor, with and without
partitions was modelled in two different models. FE f4=13.08 Hz Mode4 f4=13.6 Hz
This is because “dynamic analysis may require Figure.5:Comparisions between FE and
less detail than a static analysis” (Middelton & measurements( modes shapes and frequencies)
Brownjohn 2010:346). Furthermore, there were for the bare floor
two types of material specified in the structure.
The first one is reinforcement concrete and the
second one is masonry material. Two types of 5.2 Floor with Partitions
elements were used in modelling, Shell63 and The positive correlations between FE and
Beam4. Shell63 was suitable for modelling the measurements for the bare floor, led to model the
reinforcement slabs, core walls, and masonry floor with partitions. Hence, the contributions of
partitions. The second element, Beam4, was used the walls to the dynamic properties of the slab
to model columns and beams. were estimated after running a modal analysis.
The results obtained from the modal analysis
indicated that the FE natural frequencies
5 RESULTS experienced a dramatic increase when the full-
Modal Analysis before and after adding the height partitions were in place. It was, however,
partitions were performed in order to determine overestimated since it was more than the
the effect of partitions on the dynamic properties measurements. In other words, the FE model
of the slab. The results were compared and appears to be stiffer than the real structure.
correlated with measurements performed on the
same floor. The main points, the comparison is
based on, are the modes shapes and the
frequencies values.
5.1 Floor without Partitions
It was observed after Modeling floor level 8
without partitions that frequencies and the modes Figure 6: The first Mode shape f1=18.3 Hz
shapes resulted from FE correlate well with ones
obtained from measurements as shown below: It was evident from the figure.6 that the FE mode
shape was quite similar to the one obtained from
experiments. Based on frequency, it was
indicated that the FE frequencies did not
correlate well with the measurements. However,
further examination was conducted when the
floor fitted with partition to determine the
reasons behind the discrepancy aroused between
FE f1=10.98 Hz (Mode:1) Tests f1=10.7 Hz the results.
5.3 Verification of The Model
SAP2000 was used to check the quality of the

model before determine the reasons behind the
overestimated results obtained from ANSYS. So
one mode shape of floor without partitions
FE f2=11.02 Hz (Mode:2) Tests f2=11.6 Hz obtained from SAP was plotted:
FE f3=12.09 Hz (Mode:3) Test f3=13 Hz Figure 7: The first mode shape, f1=10.56 Hz
39
The modes shapes and frequencies of bare floor The table 2 illustrates a sharp increase in
resulted from SAP2000 were similar to those frequency after adding the partitions. This
resulting from measurements and ANSYS. This dramatic increase was due to the stiffness added
positive correlations confirms the good quality of to the floor by the walls. The modes shapes of
the SAP model of the bare floor. So the floor the partitions were also produced and shown in
with partitions was modeled and analyzed using the figures below. The figures show modes
SAP2000. SAP2000 modes shapes correlate well shapes obtained by ANSYS, SAP2000, and
with measurements. The problem, however, was measurements. The two modes shapes of
that the frequencies obtained from SAP 2000 partitioned floor are illustrated
was much higher than the measurements
frequencies and ANSYS values. This lead to be
concluded that the high frequencies may be due
to both finite element models (SAP, ANSYS12)
having stiffer structures than the real floor.
5.4 The Results Update: f1=16.2 Hz (ANSYS) f2=20.1 Hz
The proper update was obtained by modify the

elastic modulus of the partitions. The elastic
modulus is a measure of material stiffness. The
non-structural partitions were modelled by one
element Shell63 with a united value of elastic
modulus. However, the partitions are actually not
one body. They are, rather, a set of blocks f1=15.8 Hz (Test) f2=20.1 Hz
connected together by cement mortar and these
are unified into one body. Cement mortar has
different material properties than blocks and thus
different elastic modulus. Hence, a low value of
f1=17 Hz (SAP2000) f2=22.5Hz
elastic modulus of partitions is required to take
into account the mortar material at the joints Figure 8: show the modes shapes and frequency
between the blocks. These joints were the for the first and second mode obtained from
weakest areas for the blocks to separate far from three different methods
each other during the process of partitions
removal. It is worth mentioning that the blocks When comparing the modes shapes of the floor
themselves preserved their shape.Thus, the fitted with partitions with those of the bare floor,
elastic modulus of partition was decreased It was noticed in the first mode shape of the bare
gradually from 3e9 N/m2 to 1e9 N/m2 to obtain floor that the whole mass of the floor moved. In
the results which match the measurements with the partitioned floor, however, the first mode
error not exceed 5%. shape was formed inside one room bounded
between two walls perpendicular to the span.
Table 1: Comparison between update FE and Hence, it was concluded that the partitions play a
measurement values role in preventing transmission of vibration
Mode FE TESTS Error 5.5 The effect of Joint between the Partitions
1 16.2 15.8 2.5% it was noticed from the figure that some
partitions were not joined together.
2 20.1 20.1 0%
Also another comparison of frequencies was

illustrated in the table 2
Figure 9: picture taken to the disconnected
Table 2: comparison between update FE floor
walls in The Arts tower
with partition and FE floor without partition
The partitions were modeled without any joints
Mode UpdateFE FE Bare Error between them. Elastic modulus of partitions was
with wall Floor taken as 1e9 N/m2 based on the latest update.
The purpose was to find the joint impact on the
1 16.2 10.98 48%
dynamic properties of the slab. Thus,
40
comparison of frequency and modes shapes was partitions. This case will be the middle case
made with the final update model. between the others.
Table 3 :shows comparisons between floor with 5.6 The Effect of Cantilever Partitions (non-
joined walls and floor with disconnected walls full height partitions)
It was noticed that after adding cantilever
Mode Joined No Error partitions, the modes shapes were the same as
HZ Joined those of the bare floor. Also the frequencies were
close to frequencies of the bare floor. This
1 16.2 14.7 -10% suggests that the cantilever partitions did not
contribute to an increase in the stiffness of the
2 20.1 15.3 -30%
floor system. This may be due to the ability of
3 21.8 15.8 -38% cantilever partitions mass to move as well as the
floor and this shown in the table below.
4 22.8 19.0 -20% Table 5: comparison between floor fitted with
cantilever partitions and bare floor
The table 3 shows that the joints between

Mode with Without Change
partitions added significant stiffness and also
cantilever partitions
increased frequency of the floor. On other hand,
the disconnected walls reduced the fundamental 1 11.14 10.98 1.5%
natural frequency of the whole structure. On the
other hand, when investigating the modes shapes 2 11.24 11.02 2%
of area which was the field of previous
Two modes shapes of cantilever partitioned floor
measurements, in Room 8-1 and Room 8-29, the
are illustrated below
mode shapes showed similarities whether the
partitions joined or not. The difference was
presented in the sequence of the modes shapes.
This was due to the differences in the stiffness
between the two cases. Some modes shapes are
presented
Mode 1: f1=11.14 Hz Mode 2: f2=11.24 Hz
Figure 11: the first and the second modes
shapes of floor fitted with cantilever partitions
6 CONCLUSION
Figure 10: Mode shapes3 and 4
There are various factors which affect the
In this study, the researcher attempted to obtain vibration performance in multi story buildings.
frequencies of the floor when the partitions are One of these factors is the non-structural
not connected and the value of elastic modulus is partitions, which are still subjected to arguments
variable. between the vibration experts. Since experiments
were carried out on a floor level 8 in Arts Tower
Table4: Comparisons FE frequencies due to
before and after the removal of partitions, Finite
variable Elastic modulus of partitions with
element models of the floor were established
measurements when the partitions not joined.
using ANSYS 12 before and after adding the
E 1e9 N/m2 1.5e9 N/m2 2e9 N/m2 partitions to find out the effect of full-height
partitions on the modal properties of the slab.
Mode 1 2 1 2 1 2 Comparisons between two cases were performed
FE 15.8 19 16.7 20.6 17.2 21.9 to correlate FE modal analysis with
measurements.
Tests 15.8 20.1 15.8 20.1 15.8 20.1
First of all, The modal analysis of the bare floor
Error +0% -6% +5% 2.5 9% 9% indicated good correlations between the FE and
tests since the error obtained from the
comparisons were not exceeded 5%. Not only
Looking closely to table 4, it is recommended to the frequency presented good values, but also the
choose the model of the second case which is 1.5 modes shapes were quite similar between two
e9 N/m2 value of elastic modulus of unconnected methods. The positive correlations between FE
41
and measurements for the bare floor, led to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
modelling the floor with partitions in the next FE
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to
model. Hence, the FE model experiences a
my Prof. James Brownjohn for his guidance and
dramatic increase in natural frequencies when
support.
the full-height partitions were in place. But FE
overestimated the measured values. In other
word, the FE model of the floor looks to be
REFERENCES
stiffer than the real structure.
Bachmann, H. Ammann, W.J. Deischl, F.
FE update was carried out to estimate the real
Eisenmann, J. Floegl, I. Hirrsch, G.H. Klein,
behavior of the floor. The best updating was
G.K. Lande, G.J. Maherenholtz, O. Natke, H.G.
found by reducing the elastic modulus of
Nussbaumer, H. Pretlove, A.J. Rainer, J.H.
partitions from 3 N/m2 to 1N/m2 in order to
Saemann, EU.&Steinbeisser, L. (1995) Vibration
reduce the error value to 2.5%. The reduction
Problems in Structures,p11-21.
was necessary to be implemented, hence the
material properties of the cement mortar between Falati, S (1999) The Contribution of non-
the blocks was taken into account, because structural components to the overall dynamic
cement mortar material is weaker than the behavior of concrete floors slabs. PHD Thesis. p.
blocks. Estimating the correct values of the 92-125.
frequency indicated that adding the full-height
Gifford, BAM Construction, (2009). Arts
partitions increased the structure stiffness. It was
Tower Sheffield: Structural Analysis Report.
suggested that the increase in frequency was due
Commerical-in-confidence, 15239/EAT/R01
to stiffness added by the walls. What is more, the
modes shapes of the floor was same as ones Middelton, C.J, Brownjohn, J.M.W (2010)
resulted in measurements. Response of high frequency floors: A literature
review. Engineering Structures Journal,
Later modeling partitions when not joined was
Engineering Structures 32 (2), pp. 337-352
created to determine the joints effect on the
.[Available online] at:
modal properties of the floor. In fact it was
pointed out that the joints between the walls play www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
an essential role in increasing the stiffness and
Miskovic, Z. Pavic, A. &Reynolds, P (2009)
the frequency of the structure. The fundamental
Effect of full-height nonstructural partitions on
natural frequency of Floor fitted with partitions
modal properties of two nominally identical
was 10% higher in case of the partitions joined
building floors. NRC Research Press.p1121-
and this ratio will increase for the other mode.
1132 [Available online] at:
But even when the walls not joined it was stated
http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.113
that the partitions also will increase the stiffness
9/L09-055.
of the floor especially those walls perpendicular
to the span. Frequencies were raised at least 30% Ngonda, A (2009) Performance of High
higher the values of the floor without partitions. Frequency Floors, Dissertation Supervised by
Moreover the mode shapes showed similarities Brownjohn, J at Department of Structural and
whether the partitions joined or not, but only the Civil Engineering, University of Sheffield
sequence of the modes shapes get change. Some
changes were made to the model of unconnected Pernica, G (1987) Effect of Architectural
walls implemented by increasing the elastic Components on the Dynamic Properties of a
modulus to 1.5e9 N/m2. This case may be will be Long-Span Floor System. Canadian Journal of
one possible suggestion to make FE model Civil Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 4, p. 461 -467
correlate with the measurements. On the other [Available online] at:
side it was noticed after adding cantilever http://www.nrccnrc.gc.ca/obj/irc/doc/pubs/nrcc2
partitions that stiffness of the floor system did 8772/nrcc28772.pdf
not change; the modes shapes were same as Reynolds, P (2000) The effects of Raised
those of bare floor and also the frequencies. Access Flooring on the Vibration Performance
The tests resulted in a conclusion that addition of of Long-Span Concrete floor. PhD Thesis. P. 1-
partitions will contribute to the increase of 37.
structural stiffness except in the case of Setareh, M (2010) Vibration Serviceability of a
cantilever partitions. Therefore adding the Building Floor Structure.1:Dynamic Testing and
partitions will be one of the best and cheapest Computer Modeling. Journal of Performance of
methods for cure floor vibration problems. Also constructed Facilities ASCE. [Available online]
it is important to mention that the partitions www.ascelibrary.org.
located perpendicular to the span which will
have the most effect.
42
The Behaviour of Steel Structures Subject to Seismic Loading Conditions

Sinan Altinkup
Candidate MSc(Eng) Steel Construction
ABSTRACT This study aims to assess the performance of various braced and moment resisting
frames with different number of storeys. After the nonlinear time history analysis of the 3, 7 and 10
storey steel frames with different bracing types, comparison is made using several numbers of aspects.
In terms of roof displacement and inter storey drift X and Inverted V braced frames showed the
greatest performance in majority of the cases. The K braced frame showed the worst performance
among the braced structures, as it is not advised in Eurocode. The hysteretic performance and axial
load time history are considered to assess the performance as well. In all storey categories, X and
inverted V bracings contributed to the lateral force resistance of the structure. However, K bracings
were only efficient in 3 and 7 storey K braced frames. The contribution of K bracings in 10 storey K
braced frame nearly did not exist. The plastic rotations which were only available in moment resisting
frames were used to assess the damage in moment resisting frames. The plastic rotations were
concentrated in the lower and upper floors of both 7 and 10 storey moment resisting frames and no
plastic hinges were observed in 3 storey moment resisting frame.
inter storey drifts, contribution of bracings and

1 INTRODUCTION
the plastic rotation capacity in connections. The
Since the first usage of steel constructions in properties of the structure which determines its
early 20th century, codes have been based on two characteristics such as number of storeys and
general sections; one of them emphasizing on type of bracings will be changed for number of
static loadings and the other part devoted to steel frames in order to fully understand the
dynamic loadings. Behaviour of structures to behaviour of the structure under cyclic loading.
static forces has always been simpler than the
The dynamic loading which will be a recorded
dynamic loadings which are generally referred
accelerogram in this study will be applied to
to seismic loadings. After major earthquakes
different types of steel frames using the famous
such as 1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe
structural analysis software SAP 2000. The
earthquakes, engineers had put forward what
analytical results obtained through the non-
they learnt from these disasters into the codes.
linear direct integration time history analysis
The main improvement in the codes all around
will be used to assess the behaviour of different
the world was the understanding of the
types of steel frames.
importance of ductility in the design. Their
conclusion was depending on the observation of The assessment of the behaviour of structural
damages occurred in the structures due to steel frames with different bracing systems and
seismic actions. The damages occurred in varying number of storeys will be compared
connections which were brittle failures; lead the with the information given in Eurocode and
engineers to point the ductility to be the main make some improvements if necessary. In
design issue. addition to this, this study will be a guide for
structural engineers in order to understand the
The main objective of this research is the
performance and inelastic behaviour of
investigation of the behaviour of steel structures
structural steel frames under seismic loading
under seismic loading conditions with non-
conditions.
buckling bracings. The behaviour of the steel
frames will be investigated under difference
aspects such as the relative floor displacement,
43
speed of construction and its economy are its
greatest advantages (Wilkinson, 2006).
2 ENERGY DISSIPATION MECHANISMS
The basic design philosophy about the
2.1 General
earthquake design is that the seismic
The dynamic response of a structure to seismic performance of a structure is greater if the
action can be understood if the balance with the internal damping is higher. The main function
seismic energy and elastic strain, kinetic, of the damping is absorbing the kinetic energy
viscous damped and hysteretic energy is of the structure and enabling the natural
understood. The input energy of a moderate frequency of the structure not meeting the
seismic action or the energy released during the frequency of the seismic action hence
initial of an earthquake is balanced by damping. preventing the occurrence of the resonant
If the energy of the seismic action is greater vibrations. In a typical structural design, the
than moderate, the input energy of the damping is obtained at the beam-column
earthquake is greater than the damping. Then connections. Due to cyclic loading their
the excess energy is compensated by the response to a seismic action has to be repeatable
ductility of the structure which is referred as the and resist fatigue. The inelastic actions at the
hysteretic energy. (Gioncu et al, 2001) connections in order to develop damping can
deform the connections. Even the peak ground
The main objective in the design of a building
is low, if the duration of the seismic action is
subject to seismic actions is ductility. Since the
long, due to cycling loading, earthquake can
nature of the earthquake is a serious energy, this
damage the beam-column connections. (Aiken.
is the most important design aspect. The steel
et. al, 1988)
itself is a ductile material; therefore the steel
members are supposed to be ductile. However, New connections are proposed by designers
the ductility of the material is not enough when which enhances damping in the connections.
building is subjected to earthquakes, which Aiken. et al (1988) have mentioned that special
requires ultimate performance. In order to energy absorbing devices are able to increase the
achieve the required ultimate performance, the damping without any loss in the number of
framing systems has to be able to dissipate the cycles needed to collapse. One of the special
energy in a hysteretic way while undergoing damping devices they have proposed is the
large plastic deformations. The designer has to frictional damping elements. Friction damping
avoid brittle failures or any other designs which devices enhances the available damping, hence
will not allow hysteretic energy dissipation provides a better structural performance. Their
systems. The ductility of steel does not efficiency increases as the input energy of the
guarantee a ductile behaviour; the connections seismic action increases.
and steel components may behave in a brittle
Connections are the least place where engineers
manner. (Bruneau et al, 1998)
want the failures to occur. Several new designs
2.2 Connections were offered by the researchers which promotes
the plastic hinges to occur in the beams rather
One of the most critical issues in the seismic
than connections. A research at SAC (1996)
design of a steel structure is the beam to column
showed that welded straight haunch were
connections. They suffer most when the
successful in moving the plastic hinge away
structure is subjected to earthquake. Welded
from connections.
steel moment resisting frames were the mostly
used connections because it was thought that Lee et. al. (2003) have confirmed the study of
they were capable of undergoing plastic SAC after observing that the stiffeners used in
rotations in an event of earthquake. 1994 the beam and straight haunch were successful in
Northridge earthquake destroyed all the moving the plastic hinge away from the tip of
assumptions about the connection including the the haunch. The final benefit of the straight
welded connections. The most widely seen haunch was preventing the lateral torsional
failure in the welded connections was the brittle buckling and flexural lateral buckling in
failure within the connection. The designers negative bending, whereas it has no effect in
were wrong when they thought that these positive bending.
connections were having enough plastic rotation
2.3 Non-buckling Bracings
and behave well in cyclic loading. Therefore
welded connections are not permitted to be used Steel is a very strong member in both
in seismic areas. Nowadays, bolted end plate compression and tension. However due to
connections are widely used in steel structures. buckling under compression, the amount of
Likely the welded connections, the ease and energy that a concentric bracing can dissipate
44
decreases considerably. Kumar and his friends and the foundation is modelled as rigid. For
(2006) have investigated the behaviour of simplicity reasons the model is analyzed in 2D.
frames with non-buckling bracings under The layouts of the 3 storey X, inverted V and K
seismic action. The non-buckling bracing has braced frame is shown in the Figure 3.1 below.
the ability of dissipating energy by the inelastic
deformation when subjected to both
compression and tension forces in turn. The
non-buckling bracing is composed of the core,
grout and sleeve. The core carries the load. The
sleeve has the purpose of limiting the buckling
of the core under compressive forces. Being not
exposed to axial load and having an Euler load
greater than the Euler buckling load of the
reduced core, the sleeve does not bend when
subjected to compression. This is the reason
why the non-buckling bracing has greater
yielding strain and being able to dissipate more
energy when subjected to earthquake. The non-
braced frame is a very good alternative for
braced frame due to their enhanced properties
when subjected to compression. Moreover, the
strength and the stiffness can be adjusted for the
given level of story drift and energy absorption
level.
Figure 3.1 Layouts of 3 storey X, inverted V and
Sahoo and Chao (2010) used the performance K braced frames
based plastic design, which uses the equality of
energy and work balance and estimating the 3.1 Structural Elements
target drift and yield mechanism in order to Two types of structural elements are used in the
understand the inelastic behaviour of frames design. Beams and columns are designed as
with non-buckling bracings. They have noted frame elements whereas non-buckling bracings
that under maximum considered earthquake are designed as nonlinear link elements. The
non-buckling bracings were still able to carry plastic hinges ,which will be explained in the
much load and deform more as a result next paragraphs, are only available in moment
preventing the collapse of the frame. When resisting frames and located at both end of
design basis earthquake was used they did not beams and at the end of first storey columns
reach maximum and cumulative displacement
ductility. Frame element nonlinearities are considered in
terms of plastic hinges and material
nonlinearities. In SAP 2000 plastic hinges can
3 STRUCTURAL MODELLING be assigned to frame elements at any distance
along the clear height of the frame element.
The analyzed structure is a commercial building After assigning the degree of freedom for the
which is thought to be the most general case. hinge, it will represent the post yield behaviour
Three different number of storeys is used which in non-linear direct-integration time history
are 3, 7 and 10. The case study models were analysis. In our case the plastic hinges occurs
designed using Eurocode 3 and Eurocode 8. The due to moment only. A moment- rotation curve
equivalent static lateral force procedure was is specified which includes the yield value and
used. The design spectrum used in the design the plastic rotation, following yield. Both
was chosen for a building with a behaviour rotation and moment values in Figure 3.2 are
factor of 4 and a site which belongs to class C. normalized to yield rotation and yield moment
In all cases the models have 5 bays and each bay respectively. In addition to the above mentioned
has a length of 8 meters. The height of each data which considers the non-linear moment
floor is kept as 4.5 m for all buildings as well. rotation behaviour, the non-linear stress-strain
Each beam is supposed to carry the dead load, relationship is also described for the principle
6.0 kN/m2 and live load, 2.0 kN/m2 acting on an directions. The nonlinear stress-strain curve and
area of 64 m2.The connections are designed as strain data for both nominal thickness lower
rigid except bracings, they are connected with than 40 mm and between 40 and 80 mm is
pins. The first story columns have a fixed base shown below in Table 3.1.
45
used for time integration. The geometric non-
linearity considered in the analysis is P-Δ effect.
For analysis when considering P- Δ effects, the
equilibrium equations take into account of the
deformed shape of the structure. While tensile
forces stiffen the structure, compressive forces
destabilize the structure. The P-Delta effect is
calculated along the length of the element
considering the deflection through the length of
the element. Linear and Cubic transverse
Figure 3.2: Moment Rotation Curve for hinges deflected shapes are assumed for shear and
used in structural members bending respectively.
Table 3.1: Parametric strain data for both

thickness categories 4 RESULTS and DISCUSSION
S355 (t ≤ S355 (40mm In this section the performances of the braced
40mm) <t ≤ 80mm) and moment resisting frames are assessed
Strain at Yield considering their maximum lateral roof
0.001675 0.001775 displacement, inter storey drifts and the
Stress
hysteretic behaviour of bracings.
Strain at Onset of
0.02 0.02 4.1 Roof Displacement
Strain Hardening
Strain at When the maximum roof displacements are
0.14 0.14 observed in Table 4.1 on the next page, the
Maximum Stress
values of the roof displacement of the 3 storey
Strain at Rupture 0.2 0.2 moment resisting frame and K braced frame is
noticed. The roof displacement of the 3 storey
In SAP 2000, nonlinear properties which are
moment resisting frame is excessively high
not available for frame elements can be assigned
when compared to X and inverted V braced
to link elements. Several types of nonlinear
steel frames which has the maximum value of
stress-strain diagrams with different hysteretic
54 mm. Although K braced frame has the
behaviour are available for nonlinear link
highest stiffness, the roof displacement is the
elements. In our model bracings will be
highest among the braced frames. Its value is
designed as non-linear link elements. A bilinear
nearly 2 times the roof displacements observed
stress strain diagram with kinematic and
in X and inverted V braced frames.
isotropic hardening is assigned for the non-
buckling bracings. The yield strain is selected as Among 7 storey steel frames moment resisting
0.001775 and the ultimate strain is 15 times the frame has the highest roof displacement with a
yield strain which is 0.026625. A diagram value of 384 mm. It is followed by the steel
which illustrates the kinematic hardening of the frame with inverted V bracing with a value of
steel is shown in Figure 3.3 below. 170 mm. Unlike the performance in 3 storey
braced frames, inverted V bracing showed the
least performance among braced frames. K
braced frame which was prone to highest roof
displacement showed the greatest performance
among 7 storey braced frames. However, the
roof displacement of K braced frame is not
considerably lower than the roof displacements
of X and inverted V braced frame. The roof
displacement of X braced frame is slightly lower
than inverted V braced frame as it was observed
Figure 3.3: Hysteresis sketch of the steel in the 3 storey braced frames as well. When the
roof displacements in 7 storey steel frames are
3.2 Structural Analysis compared with the roof displacements in 3
storey steel frames, serious increase in
Direct integration is used for the time history magnitudes is noted.
analysis with the consideration of the non-linear
geometric effects and non-linear material
properties of the elements. Newmark method is
46
Table 4.1 Roof displacements in 3, 7 and 10 the first storey, the storey drift is increased until
storey steel frames the 6th floor and the storey drift of the roof is
smaller than 6th storey’s drift. Therefore it can
Relative Roof
be concluded that the energy of the earthquake
Displacement (mm)
is dissipated through the storeys in an increased
MRF X V K
manner. The damage observed in moment
3 Storey Steel resisting frame was concentrated at the upper
Frame 126 50 54 92 storeys for both negative and positive storey
drifts. The inter story drift profile of moment
7 Storey Steel resisting frame is nearly the same of the braced
Frame 384 162 170 152 frame, however the profile of moment resisting
10 Storey frame is again considerably away from other
Steel Frame 386 205 205 474 profiles.
Finally, between the 10 storey steel frames, Likely the profiles of 3 and 7 storey steel
although it is a braced frame, the top floor of K frames, the drift profile of 10 storey X and
braced frame swayed more than the top floor of inverted V braced frames are nearly the same.
10 storey moment resisting frame. This is due to The seismic energy is absorbed uniformly in
the negligible contribution of the K bracing. storeys between 4 and 10. The contribution of
The increase in the number of storeys caused an the first 3 storey is considerably low when the
increase in the lateral roof displacement for X roof displacement reaches its maximum value.
and inverted V braced frames. However, for the Unlike the performance in 3 and 7 storey K
moment resisting frame, although the number of braced frame, the storey drifts observed in 10
floors is increased from 7 to 10, the roof storey K braced frame was greater than the
displacement is nearly the same. storey drifts observed in moment resisting frame
in most of the floors. The storey drifts was
4.2 Inter Storey Drift excessively high in the lower and middle floors
In this section the inter storey drifts and the for the negative and positive storey drift profile
drift profile will be discussed. The inter story of the 10 storey K braced frame. The inefficient
drifts and the drift profile was recorded when contributions of K bracings caused poor
maximum roof displacements occurred. Among performance in inter storey drift as well as the
the 3 storey steel frames, the inter storey drift roof displacement. The damage observed in the
profiles were nearly identical for the inverted V moment resisting frame when maximum
and X braced frame in both negative and negative roof displacement occurred, was
positive drifts. The drift profile of K braced concentrated at the upper floors and the trend
frame is similar to the profile of X and inverted reversed when positive roof displacement
V braced frame; however it is considerably occurred. For positive storey drifts, the energy
greater than the drifts of both X and inverted V was concentrated in the lower stories of the
braced frame. Among braced steel frames, the structure.
damage observed in the first and second storey 4.3 Performance of Bracings
was greater than the damage observed in the
third storey. The inter story drift profile of The seismic performance of the bracings was
moment resisting frame is far greater than the assessed considering their hysteretic behaviour
drifts of braced structures as expected. In the and the axial loads exerted on bracings. The
moment resisting frame the energy is absorbed contribution of bracings determine the
through the middle story due to the greater drift structures behaviour as the effects were seen in
ratio of the middle storey when compared to the lateral roof displacement and inter storey drift.
floors below and above. For X braced frames the contribution of the
bracings existed in all storey categories; with
When the inter story drift profile of 7 storey the increase in the storey number X bracings
steel frames is observed like the inter story drift were subjected to higher tensile and lower
profile of the 3 storey steel frames, X and compressive forces. Like X bracings, the
inverted V braced frame is nearly identical and inverted V braced frame showed greater
K braced frame is subjected to slightly lower performances when the number of storeys was
positive storey drifts and slightly greater increased. Both increases in the compressive
negative storey drifts. For braced frames when and tensile forces were observed when the
maximum negative roof displacement occurred, height of the steel frame was increased. For K
the damage observed in structure was braced frame, the performance was decreased
distributed uniformly. When maximum positive with the increase in the number of storeys. The
roof displacement was occurred, starting from
47
bracings located at the first floor of 3 storey K performance of inverted V braced was
braced frame dissipated the energy by the acceptable, however the design of the
inelastic deformations. However, the neighbouring structural members has to be
contribution of the bracings in 10 storey K carefully done due to the high axial forces in
braced frame nearly did not exist. inverted V bracing. K bracing which showed the
worst performance among braced frames should
4.4 Plastic Rotations in Moment Resisting
be avoided as it was mentioned in Eurocode.
Frames
When the plastic hinges in the 7 storey moment
resisting frame is observed, it is seen that most ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of the plastic hinges were occurred in the lower
I am heartily thankful to my supervisor, Dr.
stories of the building. The plastic hinges
Zhaohui Huang, whose continual advice,
occurred at both ends beams for the first and
support and enthusiasm from the preliminary
second floors and at only one end of the beam in
and concluding level enabled me to develop an
3rd and 5th floors. In addition to the plastic
understanding of the subject.
hinges occurred in beams, plastic hinge was
observed in the 5th row first storey column.
However in any of the cases the rotation in the
REFERENCES
plastic hinges did not exceed B level safety
which means that the plastic rotation is greater
than the yield rotation but smaller than 2 times S. Wilkinson, G. Hurdman and A. Crowther
the yield rotation. (2006) A moment resisting connection for
earthquake resistant structures, J Const Steel
The plastic hinge profile of 10 storey moment
Res., Vol 62, Issue 3, p. 295-302.
resisting frame is similar to the profile of 7
storey moment resisting frame. In the lower
I. D. Aiken, J. M. Kelly, A. S. Pall (1988)
floors up to 4th floor, plastic hinges were
Seismic Response of a Nine Story Steel Frame
observed at both ends of the beams. Plastic
with Friction Damped Cross Bracing. Retrieved
hinges in the 5th and 8th floor occurred at only
from:http://www.siecorp.com/publications/paper
one end except the beams at the 4th and 5th bay
s/ida_1988a.pdf
of 8th floor. Unlikely the 7 storey moment
resisting frame, plastic hinges were occurred in
SAC. Experimental investigations of beam–
every floor except the roof. But generally
column subassemblies. Report No SAC-96-01.
speaking in moment resisting frames, the plastic
SAC Joint Venture, Sacramento, Calif., 1996.
hinges occurred in the lower stories are at both
ends. The plastic hinges in middle floors are
C.-H. Lee, J.-H. Jung, M.-H Oh and E.-S. Koo
few and no plastic hinges are formed in the roof.
(2003) Cyclic seismic testing of steel moment
The amount of plastic hinges occurred in upper
connections reinforced with welded straight
floors is considerably low when compared to the
haunch. Eng. Struct., Vol 25, Issue 14, p. 1743-
plastic hinges in lower floors.
1753.
G. R. Kumar, S. R. S. Kumar and V.

5 CONCLUSION
Kalyanaraman (2007) Behaviour of frames with
The seismic behaviour and performance of non-buckling bracings under earthquake
braced and moment resisting frames were loading. J Const. Steel Res., Vol 63, Issue 2, p.
assessed by using the non linear time history 254-262.
analysis. The effects of the variation in the
number of floors and different type of bracings D. R. Sahoo and S.-H. Chao (2010)
in terms of response were the main outcome of Performance-based plastic design method for
this study. The aspects which were used in the buckling-restrained braced frames. Eng.
assessment of the performance was mainly the Struct., Vol 32, Issue 9, p. 2950-2958.
inter storey drift, roof displacement and
acceleration, hysteretic performance of bracings, Gioncu, V. and Mazzolani, F.M. (2001)
axial load capacity of bracings and the plastic Ductility of seismic resistant steel structures,
rotation of plastic hinges. Spon Press.
To sum up, moment resisting frames should be
M. Bruneau, C.-M. Uang and A. Whittaker
avoided in high seismicity areas and the priority
(1998) Ductile design of steel structures,
bracing type should be X bracing. The
McGraw-Hill.
48
EFFECT OF NON STRUCTURAL PARTITIONS ON SWAY (VIBRATION)

PERFORMANCE OF UNIVERSITY ARTS TOWER
Christos Basagiannis
ABSTRACT This paper presents the impact of block-work partitions on the sway dynamic
behavior of the Arts Tower in Sheffield. Although the influence of non structural components to the
behavior of the whole structure is usually ignored, it was proved that they had essential contribution
on the Arts Tower. As part of a refurbishment program, which is currently on site old partitions were
removed and new ones are being installed now. The removal of the partitions was carried out in two
phases. First partitions at levels 9-19 were removed and then all the remaining partition walls were
demolished. During this renovation the building was monitored and modal frequencies and mode
shapes are available.
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to implement modal analysis of the structure and compare
analytical and experimental results. This was accomplished by creating three finite element models in
ANSYS in order to represent the Arts Tower during the period of the partitions removal. It was found
that the contribution of the partitions was overestimated and therefore adjusted models were
developed. When the Young’s modulus of the partition walls was reduced, the results improved
considerably.
1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the research carried out in the past had
concentrated only on the effect of partitions on
the dynamic properties of floors and not of the
whole structures. This is mainly because
partition walls are considered not to greatly
affect the structural behavior of a building.
However, it was proved that Arts Tower block-
work partitions had essential contribution on the
dynamic behavior of the whole structure.
Therefore, in this paper the impact of partition
walls on the sway dynamic behavior of the Arts
Tower was examined. Finite element software
ANSYS12 was used for representing the
building and obtaining natural frequencies and
mode shapes. These results were compared with
those from measurement fields and are presented
in chapter 5.
2 STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
The Arts Tower is a reinforced concrete
structure and comprises 21 storeys above ground
floor level and, 2 basement levels. It is
approximately 78m high, 36m wide and 20m
deep (figure 1). The base of the Arts Tower Figure 1: Elevation of the Arts Tower
contains the ground floor level, the mezzanine
floor level and the basement floor level, while at 94 perimeter columns, all 203mm×406mm
the top of the building there are 3 roof levels rectangular sections. Regarding the corner
(above the 18th floor). The perimeter of each columns it was decided to be placed at
slab, with the exception of the ground floor, has approximately at 0.8m from the corner of each
floor.
49
The ground floor consists of 16 960mm×960mm 4 MODELING
perimeter rectangular columns.
Three models were developed in ANSYS12.
There is also a transfer slab at ground floor level,
 Model 1: main structural elements of the
while the structural frame comprises reinforced
building (columns, slabs and, core walls) -
concrete flat slabs. In addition, there are block-
represents the final state of the Arts Tower
partitions on each floor, approximately 100mm
(after the removal of partitions)
thick (Gifford, BAM Construction 2009).
Finally, the lateral stability of the building is  Model 2: same with model 1, but with
mostly provided by the two RC cores, which are partitions included at levels 1-9 -
asymmetric in plan with regard to the floor plate represents the state of the Arts Tower after
(figure 2). This leads to large rotational the first partition removal phase (removal
displacements. of partitions at levels 9-19)
 Model 3: all the partitions were added in
order to represent the initial state of the
Arts Tower (without removal of partitions)
However, some assumptions had to be made as
follows. First of all, linear elastic material was
used for the analyses. Uniform concrete strength
for the whole building was assumed and the
Young’s modulus was estimated based on this
value (cylinder compressive strength 28.5MPa).
The slab was assumed to be rigidly connected
with the floors and the core walls and the Arts
Tower was assumed to be fixed at its base (no
basement levels were modeled), while soil–
Figure 2: Plan of 3rd floor of Arts Tower structure interaction was neglected. Also, the
partitions were assumed to be fixed between the
slabs and the material properties used for their
3 REMOVAL OF PARTITIONS modeling was density: 1400kg/m3 and, Young’s
Modulus: 3GPa. Moreover, the element types
The removal of the partitions was carried out in
used for the modeling are shown in table 2.
two phases:
 Phase 1: Removal of partitions of levels
9-19 began in August 2009 and Table 2: Element types of structural elements
completed on 9 October 2009
Structural Elements
 Phase 2: Removal of partitions of levels
1-9 began in the first week of Lines (Beam44) Areas (Shell63)
September 2010 and lasted two weeks Ground floor slab (1.5m
Perimetric Beams
During this renovation the Arts Tower was thickness except its
(0.32m×0.17m)
monitored and a drop in the natural frequencies centre: 0.25m)
of the building was noticed, especially for the Transfer Beams First floor slab (0.25m
first three modes (table 1), where the main (1.5m×1.5m ) thickness)
interest is. The aim of this paper is to explain Ground floor columns Core walls (0.36m
this reduction. (0.96m×0.96m) thickness)
First floor columns Partitions (0.1m
Table 1: Measured frequencies during (0.203m×0.406m) thickness)
refurbishment
Openings on the core walls were also taken into
Monitored Frequencies account.
Freq Regarding the geometry of the Arts Tower, the
Freq. Freq
(with building can be divided into three different parts:
Before After % Total
Mode partitions ground floor, 1st floor–19th floor and, 20th floor.
removal Removal Reduction
at levels Thus, the basic principle about implementing
(Hz) (Hz)
1-9)
FEM (finite element model) of the Arts Tower is
NS1 0.626 0.61 0.54 15.9
θ1 0.752 0.72 0.67 12.2 to model only the ground and the first floor
EW1 0.806 0.77 0.72 11.9 along with the 20th floor. The first step of the
NS2 2.157 2.24 2.2 1.7 modeling was to set up the geometry of the
θ2 2.197 2.27 2.26 3 building using keypoints, lines and areas.
EW2 2.677 2.68 2.63 1.8 Ground floor columns (960mm×960mm) and
first floor columns (203mm×406mm) were
modeled first. Then, the core walls were
50
modeled. It is very important to ensure the However, the position of partitions varies from
correct modeling of columns and cores, since floor to floor, which may lead to confusion. It
these elements provide the lateral stability and was decided to model the partitions for each
stiffness to the building. Next, the perimetric floor as they exist on floor 1 (figure 4).
beams at first floor slab connecting each column Any major differences between the partition
and, transfer beams around the ground slab were arrangement on floor 1 and any other floor have
modeled. been taken into consideration.
The modeling of the slabs was the most
difficult part. The slab had to be connected with
5 RESULTS
all the columns and the core walls in order for
the building to behave as a structure and not as After modeling was competed, model analyses
separate structural elements. Moreover, the were conducted in order to obtain natural
position of partitions that were used in models 2 frequencies and mode shapes for each of the
and 3 had to be taken into account. After three models. The results are illustrated in table
modeling the 1st floor, then all the other floors 3, while in table 4 the accuracy of the model is
were modeled using the same principle. The presented. Figure 5 shows the first three mode
final form of the Arts Tower model can be shapes of the building.
clearly seen in the following figure: The modes have been categorized according to
their vibration direction, despite the fact that
most mode shapes cannot be clearly
characterized as translation or torsional. The
mode shapes of the building did not change
when adding the partitions. Only the natural
frequencies changed (a slight increase). Hence,
presenting the mode shapes of the building
(figure 5) where no partitions are included can
give us a very good idea of how the Arts Tower
behaves, even when the partitions are missing.
Regarding the natural frequencies obtained from
the analyses, these can be divided into two
groups. When checking the frequencies where
no partitions are included, it seems that the
model is accurate, since the results are very close
to reality (the largest difference is 6.9%).
However, the frequencies, where modeling of
Figure 3: Final form of Arts Tower model in ANSYS
12 partitions was included (models 2 and 3), are
larger than expected. These values are based on
the assumption that the Young’s Modulus of the
partitions is 3GPa. However, it seems that the
contribution of the partitions to the whole
structure has been overestimated and it should be
re-examined. It is most likely that the Young’s
Modulus of partitions is too high, and does not
represent their true stiffness. This may occurred
due to the assumption regarding that the
partitions are fully fixed at the slabs.
Figure 4: Partition’s arrangement in floor 1
Table 3: Comparison of analytical frequencies
Freq. Before removal Freq (with partitions Freq After Removal –

– Model 3 (Hz) at levels 1-9) – Model 2 Model 1 (Hz)
Mode
Monitored Monitored Monitored
FEM FEM FEM
(21/9/2009) (20/10/2009) (31/10/2010)
1 0.727 0.626 0.659 0.61 0.523 0.54
2 0.857 0.752 0.798 0.72 0.636 0.67
3 0.939 0.806 0.899 0.77 0.751 0.72
4 2.77 2.157 2.567 2.24 2.227 2.12
5 2.911 2.197 2.677 2.27 2.343 2.19
6 3.352 2.677 3.149 2.68 2.79 2.63
51
Table 4: Percentage of Errors of FE model
Freq (with partitions at levels

Freq. Before removal (Hz) Freq After Removal (Hz)
1-9)
Mode
Monitored % Monitored % Monitored %
FEM FEM FEM
(21/9/2009) Error (20/10/2009) Error (31/10/2010) Error
1 0.727 0.626 +16.1 0.659 0.61 +8 0.523 0.54 -3.1
2 0.857 0.752 +13.9 0.798 0.72 +10.8 0.636 0.67 -5
3 0.939 0.806 +16.5 0.899 0.77 +16.7 0.751 0.72 +4.3
4 2.77 2.157 +28.4 2.567 2.24 +14.5 2.227 2.12 +1.05
5 2.911 2.197 +32.4 2.677 2.27 +17.9 2.343 2.19 +6.9
6 3.352 2.677 +25.2 3.149 2.68 +17.5 2.79 2.63 +6
Mode 1: First translational mode in lateral direction Another parameter may have also influenced the
(NS1) results. Uniform material for the partitions has
been assumed with specific material properties.
However, this is not the case. In reality, in most
cases, the partitions are made of separate
blocks-bricks which are connected to each other
with mortar, which has less Young’s modulus
compared with the blocks. The assumption that
Mode 2: First translational mode in longitudinal the whole partition has uniform material
direction (EW1) properties, had only been made to facilitate the
modeling procedure. In order to achieve a better
agreement between the analytical and monitored
results the modulus of Elasticity (E) of the
partitions was gradually reduced to 1GPa.
Using partition’s Young’s modulus of 1GPa led
to realistic results. These results along with the
percentage of errors are presented in tables 5, 6.
Mode 3: First torsional mode (θ1) As indicated in the these tables, changing the
modulus of Elasticity of the partitions from
3GPa to 1GPa has given much better results
which are much closer to the reality, especially
for the first three modes. As mentioned
previously, we should focus more on the first
three modes, since it seems that these are mostly
Figure 5: First three mode shapes of the Arts Tower affected by the partitions.
obtained from FE model 1
Table 5: Comparison of analytical frequencies with different E (1Gpa) of partitions
Freq. Before Freq (with

Freq After Removal
removal – Model 3 partitions at levels 1-
– Model 1 (Hz)
(Hz) 9) – Model 2
Mode
Monitored Monitored Monitored
FEM FEM FEM
(21/9/2009) (20/10/2009) (31/10/2010)
1 0.647 0.626 0.609 0.61 0.523 0.54

2 0.758 0.752 0.737 0.72 0.636 0.67
3 0.856 0.806 0.854 0.77 0.751 0.72
4 2.553 2.157 2.49 2.24 2.227 2.12
5 2.668 2.197 2.58 2.27 2.343 2.19
6 3.12 2.677 3.08 2.68 2.79 2.63
52
Table 6: Percentage of Errors of FE model with different E (1Gpa) of partitions
Freq. Before removal-Model 3 Freq (with partitions at levels Freq After Removal- Model 1
(Hz) 1-9)- Model 2 (Hz) (Hz)
Mode
Monitored % Monitored % Monitored %
FEM FEM FEM
(21/9/2009) Error (20/10/2009) Error (31/10/2010) Error
1 0.647 0.626 +3.3 0.609 0.61 0 0.523 0.54 -3.1
2 0.758 0.752 +0.7 0.737 0.72 +2.3 0.636 0.67 -5
3 0.856 0.806 +6.2 0.854 0.77 +10.9 0.751 0.72 +4.3
4 2.553 2.157 +18.3 2.49 2.24 +11.1 2.227 2.12 +1.05
5 2.668 2.197 +21.4 2.58 2.27 +13.6 2.343 2.19 +6.9
6 3.12 2.677 +16.5 3.08 2.68 +14.9 2.79 2.63 +6
The largest error from the analysis of these  Uniform Young’s modulus of concrete
frequencies is approximately 11% in model 2, for the whole building
and 6% in model 3. Mode shapes seem to  Fully fixed partitions
remain unaffected by this change. Hence, it can  Beam44 was used for the beams and
be concluded that the adjusted FE model, using columns
different E for partitions, is more realistic and  Shell63 was used for slabs, core walls,
accurate than the original model. partitions
The natural frequencies and the mode shapes
6 CONCLUSIONS from the FE models were then compared with
Although partitions are usually ignored in the those obtained from the monitoring system of
analysis, it was found that non structural Arts Tower. The results were accurate only for
elements of the Arts Tower had essential model 1 (Arts Tower without partitions).
contribution to the whole stiffness of the Regarding models 2 and 3 the frequencies
building. Hence, as part of a refurbishment showed that the contribution of the partitions to
program the partitions were removed and new the building had been overestimated. This may
partitions are currently being installed. The have happened due to the assumption which was
removal of the partitions was carried out in two made regarding that the partitions are fully fixed
phases: between the slabs. Also, no deterioration of the
 Phase 1: Removal of partitions of concrete of the partitions due to time and no
levels 9-19 began in August 2009 openings in the partitions were included.
and completed on 9 October 2009 Moreover, the assumption which was made
 Phase 2: Removal of partitions of regarding uniform material properties for the
levels 1-9 began in the first week of partitions is not accurate. Hence, it was decided
September 2010 and lasted two to adjust the model in order to obtain more
weeks realistic results, although the mode shapes of
During this renovation, Arts Tower was each FEM were found to be in remarkable
monitored and a drop in the natural frequencies agreement with the real ones. Therefore, the
of the building was noticed, especially for the modulus of Elasticity gradually reduced to
first three modes. Aim of this paper was to 1GPa (instead of 3GPa that was used in the
explain why this change in the (sway) dynamic original model). The new results had very good
behavior of the building occurred. Hence, three correlation with the measured ones, especially
models were developed and modal analyses for the first three modes where the main interest
were carried out for each of these models in is, since these frequencies are affected most by
order to obtain natural frequencies of Arts the partitions. Improved FEM reduced the
Tower in Sheffield. ANYS 12, which is finite largest error’s percentage for the first three
element software, was used for the analysis. modes from 16.7% to 10.9%. Also, the
The first model represented the state of Arts percentage of error regarding the fundamental
Tower after the removal of the partitions (model frequency was reduced from 16.1% to 3.3%. It
1), the second model represented the state of is obvious that the adjusted model is much more
Arts Tower after the removal of partitions at realistic than the initial one.
levels 9-19 and the third model represented the
state of Arts Tower with partitions in every 7 REFERENCES
floor. However, some assumptions had to be  Allen, D.E. (1990), Building Vibrations from
made first. The most important of them are: Human Activities, Reprinted from American
Concrete Institute, Concrete International:
53
Design and Construction, Vol. 12, No. 6, http://www.shef.ac.uk/artstowerproject/the-
p.66-73 project [Accessed 28 July 2011]
 Brownjohn, J.M.W., Ki-Young Koo (2010)  Tso-Chien Pan, Xuting You, J.M.W.
Vibration serviceability of tall buildings due Brownjohn (2005) Effects of infill walls and
to wind loads: prediction, measurement and floor diaphragms on the dynamic
evaluation of damping characteristics of a narrow-rectangle
 Brownjohn, J.M.W., (2011) Method building, Vol.35, p. 637-651
Statement: Dynamic testing of Arts Tower,
The University of Sheffield
 Brownjohn, J.M.W., Pan , T.C., Deng, X.Y.
(2000) Correlating dynamic characteristics
from field measurements and numerical
analysis of a high-rise building, Vol.29,
p.523-543
 Chandler, A.M., Su R.K.L., Sheikh, M.N.,
Lam N.T.K. (2005) Influence of non
structural components on lateral stiffness of
tall buildings, Vol.14, p 143-164
 Chopra, Anil K., Dynamics of Structures (3rd
Edition)
 Eurocode 2
 Gibson, A. (2011) Finite Element Gibson, A.
(2011) Modeling of the Arts Tower, The
University of Sheffield
 Gifford, BAM Construction (2009) Arts
Tower Sheffield: Structural Analysis Report,
Commercial-in-confidence, 15239/EAT/R01
 Koo K-Y (2009) Arts Tower Vibration
Monitoring System - Full Scale Dynamics
Ltd
 Littler, J.D. (1987) Forced vibration tests on
Sheffield University Arts Tower, Building
Research Establishment, Watford, U.K
 MacDonald, R. (2006) Dynamic Effects of
Wind on Tall Structure, The University of
Sheffield
 Miskovic, Z., Pavic, A., Reynolds, P.
(2009) Effects of full height nonstructural
partitions on modal properties of two
nominally identical building floors, Vol.36,
p 1121- 1132
 PAN, T.C., Brownjohn, J.M.W., Xuting You
(2004) Correlating measured and simulated
dynamic responses of a tall building to long
distance earthquakes, Protective Technology
Research Centre, School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Nanyang
Technological University
 Pernica, G. (1987) Effect of Architectural
Components on the Dynamic Properties of a
Long-Span Floor System, Reprinted from
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering , Vol.
14, No. 4, p. 461-467
 Schneider, T. (2008) The story of the Arts
Tower in Sheffield , The University of
Sheffield
 The University of Sheffield (2011) The Arts
Tower project,
54
Seismic Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete

Siavash Bayegan
Candidate MSc(Eng) Structural engineering
ABSTRACT This paper aims to investigate the behaviour of deficient RC structures under seismic
action and the application of innovative methods for strengthening them. The typical deficiencies in
substandard building joints with a special focus on deficient lap splices are reviewed and the post
tensioning metal strapping (PTMS) technique is presented as an innovative technique for further
investigation. The seismic performance of a two storey reinforced concrete building with poor detailing
in beam-column joints is investigated through nonlinear static and dynamic analysis. To simulate the
deficiencies in the beam-column joints, bond-slip and bond degradation models are considered and
their effects on the global behaviour are investigated. The analysis results are evaluated by comparison
with available experimental data from a series of full scale tests on a shake table. The performances of
deficient splices are also investigated analytically by further including a bond-slip model to represent
the splice behaviour. The analysis results were compared to the experimental results of the frame
without splices. Two PTMS strengthening schemes were applied to the original frame and the effects of
increasing confinement and flexural capacity on the frame’s capacity and its global behaviour are
investigated.
confront the deficiencies in the last two decades.

1 INTRODUCTION
Although many of these techniques have been
Earthquakes are one of the most devastating proved to be effective in mitigating the seismic
natural hazards to human life and livelihood. risks, the majority of them suffer from
The average economic losses due to earthquakes disadvantages such as high costs and disruption
in developing countries during the last decade to the building occupancy. Therefore there is a
exceed $ 4.6 billion/annum.The major factor pressing need for innovative, low cost and less
contributing to both economic and human loss is disruptive techniques to enhance the behaviour
the collapse of buildings during earthquakes. of deficient buildings under seismic actions.
Many buildings built before 1970, were designed 2 PERFORMANCE OF SUBSTANDARD
only for gravity loads. Therefore many of the BUILDINGS IN EARTHQUAKES
existing buildings may not comply with the
Recent earthquakes such as the Northridge
recent codes and as a result these buildings
1994; Kobe 1995; Kocaeli 1999; Bam
represent significant hazard to the life of the
2003,China 2008 and Haiti and Chile 2010,
occupants and their investments. The
brought forth the vulnerability of existing
vulnerability of these buildings has been shown
reinforced concrete buildings to strong
in the many recent strong earthquakes such as
earthquakes. Failure of beam-column joints was
Kocaeli 1999; Bam 2003,China 2008 and Haiti
identified as one of the leading causes of
and Chile 2010. When assessing the existing
collapse of such structures
buildings deficiencies such as weak column-
strong beam, absence of joint shear
2.1 Typical Deficiencies in Substandard
reinforcement, inadequate lap splice of column
Buildings
bars, and insufficient anchorage of beam bars
were usually observed. When assessing the existing buildings,
deficiencies such as weak column-strong beam,
Therefore, seismic rehabilitation of the deficient
absence of joint shear reinforcement, inadequate
existing buildings is a key element in the process
lap splice of column bars, and insufficient
of mitigating the hazard, achieving seismic
anchorage of beam bars are usually observed. In
safety and turning our cities into resilient
developing countries, in addition to the absence
communities. Several local and global
rehabilitation schemes have been proposed to
55
of required seismic detailing, the quality of By knowing the curvature distribution due to
construction is also very poor. flexure and plastic hinge length , the rotation
of a column can be easily obtained by
integrating curvatures using a the procedure by
Park & Paulay (1975). Rotations resulting from
elongation and slip of the reinforcing bars at the
beam-column interface can be also calculated
using the model by Sezen (2000) .
4 POST TENSIONED METAL STRIPS

(PTMS)
The PTMS technique for strengthening concrete
members, which was invented at the University
of Sheffield, involves post tensioning high
strength packaging metal strips around the
concrete member and subsequently securing
their ends in metal clips (Fig. 2). The low cost of
2.1 Performance of Columns with Deficient strip and speed and ease of application of the
Splices strapping technique make this method efficient
for use as a repair and strengthening technique
Given the code requirements for pre-1977 for certain structural members. The strips can be
buildings, many buildings exist where splices of tensioned to about 30% of their yield stress.
column longitudinal reinforcement were Hence, an effective lateral stress is applied to the
designed for compression only, typically with column prior to loading. This has many benefits
lap lengths of 20db and 24db and with relatively such as full utilization of the strip capacity and
light transverse reinforcement enclosing the lap. prevention from premature crushing of the
According to fib (2003) the common bond confined concrete, as would be the case with not
failure problems (in the splice region) in old properly post-tensioned strips. In other words, in
construction are due to a) splicing the column contrast to the conventional confining methods,
reinforcement just above the base of each floor which provide passive confinement and need
(i.e. within the plastic hinge zone) without any development of internal micro cracks and
special provisions for confining stirrups b) the dilation in concrete to be activated, in the
use of smooth reinforcement while the strapping technique the lateral pressure is
anchorage capacity relies on the friction along applied to the concrete member from the
the anchorage length and c) the use of short lap beginning of the load application. Therefore, the
lengths. strapping technique is capable to provide active
confinement for concrete columns.
(Moghaddam et al., 2010)
3 DEFORMATION COMPONENTS
Beam-column joint deformations should be
accounted for while assessing the deficient RC
buildings. The total lateral deformation of a
reinforced concrete column can be determined
after estimating lateral deformations resulting
from flexural, bond slip and shear mechanisms
Fig.1.
Fig. 2- PTMS Technique
In a research by Moghaddam et al. (2010) it was
shown that previously proposed confinement
models fail to estimate the compressive
behaviour of strapped concrete specimens,
reasonably. Therefore a new confinement model
was proposed which estimates the compressive
behaviour of concrete confined with external
post-tensioned yielding strips with a good degree
Fig. 1-Flexural and slip deformations in reinforced of accuracy. The schematic stress–strain curve of
concrete column. the proposed model for active confinement of
concrete with metal strips is shown in Fig.3.
56
joint regions were ignored whereas the second
model aims to simulate the deficiencies in the
beam-column joints as well.
Beams and columns were modelled using a fibre

element (Element Type 15) of distributed
plasticity. The steel reinforcement and concrete
properties were based on the constitutive models
given in Eurocode 2.The mass of the structure is
modelled in DRAIN-2DX with the use of
lumped masses at each floor. Based on previous
studies and the engineering judgments the
damping ratios of 3% and 2% were assumed for
the 1st and 2nd modes of vibration respectively.
Fig.3-Schematic stress-strain curve of active The need to consider the additional deformations
confinement.
due to bar slip in the existing RC frames was
5 THE STRUCTURE UNDER previously studied by Kyriakides (2007). In
INVESTIGATION order to account for the extra deformations due
to the slip of reinforcement, The DRAIN 2DX
A full-scale two storey RC building with poor
El. 15 pullout properties were specified at the
joint detailing was tested on a shake table in
beam-column interfaces in the second model. By
2004 as part of the European research project assuming enough anchorage length in all
ECOLEADER in France (Fig.4). The frame was interfaces, the slip due to extension of the bar
designed using typical old pre-seismic can be calculated using the model by Sezen
construction practice of southern Europe. During
(2000) . Second order effects were also
the experimental program, 5-uniaxial seismic
included in the analysis.
tests with artificial acceleration records and
increasing peak ground acceleration (PGA)
levels from 0.05g to 0.4g were applied on the
structure.
Fig. 5-bond-slip model

For the second model the non-linear dynamic
Fig. 4- General view of the bare
analysis using the same records showed a
The material properties were obtained based on significant improvement in response, especially
the average of the results for 12 bar specimens for the higher excitation levels (PGA of 0.2g,
0.3g and 0.4g).(Fig.6)
and 24 concrete cylinders. Yield and ultimate
strength of steel reinforcement were
and , and concrete
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
were and ,
respectively.
5.1 Analytical Models
The seismic response of the bare frame is
investigated by two analytical models using
DRAIN-2DX.In the first model, fibre elements
were used for all the members and modelling the
57
Fig. 6- 2nd storey displacements for at PGA=0.3g for
a)first model b)second model
6 FRAME WITH DEFICIENT LAP Fig. 8- moment rotation relation for the 2nd storey
column
SPLICES
The model by (Harajli et al., 2004) is used for
As it was discussed before, the pre-1970
the bond stress-slip behaviour of the 2nd storey
buildings have lap splice lengths which are much
splices. Fig.9 shows the models for pullout and
less than required lengths by current seismic
splitting failure modes for the 2 nd storey
codes. These structures typically have splices
columns.
with lap lengths of 20db and 24db and with
relatively light transverse reinforcement Knowing the bond stress-slip model, the stress in
enclosing the lap. In order to simulate such a the reinforcement can be calculated with the
building and study the behaviour of deficient force equilibrium of the bar. This can be used to
splices, the same frame as previous chapters was back calculate the moment in the section.
used and 25 splices were assumed in the 2nd Knowing the stress in the bar is less than the
story columns. (Fig.7) yield value, the calculation of the moment can be
simplified by a linear relationship between the
In order to model the behaviour of the 25
moments vs. bar stress obtained from the
splices in 2nd storey columns, connection
XTRACT section analysis.
elements with moment rotation properties were
used at the beam-column interface.
Fig. 9- Pullout and Splitting modes of failure for 2nd

storey columns using the model by (Harajli et al.,
2004)
The rotation of the column due to slip can be
calculated as:
Fig. 7- Detailing of the 2nd storey splices

The flexural deformation component can be Therefore the moment-rotation of the 2nd storey
calculated, knowing the plastic hinge length and columns can be determined as shown in Fig. 10
the curvatures in cross section. Fig.8 shows the
M-R due to flexure for a double curvature
column at each end. A bi-linear approximation is
used to implement the M-R properties in
DRAIN-2DX EL.10.
58
The effect of the strengthening was introduced
using the model for confined concrete using post
tensioned metal strips proposed by Moghaddam
et al. (2010).Two cases with different
strengthening configurations were applied to the
frame and their influences on the behaviour of
the frame under same seismic records were
studied. For a square column the confinement
can be written as:
Fig. 10-Moment rotation for the 2nd storey columns

using the model by (Harajli et al., 2004)
Where is the member
In order to have an equivalent rotational spring, geometrical effectiveness coefficient and is the
for the same moment in the cross section, the strap centre to centre spacing. Fig.13 shows the
rotations of flexural and pure slip springs should relation between confinement level and the free
be added. Due to the limitations of M-R spacing of single and double layer straps for the
backbone curve in El.10 the M-R curve is 1st and 2nd story columns. For case 1, a
approximate by a bi-linear curve. Fig.11 shows confinement level = 0.1 is assumed. Therefore
the M-R of the equivalent spring and the according to the strap specifications the free
approximation for DRAIN-2DX. spacing of the single layer straps should be
12mm.
Fig. 11- Equivalent moment rotation relation for the

2nd storey column Fig. 13- confinement level vs. free spacing of straps
for 1st and 2nd storey columns
The Pushover curves for bare frames with and
without splices are shown in Fig.12.As it was In case 2 the confinement increased to 0.157 and
expected, the frame with splices has a lower in addition to the lateral straps, two layers of
capacity curve. The analysis output for the vertical straps are also added to increase the
columns show that there is no yielding of the flexural capacity of the columns on each side of
reinforcement at the splice location. Also, the the column in the strengthened regions. The
degrading/softening behaviour of the splice confinement model for the two cases are shown
moment rotation spring has influence the in Fig.13.
capacity curve and therefore it shows a negative
slope after a base shear of 62kN
Fig. 14- confinement models

Fig. 12-Push over curve of frame with splices The same procedure for calculating the bond slip
7 STRENGTHENED FRAME WITH PTMS envelope for the bare frame was adopted here.
However the bond values would be different for
59
the PTMS confined regions. It is assumed that levels (PGA of 0.05g and 0.1g), while
the active strengthening with metal strips will differences occurred at the 0.2g, 0.3g and 0.4g
either maintain or improve the bond strength of PGA cases. The second model aimed to simulate
the damaged member. In order to be consistent the deficiencies in the joints by including the
with the bare frame analysis the bond values of pullout and gab fibres at joints to model the
and (Sezen, 2000) were used for bond-slip behaviour of the reinforcement and the
the elastic and yielded bar strength where is concrete crack opening. The non-linear dynamic
the confined concrete strength. analysis using the same records showed a
significant improvement in response, especially
7.1 Capacity and Maximum Response for the higher excitation levels (PGA of 0.2g,
Displacements 0.3g and 0.4g).
In order to evaluate the strengthening schemes, The performance of a frame with deficient
the maximum response displacement parameters splices was also investigated analytically. The
are examined. Fig.15 compares the maximum splice behaviour was modelled using a bi linear
roof displacement for the five PGAs. Maximum bond-slip model with monotonic and degrading
roof displacements can be an indicator of the branches. The frame with splices showed a
global behaviour of the frame. significant increase in the natural period,
especially for higher PGAs. Also the response of
the 2nd storey had higher displacements
comparing to the frame without splices.
The post tensioning metal strapping (PTMS)
technique was applied to strengthen the original
frame with two configurations. The first case
focused only on the confinement effects of straps
while the second case studied the influence of
Fig. 15- Maximum roof displacement of the bare and both vertical and horizontal straps at the joint.
PTMS strengthened frame for PGA=0.5-0.4 The first case did not show much enhancement
the Pushover curves for bare and strengthened in the capacity curve or maximum displacements
cases are shown in Fig.16 .A parametric study whereas the second case increased the frame’s
on the pushover curves showed that the DRAIN- capacity significantly.
2DX pullout properties for the 2nd storey
columns may have a significant effect on
pushover curves. This can be seen in the case 2 REFERENCES
push over curves with and without pullout fib, 2003. Seismic assesment and retrofit of
effects. By ignoring the pullout properties, the reinforced concrete buildings.
case 2 shows a significant enhancement in the Lausanne,Switzerland: The International
frame’s capacity curve which is mainly related Federation for Structural Concrete.
to the additional vertical strips.
Harajli, M.H., Hamad, B.S. & Rteil, A.A., 2004.
Effect of Confinement on Bond Strength
between Steel Bars and Concrete. ACI Structural
Journa, V. 101,(No. 5), pp.593-603.
Kyriakides, N., 2007. Vulnerability of RC
buildings and risk assessment for Cyprus. Ph.D.
thesis. UK: Dept. of civil and structural
engineering, University of Sheffield.
Moghaddam, H., Samadi, M., Pilakoutas, K. &
and Mohebbi, S., 2010. Axial compressive
behavior of concrete actively confined by metal
strips; Part A: Experimental study. Materials
Fig. 16- Push-over curves for different cases and Structures, Vol. 43(10), pp.1369-81.
Sezen, H., 2000. Seismic Behavior and Modeling
8 CONCLUSIONS of Reinforced Concrete Building Columns. Ph.D.
thesis.,University of California, Berkley,
The seismic response of a two storey RC frame California.
with poor detailing in the joints was investigated
by two analytical models .In the first model the
actual response of the structure was effectively
represented by the analysis for low excitation
60
Strut and Tie modelling of Concrete using Truss Layout Optimisation

Cherian Bevin Varghese
ABSTRACT To understand that a particular structure can carry load, it is quiet enough that we find
out the load path carried out by the concrete structure. It is based in accordance with the lower bound
theory of plasticity. One of these methods to find out this in a concrete structure is through the so called
‘Strut and Tie model’. In this, the concrete forms a series of struts, and the tie, the reinforcement bars.
Manually identifying the layout of the members in this model is difficult and therefore layout
optimisation techniques will be used to find out the solution. As a design tool and an analysis method of
reinforced concrete element, in the strut and tie method, it is through a truss mechanism that the internal
stresses are being transferred. The various truss members in this mechanism, where the concrete serves
as compression member and the reinforcement as tensile ties, are connected by the nodal zones. The
main objectives of the work is that STM generates a model which requires the least volume of steel or
reinforcement and which would be the best solution that best models the behaviour of concrete using
the optimization techniques. Also engineers can develop standard STM’s for daily encountered
situations and standard reinforcements details based on STM can be developed.
1 INTRODUCTION Design of special connections such as beam –

column connections, shear wall openings,
When we design a structural member, there are
corbels etc. can be done by this strut and tie
many things that involve. The effects of the load
method. In cases where the structure undergoes
that act on them and the actions caused by the
non-linear stress strain distribution, the strut and
loads on the components and the ability of the
tie model finds its application; though sometimes
member to withstand these loads are all to be
it can be applied to linear sections as well. This
considered in designing these members. In order
helps the designers in a considerable way as they
for this approach, the internal forces have to be
can easily calculate or estimate the effect of
determined and even their magnitude has to be
actions on every part of the structural section.
analysed. Normally, determination of the forces
Familiarisation of the method by the designers
are done by assuming the linear stress
helps in dealing with the special structures easily
distribution, where we assume that plane sections
and can come up with solutions for the sections
remain plane and then we carry on with the
that may be difficult to analyse using the current
design. But a shocking fact is that the stress
standard methods.
distribution in various structures is not linear, for
e.g. in deep beams and even the stress In this paper, a detailed study of the strut and tie
distribution for connections such as the beam- modelling approach is done and also the means
column connections etc., is totally unknown. of creating an optimised model and to be familiar
Therefore design engineers assume many things. with the strut and tie method of analysis.
In such cases of confusions, some alternative
techniques have to found out so as to overcome
these. Many attempts have been made to expose 2 THE ORIGIN
a realistic estimate of the stresses where there are
For the construction of various structures such as
regions of discontinuity. One of these attempts
bridges and roof structures, trusses form the
was successful and thus came the Strut and Tie
basic principle. The analysis of the trusses has
model. This is a powerful tool to analyse
been well defined and understood.
structures where there are cases of disturbances
or discontinuities both geometrically and The concept of truss analogy was proposed by
statically. Swiss engineer Ritter (1899) and German
61
engineer Morsch(1920). Their concept used the In order for the strut and tie model to behave
understanding of the forces in a concrete beam as well, the struts have to be arranged parallel to the
a truss analogy which converted the internal direction of the initial cracking. Computer aided
stresses found in a structure similar to that found optimisation especially topology optimisation
in a truss member. and truss optimisation help in development of
the strut and tie model where the lowest stressed
It was from the truss analogy method which was
areas of the structural concrete are slowly
introduced by the Ritter(1899) and
removed (MacGregor et al, 1997).
Morsch(1920) that the idea of the strut and tie
model emerged. This idea was used for shear 2.2 Components of Strut and Tie
design. The truss models were used as its design
Strut
basis. They were also used to find out the flow of
forces in a cracked concrete beam. The truss The compression members in a strut and tie
model was also used as a design basis for model are called struts. The stress fields in
torsion. The truss analogy was widely recognized concrete are always predominantly along the
and accepted and its method was improved and centre line of strut and hence the struts represent
kept as a design procedure in full, when more the concrete stress fields. There may be different
experiments were conducted and also when there shapes of the concrete stress fields surrounding a
was development of limit analysis in the strut in two dimension, namely prismatic, bottle
plasticity theory. For designing a reinforced shaped or fan shaped.
concrete structure, the strut and tie models have
been used as an effective tool.
In cases where the flexural and shearing stresses
are assumed to be transferred internally in a truss
shaped mechanism, where the truss consists of
concrete compressive struts and steel
reinforcement as tension ties; the strut and tie
modelling can be used.
In a strut and tie mechanism, a reinforced
concrete member is replaced by an equivalent
truss which can resist the applied loads. These Fig: 2.1 – Different types of struts( Lecture
trusses consist of strut and ties connected by note Dr.C.C. Fu, Ph.D, P.E, University of Maryland)
nodes. The strut and tie represent the
compression zones and the tension zones. The Tension ties
lower bound theory of plasticity forms the basis Reinforcement whatever it may be, longitudinal
of the strut and tie mechanism. (tension) reinforcement and any kind of special
Although the concept of the strut and tie method reinforcement and even stirrups are included as
is simple, its application towards complex tension ties. One has to always remember that
concrete structures is not to the point. This is when detailing a strut and tie, enough anchorage
because; transforming a description of a for the reinforcement has to be provided. This is
structural domain to a strut and tie model because brittle failure of the anchorage may take
involves a lot of complexity. Evaluation of the place at a load below the ultimate capacity.
concrete effective strength is much more Nodes
complex.
The locations where the struts and ties meet are
2.1 Orientation of the Truss called as the nodes of the strut and tie model.
Schlaich et al(1987) said that arranging or They also represent the connections of the strut
orientation of the strut and tie members in an and tie members. The forces are redirected
angle of 15 degrees from the principle stress path within a strut and tie model. The location where
obtained from an un-cracked stress field is a this happens is known as node.
possible approach for the development of the Depending on the nature of the forces, nodes are
optimum strut and tie model. classified as CCC, CCT, CTT and TTT nodes.
The most optimum model turns out to be the one Here c stands for compression and T is used to
with the least amount of reinforcement(Schlaich represent tension forces.
et al 1987). The best layout of the strut and tie
model can be obtained if the crack pattern is
available.
62
parts of a structural member is not effective in
resisting loads with respect to other parties. By
dispatching these unused portions from the
member, the path of the load in the member can
be found and taken as the STM. The
optimization method solves the problem of
distributing a given amount of material in a field
of design for a given load and support
conditions; thereby the rigidity of the structure is
maximized. In the final topology we get the path
Fig 2.2-Classification of nodes (Lecture of efficient use of materials and the STM is
note Dr.C.C. Fu, Ph.D, P.E, University of Maryland) assumed to follow the shape of the final
topology.
2.3 A Typical Strut and Tie model The analytical framework of reinforced concrete
is based on truss optimization, a free-form
(Lecture note Dr.C.C. Fu, Ph.D, P.E, University of
methodology for optimizing the distribution of
Maryland)
material in a design field. The objective is to
identify the optimal distribution of concrete and
steel for domain geometry and a given set of
loads and boundary conditions, considering that
the formulations of design optimization to
maximize the stiffness (minimize the
compliance) and limit plastic deformations in the
concrete (Rozvany, 1992). Reinforced concrete
design can be easily achieved by optimization,
even for complex areas.
The minimum compliance design results in an
easier reinforcing layout when compared to the
traditional design, because stirrups are not
Fig 2.3
needed in the closed space under the hole. Truss
In a structural concrete member, when cracked, topology optimization will alleviate the
transmission of loads take place along a breakthrough to improved designs.
compressive field of stress, which are equally
Truss optimization provides a suitable
distributed and then connected by stress fields in
methodology for obtaining a minimum
tension. We know that the reinforced ties deform
compliance concrete truss model, i.e. a truss
faster than the concrete struts, and the best model
model where the strain energy in the reinforcing
turns out to be the one with the minimum amount
steel is minimized, a generally agreed upon
of reinforcement and also when it is the shortest
design guideline which is aimed to minimize
(Schlaich et al 1987). This is when we can
plastic deformation at an ultimate limit state.
clearly identify when the model is a good model
Experiments and nonlinear finite element
and when it is not.
modelling have ascertained that a minimum
compliance concrete truss model can raise peak
load and improve the load-deformation result of
reinforced concrete members over traditional
strut-and-tie designs (Liang et al 2001). The
convex form of the truss topology optimization
problem is conveniently resolved to find a
minimum compliance truss model resulting in
steel reinforcement placed along with the
principal tension elastic stress trajectories. The
Fig 2.4- A good and bad strut and tie model truss optimization can create truss models even
(Lecture note Dr.C.C. Fu, Ph.D, P.E, University of
for tough domains, including members with
Maryland)
holes. Users should be suspicious of strut only
solutions.
3 OPTIMISATION
The use of truss optimization in the development
of the STM is based on the premise that certain
63
4 METHOD FOLLOWED The beam is taken to investigate the various span
by depth ratios. The depth of the beam is taken
On developing a truss which basically consists of
to be 1000 mm in all the cases that we consider
struts in compression and ties in tension in that
while various span by depth ratios are taken in
concrete member, the structural idealisation of
these cases. The beam is solved for four various
the reinforced concrete member takes place.
span/depth ratios namely 2, 3, 4, and 5. A point
This is the method in which the force
load P is applied at the midspan of the beam and
transmission in the concrete member takes place.
we have considered the initial width of the beam
On knowing how the load transfer takes place, it
to be 250 for all the cases. One has to note that
is easier, then for us to create a good strut and tie
the optimal design of the beam that we get does
model. This model then which is created is
not depend on the point load that we apply nor
checked for its equilibrium between the loads,
the width of the member that we apply. But
the reactions and the forces that act internally
however the point load that we apply, to an
between the struts and ties in the members. The
extent, make some changes to the ultimate
various factors mentioned above are investigated
dimensioning of the struts and ties. The width
and then studied. The forces acting in each of the
however can be handled when we dimension a
members analysed. A load path is then
truss model. The beam width is made to satisfy
formulated. The lower bound ultimate load by
the strength requirements as well as the stiffness
any strut and tie model or carried by any model
requirements.
is termed as the ultimate load that is carried out
by the member or it is termed as the actual load The beam is now studied upon and solved for
that is carried out. many cases of span by depth. After solving the
optimised topology and the subsequent strut and
But one should understand that this method is
tie equivalent for each case is obtained . They
used by many engineers as a good way and is the
are as shown below.
potential way of creating a model which is
optimised. The structural optimisation is very
essential and cuts a lot of things which are used
unnecessarily. It saves a lot of weight. This
method helps to find better truss and shapes for
the design of the various structural members. But
one should understand that this method takes a
lot of time and is very confusing too when one Optimised truss model when L/D = 2
uses the conventional method to find out the
optimal structural member. This is due to its
complicated nature. The way in which the loads
are transferred depends upon the various support
conditions, the shape of the member and the
various loads that are acting on the structure.
Based on the theories mentioned above, some Optimised truss model when L/D = 3
examples are worked out to show the
effectiveness and the correct answers behind the
truss optimisation technique. The optimal strut
and tie model obtained are compared with the
optimised structure that has been obtained by the
truss optimisation software.
Optimised truss model when L/D = 4
In order to investigate the effect of span to depth
ratios, to find out an optimum strut and tie model
in a concrete beam, which is simply supported
and has a concentrated load acting at the
midspan of the beam, a simple example has been
worked out.
Optimised truss model when L/D = 5

Fig 4.1-Optimised truss models for different L/D
As it is shown in the figures , the truss model that
portrays out the best load transfer mechanism is
the one with the slender beams. There is a
consistent change from the transfer of loads from
the deep beams to the slender beams. Here we
64
can notice that the as the span by depth ratio
increases, the tensile ties which are inclined, are
necessary so as to provide an optimal truss
model. This happens for span by depth ratio of
more than or equal to 3, L/D ≥3. As the depth of
the beam becomes very less or in other words
very slender, optimal structure in this
optimisation method becomes very difficult.
From the above example, we can come to a
common solution that in all these optimal Fig 5.1 Possible Truss model for L/D = 2
solutions which are truss like, a specified angle is
maintained in the truss. The angle that are in Initially the given structure is analysed as an
between the concrete struts in compression and equivalent truss having 17 elements. The
the longitudinal ties in tension is almost equal to members carrying axial load less than 1kN are
or more than 45 degrees. Therefore what we can deleted and the truss is refined and reanalysed
say is that the optimal truss for a particular beam till three node arch mechanism is reached which
would be the one which is having the angle to be shows the optimum performance for transferring
45 degrees. In order to resist the stress in tension the loads. The strut and tie mechanism generated
or the shear in certain shear spans, the bottom accurately describes the position of tensile
steel bars may be bent when we do a design in reinforcements in detailed designs. Procedure of
detail. This is the optimal design of the beam deleting members carrying lowest loads and
wherein which the optimal design is the one refining the sections was also carried out and the
which is very slender since they form a lot of results are inferred as follows. As the
trusses. effectiveness of strut and tie mechanism
increases, the angle between struts and ties
5 RESULTS crosses beyond 45 degrees. The analysis for
5.1 Optimisation procedure L/D = 3 was carried out using limitstate form and
the mechanism. Since there are more than one
The procedure of strut and tie optimisation used possible solution for an optimal strut tie
in the current context is given as mechanism, the current study gives the possible
1. Modelling of the member. strut tie mechanisms.
2. Analysing the given member with a

virtual load.
3. Converting the given member into an
equivalent truss.
4. Analysing tensile and compressive
stress generated due to application of
load.
5. Deleting members having least axial
loads and reanalysing the revised truss
structure. Fig 5.2.The optimum truss model for L/D = 3
5.2 Inference & Discussion

The optimum strut and tie mechanism will be The possible strut tie mechanism for L/D =6 in
noticed for an angle of 45 degrees or more the limitstate form is as shown.
between struts and ties.
The above inference was correlating with the
failure mechanism generated in limitstate form
software.
Fig 5.3 Truss model for L/D = 6

From the above figures we can understand that
as the span by depth ratio decreases more
complex form of structures keep on forming.
65
And as these are the optimal values that the reinforcement need not be provided at the top of
software suggests and this can be taken as a basis the deep beam.
for the design for many structural engineers. This
Another important result is that with span by
is how the Strut and tie method has become an
depth ratio greater than 3, inclined
important design methodology.
reinforcements are used so as to have the most
efficient in resisting shear. Therefore in the study
we have concluded that we can generate a model
6 LIMITATIONS
which will in effect need the least amount of
The following study is dealt amidst some reinforcement and yet will be the best solution
limitations. The study is mainly focused on two for the behaviour of concrete. Also when
dimensional analyses of sections and not with the engineers encounter this problem daily in the
three dimensional structures. This is so because, design, a standard strut and tie model can be
three dimensional structures are very complex to developed by them so as to use them in their
study and analyse. routine work. And moreover even the
reinforcement details can be developed
Modelling a structure in three dimensional is
standardised based on the strut and tie model.
complicated and the analysis very tough.
Therefore to simplify an analysis and to make it In effect, the study has helped to generate a new
easier, the structure is defined in its two code which will help in creating an output from
dimensions. On viewing the rectangular plane at discrete layout optimization or truss layout
different orthogonal angles, the structures optimization and is ready to be used by design
response at three dimensions is obtained. Since engineers of RC structures.
this is a limitation, a rather conservative result is
obtained by a two dimensional strut and tie
method. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study is mainly concentrated on members Sincere thanks to my supervisor Dr Matthew
that have constant cross sections. But for cases Gilbert and tutor Dr John Cripps for their
where there are non-uniform sections, the immense support and help.
structure is divided into uniform sections to find
out the stresses and then all the results for these
uniform sections are summed up to get the final REFERENCE
result for the non-uniform section. This method
MacGregor, J. G., 1997, Reinforced Concrete:
commonly uses iteration and computer
Mechanics and Design, 3rd Edition, Prentice
programming is mainly relied for this.
Hall.
Another main drawback for the strut and tie
Morsch (1920) Der Eisenbetonbau-Seine
method and then finding out the optimum
Theorie und Anwendung (Reinforced Concrete
structure is that, for different load cases, the
Construction-Theory and Application) 5th Ed.,
corresponding strut and tie model is also
Witter, Stutgart, V.1 Part 1, 1920, Part 2, 1922.
different. There is no unique solution.
Qing Quan Liang, Yi Min Xie, and Grant
Prentice Steven “Topology Optimization of
7 CONCLUSIONS Strut-and-Tie Models in Reinforced Concrete
Structures Using an Evolutionary Procedure”
We have successfully developed a strut and tie
ACI Structural Journal, V. 97, No. 2, March-
model in a reinforced concrete structure. Certain
April 2000.
examples were done using the limitstate:FORM.
We have considered a simply supported beam Ritter (1899) The Hennebique Design Method
and a cantilever corbel. The strut and tie model (Die Bauweise Hennebique)
for the same was obtained. It was evident that the
Rozvany, G.I.N. 1992: Optimal layout theory:
need for reinforcement was considerably reduced
analytical solutions 56 for elastic structures with
in these models. The load path of the structure
several deflection constraints and load
was found out by conceptualising the strut and
conditions. Struct. Optim. 4, 247–249 .
tie model. The internal stresses in the mechanism
are transferred through the truss mechanism. Schlaich, J, Schafer, K & Jennewein, M, (1987)
Toward a consistent design of structural
In all the results that we have got, it is only
concrete , Prestressed Concrete Institute Journal,
necessary that the reinforcement is to be laid at
Vol 32, No.3, May-June, pp 74-150.
the bottom in order to transfer the loads to the
compressive and tension members and the
66
CFD modeling of Intrusion in water distribution systems

Vasiliki Boura
Candidate MSc Environmental Management of Urban Land and Water
ABSTRACT The phenomenon of intrusion into water distribution systems has worried scientists
considering the hazards on consumers’ health it may cause. The three conditions which are needed to
cause pollutant ingress into a pipeline system are the contaminant outer source, the intrusion pathway
and the adverse pressure gradient (Lindey & Buchberger, 2002). An aspect that until now has not been
studied and its study started by Collins et al. (2010) is the effect of the surrounding soil and its
properties into the volumetric flow rate through an orifice. Considering a model when all the
aforementioned conditions exist, the main focus was the contaminant outer source; though not about
the chemical and biological consistence, but about its dynamic effect on the volume of intrusion
through an existing orifice. CFD modeling was used in order to estimate the volumetric flow rate
through an orifice in a modeled pipe for different soil properties; the changed characteristics are
porosity and gravel size. Soil highly affects the volume of water intruding the pipe; porosity seems to
affect the intrusion more than gravel size. When soil is not modeled around a pipe there is
overestimation of intrusion in the water distribution network and the effect could be more obvious
when applying to real water distribution systems.
significant role in the water flow into or out of the

1 INTRODUCTION
pipe.
“Pipelines have been described as one of the
In the pipes, where the water flowing has the
arteries of modern civilization and so protection
appropriate quality, it is important to maintain
of these is of great importance” (Ellis J., 2008).
positive pressures in order to avoid contamination
The intrusion of pathogens can cause the
caused by ingress of water into the system. Low
degradation of drinking water and the spread of
pressures, however, can happen due to pressure
waterborne diseases (López – Jiménez et.al,
transients. Pressure transients are important,
2010). Ingress can occur when the pressure inside
because they are the ones that are more difficult
the pipe is lower than the pressure outside the
to control and their occurrence is still being
pipe; there can be many reasons which can cause
studied. In order to have ingress we do not need
low pressure or even negative pressure into a
to have only negative pressure; low pressure can
pipeline system, but the main focus is on the
sometimes be responsible for this event, under
effect of low pressure caused by pressure
specific circumstances.
transients.
1.1 Previous methods for estimating Intrusion
There are three conditions – factors which should
take place the same time so that to put the system Many studies have focused on intrusion into a
in risk. These are: the adverse pressure gradient water distribution system, so that to estimate the
(low or negative pressure events, mainly due to intruded volume or the causes of ingress. Some of
pressure transient events, as it is going to be them used experiments for simulating the
described later), the contaminated outer source phenomenon, while others used GIS and recently
(i.e. in the soil there are microorganisms or even CFD modeling was also used.
viruses) and the intrusion pathway (i.e. joints,
An equation is widely used for estimating the
vaults, cracked pipes).
flow rate through an orifice and is the following:
In order to have leakage out of the water
distribution network or ingress of pollutants into
the system, there must be a pathway. The actual
(1)
type (shape and size) of the orifice could play a
67
where Qi is the volumetric flow rate for the
intrusion element node (m3/s), CD is an orifice
discharge coefficient (-), Di is the orifice diameter
(m), g is for gravitational acceleration (m/s2), Hext
is the external head (m) and Hint is the internal
head (m).
However, this equation does not take into
consideration the effect of the surrounding soil in
the pipe. For this reason, a combined equation has
been created, which combined the orifice
equation and the effect of soil. The equation is as
follows and Q equals: Figure 1 : Geometry and boundary conditions of the CFD
model
The main focus will be on the pipeupstream

(pressure inlet) and the soil (fluid). The zone
named soil (Fig.1) is characterised as fluid, but
the most important is to define it as porous media
(2) (porous zone).
where do is the orifice size, g is acceleration due When modeling the ingress, it is preferable to
to gravity, G is a factor which equals , k’ avoid dealing with turbulent flow; thus, except for
using the turbulent model k – ε, which is the most
is a factor which equals , where CD is the common used for air and water flows, the soil
zone was characterised as Laminar zone as well,
orifice discharge coefficient, A and B are factors
which means that turbulent contribution to
based on Ergun equations, where
viscosity is equal to zero. In the CFD model,
(3) and (4) turbulence was not modeled since velocity
through porous media is not high enough to create
µ is for the fluid viscosity, is the porosity, ρ is turbulence.
fluid density, dp is the particle size and Δh is the Viscous loss term and inertial loss term
pressure drop. characterise the soil, both of which play an
important role for the effectiveness and the
accuracy of the built model.
2 CFD MODEL The main characteristics of soil which are to be
examined are porosity and gravel size. The main
In order to simulate the intrusion into the water focus is on gravel and specifically medium sized
distribution system a 3D model created by Collins gravel. both porosity and gravel size affect
et al. (2010) was used and the simulations were viscous and inertial resistance coefficients as
applied by changing the set boundary conditions described by Ergun equations, which calculate
and comparing the results. The model for this these values. The viscous and inertial resistance
project is a pipe buried in saturated gravel under coefficients are estimated as follows:
both steady and unsteady conditions.
Viscous resistance:
For simulating the CFD modeling FLUENT
software was used. The mesh of the model used (5)
for the simulation of intrusion into a pipe is
generated by 916243 cells, 2157444 faces and Inertial resistance:
370700nodes, 3 cell zones and 3 face zones. It is
a symmetrical model about a plane that runs (6),
axially through the model, considering a pipe
made of Medium Density Polyethylene (MDP) where Dp is the particle size and is porosity.
material of 50mm internal diameter, 6mm wall For each value of porosity and gravel size, steady
thickness and 5mm circular leak orifice size. pressure was applied and the recorded results
For the simulation it was important to define the were about:
boundary conditions and later test the behaviour  volumetric flow rate in the orifice
of the model and the volume of intrusion when  pressure in the orifice
their values are changed. The boundary  pressure
conditions of the model used are shown in Figure  and velocity in the orifice
1.
68
pressure, zero pressure) coming from CFD
When referring to values measured in the orifice,
simulations when steady conditions.
a plane at the mid wall thickness was created
(named leakmidplane), the flow rate across this
plane is measured as the leakage or the intrusion
flowrate.
2.1 Steady conditions
For different soil properties simulations for
different steady pressure conditions have been
made. The porosity and the particle size
properties that were tested are shown in tables 1
and 2 along with the Ergun parameters.
(a)
level of Gravel viscous inertial

porosity porosity resistance resistance
(%) (α) (C2)
low 25 1.85185E-08 16800
porosity
medium 35 6.7659E-08 5306
porosity
high 40 1.19048E-07 3281 (b)
porosity
Table 1: Gravel porosity tasted, when average gravel size
0.010m
Average viscous resistance inertial

particle (α) resistance
size (m) (C2)
0.008 7.57576E-08 4100
0.010 1.19048E-07 3281
(c)
Figure 2: Pressure range when porosity=0.4 and gravel
0.016 3.0303E-07 2051 size=0.01m (a) Pressure +5mwc, (b) Pressure -5mwc, (c)
Pressure 0mwc
Table 2: Gravel particle size tasted, when porosity is 40%
Although steady pressure was initially set in the
pipe upstream, as expected, due to roughness
For each of those cases the CFD simulation took and the cause to minor friction, as well as due to
place for different steady state conditions, by the flow into and out of the pipe, there was a
changing the inlet pressure at the pipeupstream. slight difference between the initial pressure and
The simulated pressures (m) are: the pressure along the pipe, hence the pressure in
Positive: Negative: the middle of the pipe was recorded again.
 1  -1 Lower porosity means that it is more difficult for
 5  -5 water to flow through the porous media and for
 9  -9 this reason flow rate is lower when porosity is
 15  and 0 0.25 and is higher when porosity is 0.40.
2.2 Unsteady conditions
It is expected when pressure is positive to have Except for the steady flow conditions, it could be
water coming out of the pipe, while when more realistic to study the unsteady conditions;
pressure is negative then water is coming into in other words, the pressure transient.
the pipe. There could be a special case when For applying a transient into a CFD model, a
pressure in the upstream is zero and for this code should be introduced in FLUENT through
reason it is always tested. Actually, in that case, the User-Defined function and then the model
in all simulations, there was water coming into can be calculated by defining the duration and
the pipe, so there was intrusion. the number of the time steps. It is really
The following figures (Fig.2a,b,c) show the three important to make sure that the time steps are
different cases (positive pressure, negative short enough in order to be able to record any
69
change of pressure and flow in the model. A first 4 APPLICATION IN REAL WATER
attempt was made for simulating a pressure DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
transient as shown in the graph (Figure 5).
After simulating intrusion of water into a simple
However, the demanding time for a pressure
pipeline system by using CFD and having tested
transient to run in CFD modeling made it
the equation describing the volumetric flow rate
difficult to complete the simulation of the
entering through an orifice, considering both the
phenomenon, which only run for 1.55 seconds
orifice and the surrounding soil, the next step
instead of 14 seconds, as it was initially planned
would be to apply these results to a real
(Fig.5).
distribution system. In order to do so, Clegg’s
(2007) dissertation project was used, where a
real distribution system was studied about the
Pressure transient intrusion, ising the orifice equation (Eq.1).
20
The AQUIS software was used, so that to create
15
and test pressure transient phenomena; the
Pressure (Pa)
10 exported data were the pressure values for each

5 node; these values were recorded for every set
0 time step (1.001sec).
-5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
After testing the combined equation and making
-10
Time (sec) sure that it fits properly to the estimated CFD
pressure
results, the intrusion was again estimated using
Figure 5: Pressure transient applied in the CFD model the combined equation (Eq.2) for different soil
properties. Finally the two methods for
After a complete simulation it would be estimating intrusion into a real distribution
expected to investigate the cumulative volume of system were compared.
water flowing into and out of the pipe through
the orifice.
Although, when there were steady conditions 5 RESULTS
there was a straight final result where pressure The main results were about the effect of soil on
and velocity flow rate and volumetric flow rate the intrusion in a pipe when steady conditions,
were recorded, when there are unsteady since the unsteady conditions were finally
conditions, these parameters change in time so difficult to be applied.
they should be recorded according to time steps.
For this reason, a monitor recording volumetric Graphs showing the relationship between the
flow rate every time step at the middle of the pressure and the volumetric flow rate, shown a
pipe’s orifice (leakmidplane) was set. relationship which fits the line y=ax0.5. However,
more interesting is to investigate pressure effects
against the volumetric flow rate; for this reason
3 COMPARING METHODS OF the measured flow rate values were divided by
ESTIMATING INTRUSION the square root of pressure. The two following
graphs (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4) show the relationship
The orifice equation does not take into of porosity and volumetric flow rate.
consideration the properties of the soil, which
surrounds the pipe. An overall expression
combining the effect of the orifice and the soil to Porosity - Volumetric flow rate independent
the volume intruding into the pipe has been 2.5E-05 from pressure
created in private by Dr Collins and transmitted
Volumetric flow rate/ Pressure0.5
through private correspondence; the result of this 2.0E-05

summary equation and the results coming from
-9
the CFD modeling were compared. 1.5E-05
-5
The three methods were applied for all the -1
1.0E-05
0
different porosity and particle size of soil which
1
were tested and simulated in CFD modeling, 5.0E-06 5
while the orifice discharge coefficient, which 9
affects the two equations, was estimated 0.8. 0.0E+00 15
0.3 0.35 0.25 0.4
porosity
0.5
Figure 3: Volumetric flow rate/ pressure and porosity, for
every measurement of each different pressure magnitude
70
Gravel size - Volumetric flow rate Orifice equation in all these cases has the same
3.0E-05 independent from pressure -9 results since it does not take into consideration
Volumetric flow rate/ Pressure0.5

-5
soil properties; hence, it overestimates the
2.5E-05
magnitude of volumetric flow rate up to 50%. It
2.0E-05 -1 should also be mentioned that the greater the
1.5E-05 0
pressure the more difference exists between
CFD modeling data and combined equation data,
1.0E-05 1 which can be caused due to the dynamic
5.0E-06 5 solutions of CFD modeling.
0.0E+00 The difference of gravel size did not change
9
0.01 0.008
0.012 0.014 0.016 much the fitting of the data unlike porosity.As
gravel size (m) 15 far as the porosity is concerned, the results of the
Figure 4: Volumetric flow rate/ pressure0.5 and particle size, combined equation and the CFD modeling fit
for every measurement of each different pressure better. Especially, when porosity is 25% the data
magnitude
fit with maximum difference between the two
methods of 2%.
The intruded volume was overestimated
From Fig. 3, it can be seen that when flow is
comparing to the flow rate estimated when
divided by P0.5 (pressure) then all the results fit in
considering the soil around the pipe. This was
the same linear line, which means that the effects
expected from the comparison of the three
of porosity are independent from the pressure
methods; though, when applying to a real water
magnitude, flow rate changes linearly with
distribution system, it can be seen how important
porosity. It can also be seen in the graph, that
this difference can be when it is applied to a
negative data in lower porosity are more close to
whole network. In the network used, the actual
each other, comparing to when porosity is higher
difference was almost 32%, but in numbers, this
(0.40) and there is greater spread.
means that the system was suspicious of getting
Although when testing porosity, data were 14950.92m3/s more intrusion flow than what it
following mostly the same trend line, in the case does when the network system is surrounded by
of testing the particle size (Fig. 4), values of saturated gravel soil.
flow rate are more spread, which means that
When porosity is 0.25 then the deviation of the
pressure does not seem to be independent
estimated intrusion with the orifice equation
considering gravel size. The relationship
from the estimated intrusion from the combined
between those continuous to be linear, however
equation could be up to 62%. On the other hand,
it seems that positive and negative data are
when porosity was 0.40 and gravel had 16mm
closer to each other.
diameter, then there was deviation among the
The comparison of the three methods used for results, but it was around 24%. This means that
estimating flow rate, orifice equation, combined intrusion could be overestimated when using the
equation and CFD modeling, gave a wider view orifice equation, but for the actual intruded
of the phenomenon. volume, it is really important to have
information about the properties of the
CFD modeling results and the results coming
surrounding soil.
from the combined equation are expected to be
close, since they both consider soil properties
when estimating the volumetric flow rate. On the
6 CONCLUSIONS
other hand, the orifice equation does not take
into consideration the soil around the pipe, CFD modeling was used and a model was
which means that the flow rate would be created in order to simulate different steady
overestimated. pressure conditions, both positive and negative,
so that to test different values of soil properties.
The magnitude of the flow rate is expected to be
independent from the direction of the pressure It was considered that the surrounding soil is
and for this reason, when estimating flow rate medium gravel so extreme and middle values of
using the combined equation, only the plus sign porosity and particle size were tested. According
of the flow rate changes; in other words the to the results, porosity seems to affect the
direction of the flow. On the other hand, when intrusion volume more than the particle size
estimating flow rate through CFD modeling values; though when porosity is tested it seems
values do not seem to be totally independent and that pressure’s magnitude is independent unlike
for this reason the line of the combined gravel size. However, both properties, when
equations does not fit evenly along the CFD introduced to CFD modeling are affected by the
modeling data. Ergun equations which are sensitive values
71
highly dependent on the porosity and the gravel
size values.
The results from the CFD modeling seemed to
fit the results of a combined equation, in which
both orifice equation and soil properties are
combined. Orifice equation does not take into
consideration the soil; hence, it overestimates the
flow rate, which means that intrusion volume is
also overestimated along with potential dangers.
On the other hand, when the combined equation
was applied the results seemed to fit the results
from the CFD modeling which could be more
realistic according to the mathematics used.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Joby Boxall
for introducing me to this subject and Richard
Collins for helping me completing it.
REFERENCES
Clegg S. C. (2007), “Pollutant Ingress into
Potable Water Distribution Systems”, Masters
Dissertation, University of Sheffield, Department
of Civil and Structural Engineering
Collins R., Besner M., Beck S., Karney B. and
Boxall J. (2010), “Intrusion modelling and the
effect of groundwater conditions”, Water
Distribution Systems analysis - Conference,
Tucson, Arizona
Ellis John (2008), Pressure Transients in Water
Engineering: A Guide to Analysis and
Interpretation of Behaviour, pg. 7
Lindley T. R. and Buchberger S. G. (2002),
“Assessing Intrusion Susceptibility in
Distribution Systems”, Journal AWWA, Vol. 94,
66-79
López-Jiménez A. P., Mora-Rodríguez J.,
García-Mares F. J., Fuertes-Miquel V. S. (2010),
“3D computational model of external intrusion
in a pipe across defects”, Hydraulic and
Environmental Engineering Department,
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia,
Spain
72
Finite Element Modelling of a Section of Tamar Suspension Bridge (High

Resolution)
Sofia Bouziani
ABSTRACT This paper presents the development of a detailed three-dimensional finite element
model of a section of Tamar Bridge, between two consecutive hangers of the main span. The
simulation covers the effects of the joint stiffness on the deformation of the individual section and static
analysis is performed for rigid connections type and for a reduced stiffness case. During the
strengthening works of the bridge, shear boxes were added to provide connection between the main
deck and the top chords of the main span and their effects on the single section are examined. In
addition, a larger scale model is generated by replicating the section and the static response is studied
under gravity, traffic and wind loading conditions. Validation of the model is carried out by observing
the deformed shapes and by comparing the response with the expected model behaviour. This paper
presents the methodology followed during the model development and the static response of both the
individual section and the replicated model.
Devon. The bridge was originally constructed in

1 INTRODUCTION
1961 having a central span of 335 m and two
The basic form of a suspension bridge and the side spans of 114 m. (Anderson, 1964)
principle of load transfer are built on a simple
idea, but the process of creating analytical
models of the real structure is very complex. The
modelling of suspended bridges is usually
performed by using computer software based on
FE methods. This study is concerned with the
case of Tamar Bridge which was originally
constructed in 1969 and upgraded in 2002.
The behaviour of Tamar Bridge is under
investigation and a Structural Health Monitoring
System is installed on the main structural
components of the bridge to monitor the
performance under normal operating conditions.
For this purpose, analytical finite element
models have been created for the complete Figure 1: The Tamar Bridge, UK
bridge, but higher resolution models are needed
for the main structural components of the
structure. In this study, a small section of 9.169 The structural components of the old bridge
m has been selected as representative of the consist of two reinforced concrete main towers
main span and a finite element model that 73 m tall and a 13.6 m wide concrete deck,
includes all the important structural suspended at 37.6 m height. The deck is
characteristics and properties of the real supported by a 4.877 m deep steel stiffening
structure has been generated. truss and the main suspension system is provided
by prefabricated locked coil wire ropes with the
suspenders attached to them.
1.1 The Tamar Bridge
The Tamar Bridge (Figure 1) is located in the 1.2 Strengthening and Widening
South-West part of England, connecting the
county of Cornwall and the city of Plymouth in The enormous increase in highway traffic and
the influence of heavier commercial vehicles led
73
to revised bridge loading standards and after representative section between two consecutive
inspecting the bridge, it was indicated that a hangers of the suspension system is selected for
weight limit of 17.5 tonnes should be enforced. the modelling. The refined model was
With the purpose to carry heavier traffic loads, a constructed progressively and increasing level of
major upgrading project was carried out to the detail was applied in steps, so that an accurate
Tamar bridge, between 1999 and 2002 and basic model of the section is produced. The truss
structural components were replaced or elements are represented with BEAM44
strengthened. (Mylius, 2001) elements and the main chords of the truss are
modelled using plates (SHELL63) to form the
The old concrete deck was replaced by a steel
webs and the flanges of the elements. Shell
orthotropic deck and two cantilevered lanes were
elements are also used for the deck panels.
added in order to maintain vehicular access to
the bridge throughout the works. In its current
structural configuration the bridge deck carries
five lanes of traffic and the cantilever steel
orthotropic panels are attached to the vertical
members of the stiffening truss by diagonal
struts.
Further, the suspension system was strengthened
with 18 additional inclined cables of 100 mm Figure 2: 3D finite element model of the
diameter. An inverted U-shape parallel chord individual section in ANSYS 12.1
was added below the existing lower chords,
attached to the web plates of the closed box
section with fin-plates and the top chords were To simulate the connection points between the
welded to the cantilevers, creating composite shells and the beam elements, vertical stiffeners
members. (Cocksedge, 2002) are placed in the form of rigid plates with 2 cm
thickness. This arrangement prevents locally
unexpected deformations in the shape of the
1.3 Geometry of the truss chords due to the load transfer to a single point
The individual cell is comprised of the original at the connection nodes with the truss members.
stiffening truss members, the additional elements The orthotropic steel deck, located above the top
that were added during the strengthening works chords, is supported by longitudinal and
including the cantilever parts at both sides of the transverse stringers which transmit the traffic
main truss, and the steel deck. Hangers are loading to the stiffening truss. Closed section
placed every 9.169 m, attached to the top main deck stiffeners are arranged in the longitudinal
stringers. The original design utilizes a Warren- direction so that they contribute to the bending
type truss with 15.24 m width, constant depth of resistance of the plate. The stiffeners are
4.877 m and truss elements arranged in a modelled as simple BEAM44 elements with an
triangular pattern. Each cantilever side is 6 m offset distance, to simulate the different flexural
wide and the width of the main deck is 12.1 m. stiffness in the two orthogonal directions.
The truss sections are generally Ι and BOX
sections made from solid plates. The web
members consist of diagonal Rolled Section 2.2 Modelling of the Connections
Joists (RSJ) and vertical elements, connected Bolted type of connections formed with gusset
with gusset plates to the horizontal elements of plates are used between the stiffening truss
the truss. The top and bottom chords are the members (Figure 3) and their complex behaviour
principal members of the truss and they are is investigated.
constructed as continuous parallel rectangular
boxes. Inclined members with rectangular box
sections form the side bracing of the stiffening
truss.
2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

2.1 Creating the Model
A three-dimensional FE model of a section of
Tamar Bridge has been generated by using the
FE software ANSYS 12.1. The main span is
Figure 3: Typical connection
divided into smaller sections and a
74
The stiffness of the connections is incorporated connections is considered, while the values of
in the individual section and the rigid the horizontal displacements remain unchanged
performance of the section is compared with the for both analyses.
model response for a reduced joint stiffness case,
modelled by applying end rotational degrees of
freedom releases to the truss elements in one 3.2 Lateral Load
direction. This option is assigned to the
appropriate elements after the meshing of the For the analysis of the section subjected to a
model, according to their local coordinate lateral load of 1 kN, the deformed shape
indicated that the top chords are rotating. The
system.
top horizontal member is rigidly connected to
the web of the top chords and it follows the
deformation with the tendency to buckle. The X-
2.3 Meshing
rotational displacements are additionally
The mesh density of the model needs to be calculated at the nodes and the obtained results
appropriate in order to balance the accuracy of are presented in Table 2.
the results and the computational cost.
Compatibility of the beam and the shell mesh
density is ensured for the elements that are Lateral loading
connected to the deck and the chords of the Vertical Horizontal
Rotation ROTX
truss. During the analysis, constant size of the displacement (mm) displacement
Node
meshing is used for all elements equal to 0.3 m. Released Released Released
Rigid Rigid Rigid
DOFs DOFs DOFs
290 -0.00026 -0.00020 0.0019 0.0021 -3.18E-07 -3.04E-07
695 0.00021 0.00013 0.0019 0.0021 -3.21E-07 -3.04E-07
3 STATIC ANALYSIS 1613 -0.000015 -0.000008 0.0016 0.0018 4.18E-07 4.78E-07
Numerical static analysis is performed for the
Table 2: Vertical, lateral and horizontal
individual section subjected to vertical and
displacement for concentrated lateral load
lateral loads, and pure rotations. The boundary
conditions considered are full constraints
imposed on the boundary nodes at one side of
The release of the rotational degrees of freedom
the section. Point loads are applied at the
at the truss members results in reduced twisting
position of the hangers.
and vertical motion of the top chords, however,
higher horizontal displacements are developed.
3.1 Vertical Load Further investigation is performed for the
individual section response under lateral loading,
The absolute value of the assigned load is 1 kN
by studying the influence of various parameters,
at each chord and since the behaviour is linear,
such as the longitudinal stiffeners effects and the
the results can be scaled. The model is solved for
bridge deck, in the overall performance. It is
the two connection types and the response is
observed that by removing the deck stiffeners
measured at three nodes of the section, at the top
from the section higher vertical deformations
chords and at the middle of the front horizontal
occur and reduced rotational displacement is
truss member. The lateral and vertical
developed at the upper chords. Interestingly, the
displacements are depicted in Table 1.
horizontal deformation is not influenced by the
deck troughs.
Vertical loading Simulation of the bridge main deck effects on
Vertical displacement Horizontal the section is displayed by removing the deck
(mm) displacement (mm) with the supporting elements.
Node
Rigid Released Rigid Released
connections DOFs connections DOFs
290 -0.0116 -0.0122 0.00037 0.00037 Lateral loading
Vertical Horizontal
695 -0.0117 -0.0129 -0.00032 -0.00032 displacement (mm) displacement (mm)
Rotation ROTX
1613 -0.010 -0.0112 -0.00007 -0.00007 Node st st
1 Romoved 1 Romoved 1st Romoved
analysis deck analysis deck analysis deck
Table 1: Vertical and horizontal displacements 290 -0.00026 -0.00074 0.0019 0.0024 -3.18E-07 -2.13E-07
for vertical load 695 0.00021 0.00067 0.0019 0.0024 -3.21E-07 -2.16E-07
1613 -0.000015 0.00015 0.0016 0.0022 4.18E-07 -1.47E-07
It can be clearly observed that the magnitude of Table 3: Comparison of the deformation results
vertical deformations appears to be slightly with and without the main deck
higher when the reduced stiffness of the
75
The nodal solution for lateral loading without solution indicates that the out-of-plane motion of
main deck is compared with the complete model the section is significantly reduced.
of the section in Table 3. As expected, the main
deck has a significant effect on the vertical
deformation of the section and Table 3 indicates 4 REPLICATED MODEL
that the top chords move vertically by almost
The next step in the analysis process is to create
200% more than the initial model. The
horizontal motion is also increased and the a larger scale model to investigate the global
twisting of the chords is further reduced. performance by reducing the local effects that
were developed at some parts of the section. The
detailed section is replicated five times and the
total length of the new model is 45.845 m.
3.3 Torsional Response
The torsional response is examined by fully
restraining one side of the section and applying 4.1 Cantilever Model
pure rotation at the other end, in the form of
A cantilever example is used to check the
point loads with alternating signs. A torsional
deformation of the generated model with
effect is observed under this loading condition
theoretical calculations. By applying full fixity at
and out-of-plane deformations are developed.
one end and point loads of 1 kN at the top main
The main longitudinal chords bend in the
direction of the loading and the downstream side chords of the model, the vertical displacement
members move upwards while the upstream part calculated from ANSYS is 0.172 mm.
According to an equivalent cantilever beam
of the section moves downwards. It is
model, the vertical deflection at the tip under
demonstrated from the analytical results of Table
point load is calculated by the equation:
4 that slightly higher deflections occur from the
analysis with reduced joint stiffness. It is wl3
obvious that the horizontal motion is not affected  (1)
significantly, whilst the rotation of the section in 3 E  I
the x-direction is increased as expected. where  , w , E , and I are the vertical
deflection, applied load, Young’s Modulus and
moment of inertia of the equivalent beam,
Torsional response respectively. The value of the equivalent
Vertical Horizontal moment of inertia for the individual cell is
displacement displacement Rotation ROTX
I  1.357m 4 , as calculated from Jones (2005).
Node (mm) (mm)
The expected deflection obtained for the same
Released Released Released
Rigid
DOFs
Rigid
DOFs
Rigid
DOFs load by hand calculations:   0.0225 m .
290 0.0100 0.0107 -0.00065 -0.00064 1.33E-06 1.51E-06
Following, simply supported boundary
695 -0.0101 -0.0114 -0.00063 -0.00061 1.33E-06 1.51E-06
conditions are applied to the model and static
1613 -0.0066 -0.0074 -0.00022 -0.00013 7.90E-07 9.18E-07
analysis is performed for gravity, traffic and
Table 4: UZ, UY and ROTX deformations for wind loads.
torsional response
4.1 Gravity Load

3.4 Shear Boxes The dead load has usually the higher
The shear boxes were placed during the contribution in the deformation of suspension
upgrading of the bridge at 45.85 m distances to bridges. In this section, the vertical motion of the
provide shear connection between the main span model subjected to gravity load is recorded at
and the chords. They are modelled with 13 mm the main chords and at the cross-section of the
thick plates attached to both sides of the main deck in the middle of the span, where the
deck and the top internal corners of the upper maximum deflections occur (Figure 4).
chords. Figure 4 illustrates the vertical motion of the
The analyses performed for the above load cases mid-span across the deck versus the distance y
showed that the shear plates resist the vertical from the global coordinate system of the
and lateral movement of the section, following replicated model. The centerline of the main
the motion of the deck and the top chords. In deck is at the location y  7.62m and the
comparison to the previous analysis under lateral absolute maximum vertical deflection at this
load, the values of the horizontal deformation point is 2.008 cm.
and the rotation of the chords appear to decrease
due to the contribution of the shear boxes. The
torsional response is also influenced and the
76
Vertical deflections at main deck developed across the width of Lane 1, where the
higher UDL is applied. The absolute maximum
Vertical displacement (m)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-0.0190 value is 0.0125 m , at the location y  4.859 m
-0.0192 of the cross section. Longitudinal motion of
-0.0194  0.000132 mm is calculated for the deck at the
-0.0196 end support where the model is free to move in
-0.0198 the X-direction.
-0.0200
-0.0202
Distance y (m)
Vertical deflections at main deck - traffic load
Figure 4: Vertical motion at the cross section of 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Vertical displacement (mm)

the main deck at mid-span due to self-weight 0.000
-0.002
-0.004
-0.006
The mass of a single cell is determined from the -0.008
-0.010
volume and the density of steel. According to -0.012
Jones (2005), it is calculated that the volume of -0.014
Distance y (m)
an individual section of 9.169 m length is
V=11.569 m3. Considering the steel density, the Figure 5: Vertical deflection curve for the mid-
mass per meter length is calculated from the span of the main deck due to traffic
equation:
m   V (2)
Lateral displacement at main deck - traffic load
where m ,  and V are the mass, density and
Horizontal displacement (mm)
-4.E-04
volume of the section, respectively. -3.E-04
-3.E-04
Therefore, m  9904.75kg / m . The mid-span -2.E-04
-2.E-04
deflection formula of a beam simply supported -1.E-04
at the ends, carrying uniformly distributed load -5.E-05
0.E+00
w is: 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Distance y (m)
5 wl 4
Figure 6: Lateral deck deflection at mid-span
 (3)
due to traffic load
384  E  I
According to the theoretical calculations, the
vertical displacement is: 2.009 cm . Therefore, 4.3 Wind Load
excellent correlation between the expected and
Wind loads can produce large forces in the
the obtained deflection values can be observed.
transverse, vertical and longitudinal direction.
The wind loading acting on a bridge structure
depends on the topography of the land, the
4.2 Traffic Load bridge type, the angle of the wind pressure and
The carriageway of the bridge has three lanes of the environmental conditions at the bridge
traffic on the main deck and the vehicular loads location. The wind velocity is calculated from
are applied to the full width of each lane, the velocities map in UK, included in BS6399:
representing normal traffic conditions. The load Part 2: 1997.
intensity considered for the analysis is calculated The peak velocity pressure according to EN
according to the specified values for Load Model
1991-1-4 is q p z   1142.1 N m and it is applied
2
1 from EN 1991-2:2003. Uniformly distributed
load of 9 kN / m 2 is applied on Lane 1 of the as static load, acting horizontally at the top and
bottom chords of the truss. Lateral and torsional
main deck and 2.5 kN / m 2 is considered for
motion is generated to the structure due to wind
Lanes 2 and 3. The concentrated wheel loads are
and the variation of the static deflection is
not considered in the analysis. The uneven
presented in Figures 7 and 8 for the cross section
loading of the deck generates combined lateral
of the mid-span. The motion of the model is a
and torsional effects to the model.
combination of rotations and translations. The
Figures 5 and 6 present the variation in the deformed shape indicates that downward
values of the vertical and horizontal movement occurs at the windward part of the
deformations at a cross section of the main deck model due to wind action, while the other side
at the middle of the span. It can be noticed that the section moves upwards. The cantilever decks
the maximum vertical displacement values are follow similar deformation shapes.
77
Lateral deflections at main deck - wind load generated by repeating the section five times in
the longitudinal direction and the subsequent
Distance y (m) analysis is performed for gravity, traffic and
Lateral displacement (mm)

-0.03500
-0.03495 wind loads, by assuming simply supported
-0.03490 boundary conditions.
-0.03485
-0.03480 It is observed that the largest deflections are
-0.03475 developed due to the dead weight of the
-0.03470 structure. For this type of loading, the model is
-0.03465
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
also validated with theoretical calculations of the
expected mid-span deflections showing good
Figure 7: Horizontal deformation of the main correlation. Finally, the most significant
deck cross-section at mid-span horizontal deflections are developed due to wind
pressure application, with the maximum values
occurring at the bottom chord positions. Under
Vertical deflections at main deck - wind load this load case, torsional motion is generated to
the whole structure and the bridge deck is
Vertical displacement (mm)
0.020
0.015 subjected to combined torsional and lateral
0.010 movement.
0.005
0.000
Furthermore, from the analysis of the larger
-0.005 scale model, it is observed that some local
-0.010 effects that were influencing the behaviour of the
-0.015 individual section are eliminated. For example,
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 the structural response under lateral load shows
Distance y (m) unusual local deformations of the truss members
and uplifts at the ends of the main deck. This
Figure 8: Vertical deformation of the main deck
effect disappears when the global behaviour is
cross-section at mid-span
examined and the continuity of the section is
modelled.
5 CONCLUSIONS This study can be extended through additional
work and the generated model can form a basis
This paper describes the main considerations for
for further development. A simple model with
the development of a workable finite element
equivalent properties can be generated which
model of a section of Tamar suspension bridge.
will be possible to be implemented in the full
The structural parts of the section are created by
bridge model.
combining beam and shell elements for the truss
members and the deck areas. The four main
chords of the stiffening truss are modelled with
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
plates, connected to the beam elements
representing the truss members. In addition, the I wish to acknowledge the extensive support and
stiffness of the connections is included in the guidance provided by my project supervisor
individual section. The final model has achieved Prof. James Brownjohn during this project.
an increasing level of detailing and important
improvements have been made to predict the
actual behaviour of the bridge span. REFERENCES
The comparison between the static analysis Anderson, JK (1964) Tamar Bridge. ICE
results suggests that the modelling of the Proceedings, Volume 31, Issue 4, p. 337-360.
connection’s stiffness results in slightly
increased values of deformation in the single cell Cocksedge, C (2002) Upgrading the Tamar
section, comparing to the rigid modelling. Bridge. New Steel Construction, vol.10, No 2,
However, the assumption of rigid connections March, p.28-29.
can produce realistic results for the overall EN 1991-2:2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on
structural performance. structures – Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges.
The solution with the shear boxes indicates that Jones, C (2005) Finite Element Modelling of a
they resist the movement under the applied loads Suspension Bridge. CIV 300 Final Report,
resulting in reduced deflection values and in the Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,
case of torsional response, lower out-of-plane The University of Sheffield.
deformations occur.
Mylius, A (2001) Project Study: Strengthening
In addition to the model of the single cell Tamar. New Civil Engineer, 29 November 2001.
section, a new model of 45.845m length is
78
Use of Multiple Tuned Mass Dampers to Control Human-Induced

Vibrations in Floors
Laure Cere
Candidate MSc in Structural Engineering
ABSTRACT The design and performance of single and multiple Tuned Mass Dampers for
mitigating human induced-vibrations in floors were investigated. Firstly, this paper focuses on the
principles of the functioning and design of TMDs. The model of a typical office floor was developed
and its modal properties extracted. A comparison of several optimum parameters to design TMDs
given in literature is carried out. Afterwards, single TMDs are designed to evaluate their performance
and effects of the others modes. Subsequently, a comparison of three methods to choose the mass of the
MTMDs designed to control the six first modes of the floor is carried out. The optimization of the
MTMDs of the best method is then described. The performances of the MTMDs are measured carrying
out harmonic analyses and time history analyses using recordings of real walking excitations. Thanks
to the MTMDs, the vibratory behaviour of the floor becomes acceptable but the improvements due to
the optimization are less convincing on time history analyses than on harmonic analyses.
vibration of the floor when it is excited at a

1 INTRODUCTION
particular natural frequency. Typically, a single
Human-induced vibrations are a serviceability TMD is required to control each floor
problem which is commonly being experienced frequencies which can be excited by human
in floors, footbridges, staircases and sport stadia activities (Allen 1990).
(Allen 1990). In floor structures, this is a result
2.1 Mitigation of the Vibrations of an Un-
of advancements in design and construction
Damped SDOF System
technologies advocating for light, slender and
more open-plan layouts (Nyawako and Reynolds
2007). Such floors typically possess low
damping ratios as well as low natural
frequencies, often falling within pacing
frequencies of human walking. Vibrations
induced often tend to cause discomfort
particularly to those working in offices.
When the structure is already built or is being
built and a human-induced vibration problem
arises, different techniques comprising passive,
active or semi-active vibration control
techniques can be used as a solution (Nyawako
and Reynolds 2007). The implementation of a
single or multiple Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD)
is a passive technique which reduces the
vibrations at specific frequencies. Figure 1: SDOF system with a damped TMD
Using an un-damped TMD, the motion of the

2 FUNCTIONNING OF TMDS system can be set to zero at its natural frequency
by adjusting the TMD’s parameters (Figure 2).
A TMD comprises a mass block which is However the result is two vibration modes that
attached to the structure by a spring. A dashpot without damping have infinite response. Hence
is also usually added to widen the effective TMDs have specific values of damping designed
range of frequencies and to dissipate vibration for optimal effect (Figure 2).
energy. The TMD is tuned to reduce the
79
2.3 TMDs Applied to a MDOF System
2.3.1 Design of a Single TMD
The design of a TMD to control a particular
mode of a structure giving the properties of this
mode is similar to the design of a TMD for a
SDOF structure(Rana and Soong 1998).
The TMD should be placed where the vibration
amplitude is the highest engendering the best
results with low effort (Maurer-Söhne ; Setareh
and Hanson 1992).
2.3.2 Design of MTMDs
When a TMD is installed in a system to control a
particular mode, the properties of the system
change. If one want to install another TMD to
Figure 2: Displacements amplitude of the control another mode, it is possible that this one
SDOF system (µ=5%, ξ2=13%) does not work as well as expected because of the
change of the system parameters caused by the
2.2 Determining the Parameters of the TMD first TMD. The addition of this 2nd TMD can
2.2.1 Parameters for an Un-damped SDOF also affect the performance of the one already
installed (Rana and Soong 1998).
The optimum frequency ratio which minimize
the steady-state response of the main mass under
main mass harmonic excitation is (Maurer- 3 MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF A
1
Söhne): TYPICAL FLOOR
= <1 (1)
1+ 3.1 Presentation of the Floor
The classically reported value for the damping Figure 3 illustrates the typical office floor which
ratio is (Nyawako and Reynolds 2007): was studied (Hudson, Reynolds et al. 2011). The
3
overall dimensions of the floor are 24×45m and
= (2)
8(1 + )
the column grid is 15×6m. The primary beams
,
span 6m between the columns and the secondary
where μ= ⁄ = ⁄2
beams span 15m between primary beams or
and , . columns. A composite slab spans 3m between
A deviation of the optimum damping has much the secondary beams. The height of the storeys
less influence than the deviation of the frequency above and below the slab is 3.8m.
ratio (Maurer-Söhne). Irregularities (lift shaft, staircase and partitions)
2.2.2 Inherent Damping in the Main Mass have been added to this simple frame to get more
realistic floor behaviour. Therefore, the modes
To obtain the previous formulae, it was assume will be more localised. The partitions added are
that the main mass was un-damped. Such two full-height 12mm thick glass partitions
formulae cannot be found for the case in which physically connected to the floor and ceiling
the main mass is damped, the optimization of the above (Hudson, Reynolds et al. 2011).
parameters is numerical (Rana and Soong 1998).
Figure 3: Plan of the modelled floor (Hudson, Reynolds et al. 2011)
80
3.2 Modelling of the Floor Table 1: Modal properties of the floor
3.2.1 Element Types Mode Freq Modal Mode Freq Modal
(Hz) Mass (Hz) Mass(kg)
An ANSYS model of the floor was developed. 1 6.27 43 970 8 9.36 25 490
For the slab, orthotropic shell elements 2 6.46 38 250 9 9.45 26 950
SHELL63 have been used (SCI 2009). To model 3 6.95 28 370 10 9.56 38 430
the primary and secondary beams and the 4 7.49 28 530 11 10.38 35 190
columns, BEAM44 elements were used. This 5 7.61 26 430 12 10.85 35 790
element allows the end nodes to be offset from 6 8.89 20 440 13 11.65 21 330
the centroidal axis of the beam. This enables to 7 9.09 40 720 14 11.92 27 300
simply model the composite stiffness of the
floor(SCI 2009). The partitions have been For an office floor, it can be assumed that
modelled using COMBIN14 elements which can pacing rates are in the range of 1.7Hz up to
be used as longitudinal spring-damper elements. 2.2Hz. The steady-state response of low
frequency floors is significant when one or more
3.2.2 Distributed Loads on the Slab of the harmonic components of the walking
For vibration analyses, the distributed mass activity are close to one of the natural
taken in account has to be representative of the frequencies of the floor (SCI 2009). It is usually
real mass present in service as a higher mass considered that modes can be significantly
would reduce the amplitude of the response of excited by the first four harmonic components of
the floor. Thus, the mass per unit area includes the walking activity. Thus, the natural
superimposed dead loads such as the weight of frequencies of the floor that can be excited in
ceilings and services and an additional resonance by walking activities are in the range
allowance for semi-permanent loads. All the 1.7Hz to 8.8Hz. Then, for the studied floor, the
loads taken into account in the calculation of the five first modes can be excited in resonance by
mass per unit area are un-factored(SCI 2009). walking excitations.
3.2.3 Boundary Conditions Even if higher natural frequencies are not in the
range 1.7 Hz to 8.8 Hz, it is possible that an
As the deflections resulting from human excitation with a harmonic close to 8.8Hz
excitation are generally too small to overcome excites significantly higher modes with natural
the friction and create significant rotation at frequency close to 8.8Hz.
joints, all connections were assumed to be fixed
even for those designed pinned or flexible at 3.4 Harmonic Analyses
ULS(Concrete-Society ; SCI 2009). All modes from the modal analysis performed
Global horizontal motion of the slab was before (14 first modes) have been used to
restricted by using horizontal restraints in x and calculate the responses of the floor. Modal
y directions at each nodes all around its edge. damping ratios of 2.5% were applied as for fully
furnished open-plan floors, not more than 3%
3.3 Modal Analysis of the Floor should be assumed (Pavic, Reynolds et al. 2001;
Modal properties of all modes having their SCI 2009). The amplitude of the sinusoidal
natural frequency smaller than 12Hz were excitations was 400N. For each analysis, this
extracted which correspond to the first 14 modes force was applied to the same node as the
(Figure 4 and Table 1). response node to maximize its effects.
Mode1 Mode 2 Mode 3
Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6
Figure 4: Mode shapes of the floor
81
Harmonic analyses have been done at the anti- 4.1.2 Design of TMDs in Prevision of the Design
node of each mode up to the 10th. Higher modes of MTMDs
have natural frequencies higher than 10.38 Hz
Studying the harmonic analyses obtained at the
which is too far away from 8.8Hz to be
anti-nodes of the modes, it was decided to tune a
significantly excited by walking excitation.
TMD for the first six modes as they all
It was observed that even if mode 6 can’t be contribute significantly to the overall response of
excited in resonance by the 4th harmonic of the the floor. Before actually installing a MTMD in
walking excitation, it can contribute significantly a structure, it is desirable to observe the
to the response caused by someone walking performance of a single TMD tuned to each
close to 2.2Hz. Then, it may be necessary to structural mode in turn (Rana and Soong 1998).
design a TMD for mode 6. Thus, six single TMDs were tuned for the six
first modes. Again a mass ratio of 3% for each
TMD was used. The TMDs were placed at the
4 INVESTIGATIONS ON THE DESIGN OF
anti-nodes of the controlled modes.
MTMDs
To check the effects of those TMDs on the
4.1 Design of Single TMDs
floor’s vibratory behaviour, harmonic analyses
4.1.1 Optimum Parameters for a TMD were carried out at the anti-nodes of the six first
modes exciting those anti-nodes. Again a
The aim of numerical methods to find optimum sinusoidal force of 400N was applied.
parameters is to get a system with the smallest
possible value of its higher response peak. Table 2: Performance of single TMDs
Mode Amplitude at Maximum Reduction
Several optimum frequency ratios and damping
resonance amplitude
ratios for a damped SDOF system can be found
without with
in the literature. The performances of optimum
TMD (m) TMD(m)
parameters given in the literature were compared
by designing a TMD to mitigate the vibration of 1 1.35.10-4 0.61.10-4 55%
-4
the third mode. Parameters 1, Parameters 2, 2 1.41.10 0.62.10-4 56%
Parameters 3 and parameters 4 are respectively 3 1.62.10-4 0.86.10-4 47%
the parameters given by Rana and Soong 1998, 4 1.58.10-4 1.12.10-4 29%
Leung and Zhang 2009, Ghosh and Basu 2007 5 1.67.10-4 1.01.10-4 40%
and the closed form expression for un-damped 6 1.33.10-4 0.40.10-4 70%
SDOF systems. A mass ratio of 3% was On all the harmonic analyses of the anti-nodes
assumed. The TMD was implemented at the except for node 6, the first new peak is bigger
anti-node of the 3rd mode. than the second one. This is due to the
interaction of the other modes which detuned the
TMDs. In addition, the nodes where the analyses
are carried out, are the antinodes of the 1st modes
created by the TMDs and not the ones of the 2nd
modes created.
4.2 Design of MTMDs
4.2.1 Comparison of Methods to Choose the
Masses of the MTMDs
Figure 5: Comparison of several TMD's The bigger the mass ratio is, the better the TMD
parameters works but the mass of TMDs is limited by the
On Figure 5, the amplitudes at resonance of the structural ability of the floor to carry the
two modes are very different whatever the additional weight of those TMDs. It was decided
optimum parameters. This is due to the that the sum of the mass of the six TMDs would
interaction of the other modes which detuned the not exceed 6000kg.
TMD. Still, it can be noticed that Parameters 1 Three methods to choose the distribution of the
give the flattest response. The same analysis has mass between the TMDs were studied. Method 1
been done for another structure and for different considers the amplitudes of the displacements of
modes. It has been observed that as for the the anti-nodes at resonance. Indeed, these
previous example, the parameters given by R. amplitudes show the relative importance of
Rana and T.T. Soong (Rana and Soong 1998) modes in determining the overall structural
generate the best results. Thus, for the design of response (Rana and Soong 1998). The masses of
the other TMDs, these parameters are used. the TMDs are proportional to the amplitudes.
Method 2 considers the modal mass of each
mode as it is an indication of the contribution of
82
the mode to the overall structural response. The The aim of the optimization is to get the flattest
masses of the TMDs are proportional to their response whatever the node of the floor and the
modal masses, which leads to have the same frequency. Thus, for all TMDs, the harmonic
mass ratio for all TMDs. The last method, analyses of the two modes that were created by
Method 3 considers as does Method 2 the the TMD were studied. On the harmonic
amplitudes of the displacements of the anti- analysis at the anti-node of the 1st mode created
nodes at resonance but this time the mass ratios by the TMD, the amplitude at resonance of this
of the TMDs are proportional to the amplitudes. mode had to be around the same as the one on
the harmonic analysis at the anti-node of the 2nd
The six TMDs were applied at the corresponding
mode created by the TMD.
anti-nodes. Their parameters were calculated
using the closed form formulas for un-damped Once, the good frequency is found, the effects of
main mass as optimum parameters from R. Rana the change of the TMD’s parameters are studied
and T.T. Soong (Rana and Soong 1998) are not on the harmonic analyses at the anti-nodes of all
available for any mass ratios. the modes that can be excited significantly by
walking excitations which include all modes
The mean value of the maximum amplitudes of
with natural frequency smaller than 10Hz. If the
the different harmonic analyses was calculated.
responses of anti-nodes have been worsened
The mean value of Method 1 is slightly smaller.
significantly, the optimization is modified
The standard deviations were also calculated.
studying the harmonic analyses of the two
The smaller the standard deviation is, the closest
modes created by the TMD and the harmonic
the points are to the average and then the
analyses at the anti-nodes that this optimization
homogenous is the response of all modes. The
affects significantly. Finally, harmonic analyses
standard deviation is smallest with Method 1.
of the anti-nodes are checked again.
From all those considerations, it was decided to
optimize the MTMDs obtained from Method 1. 4.3.2 Results of the Optimization
4.2.2 Analysis of the Results of the Chosen
Table 3: Results of the implementation of the
Method
MTMDs
It can be noticed from Table 3 that Method 1
of the anti-node before

Maximum amplitude
maximum amplitude
maximum amplitude
Created by the TMD
gave good results. Indeed, the maximum
applying TMDs (m)
before optimization
after optimization
optimization (Hz)
Reduction of the
Reduction of the
Frequency after
amplitudes in the range 1.7Hz up to 8.8Hz have

tuned to mode
been significantly reduced for all modes.

Mode
However, the TMDs are not well tuned as the

peaks corresponding to the 1st new modes
created by the TMDs are always significantly
bigger than the 2nd. It is normal for the 1st peak
to be bigger as the node at which the harmonic
analysis is carried out is its anti-node. Still a
difference too important between the two peaks 1 5.36 3 1.62.10-4 54% 67%
is observed. The reasons for that are multiple. It 2 5.51 1 1.35.10-4 49% 58%
can be due to the detuning of the TMD due to 3 5.58 2 1.41.10-4 51% 56%
the other modes and to the other TMDs that 4 5.75 4 1.58.10-4 41% 61%
changed the properties of the floor. It is also 5 5.77 5 1.67.10-4 46% 64%
possible that the effects of the resonance of 6 6.38 6 1.12.10-4 52% 52%
different modes are added in case of close
7 6.90 1 1.14.10-4 49% 51%
modes.
8 7.02 2 1.30.10-4 67% 63%
4.3 Optimization of the MTMDs 9 7.60 3 1.62.10-4 54% 67%
4.3.1 Process of Optimization 10 7.96 4 1.58.10-4 51% 60%
11 8.09 5 1.55.10-4 55% 62%
The TMDs were optimized one by one from the
12 9.12 0.49.10-4 8% 12%
one with the biggest mass ratio to the one with
the smallest as the bigger the mass ratio is the 13 9.29 6 1.16.10-4 56% 56%
less sensitive to detuning the TMD is. Only the 14 9.46 1.11.10-4 66% 62%
frequencies of the TMDs were optimized as the 15 9.56 1.10.10-4 65% 61%
detuning of the damping ratios have smaller 16 9.61 0.61.10-4 46% 37%
effects. The optimization is made numerically. Mean value 1.27.10-4 52% 58%
To decrease the amplitude of response of the 1st Standard 0.47.10-4
mode created by the TMD, the frequency of the deviation
TMD needs to be decreased. The optimization
was made with a sensitivity of 1% of the initial
frequency of the TMD.
83
The results of the optimization are good as for Due to the presence of TMDs and due to the
most of the harmonic analyses, the maximum interaction of the others modes, the parameters
amplitude between 1.7Hz and 8.8Hz were of the MTMDs calculated using closed form
decreased after optimization (Table 3). The expressions for un-damped SDOF systems are
average maximum amplitude decreased by 13% not optimum. Still, the improvements in the
after the optimization. The maximum amplitudes vibratory behaviour are significant.
that increased because of the optimization were
A simple methodology is suggested to tune
small amplitudes compared to the others. All
MTMDs in this dissertation. The results of the
these amplitudes even increased by the
optimization on the harmonic analyses are good
optimization are still smaller than the average
as the responses of the anti-nodes are flattened
value of the maximum amplitudes after
over the range of frequency that can be excited
optimization, 0.53.10-4m. The standard deviation
by walking excitations.
decreased as well meaning that the maximum
amplitudes are closer to their average. Thus, the The simulations showed that MTMDs are very
overall response of the floor decreased and is efficient to control the vibrations of a floor and
more homogeneous. The optimization has most that detuning has less effect on simulations than
of the time small effects on the areas under the on harmonic analyses.
curves.
REFERENCES
5 SIMULATIONS
Allen, D. E. (1990). Building vibrations from
Simulations were carried out using recordings of human activities. Concrete International: Design
real walking excitations. First, time history and Construction 12(6): 66-73.
analyses were carried out to show the
Concrete-Society Technical report No43 - Post-
improvement of the response of the anti-nodes of
tensioned concrete floors: design handbook.
the modes to which TMDs were tuned. Thus,
walking excitations that have one of their Ghosh, A. and B. Basu (2007). A closed form
harmonics close to the natural frequencies of the optimal tuning criterion for TMD in damped
floor without TMDs are used to excite the structures. Structural Control and Health
antinodes. The maximum response factor of the Monitoring 14(4): 681-692.
obtained accelerations were calculated and
compared. They are significantly reduced by the Hudson, M., P. Reynolds, et al. (2011). Efficient
implementation of the MTMDs as they all Design of Floor Structures Using Active
decreased from around 3.8 to around 2.1 which Vibration Control, ASCE.
is well under 4, the limit of acceptability. Leung, A. and H. Zhang (2009). Particle swarm
The improvements of the behaviour of the floor optimization of tuned mass dampers.
thanks to the optimization of the MTMDs were Engineering structures 31(3): 715-728.
studied using walking excitations that have one Maurer-Söhne. Tuned Mass and Viscous
of their harmonics close to the natural Dampers: Technical Information and Products.
frequencies of the floor with not optimized Retrieved 08/2011.
MTMDs are used to excite the antinodes.
Thanks to the optimization the response factors Nyawako, D. and P. Reynolds (2007).
gotten are all reduced. However, the reductions Technologies for mitigation of human-induced
are small (around 7%). The effect of detuning is vibrations lin civil engineering structures. The
not as significant as that seen in the harmonic Shock and vibration digest 39(6): 465-493.
analyses(Rana and Soong 1998). Pavic, A., P. Reynolds, et al. (2001). Dynamic
modelling of post-tensioned concrete floors
using finite element analysis. Finite elements in
6 CONCLUSIONS analysis and design 37(4): 305-323.
Designing single TMDs showed that the Rana, R. and T. Soong (1998). Parametric study
detuning of a TMD is not only due to the and simplified design of tuned mass dampers.
presence of other TMDs but it is also due to the Engineering structures 20(3): 193-204.
interaction of the other modes.
SCI (2009). P354 - Design of Floors for
Three methods to choose the mass of the Vibration: A New Approach.
MTMDs were tried. It was shown that for the
studied floor, it is more efficient to have the Setareh, M. and R. D. Hanson (1992). Tuned
masses of the TMDs proportional to the mass dampers for balcony vibration control.
amplitude of the anti-nodes at resonance found Journal of Structural Engineering 118(3): 723-
on their harmonic analyses. 740.
84
NUMERICAL MODELLING OF THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Eleftherios Charalambous
ABSTRACT The microstructure of composite materials can have a significant impact on the wave
propagation. The reflections and transmissions occurring, due to the interaction of the wave with the
constituent materials, can induce the phenomenon of wave dispersion. On the other hand, when a
specimen is modelled, its transformation from a continuous to a discrete model, results in
characteristics typical of the dispersive case. This paper is devoted on an effort of identifying
numerical means, by which the numerically induced wave dispersion, occurring due to time and space
discretisation, can be reduced. This happens through a numerical modelling parametric study, using
the Newmark‟s integration method, for classifying the parameters responsible for enhancing the
problem. The investigation is extended to the implementation of numerical dissipative schemes such as
the HHT-α method and the trapezoidal rule with α-damping. Numerical parameters that have to be
treated with special attention are successfully identified; These include the balance between time step
and number of elements and the type of mass matrix employed. The advantages and improvements
identified by implementing two specific numerical dissipative schemes, on the analysis of the wave
propagation in a laminate composite material, are reported. It is concluded that numerical dissipative
algorithms, such as the HHT-α method, can represent an efficient tool for removing the undesired high
frequencies that are trapped into the solution due to the discretisation of the media, without
significantly affecting the important lower modes, having as a result the reduction of the numerically
induced phenomenon of wave dispersion.
Keywords: wave dispersion, Newmark method, HHT-α method, composite material, numerical
modelling
described by the discretisation or the continuum

1 INTRODUCTION
approach (Engelbrecht, 2010).
Wave dispersion can occur in certain material
On the other hand, dispersion can be a
where the wave is generated, due to the
consequence of numerical discretisation. A
interactions with the characteristic internal
specimen that from its nature is neither material
structures and/or geometrical conditions. In
nor geometrically dispersive, when modelled, its
these cases, dispersion is termed a physical
transformation from a continuous to a discrete
phenomenon, as it depends on physical
model, results in characteristics typical of the
characteristics of the specimen. Subsequently,
dispersive case.
one can talk about a dispersive material, or
dispersive geometry, when dispersion originates The objective of the present paper is to
from the material or geometrical features investigate the effects of the numerically
respectively. Engineers in the past did not take induced wave dispersion through the Newmark‟s
into account the phenomenon of dispersion. integration method. A parametric study is
Instead, by adopting classical elasticity, they devoted on identifying the parameters, within the
were unable to predict or analyse the field of analysis, which enhance this undesired
wave dispersion (Ilcewicz, 1984). Continuum phenomenon. This study extends to the
mechanics and conventional theories of continua implementation of numerical dissipative
describe models of solids, where the properties methods, as a mean of overcoming the effects of
and behaviour is described by smooth functions the numerically induced wave dispersion, in
and spatial variables with very limited number of problems with microstructured media.
discontinuities, while it ignores heterogeneities
The outline of this paper has as follows. A
of the microstructure. The microstructure can be
review on the background behind the numerical
85
analysis of the problem made in section 2 – developed in the past. Even if only two of the
Background Theory. The numerical modelling methods are being used in this paper, some of
of a homogeneous media model, using the the most popular methods are also presented
Newmark‟s method, is presented in section 3, here.
with the associated results obtained. Following,
2.2 General Integration Methods
the same integration scheme is applied on
models with heterogeneous microstructure in Even if, several time integration methods exist,
section 4. Numerical dissipation methods are they differ in accuracy, stability, flexibility and
then applied on the same models and the cost for the attainment of the final solution.
improvements identified over the Newmark‟s However, the key to the simplicity for the
method are made clear, in section 5. Finally, a computational requirements of the time
summary of the outcomes gained through this integration methods relies on the special
study is made and upon conclusions are drawn, characteristics of the coefficient matrices K, C
in the final section – conclusions. and M, which can be very large (Bathe, 1982). A
few of the methods available and effectively
used in the past include the Runge-Kutta
2 BACKGROUND THEORY
methods, the central difference method, the
2.1 The Governing Equation average acceleration method, the Newmark’s
method, the Houbolt’s method, the Wilson-θ
The model is discretised both in time and in
method, the Collocation methods and the Hilber,
space, in time intervals (dt) and in “n” number of
Hughes and Taylor α-method.
finite elements (nx) respectively. The subjected
Many authors in the literature (Jalon & Bayo,
sample model is simple and the problem under
1994), (Wilson, 2002) and others, interrelate the
investigation is a wave propagation problem and
Newmark Method, the average acceleration
therefore a 1-d mesh of one degree of freedom
method, the wilson-θ method and the HHT α-
(DOF) was deemed satisfactory. Thus, the beam
method into one group of methods, the
is represented by a row of “n+1” number of
Newmark family of methods. The Houbolt‟s
single degrees of freedom (nodes) of mass Mn,
method is considered as one of the earliest
interconnected with “n” number of elements of
methods employed in structural dynamics, but
stiffness Kn (see Figure ).
has the disadvantage of requiring a special
starting procedure ( (Hughes, 2000) (Bathe,
1982)). The collocation method‟s is a
generalised combination of the Newmark
method and the Wilson-θ method. (Hilber &
Figure 2.1 - Representation of "nodal masses" and Hughes, 1978) cited in (Hughes, 2000)
"element stiffnesses" for a 1-d bar model investigated and determined the best behaved
collocation schemes, to which they are referred
The governing equation, for forced motion, of to as optimal collocation methods. The α-method
the one dimensional elastic bar is defined as a (Hilber et al., 1977) is regarded as an
system of linear differential equations, of second improvement upon the Newmark method that
order and can be written in the form of: has the ability to introduce controllable
| 2.1 numerical dissipation without degrading the
Where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping order of accuracy (Hughes, 2000).
matrix and K is the stiffness matrix and , 2.3 The Newmark’s method
and are the acceleration, velocity and
displacement vectors of the finite element In the originally proposed method by Newmark,
system respectively. This equation is derived an assumption is made that the acceleration
from statics considerations; for the complete varies linearly (see Fig.2.2) and therefore the
derivation refer to (Bathe, 1982). acceleration over the time step becomes:
The equation of motion (eq. 2.1) can be | 2.3
rewritten, for dynamics analysis, in the form: As the acceleration is constant the velocity must
| 2.2 vary linearly and at time the velocity is
defined as:
where, represents the inertia forces,
the damping forces and the elastic forces. | 2.4
All of these parameters are time dependent and And the displacement is,
this implies that at any time t static equilibrium
is considered. | 2.5
For the solution of the second order linear This method is called the constant-average-
differential equations of motion (eq. 2.1), acceleration scheme (see Fig.2.2) also known as
different time integration methods have been the trapezoidal rule.
86
2.4 The HHT-α method
This method was proposed by (Hilber et al.,
1977) and follows the Newmark‟s finite
difference formulas to solve a modified time-
discrete equilibrium equation. For this reason it
is characterized as an extension of the Newmark
method, or sometimes, as mentioned previously,
it is included in the Newmark family of methods.
Figure 2.2 - Newmark's constant-average- It should be noted that the notation used by
acceleration scheme (extracted from Bathe, 1982) (Hilber et al., 1977) is kept wherever this
The Newmark Method, as an extension of the method is used in this study. In the HHT method
constant-average–acceleration scheme, where and are used, they prescribe the
introduces the parameters α and δ. So equations Newmark‟s α and δ, respectively, as presented in
2.4 and 2.5 become: the previous section.
| 2.6 In the modified equilibrium equations, a
parameter is introduced which leads to:
| 2.7
By setting and , we can change our | 2.9
assumption back to the previous method (from For this method reduces to the constant
constant to linear acceleration assumption). By acceleration method. It has been reported that
setting and , relation 2.6 and 2.7 this integration procedure produces numerical
correspond to the linear acceleration method. dissipation in the higher modes (Wilson, 2002).
For the solution of the displacements, velocities (Hilber et al., 1977) implemented two methods
and accelerations at time , the equilibrium through their investigation. The first is the, as
equation (eq. 2.1) at time is also referred by the authors, trapezoidal rule with a-
employed: damping, which was then termed by the same
authors as a “not effective, in itself, dissipative
| 2.8
mechanism”, due to the fact that is ineffective in
Now solving eq. 2.7 for , in terms of the higher modes. For the same reason, a new
and substituting in eq. 2.6, we obtain equations one-parameter family of algorithms was
for and , in terms of . If we introduced, which incorporates better numerical
substitute these two relations into the dissipation in the higher modes, as well as a
equilibrium equation, 2.8 and we solve for , more accurate solution for the lower modes, than
then we will be able to obtain and , the Wilson-θ method. The dissipation of the new
through equations 2.6 and 2.7 accordingly. algorithm proposed in (Hilber et al., 1977) is
provided by a combination of positive Newmark
For zero damping, the Newmark‟s method is -dissipation (previously presented as δ) and a
conditionally stable if: negative -dissipation. The developers of this
, and method also caution that alteration on the
(Wilson, 2002) parameters , and should be done with
care.
Where , is the maximum frequency in a
structural system. The same author has reported
that if , errors associated with 3 NEWMARK’S METHOD -
“numerical damping” and “periodical errors” are HOMOGENEOUS MEDIA
introduced into the solution. 3.1 Method
It should be noted that because this method uses The model used for the analysis of the
the equilibrium at time for the solution at Newmark‟s method is a simple problem,
time , is called an implicit integration consisting of a cantilever bar of Young‟s
method. Additionally, regarding the time step modulus, E, area, A, density, ρ and length, L.
that can be used in the integration, there is no Those parameters are set a priori to unity, for
limit, unlike some conditionally stable simplicity (see Table 3.1). The bar is fixed at the
algorithms, where there is the limit of the critical right end, whereas a force is applied at the free
time step, . end at the opposite boundary. The external force
of unit impulse force is applied suddenly at time
t=0 and kept acting during the first time step.
87
Table 3.1 - Core values for the application of the the dtopt. Above that value, the solution becomes
Newmark's integration method more dispersive, with more gradual wave front,
Young’s Cross- Mass Sample Number of Time diverting from the desired ideal profile shape.
Modulus section density length (L) elements step Similar are the effects of the time step, dt,
(E) area (A) (ρ) (nx) (dt)
alteration. Increasing that value shows improved
1 1 1 1 200 0.005
response up to the corresponding to the given nx,
dtopt. Increasing dt further, results in more
The initial value for the number of elements, nx, gradual wave front, contradictory to the desired
is also defined in Table 3.1. For the initial wave profile characteristics.
discretisation of a 1m beam, 200 elements were
deemed sufficient, for beginning the analysis Increasing the Newmark’s parameter δ, was
with (nodal points at 0.005m interval). The time found to introduce numerical dissipation into the
step (dt) is set to 0.005. Here, it should be noted system, not just for the highest modes that
that the Newmark‟s method, as an implicit appear on the tail of the wave front, but also on
integration scheme, allows the time step, dt to the essential to the analysis, lower modes of the
take any positive value. However, for the wave wave solution (Fig. 3.1). The most desired
propagation problem, we would like to capture outcome resulted with the minimum value of δ
the wave propagating at every single element. allowed, δ=0.5.
This can be achieved if the elastic wave speed is
taken into consideration. The elastic wave speed,
, in 1-d is defined as . Then the time
needed for the wave to propagate through the
length, , of one element is . This value is
named, for the purposes of this study, as
“optimal time step”, dtopt. Consequently, for 200
elements, the equivalent dtopt equals 0.005.
The initial displacement and velocity vectors are
set to zero ( .
Some of the parameters defined and set to a
specific „core‟ value (nx, dt and mass matrix
type), as well as the Newmark‟s parameters δ Figure 3.1 - Displacements wave profiles, at variable
(delta) and α (alpha), are associated with the δ, at time=180*dt (Newm. Method, consistent mass,
numerical analysis; their value may have a nx=200, dt=0.005, α=0.25(0.5+delta)^2)
contribution to the numerical accuracy and the
scale of the numerical wave dispersion. A For increasing values of the Newmark’s α
parametric study is performed and during this increased dispersion is spotted in the solution, in
process, each parameter‟s contribution on the the form of spreading all the frequency modes,
accuracy of the results and on wave dispersion, into lower frequencies of same amplitude. The
within the integration scheme, is investigated. alteration of the mass matrix type, from
consistent to lumped, proved that the consistent
3.2 Results mass matrix results in a dominant solution
accuracy.
The dispersive effects of the numerical
modelling are very clear upon running the Finer meshes, with equivalent dtopt, showed
algorithm for the first time. Contrary to the evidence of convergence towards the expected
expected Heaviside function profile shape, the (Heaviside function) solution. An ideal
wave profile at the beginning of propagation numerical analysis of infinite nx, however, is not
appears to be of a certain wave front slope, possible and the development of other numerical
which by the end of the propagation disperse and approximations is essential, for scientists and
becomes more gradual. Small wiggles appear at engineers to be able to analyse systems of higher
the tail of the wave front, which is another complexity, more accurate and confidently.
consequence of the space and time discretisation.
The frequency of those small wiggles, which
appears at the beginning of the propagation 4 NEWMARK’S METHOD -
spreads out, together with the wave front slope, HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA
while the wave continue propagating through the
medium. 4.1 Method
Increasing the number of elements (nx), resulted The model is changed into a laminate, consisting
beneficially in smother profiles and steeper wave of multiple layers of two different component
fronts. However, this was found to happen up to materials, the volume fraction of which, are set
the nx, for which the time step corresponds to by the parameter a, as presented in Fig. 4.1.
88
component results in a corresponding decrease
of amplitudes of the wiggles that follow the
wave front; this is subsequent to the decrease of
the amplitude of the total envelope of the wave
form.
The two different heterogeneous cases, with
Figure 4.1 - Laminated composite model as studied same equivalent homogeneous media, clearly
by Chen & Fish, (2001) cited in Bennett et al., (2007) appear to result in different solutions (Fig. 4.2).
When the lower modes of the heterogeneous
The material properties, of the two component solutions are examined, it is obvious that the
materials used are E1=4, ρ1=1 and E2=1, ρ2=1 bigger the difference of the properties of the two
respectively. The geometrical parameters remain component materials ( ), the more
to unit values, as well as the external force dispersion takes place. When comparing the
remains to a unit impulse force. The equivalent heterogeneous profiles with the homogeneous
elastic wave speed and hence the dt used in the one, it can be seen that the later appears to be
later analyses, are given by the equivalent much smoother and of a steeper wave front
homogeneous material properties. The later, are slope, differing in form from both heterogeneous
related to the component properties by the cases. The equivalent homogeneous model is,
formulation used in (Chen & Fish, 2001) and therefore, proved incapable of predicting the
cited in (Bennett et al., 2007), which is different dispersive behaviour of each medium.
reformulated below. The material properties, as
well as the time step used in this method are
tabulated in Table 4.1.
The equivalent homogeneous continuum model
material properties are given by:
| 4.1
| 4.2
Table 4.1 - Material properties and time step for the

heterogeneous laminate composite analysis
Component Component
material 1 material 2
E1 ρ1 E2 ρ2 dt Figure 4.2 - Wave profiles for two heterogeneous
4 1 1 1 1.0541*10-3 models of different component materials resulting
in the same equivalent homogeneous model
Here, the effects of altering the unit cell size, l,
and the volume fraction, of each component
within the unit cell is under investigation. A 5 IMPLEMENTATION OF NUMERICAL
second model of E1= 5*105, ρ1=1 and E2=0.8, DISSIPATIVE METHODS
ρ1=1, which results in the same equivalent 5.1 Methods
material properties, as well as an effective
equivalent homogeneous model were also The numerical dissipative HHT-α method and
implemented and compared. the Trap. Rule with α-damping are applied on
the homogenous material bar of section 3. This
4.2 Results happens in an attempt to examine the capability
With refinement of the cell size, upon wave of each method on removing the high
propagation through the medium, the wave frequencies, which used to appear at the tail of
solution becomes smoother. The shape of the the wave front, when the Newmark‟s method
wave profile becomes therefore beneficial, with was in use. The effects of the alteration of the
clearer wave numbers. The value of l = 0.005 parameter α, in both methods is also examined.
was chosen for the analyses to follow as it was Then, the model is changed into the laminate
deemed pleasing. composite of section 4, and the special effects of
the two newly implemented numerical
Expected difference, in terms of amplitude of the dissipative methods are made clear.
response and the wave speed, is spotted upon
alteration of the volume fraction, which is 5.2 Results
attributed to the difference in the equivalent The Trapezoidal rule with α-damping method
Young‟s modulus, Eeq, leading to different resulted in strong numerical dissipation of the
characteristic impedances of media in each case. higher frequency wiggles. Parameter α seems to
The increase of the volume fraction of the first
89
play a control role over the scale of numerical indication of undesired impact of the trapezoidal
dissipation, and is dependent upon propagation rule with α-damping on the more important
time. Increasing numerical dissipation by lower modes of the solution.
altering α, however, occurs at the expense of
increased numerical wave dispersion of the
6 CONCLUSIONS
important lower modes (see Fig. 5.1).
Both methods were proved capable on achieving
numerical dissipation of the higher frequencies,
with the HHT-α method being superior, in terms
of wave front slope, which signifies the lower
mode in the solution. On the other hand, the
trapezoidal rule with α-damping was proved
superior, regarding its ability of entirely
removing the undesired higher frequencies,
which appear behind the wave front, even when
modelling with non-dispersive media. When the
methods were applied on a heterogeneous media,
the HHT-α method‟s solution showed a better
agreement with the solution obtained by the
Figure 5.1 - Wave profiles in homogeneous medium, Newmark‟s method, by only removing the
obtained by the two dissipative methods and the higher frequencies that were trapped into the
Newmark’s method Newmark‟s solution. The trapezoidal rule with
The HHT-α method appeared to be less α-damping, kept the overall shape of the wave
dissipative in the lower modes, yet, strongly profile in quite a good agreement with the other
dissipative on the higher frequencies. The two methods, in terms of phases of the
numerical dissipation is not time dependent, as it oscillations that follow the wave front, as well as
seems to be occurring by the initialisation of the in terms of the wave front slope. However, the
wave propagation. However, for any value of α same method resulted in reduced amplitudes, of
allowed, the first wiggles following the wave the oscillations that follow the wave front, upon
front still remain in the solution. wave propagation time, which might be a
consequence of this method‟s dissipation time
dependence.
REFERENCES
Bathe, K.-J., 1982. Finite Element Procedures. New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Bennett, T., Inna, M.G. & Askes, H., 2007. Elasticity
theories with higher-order gradients of inertia and
stiffness for the modelling of wave dispersion in
laminates. Letters in Facture and Micromechanics,
(148), pp.185-93.
Chen, W. & Fish, J., 2001. A Dispersive Model For
Wave Propagation In Periodic Heterogeneous Media
Figure 5.2 - Wave profiles in a laminate composite, Based On Homogenization With Multiple Spatial And
at t=0.7115s, obtained by the two dissipative Temporal Scales. Journal of Applied Mechanics,
methods and the Newmark’s method 68(2), pp.153-61.
Engelbrecht, J., 2010. Nonlinear wave motion and
In Fig. 5.2, where the methods are applied on the
complexity. Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of
laminate model, the HHT-α shows convergence Sciences, 2(59).
with the profile obtained by the Newmark‟s
Hilber, H.M., Hughes, T.J.R. & Taylor, R.L., 1977.
method in the previous section. Amplitudes and
Improved numerical dissipation for the time itegration
phases for the lower modes are equivalent, while algorithms in structural dynamics. Earthquake
the high frequencies undergo numerical Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 5, pp.283-92.
dissipation. The dependency of the numerical Ilcewicz, L.B., 1984. A Relationship Between Wave
dissipation, offered by the trapezoidal rule with Dispersion and Fracture Strength for a Composite
α-damping, upon propagation time, becomes Material. PhD Thesis. openlibrary.org.
clear. The phase of the oscillations that follow Jalon, J.G.D. & Bayo, E., 1994. Kinematic and
the wave front remain undisturbed, as well as the Dynamic Simulation of Multibody Systems : The real-
wave front slope that show no significant signs time challenge. New-York: Springer-Verlag.
of deterioration. This is contrary to the Wilson, E.L., 2002. Three-Dimensional Static and
amplitudes of the oscillations that are Dynamic Analysis of Structures, 3rd Edition.
significantly reduced. This might be an California: Berkeley.
90
Sustainable concrete with Low Carbon Footprint

Fakhar Chaudhry
ABSTRACT Approximately 5% of global CO2 emissions originate from the manufacturing of

cement. In the paper, we will find how the concrete industry is striding towards sustainability and which
is the most sustainable cement replacing material. In this paper, three case studies (1) East Midlands
Airport Case study, (2) Burj Khalifa Case Study and (3) Victoria Wharf Case Study have been used to
assess how the construction market taken their responsibility in reducing the impact on environment.
Life cycle assessment of manufacture of Portland cement with alternative technologies is used as a
comparative study of traditional Portland cement with alternative cement replacing ones. Through the
research, it was found that significant cost saving was made to Victoric Wharf project by utilizing the
recycled aggregates. Through the East Midlands case study, it was found that PFA was ideal for such
project and had little or no construction limitations. Also, adequate percentage replacement of PFA in
mix resulted in superior strength and durability of concrete. Through Burj Khalifa case study, it was
concluded that silica fume was not ideal for construction practise in hot temperatures. Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) results proved that blended cements provided that greatest environmental savings
and cement kiln dust also contributed to reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.
Dioxin emissions, Sulphur oxide emissions

1 INTRODUCTION
Particulate air emissions, Visual pollution,
One of the most effective means of alleviating Traffic congestion and Noise pollution [2]. Were
this impact is through the reduction of the possible modern solutions for the alleviation of
amount of CO2 released in all aspects of human these problems will be considered and
development. This has become increasingly investigated.
topical in recent years following the stark rise in
The case studies on Burj Khalifa, Victoria Wharf
global public and political concern about the
project and East Midlands Airport were also
effects of global warming on the environment. It
investigated. It was interesting to see how silica
is almost unquestionable at this stage that the
fume and PFA would benefit a project of the
release of CO2 into the atmosphere by modern
scale of Burj Khalifa and East Midlands airport
mankind is likely to be the primary cause of
respectively in terms of sustainability and also
global climate change [1]. Furthermore, the
technical criteria. The sustainability aspects of
current era of high energy prices has encouraged
using recycled aggregates in Victoric Wharf
all industries to reduce energy consumption
project were also examined. In this paper, only
(Which is somewhat analogous to CO2 release
the methodology (LCA) on blended cements will
given that presently the majority of energy is
be discussed however other case studies will be
gained from the burning of fossil fuels which
included in discussion.
releases CO2).
2 CARBON RELEASE AS A RESULT OF
CO2 emission as a result of building
CONCRETE
development is clearly a major factor in
sustainable construction, specifically concrete Large amounts of energy are required in order to
production accounts for approximately 7% of manufacture concrete and its various constituent
annual worldwide CO2 release [2]. This parts. As the majority of energy generation in
document will primarily focus on the problem of UK involves combustion of fossil fuels, vast
CO2 generation as a by product of concrete amounts of CO2 are released every day as result
construction but will also consider a number of of the concrete industries activities worldwide.
other sustainability issues associated with the Concrete is the second most consumed product
production, transport and use of concrete and its in the world after water [3] and accounts for 7%
bye products including; Nitrous oxide emissions, of CO2 generated worldwide each year [2].
91
Consequently, investigating CO2 emission from The majority of materials such as these require
concrete production is crucial in developing a their use with a traditional limestone source as
more sustainable construction industry and in they rarely provide a sufficient source of calcium
doing so significantly benefitting the alone (Blast furnace slag as discussed further
environment. bellow is a notable exception). In any case the
use of these materials serves to significantly
Now, we will look at ways of reducing the
benefit the environment by removing waste
emissions of CO2 in the manufacture of concrete.
products from landfill and reducing (admittedly
2.1 Switching to Bio fuels and other to varying degrees) the amount of CO2 produced
alternative fuels including waste fuels by the production of cement [4].
Alternative fuel use has become increasingly 2.3 The use of supplementary cementations
popular within the cement industry as a materials
sustainable method for reductions in cement
The use of supplementary cementations materials
production costs and CO2 emissions. Current
such as Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag
estimates by Damtoft [4] place alternative fuel
(GGBS), Pulverised Fly Ash (PFA) and Silica
use by cement companies operating in Europe at
fume are becoming common as sustainable
14% of all fuels (Based on calorific fuel value).
replacements for Portland cement. These
From sustainability stand point the use of fuels
supplementary materials can be added directly as
which are “carbon neutral” are of greatest benefit
a component of the cement or can be
in terms of reducing global CO2 output by the
incorporated later as a component of the
cement industry. Carbon neutral fuels generate
concrete mix. The content of cement
no net release of CO2 when combusted and are
replacement material can be as high as 70% in
most often derived from sustainably managed
extreme cases however this is highly dependent
biomass plantations.
on desired properties of the wet and hardened
The use of waste fuels is also a sustainable concrete and on the chemical composition of the
alternative to traditional fossil fuel burning. replacement material [5]. While supplementary
Although waste fuels are almost never carbon cementations materials are favourable due to
neutral there use as fuels in the cement industry their sustainability credentials it is often the
is beneficial as this harnesses there energy by technical benefits which they bestow on the
diverting them from wasteful incineration or material which provides the strongest argument
landfill [4]. for their inclusion in the mix, regardless of
environmental or economic considerations [6].
Used tyres make an ideal kiln fuel for the
production of cement, without any adverse 2.4 Aggregate sourced from recycled
environmental effects. Extreme temperature in materials
kiln burn tyres without fumes or flame and
Traditionally, concrete building demolition
what’s more the residue from burning tyres can
rubble was transported to landfills for disposal.
be chemically treated and reused again as fuel.
However, in recent years, waste material has
The obvious pay off from burning tyres is the
been recycled and used as partial replacements
fossil fuel and carbon emissions saved. Every
for natural aggregates in the manufacture of
year the UK produces 400,000 tonnes of waste
concrete.
tyres, posing a significant environmental
problem. Legislation prevents the dumping of The jaw crusher is the most common method of
tyres in landfill and currently around 40% of reducing concrete to aggregate. It is important to
waste tyres are recycled into retreads, all weather remove contaminants before crushing [7].
surfaces and other uses, but that still leaves 28 Various types and quality of materials are
million tyres with seemingly nowhere to go. separated before collection from the site. On
arrival at the recycling plant, the rubble is
conveyed through a crushing machine, impurity
2.2 Alternative raw materials replacements levels are closely monitored in order to ensure
for the limestone in the kiln feed that the concrete material has the required
consistent strength and durability. Aggregate is
Waste materials make good sustainable
sorted by size with larger particles getting re-
alternatives to cement when used as a
crushed as necessary [8]. Aggregates for
replacement of some or all of the traditional raw
concrete may require washing to remove dusty
materials used in the production of Portland
often organic material [8].
cement. Just some of the alternative materials
which are currently commercially utilised as raw The employment of portable crushers reduces
material replacements include, fly ash, foundry construction costs and energy consumption when
sands, mill scales, spent catalysts and filter clays. compared with transporting material to a facility
92
for crushing [6]. Large road-portable plants are
available which can crush concrete rubble at up
to 600 tons per hour or more. These plants
consist of rubble crusher, side discharge
conveyor, screening plant, and a return conveyor
which quickly removes oversize material from
the screen inlet for reprocessing. Mini-crushers
are also in use and can handle up to 150 tons per
hour [6].
Unlike natural aggregate, sources of aggregate
suitable for recycling are often found in urban
areas. Clearly supply depends on the decay and
subsequent demolition of structures and
therefore cannot be increased with demand.
3 LEGISLATIONS
3.1 Sustainable Construction Strategy
In 2008, the UK concrete industry agreed on
Concrete Industry Sustainable Construction
Strategy. This pledge to sustainability objectives
was signed by trade associations and companies
and included the commitment to publish an
annual report on the sustainability performance
of the industry. As the world market is in
recession, the construction activity and the use of
concrete and other materials have significantly
declined. The Concrete Industry published its
second report in March 2010 that contains the
2012 targets and also the 2008 performance of
the concrete sector. The latest, third report
includes the performance of the industry in 2009
and includes the comparison with 2008
performance. The both reports are based on the
information collected through surveys responses
received by the concrete sectors such as Table 1: Concrete Industry Performance Indicators 2008
and 2009
aggregates, cement, admixtures, fly ash etc. We
shall now examine the Performance indicators of 4 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
2008 report and the industry performance for CONCRETE
2008 and 2009.
4.1 Goal and Scope
The twelve performance indicators are in the
The goal of this study by Huntzinger and Eatmon
main four sections of:
[9] was to determine the environment impacts,
1. Sustainable Consumption and specifically global warming potential, from the
production: production of approximately 1 ton of cement by
examining four products.
2. Climate Change and Energy:
The functional unit of the analysis in this study is
3. Natural Resource Protection and
the production of the equivalent of 20 bags (each
Enhancing the Environment:
bag weighing around 100 lb) of general use of
4. Creating Sustainable communities; Class 1 Portland cement. Two hundred bags is
approximately a ton of concrete, which is a
Table. 1 summarizes the concrete industry
convenient quantity often used in reporting of
performance report for 2008 and 2009. Also the
energy and material consumption as well as
concrete industry 2012 targets have also been
emissions.
set.
4.2 Life Cycle Inventory
Rundman [10] has developed a material flow
diagram for the production of 1 ton of Portland
cement as seen in Figure 1. It can be seen from
93
the figure, that approximately 1.58 ton of raw cement kiln recycling occurs. This assumption
materials are required to produce 1 ton of would reduce the amount of raw material
standard Portland cement. required proportionally, for addition of 0.15 ton
of CKD in the raw material feed this decreases
SimaPro life cycle assessment software had been
the raw material each by 3.75%. Huntzinger [48]
used in this analysis to evaluate the
assumes that CKD can capture 0.4 ton of CO2
environmental impacts of the inventory elements
per ton of CKD. If the average rate of CKD
and to create product assemblies and life cycles
production is 0.15 ton CKD per ton of clinker
for the four different cement products. Through
and with the assumption that 100% cement
the SimaPro databases, the inventory data for
recycling occurs, then CKD has the potential to
raw material acquisition, electricity production
capture approximately 0.06 ton of CO2 for each
and heat generation for various processing steps
1 ton of finished product in this study.
were obtained. As this research, has been carried
out in United States, the databases of SimaPro
are relevant to US industry. In US, majority of
the cement kiln operations are powered by coal,
coal with petroleum coke, and waste fuels.
Huntzinger and Eatmon [9] used coal, fuel oil
and natural gas in their study. The assumed
consumption by mass was coal (70%), fuel oil
(15%) and natural gas (15%).
Huntzinger and Eatmon [9] also assumed that the
pozzolans used in the analysis did not contribute
significantly towards the environmental impact
and therefore were not given environment
Figure 1: Material flow diagram for the production of 1
benefit or penalty as they are usually natural
ton of traditional Portland cement [10]
pozzolans e.g. volcanic ash, or by product of
another industrial manufacturing process e.g. fly 4.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
ash. In order to ensure an equivalent performing This analysis focuses on the global
cement product with respect to strength and environmental impacts, particularly global
durability, a substitution percentage of 25% (by warming, and how alternative cement mixes and
mass) has been assumed also. Hence, from Table or processing technologies impact the overall
2, the amount of clinker need to produce 1 ton of global warming potential of cement production.
cement is reduced from 0.95 ton to 0.71 ton. The four cements products/processes have been
assessed through the Eco-indicator95 in
SimaPro. From Fig.2, the coal (52.5%), fuel oil
(14.7%) and clinker (84.4%) are accounting for
the higher Environmental impact score.
Table 2: Energy and emissions inventory elements for

the traditional cement manufacturing process. The Figure 2: Life cycle network (cradle to gate) showing the
energy inputs and emissions are divided among the three allocation of Environment impact for each step of the
major processing steps [9] traditional Portland cement manufacturing process [9]
Van Oss [11] states that not all cement kiln dust The least Environmental impact score is by the
is recycled in the cement manufacturing facilities composition of the cement e.g. sand (0.0145%),
mainly because of the chemical composition of iron ore (0.354%), limestone (0.743%) and clay
the waste. However, in Huntzinger and Eatmon (0.0481%). Overall the production of clinker is
[9] LCA analyses it is assumed that 100%
94
the most energy intensive and emission intensive optimizing the manufacturing process to reduce
process in the manufacturing of cement. adverse environmental impacts. However there
are limitations to the study and it should be noted
Table 2 shows the environmental impact score
that data aggregation problems associated with
by impact categories for the four different
secondary information sources may cause
cement products. Of the cements products
variation in impact values for replication studies.
examined, the blended cement has the lowest
Much of the absolute environmental impact will
global warming potential followed by cement
depend on energy and heat input amounts that
produced when a portion of the process related
vary between processes.
carbon emissions are captured back by
sequestration in CKD. The recycling of CKD LCA results showed that the replacement
back into the kiln feed has little to no effect on materials contributed the most in environmental
reducing carbon emission compared to savings. There was approximately 5% in
traditional cement. reduction in CKD cement environment impact
score when CKS is utilized for sequestration.
Although the process of recycle was found to be
not beneficial as it had little impact on
environmental savings compared to traditional
process.
5 DISCUSSIONS
Table 3: Classification of process inputs and outputs for Since the UK government has announced the
Portland cement manufacturing into environmental Sustainable Construction Target 2012, the
impact categories [9]
concrete industry has taken significant steps to
As seen from the table above, high impact scores improve and achieve the target set per year. The
for heavy metals and acidification are believed to industry performance at times over achieved the
be an artefact of the types of fuels selected and future target for instance the indicator of CO2
the incomplete representation of chemical emission produced in 2009 target was over
interactions occurring in the kiln. achieved and meet the 2012 target. Although, 12
performance indicators have been set, there are
SimaPro has over estimated figures in the some indicators in which still targets are being
analysis for example if we look at the actual set for 2012. For example the Water and CO2
sulphur dioxide emissions (a major contributor Emissions Transport are still to be developed.
to acid rain) are much lower than those predicted The concrete industries have not taken measures
by SimaPro. Van Oss [11] states that clinker and for these two indicators, this can be seen by the
CKD serve as partial scrubbers for SO2, increase in usage of mains water from 2008 to
removing a significant portion of the sulphur 2009 and industry sector not providing
oxides (greater than 70%) in the combustion information on CO2 Emissions Transport for
gases before they are released to the atmosphere. 2008.
Van Oss [11] also concludes that the actual
fugitive emissions of SO2 equal approximately The use of cement replacement materials in the
0.27 and 0.54kg per ton of clinker produced. case studies of Burj Khalifa and East Midlands
This figure is way less than the figure by Airport not only benefited the environment but
SimaPro which is 4.86kg. also had technical benefits to the projects. East
Midlands Airport structure required concrete mix
It can be seen that overall impact score for the which provided long life durability and increased
cement manufacturing processes utilizing carbon strength. The workability of PFA in this project
sequestration in the waste product CKD is also was added benefit to the construction practice as
lower than the traditional process. Recycling it aids the concrete pumping. The percentage of
CKD into the process line has little to no effect reduction in the greenhouse emissions and
on the overall impact score. Since the CKD is energy use is 17% and 14% respectively for 30%
recycled into the kiln feed there is no real of PFA in the concrete mix. Also, PFA mix
reduction in emissions or energy required in reduces the water demand by 7-15%. This is a
pyroprocessing, the most environmentally great achievement when looking it through
damaging step. environmental sustainability point of view. Also,
This study has addressed the environmental the economical sustainability criterion was
impacts associated with three alternative fulfilled as the PFA was sourced from local
technologies for the cement manufacturing Racliffe-on-Soar Power Station therefore
process. Environmental life-cycle assessment providing significant savings towards the project
(LCA) is a valuable tool for understanding the cost.
environmental hazards of products and for
95
Although, the construction practice for the Burj in this positive direction, the environment of our
Khalifa project was had some limitations. The planet will recover and prosper in near future.
use of Silica Fume in the concrete, meant the
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Through literature of Life Cycle Assessment of concrete, 2001.
the blended cements, it was proved that greatest
[3] T. C. Centre, "Concrete Industry Sustainability
environment savings where provided Performance Report," ed, 2009.
comparative to traditional Portland cement.
Reduction in carbon emissions were also found [4] J. S. Damtoft, "Sustainable development and
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finding was that recycling of CKD had no effect [5] Bentur, "Cementitious materials - nine millennia
on the environmental over traditional process. and a new century: Past present and future," Journal
of materials in civil engineering, vol. 14, p. 20, 2002.
5 CONCLUSIONS
[6] A. M. Neville, Properties of Concrete, Fourth ed.:
After doing research on sustainability of Pearson, 1995.
concrete, it was found that there are many issues
[7] S. Bohan, "Recycled concrete aggregates - Rise to
which affect the sustainability of concrete.
the occasion," Concrete Technology Today, vol. 1, p.
Whether it is extraction of natural aggregates or 6, 2001.
use of mains water, all of these compositions of
concrete contribute a global negative effect on [8] F. M. Khalaf, "Recycling of Demolished Masonry
environment. In the research, the major Rubble as Coarse Aggregate in Concrete - Review,"
Journal of materials in civil engineering, vol. 16, p. 9,
contributing composition of concrete was found
2004.
to be the main component of cement, which is
clinker. The main focus of the research was [9] Huntzinger Deborah N., Eatmon Thomas D, “A
proposed substitutes of clinker. Through the case life-cycle assessment of Portland cement
studies of PFA and Silica fume in construction manufacturing: comparing the traditional process with
alternative technologies”, Journal of Cleaner
industry it was found that PFA did not posed any
Production 17 (2009) 668-675, Science Direct.
construction practise limitation but silica fume
has limitation when being used in different [10] Rundman K. Chapter 5: material flow in
climatic environment. Both showed the positive industry. Draft chapter for materials book, Prentice
characteristics for which they were used for in Hall, never published:
<http://www.me.mtu.edu/%26sim;wsuther/erdm/mate
the projects. Although, it was seen that Burj
rials.pdf>
Khalifa project undermined on the economic
sustainability criteria while East Midlands [11] van Oss HG, Padovani AC. Cement
Airport project utilized the by-product from a manufacture and the environment, part 1:
local solar power station. It was established that chemistry and technology. Journal of Industrial
economic sustainability and environmental Ecology 2002;6(1):89–105.
sustainability are linked to one another.
The construction industry has taken significant
steps towards the sustainability as seen through
the UK on Concrete Industry Sustainable
Construction Strategy. The industry is well into
achieving the sustainable targets set by the UK
government for 2012. Major steps have been
taken to accomplish the performance indicators
targets every year. The use of blended cements
in concrete in major project proves the
construction market accepts them and the
industry is replacing the Ordinary Portland
Cement. If the concrete industry keeps heading
96
Structural Optimisation As A Form Finding Tool

Feilong Chen
MSc(Eng) Structural Engineering
ABSTRACT The aim of this dissertation is to investigate aspects of structural optimization as a

form finding tool, mainly focusing on manual and computational analysis. The development of
mechanical and structural optimization is reviewed as part of the background knowledge. Layout
optimization of frame is presented as a base guide line for experimental investigation. A series of
optimization methods are introduced and linear programming is picked up for the purpose of analysis.
Basic theoretical characteristics of linear programming optimization are studied in order to satisfy the
boundary condition of given structure. Five truss cases are created for investigation both in manual and
computational analysis. Modification in total volume of structure and joint costs method are presented
as computational approaches. Finally, the efficiency and accuracy is determined by comparing the
manual and computational results. Discussion of these analyses draws a conclusion to decide which
method is more appropriate for the purpose of design tool.
judge whether it is in global optimum or local

1 INTRODUCTION
optimum form. One of the major problem is due
Structural optimization can be defined as a to impractical solutions, this may leads to
process of minimize the weight and maximize increase the difficulty when design a structure in
the performance of the structure under the real world. This project is focus in
confinements. From the history of optimization identifying the theoretical analysis based on the
development, designers are looking for a way to boundary conditions and restriction criterion and
deal with optimum structure not only in the field investigating two computational analyses and
of mechanical engineering, but also in structural comparing to the manual results basically
engineering. Most of the experiment has been applying the linear programming method in
developed first in mechanical regions and passes terms of accuracy and efficiency.
to the structural zone later on. In fact, the
1.1 Joint costs in optimization
technology is more mature compare to the past.
Engineers are become more interested in finding In optimization analysis, a large scale of
a method or tool to solve structural problems framework usually contains small number of
such as bridge and building structure. node and large amount number of member. It is
often that the construction may subject to
In the optimization point of field, there are three
impractical due to complexity and ineffectively.
major characteristics in order to achieve
In fact, a joint often cannot be connected with
structural optimization by satisfying variables,
huge amount of members when the structure
optimality criterions and constraints. Variables
comes to build up. On the other hand, not every
are the properties which may vary in different
member will make contribution to the joint
situations, such as members in the structure.
significantly. Consequently, cost of the material
Optimality criterion is a term that the defined
to manufacture the joints can be enormously
variables have to follow the standard of the rules
expensive. Parkes (1975) comes out an idea that
to carry on next step. In addition to these
the joint costs should be considered as an
criterion, it is also have to meet the constraint
effective criterion. One of the reasons to causing
requirement relate to different structures. In
the number of joints increases is due to the
principle, computer program is a sufficient way
external force acting on the structure and the
to analyse problems to increase the efficiency of
cross sectional area is matching to the member
a structure. However, in the research area, there
force under the condition which the tension and
still some challenges in this field. For example,
compression stress is equally subjected at the
the efficiency is hard to determine when
same level of stress. From the assumption made
computer subject to large scale problems. The
by Parkes (1975), instead of using actual length
solutions of an optimal structure are difficult to
97
of member in calculation of volume in 3) Constraints- In linear programming of a
optimization, adding an artificial extra length j, framework, the constraints can be the
this term is called joint radius and is a constant supports. In a 2D frame structure, there are
value for the entire problem which is shown in two axes such as x-axis and y-axis, the x-
Figure 1. axis is represented as the horizontal
direction and the y-axis represents as the
Actual length according to volume: Vi = Ai • Li
vertical direction. When multiple loads or
(1)
single load are applied to the structure, the
Extra length according to volume: Vi = Ai • (Li + force in either horizontal or vertical has to
j) (2) be balanced in order to satisfy the
equilibrium conditions.
Where Ai is the area of member, Li is the length
Σ Fx = 0 (total force in horizontal direction)
of member, Vi is the total volume of member Σ Fy = 0 (total force in vertical direction)
In general, the value of j will depends on the Stress constraint:
type of structure and thus the cost of the joints
will be varied. This joint cost method Ai≧ (5) and Ai≧ (6)
transformed a complicated structure to a more
simplified version and the investigation will be 2.2 Manual Analysis
shown in methodology experimental analysis by
using the software IntelliFORM which created The manual analysis is based on the Figure 2,
by University of Sheffield. two supports are supplied with one is pin jointed
support and the other is a roller support. This
layout is provided as a design space to for
designer to sketch varies type of truss.
Figure 1: Joint radius j Parkes (1975)

Figure 2: Truss layout of design space
2.3 Computational Analysis
2 METHODOLOGY
1) Modification of total volume in a structure
2.1 Theoretical Analysis
The modification method is to minimize the total
Linear programming has been used for volume by varying the dimension of design
optimization as a tool to illustrate the space for overall size in proportion to the stress
mathematical optimum and non-optimum strength subject to truss members.
structures. In terms of mathematics, there are
three criteria need to be satisfied in linear 2) Joint costs method
programming such as variables, optimality The procedure of joint cost approach is based on
criterion and constrains. the generated structure from the IntelliFORM
1) Variables- Member forces can be subjected software. By applying the joint length, several
in compression and tension when load iterations are being investigated. Beside this, a
applied. The member forces can be comparing analysis draws the accurateness
represented as tensile force (Fi+) and between the manual and computational method.
compressive force (Fi-). The pre-define the
allowable tensile stress (σ+) and
-
compressive stress (σ ) as constant. 3 RESULTS ANALYSIS
Total force (F): F = Fi+ - Fi- (3) 3.1 Manual Results
2) Optimality criterion- The weight of the

structure is due to the total volume of the
entire structure. While the volume is equal
the product of the cross-sectional area and
the length of each potential member.
Minimize = Σ i=1N Ai • Li (4)
Figure 3.1: Truss case 1
Where Ai is the cross-sectional area of
member I and Li is the length of member i.
98
Truss Total Total volume Improvement
case volume (m3) of total
(m3) (Computational) volume (%)
(Manual)
1 0.5251 0.4415 15.9%
Figure 3.2: Truss case 2 2 0.3525 0.2316 34.3%
3 0.2563 0.1994 22.2%
4 0.3583 0.3314 8.0%
5 0.3387 0.2316 31.2%
Table 3.1: Results of primary total volume

The input of computational figures: tensile stress
Figure 3.3: Truss case 3 strength is 200Mpa, compressive stress strength
is 50Mpa. It is clear from the statistics in Table
3.1that all the truss cases have improved by
using computational method. The percentage of
improvement for all cases has improved 10% or
more improved from manual to computational.
3.3 Computational Results
Figure 3.4: Truss case 4 1) Modification of total volume approach

Truss case 2:
Lx = 5, Ly = 1, σC = 63Mpa, σT = 250Mpa
3.2 Computational Results (Primary)
Lx = 10, Ly = 2, σC = 50Mpa, σT = 200Mpa
Figure 3.6 :Truss case 1

Lx = 20, Ly = 4, σC = 38Mpa, σT = 150Mpa

Lx = 40, Ly = 8, σC = 25Mpa, σT = 100Mpa
Figure 3.8: Truss case 3 Lx = 80, Ly = 16, σC = 13Mpa, σT = 50Mpa
Figure 3.11: Modification of Truss case 2

Lx Total Volume V(m3) Total Volume
V*(m3)
5 0.099383682 4.9690
Figure 3.9: Truss case 4 10 0.231554189 4.6320
20 0.592914738 4.4468
40 1.781377822 4.4535
80 6.856890597 4.2856
Figure 3.10:Truss case 5 Table 3.2: Modification of Truss case 2 results
99
Truss case 3:
j=0 j = 0.1
Lx = 10, Ly = 5, Lx = 20, Ly = 10,
σC = 50Mpa, σT = 200Mpa σC = 38Mpa, σT = 150Mpa
j = 0.2 j = 0.5
Lx = 30, Ly = 15, Lx = 40, Ly = 20,

σC = 32Mpa, σT = 125Mpa σC = 25Mpa, σT = 100Mpa
j=1 j=3
Figure3.13: Joint cost method of Truss case 1

Lx = 50, Ly = 25,
σC = 13Mpa, σT = 50Mpa All the graphs of Number of member against
Member volume shows the Blue line is the
Figure3.12: Modification of Truss case 3 computational total member volume results and
the Red point is the manual total member
Lx Total Volume V(m3) Total Volume volume result for all cases.
V*(m3)
0.54
10 0.199388236 3.9878
0.52
20 0.523009607 3.9226
Member Volume
0.5
30 0.930132775 3.8755
40 1.578531796 3.9463 0.48
50 3.818974192 3.8190 0.46
0.44
Table 3.3: Modification of Truss case 3 results
0.42
The evolutionary procedures both in Truss case
2 and Truss case 3 are reasonable identified. In 0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of member
fact, the decisive factors are based on the size
and stress strength level. In terms of volume, for Figure 3.14: Number of member against
a fixed force applied to the potential member, Member volume for Truss case 1
the less the stress strength in member, the larger Truss case 2:
the cross sectional area. As cross sectional area
of each member is proportional to the length,
therefore, the volume is in positive ratio to the
cross sectional area of member. In addition, the
total volume V* is a method to achieve better
j=0 j = 0.05
performance under the conditions such as total
volume V, force, stress strength and the size of a
given structure. The analysis can be continuing
for infinity solutions to reach the best possible
total volume, but it is also require the high
j = 0.1 j = 0.15
computational sources to support.
2) Joint costs optimization in linear
programming
Truss case 1: j = 0.2 j = 0.8
Figure 3.15: Joint cost method of Truss case 2
100
0.36 0.28
0.34 0.26
Member Volume
Member Volume
0.32
0.24
0.3
0.28 0.22
0.26 0.2
0.24
0.18
0.22
0 5 10 15 20
0 10 20 30 40 Number of member
Number of member
Figure 3.19, Number of member against
Figure 3.16: Number of member against
Member volume for Truss case 3 (Except j =
Member volume for Truss case 2
0.5)
Truss case 3:
Truss case 4:
j=0 j = 0.05 j=0 j = 0.1
j = 0.1 j = 0.5 j = 0.15 j = 0.5
j=1 j=6 j = 0.75 j=1

0.36
0.355
Member Volume
0.35
j=8 j = 10
0.345
0.34
0.27
0.26 0.335
0.25
Member Volume
0.33
0.24
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.23 Number of member
0.22
0.21 Figure 3.21: Number of member against
0.2 Member volume for Truss case 4
0.19
Truss case 5:
0.18
0 5 10 15 20
Number of member
Figure 3.18: Number of member against

Member volume for Truss case 3 j=0 j = 0.05
Figure 3.18 show a limitation of joint costs

method when j = 0.5 where the joint length value
is inversely proportional to the eliminated
number of member. j = 0.1 j = 0.15
101
structure is a practical challenge and the material
in fabricating these joints is a considerable issue.
Moreover, large number of potential members
j = 0.2 j = 0.8 connected by great amount of joints leads to
unbuildable for real case. Overall, it is proved
Figure 3.22: Joint cost method of Truss case 5 from the manual analysis is far away to create an
0.36 optimum structure. As the result, it is hardly for
0.34 human designer to justify optimization in simple
structure, and seems impossible to treat with
Member Volume
0.32
0.3 complex problems.
0.28
0.26
0.24 5 CONCLUSIONS
0.22 The study of topology optimization as a form of
0.2 tool has been dealing with the manual and
0 10 20 30 40 computational analysis in linear programming
Number of member
optimization. The aim of this research in
Figure 3.23: Number of member against structural optimization is to find out a practical
Member volume for Truss case 5 tool by testing several different cases and
looking for high efficiency and accuracy issue.
The above cases of joint costs in linear The research is using the modification of total
programming has been shown how efficient the volume for the entire structure and joint cost
manual result can be closed to the computational method in comparing the results with the manual
results. It noticed that the shape change always analysis as “human design”. The modification of
occurred in the first optimize iteration when the volume method has been found that the
joint length value of (j = 0.05 or j = 0.1) applied. improvement of total volume although is
Clearly, the geometry change in all the cases effective, but the high number of members and
after the first stage of elimination in joints. In joints when the size of the structure increases is
fact, the total volume gives less difference the main drawback of this approach. Another
between the first topology and the original state. joint cost method has been proved form the
Most of the cases subject to the process in the previous author research shows a better
range of 6 to 8 iterations. performance in structural optimization. The
theoretical effort shows better outcome which
provides higher efficiency. Experimentally, the
4 DISCUSSION ANALYSIS method actually penalize the short members
The first computational method of modification rather than in number of joints. However, the
in total volume is coping with the overall size Truss case 3 shows a limitation where the
and stress strength level associated with the eliminated number of member is inversely
external force. The require criterions are subject proportional to the joint length value. In brief,
to the equilibrium conditions by arranging the the conclusion draws the investigation of
dimensions in horizontal direction and tensile computational analysis has higher efficient and
stress inversely proportional. Nevertheless, the more accuracy in terms of linear programming
outcome of the total volume is not exactly the optimization. The disadvantage of solving the
same, but very close. The process can be problem in manually is the complexity of the
continued for infinities of iteration, usually, it structure. With the development and research, it
performs a better solution as every time can be used as a practical tool for designer to
generates a new iteration. A sequence of employ in the field of structural optimization.
iterations is therefore makes up an exponential
trend in the graph. On this basis, the modified
total volume decreases as the size of the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
structure gets bigger. I would like to express my sincere appreciation
In principle, from the results of the overall to my supervisor Dr. Andrew Tyas for his
situations in joint costs method, the inclusion of guidance, support and encouragement
this method penalise the short members rather in throughout the preparation of this dissertation.
joints. But at the same time, joint cost is related
to the size. From the statistics, the joint length
value does not follow the same ratio in the later REFERENCES
iteration stages. The more complicated structure E. W. PARKES. (1975), “Joints in Optimum
requires higher the joint cost. In reality, for high Frameworks”, Int. J Solids Structures. Vol. 11.
number of joints in a large scale optimum pp 1017-1022.
102
Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Fire

Shizhen Chen
Msc Structural Engineering
ABSTRACT The high temperature which emerged from fire attack will destroy the frame of
structure and even collapse. In order to ensure the structure has abundant fire resistance capacity, the
structure needs to be conducted fire resistance analysis. In this paper, a three-dimensional modeling of
reinforced concrete structure is simulated to analyse the behaviour in fire. The analysis includes
thermal analysis and structural analysis which results will present the thermal behaviour and structural
behaviour of structural isolated elements and whole frame subject to standard fire (ISO 834). The
material and geometrical non-linearity are considered in this model. A three-dimensional non-linear
finite element model which called Vulcan is used to work out the structural behaviour of reinforced
concrete structure in terms of vertical deflections of slabs, beams and columns. The effect of concrete
spalling will be considered during the thermal and structural analysis. The impact of restrain from
surrounding cool structures on fire compartments will be investigated. And tensile and compressive
membrane actions within concrete slab floor will also to be studied. The results of recent design code
(Eurocode 2) and Vulcan needed to be compared in order to show the weakness of current design
method.
different between the high temperature and the

1 INTRODUCTION
same as on the ambient temperature from the
Fire plays an important role in people’s life; fire attack. Otherwise, they are also influenced
however, it also brings real great disasters in by the range of fire, temperature, time of
terms of human life’s losing and destroys of duration, progress of temperature transform and
properties. In most fire hazards, the highest other factors. It is possible that the dangerous of
frequency and the most serious loss are structural collapse exists because of the
happened in constructions. In different kinds of decreasing bearing capacity of structure. Fire
architectural structures, reinforced concrete can cause local damage and even the whole
structures possess a considerable proportion of structure collapse. The probability of building
them. Compared with timber structures and steel collapse is small due to the fire effects. The
structures, the fire resistance of reinforced rules of structures collapse and destroy are
concrete structures is better than these two difficult to enable people to understand because
structures. Deformation of structures, force of the lack of specific fire tests research and
distribution and bearing capacity are all theoretical analysis for whole structures. Once
103
the structure collapses, especially for reinforced 2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
concrete structure, because of the low
The brief aim of this dissertation is to
probability of whole building collapse under fire
investigate the structural behaviour of
condition, the reason for this which always be
reinforced concrete structures under standard
considered as the poor continuity of the
fire conditions. However, the behaviour of the
structure reinforcement layout or less
structure will be discussed in terms of the
considering the quality of construction while not
influence of concrete spalling effects on
to analyse the fire reaction rule of overall
reinforced concrete structures and the
structure. And only by understanding the
membrane traction of the slab. The following
favorable and unfavorable factors of structural
issues will be mentioned in this project:
stability of whole structure in structural fire
A. Analyse the thermal and structural analysis
response, it can help engineers to improve the
of reinforced concrete structure under
fire resistance of structures fundamentally.
standard fires using more advance
computer program, such as Vulcan.
B. Study how to model the full-scale
At present, the amount of overall structure fire
reinforced concrete structure in fire.
test is not great enough. The effective way to
C. Research the influence of the restraint from
solve the problems of behaviors of reinforced
surrounding cool structures at two different
concrete structures during fire attacks should be
locations of fire compartments.
simulated by conducting full-scale fire tests on
D. Consider the effect of the concrete spalling
concrete buildings. From 1995 to 1997, the
phenomena on the frame elements at
full-scale fire test was established eight floors
different conditions.
steel frame within UK Building Research
E. Investigate the influence of compressive
Establishment at Cardington. One of the main
and tensile membrane actions on the
objectives of this project was to understand and
behaviour of whole structure within
develop numerical calculation procedures that
concrete slab floor.
are capable of describing and prediction the
F. Compare the Vulcan results with Eurocode
structural behaviour of modern multi-storey
2, part1-2 (General rules-structural fire
composite steel framed buildings expose to fire
design) to express the weakness of the
attack. However, the full-scale fire test indicated
current design method.
that it is very expensive and the results of tests
can be utilized in specified structures. As a
result, it is an important approach of researching
3 MODELING OF REINFORCED
structures fire response through simulating
CONCRETE STRUCTURE
analytical models in current research.
This model is a four storey with 4.5m height
commercial building which exposed to fire
Since 1994, Huang et al have developed fire attack. The cross sectional area of this structural
resistance analytical program of steel structure is 25m  25m . It is a normal-weight reinforced
Vulcan. It is a three dimensional non-linear concrete structure with five 5m  5m bays in X
finite element model. With this model, it is easy and Y direction. This model subjects to the ISO
to simulate the structural behaviour of 834 standard fire test during in the whole
reinforced beam, column, continuous beam and progress. The chosen of each isolated structural
steel structure when exposed to fire attack. elements is based on the Eurocode 2(BSI,
2004a; 2004b). Figure 1 below shows the layout
104
of the whole structure. There are three key structure frame was divided into overall 837
points need to investigate: point A, point B and nodes and 301 elements were consisted of 169
point C. These three points are the center of the slab elements, 78 beam elements and 54 column
slab which they locate at. elements. A quarter of this model was modeled
and analyzed because of its symmetry.
4 PROCEDURES OF ANALYSIS
After simulating the full-scale model which is

suitable to this structure, it will be analysed by
two advance computer programs: FPRCBC-T
and Vulcan. The analysis of reinforcement
concrete structure in fire is consisted of thermal
analysis and structural analysis.
4.1 Thermal Analysis
The first stage of the analysis is to study the

thermal behaviour of beam, column and slab
Figure 1 Layout of the whole structure frame
within the whole frame. FPRCBC-T model is
used to work out the temperature distributions
The depth of slab is 170mm and it is divided within the cross-sections of each structural
into 14 layers along its thickness direction. The element when exposed to standard fire curve. It
temperature distribution of slab in each layer is also can be used to analyse structures thermal
different while the meshes’ temperature of slab behaviour in other type of fire, such as natural
in the same layer is the same. Each layer’s fire. The structural elements in this model are
thickness is also different due to the position of without of any protection materials. The period
slab where is exposed to fire. In this model, the of fire analysis in 240 minutes and the time step
thickness of bottom layers is thicker than that in is 10 seconds. The initial water content is
top layers, because the smaller the meshes the 9Kg/m. During the thermal analysis, the
closer to the real condition. There are overall 90 concrete spalling effects is considered when
nodes and 70 elements for slab models. The elements exposed to fire, otherwise, temperature
cross-section of beam is segmented into 441 histories of the reinforcing steel mesh in each
segments and the amount of nodes is 484. It is element with spalling effects and without
divided into 21 layers along its width direction spalling effects will be compared to the standard
and 21 layers along its depth direction, fire curve (ISO 834) to obtain the influence of
respectively; the cross-section of column is concrete spalling on the thermal behaviour of
segmented into 289 segments and the amount of beam, column and slab, respectively. The
nodes is 324. It is divided into 17 layers along temperature histories of the reinforcing steel
its width direction and 17 layers along its depth mesh within the slab, beam and column for the
direction, respectively. Both material and spalling case together with the no-spalling case
geometrical non-linearity are considered in this are shown in Figure 2 to Figure 4. It is evident
project. In the non-linear procedure, the that the effect of concrete spalling on the
105
thermal behaviour of these three structural 4.2 Structural Analysis
members is very significant.
The thermal output data of the elements,
generated by FPRCBC-T model is then used to
1200
as an input in the Vulcan to analyse the
900
structural behaviour of isolated members and
600
whole structure. The structure is symmetric,
300
therefore, only a quarter of the structure is
0
modeled. There are four main cases are
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
analysed:
ISO 834
(1) No-spalling effects for all members.
Concrete Spalled
No Concrete Spalling (2) Concrete spalling effects on slabs only.
(3) Concrete spalling effects on beams only.

Figure 2 Temperature histories of slab (4) Concrete spalling effects on columns only.
1200 0
-100 0 60 120 180 240
900 -200
600 -300
-400
300 -500
0 Only Slabs spalled
0 60 120 180 240
No spalling
ISO 834 Only Beams spalled
Tension Bar(Mid) no spalling Only Columns spalled
Tension Bar(Side) no spalling
Comprssion Bar no spalling Figure 5 Predicted deflections at the center of
the corner bay
Tension Bar(Mid) with spalling
Tension Bar(Side) with spalling 0
-100 0 60 120 180 240
Comprssion Bar with spalling
-200
-300
-400
Figure 3 Temperature histories of beam -500
No spalling
1200
900 Only beams spalled
600 Only slabs spalled

300 Only columns spalled
0
0 60 120 180 240 Figure 6 Predicted deflections at the center of
ISO 834 the middle bay
Reinforcing steel with spalling The four floor building is a symmetrical

Reinforcing steel without spalling structure, therefore, it just need to analyze a
quarter of this frame. In this project, the
Figure 4 Temperature histories of column deflection behavior of each structural member
106
played an important role of access the influence minutes for the no spalling condition due to the
of concrete spalling effects in different spalling bucking failure of column B2. Figure 6 and
cases. Therefore, the vertical deflections of Figure 7 show the predicted deflections at the
three key positions which located at the point A center of the middle bay and edge bay,
(node 141), the point B (node 421) and point C respectively. It can be noticed that the columns
(node 729) in different spalling cases will be failed at 47.5 minutes from Figure 8.
compared.
0 5.3 Fire compartments in different locations

-100 0 60 120 180 240
-200 Fire compartments in different locations
-300 discussed is the next step. In order to research
-400 the influence of restraint from surrounding cool
-500
structures on the fire compartment, three
No spalling different locations of fire compartment are
Only Slabs spalled modeled. And there are three spalling scenarios
Only Beams spalled cases for each fire compartments will be
Only Columns spalled studied:
(1) No-spalling for all members.

Figure 7 Predicted deflections at the center of (2) Concrete spalling effects on slabs only.
the edge bay
(3) Concrete spalling effects on beams only.
100
0
0 -100 0 60 120 180 240
0 50 100 150 -200
-100
-300
-200 -400
-500
No spalling
No spalling
Only Slabs spalled
Only Slabs spalled
Only Beams spalled
Only Beams spalled
Only Columns spalled
Figure 9 The vertical deflection at the center of

Figure 8 Predicted deflections at the position of
fire compartment 1
column C3
From the previous chapters’ results, it can be
From the Figure 5, it can be seen that the
included that the influence of concrete spalling
influence of concrete spalling effects on vertical
on the structural behavior of slabs depends on
deflection of the slabs in “only slabs spalled”
the degree of thermal restraint provided by the
condition is the greatest one. For instance, the
slabs. From Figure 9 and Figure 10 we can see
deflection of slab when considering the spalling
that the influence of different concrete spalling
effect on slab only is 216mm at 24 minutes
effects on the vertical deflection at the center of
while this figure of “no spalling for all
these two fire compartments is not very
members” is 36mm at the same time. The
significant due to the thermal restraint provided
second one which affected by concrete spalling
by the cool zones which next to it is great.
effect is beam and column is second one,
respectively. The analysis is stopped at 126
107
on the structural behavior of slabs depends on
0
the degree of thermal restraint provided by the
-150 0 40 80 120 160 200 240
slabs. From Figure 9 and Figure 10 we can see
-300
that the influence of different concrete spalling
-450
effects on the vertical deflection at the center of
-600
these two fire compartments is not very
No spalling significant due to the thermal restraint provided
Only Slabs spalled by the cool zones which next to it is great.
Only Beams spalled
Due to the mistakes of modeling, I have not got

Figure 10 The vertical deflection at the center of
enough time to research more structural
fire compartment 2
behavior of fire compartments and the influence
of principle membrane tractions on the behavior
within the floor slabs. The influence of restraint
5 CONCLUSIONS
from surrounding cool structures on the fire
In the thermal analysis of reinforced concrete compartment should be investigated in the
structure in fire, the results of it can be known corner bay of the structure. The thermal restraint
that the trend of temperature of concrete form the surrounding cool zones are smaller in
material and steel material is lower than the the corner bay than in fire compartment 1 and 2.
temperature of ISO 834. It decreases the chance What’s more, the influence of the principle
for reinforcing steel exposed to fire directly membrane tractions for considering spalling
what will impact the fire resistance and bearing effects and without considering spalling effects
capacity of slab elements in fire conditions. In has not investigated. Therefore, the conclusion
other words, concrete is a great fire proof of this influence in this project is not sufficient
material. What’s more, the cover of concrete to prove the impact of restraint from
members played the main role in extending the surrounding cool structures on the fire
fire resistance time of whole structure. The compartment.
concrete spalling effect was considered in this
project. From the comparison between with
spalling and without spalling conditions, it is REFERENCES
noticed that the fire resistance of reinforced
Bailey C (2002) Holistic behaviour of concrete
concrete structure is significantly impacted by
buildings in fire. Proceedings of ICE, Structures
this phenomenon. The influence degree of each
and Buildings 152(3): 199-212.
structural member is different. Slab members
were most affected by spalling effect and beam BSI (British Standards Institution) (2004a) BS
was the second one. EN 1992-1-2: Eurocode 2, design of concrete
structures. Part 1-2: general rules- structural fire
design. BSI, London.
In order to study the influence of concrete
ISO (International Organization for
spalling effect on the structural behavior of
Standardization) (1985) ISO 834: Fire resistance
whole structure, four different spalling cases
tests: elements of building construction. ISO,
were analyzed respectively in three key points.
Geneva.
From the previous chapters’ results, it can be
included that the influence of concrete spalling
108
Seismic Performance of Buildings with Sliding Base Isolation Systems

Bo Cheng
ABSTRACT Anti-seismic technology, serving as a tool to offer protection to structure and human
safety, develops unceasingly. Through decades of evolution, base isolation has become one of the most
powerful applications worldwide. Despite its high maturity, unfortunately, many issues remain
unverified. Plenty of general performance analyses were investigated on the basis of one directional or
bi-directional ground excitation due to the insufficiency and simplification of models, which was
conducted not merely by computational methods, but also on shake tables. However, as for three-
dimensional earthquake impact, with characteristics of more vivid visual and physical effects, it has
attracted relatively much less researchers. Moreover, researches regarding optimal design methods on
particular structures are rather few. By paying particular attention to simulate the real earthquake, a
finite element model with geometric features of the 5th Fukushima nuclear reactor was built in ANSYS
and applied with real earthquake motions. Responses of regular and base isolated structures were
compared and evaluated, which basically constitutes the optimal isolation design of the structure. It is
proved that friction coefficient and structural damping were rather effective for offering protections.
Besides, all the parameters have various impacts on the responses of superstructure at different levels.
Sliding base isolation performed extremely well in violent earthquakes. However, it is vertical
component that generates main effect of stress intensity in the slab. Hence, it could be concluded that
vertical isolation may attain ideal level with larger damping and the double layer isolation system may
have better performance under the circumstances of material non-linearity.
Rubber bearings provide a simplified approach

1 INTRODUCTION
of isolation and also a considerably simple
Base isolation, also called seismic isolation process [2]. The sliding isolation unit works by
system, is an aggregate of structural devices reducing the shear force transfer from base to the
which should adequately decouple a superstructure across the isolation interface [2].
superstructure from its foundation or
For the purpose of simulating the reality, a finite
substructures relying on a vibrating ground in
element model with geometry features of
order to maintain upright of building or non-
Fukushima nuclear power plant 5th was built in
building structure [1]. The goal of seismic
ANSYS. Three-dimensional ground motion of
protection aims to weaken motions of the
real earthquake was used in the simulation. The
superstructures so that ground excitations could
optimal design of isolation system due to this
be reduced. The building must be with high
particular structure was based on the effects of
flexibility in order to attain this goal. But
different parameters. Further, double layer
meanwhile, it may generate many problems to
isolation was experimented and several new
frame’s formation. For low-rise or medium-rise
criteria were considered. Results showed varying
architecture, only base and substructure level’s
parameters influence different responses at
flexibility can be attained through adopting base
different levels and the double layer concept
isolation [2].
performed not very satisfactorily. In the future
Base isolation system is formed by isolation study, soil-structure interaction should be taken
units with or without isolation components, all into account.
kinds of isolation units could be separated into
two basic classifications: shear units and sliding
units[1]. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
The shear isolation unit does not mean to There are several kinds of base isolation system
consume the earthquake energy, but rather which have different features. Reducing the
utilizes the dynamics of the system to deflect it. natural frequency of structural vibration to a
109
lower value is one main concept in base Fig. 3.1 Cross-section drawings of the 5th
isolation. To make sure that that value is smaller Fukushima nuclear plant reactor [3]
than the energy containing frequencies of
3.2 Simulation Software
earthquake excitations. Another target of the
isolation system is to provide means to dissipate ANSYS LS-DYNA is an advanced software
earthquake energy and reducing the package which is developed by the Livermore
accelerations transfer to the superstructure. The Software Technology Corporation (LSTC). This
most significant feature of the frictional base- general-purpose multi-physics simulation
isolation system is that it can be effective for software provides opportunities to solve many
excitations with wide range frequency contents. complicated, real world problems by Lagrange
The other advantage of frictional isolation (explicit), ALE (implicit) and Euler (both
system is that it can make sure that the peak explicit and implicit) arithmetic.
transmitted acceleration will be the same of the
maximum limiting frictional force. In Governing equation
comparison of characteristics, the effects of ∫ ̈ ∫
friction coefficient and stiffness (natural period)
of either isolator or superstructure are likely ∫ ∫
more significant than the damping ratio and
mass ratio. The symmetry of isolator distribution Of which, refers to current density of mass; ̈
and superstructure is very important too. stands for acceleration; along the
Adopting base isolation system to nuclear power boundary meets the condition of displacement
plant is feasible and necessary to some extent. boundary; is the current volume of
Based on the previous applications and configuration; refers to Cauchy stress;
theoretical study, 3-D finite element of lumped- means the volume force per element mass;
mass stick model is appropriate to investigate the is surface force load.
seismic performance of nuclear power plant and
The formula 3.1 shown above is the variational
ANSYS was used in this sort of study. In the
formulation of Principle of Virtual Work.
modeling and validation of isolated reactor,
proper functioning of secondary systems, Discretization of Space Finite Element
vertical response, torsional effect and rocking
should also be focused. The isolation concept LS-DYNA3D program combines matrix
provides advantages to nuclear plants in terms of elements in the same line of element mass
safety, performance and cost. And there are still matrix ∫ into diagonal
some serious issues need to be clarified. elements to form integral mass matrix.
After calculating and chunking of element,
equation can be written into:
3 METHODOLOGY
[ ̈ ̇ ]
3.1 Objective
̈ ̇
Fukushima nuclear power plant reactor 5,
Of which, is overall quality matrix; ̈
Structure: reinforced concrete structure and steel
is overall acceleration vector of node; is
frame (the roof level); Dimensions:
overall load vector, which consists of load,
47m (NS)*47m (EW) level1-5 surface force and body force of node; is
formed by the equivalent nodal force of element
47m (NS)*35.2m (EW) level6-7
stress field (or known as stress dispersion
47m(NS)*57.4m(EW) underground level degree), which is
Height: 62.11m from base bottom to the top,
46.05m over ground ∑ ∫
Mass: 110355t in total; in the model, the
simulative mass in total is 106920t
[ ]
n is the number of elements; ∫
Time Integral and Control of Time Step

After taking damping effects into consideration,
motion equation of LS-DYNA3D program can
be expressed as
̈ ̇ ̇
110
Its time integral adopts explicit central !start to assign the contact
difference method, with equation of edcgen,sts,MB_bot,innerbase_node,0.05,0.05
edcgen,sts,innerbase_node,outterbase_node,0.02
̈ [ ,0.02
Definition of damping
̇( )] eddamp, , ,0.02 !α
mp,damp,5,0.3 !β
definition of isolation stiffness and damping
̈( ) ̇( ) ̈ ET,2,link160
lsel,r, , ,475,496
̇ cm,innerisolation,line
mp,damp,4,0.02
Of which mp,dens,4,7800
mp,nuxy,4,0.3 !inner isolation
mp,ex,4,2.0e6
r,5,1
̈ ̇( ) are node lesize,all,2
acceleration vector at the time of , node speed latt,4,5,2
vector at the time of and node coordinate lmesh,all
Definition of element and section types
vector at the time of . ET,1,beam161 (beam188 for implicit)
For link and beam element: ET,2,link160 (link8 for implicit)
ET,3,shell163 (shell63 for implicit)
( ) r,1, , ,0.3,0.3,0.3,0.3
!Column data
Of which, α is time step factor and its default sectype,1,beam,I,Column,
value is 0.9; L stands for the length of link and secdata,0.412,0.412,0.436,0.058,0.058,0.036
beam; c is shear wave velocity of the materials
Modelling
√ 1
ELEMENTS
AUG 21 2011
MAT NUM
20:22:03
Method of application of LS-DYNA

Solution procedures of ANSYS/LS-DYNA 12
Program System are:

(I) Preprocessor Model (use PREP7
11
Preprocessor)
Z
1. Setup preference option X Y
2. Define element type, option and real
constant Nuclear Reaction island without isolators
3. Define material properties Fig. 3.2 The finite element model of non-isolated
4. Establish structural practical modeling structure
5. Conducting meshing
6. Define contact surface
(II) Loading and Solution
1. Limit, load and preset initial velocity
2. Set controls parameter for the process of
solution
3. Select time interval of document output and
input
4. Solve (invoking LS-DYNA)
(III) Post-processor POST1 (observe
deformation and stress and strain state) and
POST26 (draft time history curve), and can also
connect with post-processor program LS-
TAURUS of LSTC Company. Fig. 3.2 The finite element model of one layer
horizontal and vertical isolated structure
Parametric of LS-DYNA
Definition of friction contact 4 Results and Discussion
111
4.1 Modal analysis Fig. 4.2 Deflection response time histories at top
The foregoing modes of this building without Secondary systems such as the polar crane at the
isolation system are mainly about the steel roof top floor are also affected by the changes in
level, this happens because the main body in friction coefficient. The peak earthquake
reinforced concrete is rather stiff while the steel response first grows then remains constant in the
structure on top is relatively too flexible. After crane for the entire range of μ considered. A
the modal order number becomes large, the greater value of friction coefficient is favourable
concrete main body turns into active. Due to the for controlling the peak rotation effect. At last,
asymmetric arrangement of isolators and no the velocity-dependent friction does not have a
rotational stiffness is provided to the structure, noteworthy effect on the performance of the base
this rotational effect could be worse in the low
stiffness isolated case. In the second and third
mode, the deflections in isolators are remarkable
and the entire structure moves in the X and Y
direction respectively. Despite the first three
modal shapes here are totally different from that
of the rigid base one, the further modes are the
same as a matter of course.
isolated structure.
Fig. 4.3 Peak deflection responses versus
variations of friction coefficient
μ 0 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2
DAF 0.15 0.51 1.12 2.09 2.30 2.62
Table 4.1 Dynamic amplification factor (DAF)
versus variations of friction coefficient
Fig. 4.1 The first modal shape of isolated Unlike the friction property, wrong stiffness of
structure isolation system may amplify the responses of
4.2 Sensitive Analysis superstructure. Secondly, the floor deflection
response is not sensitive to the variations of
In general, a larger friction produces higher stiffness at certain stage. Thirdly, small stiffness
deflection and acceleration response in the isolation may bring large residual relative
structure and lower peak relative displacement at displacement at base and protect secondary
base. But for some larger stiffness isolation instrument better.
systems, there is a response reduction in the
UX_4,0,relative UX_4,1.0e3,relative
structure due to increased friction which is an 0.14
UX_4,5.0e3,relative UX_4,1.0e4,relative
RELATIVE X-DISPLACEMENT AT BASE
0.12
opposite phenomenon. The influence of UX_4,5.0e4,relative UX_4,1.0e5,relative
0.1
variation of friction coefficient on the peak UX_4,5.0e5,relative UX_4,1.0e6,relative
0.08
response becomes smaller after the μ gets larger. 0.06
After the duration of the earthquake, an increase
(m)
0.04
in the friction coefficient commonly causes a 0.02
larger residual relative displacement at base, but 0
this is not always true. -0.02
-0.04
0.2
-0.06
RELATIVE X-DISPLACMENT AT TOP
0.15 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
TIME （sec）
0.1
0.05 Fig. 4.4 Relative displacement between the

retaining wall and the base for different stiffness
(m)
-0.05 of isolation system

-0.1
UX_1,0,relative UX_1,0.01,relative
At last, larger stiffness is provided with small
-0.15 UX_1,0.02,relative UX_1,0.05,relative residual rotational angle and instability of this
UX_1,0.1,relative UX_1,0.2,relative
-0.2 rotational effect and pure friction cases (no
0 10 20 30 40
TIME (sec) restoring force) have no rotational response at
base.
112
0.05 the absolute acceleration at the top of the furnace
0.04 (node a). It seems that the reductions of stress
BETWEEN TWO NODES AT BASE (m)

0.03
intensity and absolute acceleration at the top of
RELATIVE Y-DISPLACEMENT
0.02
the furnace are not that remarkable compared to
0.01
the other responses. This happens because of the
0
-0.01
vertical excitation is not reduced by the isolation
-0.02
system and the slabs are quite sensitive to that.
UYΔ,0 UYΔ,1.0e3 UYΔ,1.0e4
-0.03 Sliding base isolation system performances
UYΔ,5.0e4 UYΔ,1.0e5 UYΔ,5.0e5
-0.04 UYΔ,1.0e6 extremely well in violent earthquake with high
0 5 10 15 20
TIME (sec)
25 30 35 40 frequency content.
50
Fig.4.5 Relative displacement time histories 40
between two nodes at base.
X-ACCELERATION AT TOP AND

30
20
The effects of all the responses for various
GROUND(m/s^2)
10
stiffness or friction coefficient are
0
overwhelmingly significant than that of damping -10
coefficient. It could be concluded that the sliding -20
base isolation system is insensitive to changes in -30
the damping ratio of isolators. As the damping -40
AXtop,fix AXtop,iso AX，ground
coefficient becomes rather large, the responses -50
of the isolated structure almost remain constant. 0 5 10 15 20
TIME (sec)
However, the damping coefficient of
superstructure affects the variations in responses Fig. 4.7 Acceleration responses at top of fixed-
a lot; it virtually reduces the responses in base and isolated structure in displacement
general, but conversely increases that when it magnified EI Centro 1940
becomes too high.
35
The conclusion of vertical isolation section
STRSS INTENSITY AT NODE b (Mpa)
30
could be drawn in three points. Firstly, for
particular structures, poor design in vertical 25
SINT_fix,b
isolation could lead to worse results than non- 20
isolation building. Secondly, in general, lower 15
stiffness isolation performances better but may 10
cause damages in secondary instruments because
5
of large relative displacement. Thirdly, huge
damper should be used in the vertical isolators. 0
0 5 10 15 20
TIME (sec)
For the trail of double layer isolation, as far as
the isolation arrangements considered at this Fig. 4.8 Stress intensity at node b of fix-base and
stage, no exciting result has been found and the isolated structure in displacement magnified EI
one layer isolation system evenly performances Centro 1940
better than the double isolated system in
reducing the response at top. 60
Aabsolute,a,fix
50
ABSOLUTE ACC AT NODE a(m/s^2)
0.08 UX1,7,relative 0.02,1.0e4,relative

Aabsolute,a,iso
0.06 40
DEFLECTION AT TOP (m)
0.04
30
0.02
0 20
-0.02
-0.04 10
-0.06 0
-0.08 0 5 10 15 20
TIME (sec) TIME (sec)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 -10
Fig. 4.9 Absolute acceleration at node a of fixed-

Fig. 4.6 Deflection response time histories at top
base and isolated structure in displacement
of case 7 and one layer isolation
magnified EI Centro 1940
4.3 Intensity effects
The sliding isolation system reduces all the 5 CONCLUSIONS
responses including deflection and acceleration
at top, stress intensity at the selected nodes and 5.1 Parametric study
113
(1)Small friction coefficient in the sliding base isolation system performances well in different
isolation system is favorable not only for earthquake durations with high intensity,
reducing the deflection and acceleration actually, it provides smaller DAF for larger
responses in the main body, but also for earthquake, this is resulted by the limited
protecting the flexible secondary system like conductible force at the isolated level. (3)Sliding
crane and piping. (2)Large friction coefficient system performances extremely well in the high
normally creates residual relative displacement frequency excitation, happening of this
at base; however, it keeps the base away from phenomenon is probably due to the response
rotating as well. (3)In practice, the responses are delay brought by isolation, so that the
not sensitive to the velocity-dependent friction mechanism actually makes earthquake energy
model. (4)Conversely, when the isolator contains dissipates itself. (4)Stress intensity and absolute
large stiffness, larger friction case performances acceleration of major nodes are reduced by the
better than lower ones because it provides more isolation more significantly than that of slabs;
damping and weakens the motion. (5)Compared therefore, slabs are sensitive to the vertical
to the effects of friction coefficient, stiffness of excitation which is not reduced in this
isolation system implements zero influence the simulation. (5) The peak torsinal deflection is
peak acceleration and deflection responses that normally directly proportional to the peak
much with the appropriate friction, but it is ground displacement; however, it is not the case
effective to control residual displacement at in pure friction isolation system.
base; the DAF of high stiffness isolation system
is even larger than that of the fixed-base
structure. (6)Large isolation stiffness leads to 6 Recommendations
small residual rotation and displacement at base,
but makes strong angular changes at base and Material non-linearity, all the materials were
assumed to be linear elastic here, material non-
causes damage to the secondary systems.
linearity and plastic behavior could make
(7)Within the scope of consideration in this
simulation more accurate and the energy
analysis, the responses in the model are changed
dissipation by yielding in the isolation system
little by the variations in the isolation damping
will be focused.
ratio. (8) Damping of the superstructure reduces
all the responses, further, if the structural Soil-structure interaction, the nature of
damping is irregularly high, the responses will underlying soils should be taken into account
be increased but still better than that of the fixed- and finite element software can simulate the soil
base case. site conditions.
5.2 Effects of vertical isolation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(1) For particular structures, vertical isolation
Profoundly grateful to Dr Mihail Petkovski,
could issues in both favorable and unfavorable
whose illuminating instruction and expert advice
responses. (2) Flexible springs are necessary for
He gave the author lots of inspirations and
purpose of reducing the vertical acceleration, but
encouragement. He pointing out the mistakes
this also requires large displacement demand in
and helping the author to clarify his ideas. The
vertical direction and may cause serious
author would like to thank Mr.Rahi Rahbari for
problems in cooling pipe system. Thus, huge
his expertise and advises.
damper should be applied at this stage.
5.3 Trial of double layer isolation
There is only one trial example which shows a REFERENCES
slightly improvement of response in deflection.
[1] Wikipedia, Base isolation, Structures and
Lack of optimistic results may be due to the
Seismic Activity of Earthquake engineering,
narrow consideration scope of trial examples,
2011,
insufficiency attention of damping and material
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_isolation
non-linearity.
5.4 Optimal design and intensity effects [2] James M.Kelly. Aseismic base isolation:
review and bibliography. Soil Dynamics and
(1)Obviously, due to the different earthquake
Earthquake Engineering, 1986, Vol. 5, No. 3,
and structural characteristic, it is unrealistic to
202-208
make the optimal design coincide in every case.
But simulation software makes the modeling and [3] Tokyo Electric Power Co., Ltd., Fukushima
investigation of each specific structure in Daiichi Nuclear Power Station Unit 5, The
different earthquake excitation a reality. In any safety of buildings and structures and the safety
case, this paper presents a method to study evaluation of important piping systems, July,
seismic performance of structure especially for 2009,
the structures with complex anti-seismic www.tepco.co.jp/nu/material/files/fk09061701.p
measures. (2)The optimal designed sliding base df
114
Dynamic performance of floors in Multi-storey buildings

Chetan Chikkannaswamy
ABSTRACT This paper involves the study and analytical investigation of vibration transmission in a
multi-storey building. The presence of nominally identical floors in the structure lead to closely spaced
modes of vibration which have the possibility of enhancing the transmission of vibration. In order to
check this phenomenon, the structure is modelled in 1D, 2D & 3D using Ndof and Ansys software
packages. Modal analysis is conducted on each model to obtain the dynamic characteristics and modal
properties. The existence of closely spaced modes of vibration is identified in the 2D & 3D models.
Further, the 3D model is used to perform parametric studies on the effect of many floors in vibration
transmission in multi-storey buildings. The acceleration responses occurring at different floors levels
due to the excitation at one floor level are obtained. These responses are used to calculate the
transmissibility which is then plotted against the frequency to show the transmission occurring between
the floors. Finally conclusions are made that, there is considerable amount of transmission occurring
from different floors.
structural elements or contents of the buildings

1 INTRODUCTION
like instruments or machinery. Humans tend to
From the past few decades, the long span slender be more sensitive if they are unaware of the
floor systems have gained more and more vibration of the floor. This could happen when
popularity in building construction. This trend the source of vibration is unknown to the
has resulted in the society seeking more elegant occupants which may be present in a different
and exciting solutions and clients seeking greater floor level. In this case, the perceptible
economy in meeting onerous structural vibrations could be transmitted from one floor to
performance requirements. The availability of another where no clue about the source exists
high strength & light weight materials and due to and to which the occupants are totally
the improvements in the construction unprepared. Hence the vibration susceptibility
technology, the modern day floors are becoming thresholds could reasonably be expected to
livelier. These floors may satisfactorily meet reduce in such a situation. It means that even a
ultimate limit state requirements, but they often small level of vibration on one floor transmitted
lack stiffness and mass. So, excessive vibration from other floors may easily become
may then become a problem (Allen, 1990a; unacceptable (Widjaja, 2004).
Bachmann and Ammann, 1987; Pavic and
Vibrations caused due to human activities such
Reynolds, 2002a).
as walking, running, jumping etc may be
Excessive vibration problems may become a annoying to the building users. In cases where
governing design criterion in the case of floors these vibrations are transmitted to different floor
in buildings with mix occupancies (Pavic et al., levels have been regarded as a serious source of
2002). Examples of such buildings are multi- serviceability problem (Allen et al, 1987;
storey buildings having offices & health clubs or Bachmann and Ammann, 1987). However, most
a gymnasium (Allen, 1990a), shopping centres published research literatures on vibration of
with quiet shops & heavily trafficked floors, or floors to date have been concentrated on a single
specific purpose buildings with vibration floor level where both the source and the
sensitive equipment located above or below busy receiver are on the same floor. Hence, there is a
corridors or heavy production plants. In these lack of research which explicitly focuses on
cases, the problem is not only restricted to the transmission of vibration between floors.
equipments, but also to the human occupants.
Humans are the prime receivers of the vibration
along with the vibrating structural & non
115
2 STRUCTURAL DESCRIPTION The columns are spaced at 11.3m in the building
making square panels of 11.3m x 11.3m each.
The structure chosen for study is a multi-storey
As seen in the plan (figure 3.1), the beams are
shopping mall which will be referred as
diagonally placed and hence the slab panels are
‘Structure A’ in this paper. It provides 400,000
diagonally oriented as well. For the one-
sq. ft. of shopping area on 4 floors with car
dimensional model, single panel of slab at each
parking spaces on three floors over. The
floor level supported by single columns is
structural form comprised of composite beams
chosen. The weight of the panel and equivalent
using Grade S355 steelwork and 140mm thick
spring stiffness of the columns are calculated.
reinforced normal weight concrete composite
floor slabs on SMD R51 metal decking. For all Assuming the density of concrete to be
areas except the car park areas, the floors are 2400kg/m3, the mass acting at each floor level
designed for a response factor of 4 using 3% comes to 40243kg. The column stiffnesses are
damping. Figure 2.1 shows the plan of ‘Structure calculated using the formula,
A’. 12𝐸𝐼
𝑘=
ℎ3
The 4 storeys of the building represent the 4
degrees of freedom and hence the model is a
4DOF model. After the modal analysis of the
model, the natural frequencies and the mode
shapes were obtained as shown in the figure 3.2.
Figure 2.1 - Plan of Structure A

3 MODELLING
Due the complexity of the structure and for the
better understanding of the problem, the
modelling has been done in 3 stages; in single
dimension, in two dimensions and in three Figure 3.2 - 1D Model with the mode shapes and
dimensions. frequencies
3.1 One Dimensional Model The natural frequencies of the model were found
The simplest of all is considering the building to to be widely spaced (f1=4.30Hz, f2=11.96Hz,
be free to move in a single direction which is f3=18.23Hz and f4=22.97Hz) which is actually
nothing but a spring-mass system. The floors at not the case. Due to the high level of simplicity
each level act as the lumped masses and the in the model, the results were obvious. But as the
columns as the springs. This is done in NDOF efficiency in modelling increases, the degree of
code which is developed by JMW Brownjohn accuracy will increase which can be seen in the
and A. Pavic, Vibration Engineering Section, future models.
University of Sheffield, UK. It is a user friendly 3.2 Two Dimensional Model
visualization tool using MATLAB for simulation
of stick models, nonlinear responses, run The model developed here is a two dimensional,
vibration serviceability assessments etc. The plane frame model at the section shown in the
section chosen for modelling is shown in figure figure 3.3. Two bays were considered for the
3.1. model to form a framed structure and the
appropriate loading acting on the section was
considered as shown in the figure 3.4. The total
load acting was then converted into a line load
and applied to the model by combining it with
the density of the beam elements at each floor.
The Elastic modulus of steel was taken as
210GPa, density as 7800kg/m3 and the Poisson’s
ratio to be 0.3.
Figure 3.1 - Plan showing the section1 for 1D

model
116
Figure 3.3 - Plan showing the section for 2D
model
Figure 3.4 - Plan showing the sectional area of

loading considered for the 2D model
Figure 3.5 shows the Ansys model of the 2D
frame. BEAM3 elements which are 2D uniaxial
elements with tension, compression, and bending
capabilities are used to model the beams and
columns of the structure. The beam and columns
are carefully noted down from the structural
drawings and the corresponding properties are
applied during modelling. The bottom nodes are
fixed and the edge nodes (which is the beam- Figure 3.6 - Mode shapes of 2D model
column junction) at each floor level is restrained
from moving in the horizontal direction as we As seen in the table 3.1, unlike the one-
are interested only in the vertical vibration of the dimensional model, the modes are closely
structure. spaced as expected. The first 2 modes are having
closely spaced natural frequencies and are
dominated by the 4th floor. The frequencies are
again close to each other from the 3rd to 8th mode
which is dominated by the 1st, 2nd and 3rd floors
as shown in figure 3.6.
3.3 Three Dimensional Model
The 2-dimensional model is further developed
into a 3-dimensional model by extending the
2bays of the 2D model in the z direction (in this
case) to form a 2bay 3D framed structure. The
Figure 3.5 - 2D frame model
section chosen for the 3d model is shown in the
Modal analysis is performed on the model and figure 3.7.
the first few modes of vibration of the structure
are as shown in the figure 3.6 and the natural
frequencies are tabulated in table 3.1.
Table 3.1 - Modes and frequencies of 2D model
Mode Frequency
1 5.0362
2 5.1855
3 7.0793
4 7.3154 Figure 3.7 - Plan showing the section for 3D
5 7.4449 model
6 8.1542 All the beam, column elements are steel sections
7 8.3609 and slab is a 140mm concrete composite floor
8 8.4807 slab. Beam4 elements of Ansys are used to
model the beams and columns of the structure.
BEAM4 is a 3-D elastic uniaxial element with
117
tension, compression, torsion, and bending
capabilities. And to model the slabs, SHELL63
elements are used provided with a thickness of
140mm. SHELL63 is a 3D elastic shell which
has both bending and membrane capabilities and
on which both in-plane and normal loads are
permitted. The material properties of steel;
Elastic modulus of 210GPa, density of
7800kg/m3 & Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 and that of
concrete; Elastic modulus of 30GPa, density of
2400kg/m3 & Poisson’s ratio of 0.2 are assumed.
The completed 3D model with the support
conditions applied is shown in the figure 3.8.
The edges of the slabs are restrained in the
horizontal direction to enable pure vertical
vibration of the structure. Modal analysis is
performed and the results are presented in figure
3.9 and table 3.2.
From the table 3.2, it can be seen that the results
obtained are very much as expected unlike those
of the previous models. A series of relatively
closely spaced similar shapes are present with
lower frequencies happening at 'softer' higher
levels, and similar shapes happening at 'stiffer'
lower levels at slightly higher frequencies. This
is a correct representation of the real life
behaviour of the structure. Hence this model will Figure 3.9 - Modes shapes of 3D model
be used in the future for study of vibration
transmission occurring at different floor levels.
4 SIMULATION OF VIBRATION
According to DTA (1993a), transmissibility is
defined as, ‘The non-dimensional ratio of
response amplitude of a system in steady state
forced vibration to the excitation amplitude. This
ratio can be expressed in term of forces,
displacements, velocities or accelerations’.
Although the transmissibility issue is considered
for a long time, there is no clear view about
transmissibility. Hence in 1998, Liu and Ewins
tried to clarify the concept and provided a more
clear definition of transmissibility. They defined
a term called transmissibility function, T(ω) as
the ratio of FRFs, which can always be found
Figure 3.8 - 3D Model
wherever the properties exist.
𝐻𝑗 1𝑘 (𝜔)
Table 3.2 - Natural frequencies of 3D model 𝑇𝑗 1,𝑗 2 𝜔 =
𝐻𝑗 2𝑘 (𝜔)
Mode Frequency Ewins (2000) defined transmissibility of
1 3.6976 vibration as the ratio between the response levels
2 4.0421 at two points, say j and k, due to a single
3 4.2785 excitation, say at DOF i.
4 4.3188
𝐻𝑗𝑖 (𝜔)
5 4.4271 𝑖 𝑇𝑗𝑘 𝜔 =
𝐻𝑘𝑖 (𝜔)
6 4.4449
7 4.4998 where Hji(ω) and Hki(ω) are FRFs corresponding
8 4.5683 to the responses at points j and k, respectively,
due to an excitation at DOF i.
Pavic et al (2002) defined transmissibility as the
ratio between the point and transfer mobility
118
FRFs corresponding to two points on the
structure.
Based on the above definitions, transmissibility
can be regarded as a quantity that indicates the
ratio of vibration levels between two points on
the structure. The transmissibility in this paper is
taken as the ratio of the acceleration responses of
the corresponding points.
In this section, the effect of number of floors Figure 4.2 - Transmission at pt. A when excited
included in the model while checking the on 1st floor
vibration serviceability of floors at various levels The maximum transmissibility of 47.07% can be
in a multi-storey building is studied. For the seen to 2nd floor at a frequency of 4.1Hz. The
vibration simulation, the 3D model presented in maximum transmission occurring to other floors
the section 3.3 is chosen. Firstly, 3 random and the corresponding frequencies are given in
locations A, B and C on the model are selected table 4.1.
(figure 3.8). These 3 points are excited and
acceleration responses are calculated at the same Table4.1 - Max transmissibility & corresponding
coordinate locations on all the 4 floor levels frequencies (pt. A, excitation on floor 1)
using Matlab. The frequency range of 1 to 6Hz Max trans. (%) Freq. (Hz)
is considered for response calculation with a Floor 2 47.07 4.1
frequency resolution of 0.05Hz. A uniform Floor 3 20.8 4.4
damping ratio of 2% is taken for all modes of Floor 4 23.51 4.1
vibration. The procedure for response
calculation is carried out according to 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Appendix G of CSTR43. As we have seen in the previous chapter, there is
When the harmonic footfall forces are applied on a lot of vibration being transferred from one
the 1st floor of the building, the responses of all floor to another in the multi-storey building. The
the 4 floors are obtained as shown in figure 4.1. amount of transmission varies from floor to floor
and also depends on the location. Location here
means the coordinate location of the point of
excitation and the point at which the response is
checked. In this case, the coordinate locations of
both the points were kept constant while
checking the responses but the points were on
different floor levels. The transmission occurring
in this way is called as direct transmission. The
transmissibility ratios of all the floors at different
locations A, B & C are plotted as 3D graphs
shown as figures 5.1, 5.2 & 5.3. The two
Figure 4.1 - Acceleration responses of all the horizontal axes represent the points of excitation
floors when excited on the 1st floor. & response and the vertical axis represents the
transmissibility ratio in percentage.
As seen in the figure, the maximum response is
on the 1st floor itself with a value of 0.166m/s2 at
4.45Hz. The first prominent peak can be seen at
4Hz which is close to the fundamental frequency
of 3.69Hz. We may also notice that, there are
reasonable acceleration responses on the other 3
floors as well. The ratio of these accelerations of
floors 2, 3, 4 to the accelerations of floor 1 gives
the transmissibility occurring from 1st floor to
the other floors and is presented graphically as
figure 4.2.
Figure 5.1 - Transmissibility at point A
119
with a significant advantage. The response of
any floor can be obtained by just multiplying the
known response of the floor by its
transmissibility ratio.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely thank my supervisor, Prof.
Aleksandar Pavic for his support and guidance.
REFERENCES
Allen D.E, Rainer J.H and Pernica G (1987).
Figure 5.2 - Transmissibility at point B ‘Building Vibrations due to Human Activities’,
Proceedings of the ASCE Structures Congress,
Orlando, USA. p. 438 - 447
Allen D. E. (1990a). ‘Building Vibrations from
Human Activities’, Concrete International, Vol.
12, No. 6, 66-73.
Bachmann H and Ammann W
(1987). ‘Vibrations in Structures—Induced by
Man and Machines’, Structural Engineering
Documents Vol. 3e, International Association of
Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE),
Figure 5.3 - Transmissibility at point C Zürich.
Dynamic Testing Agency, (1993a). ‘Handbook
From the above figures, we can infer that the on Guidelines to best practice. Volume 1-
maximum transmissibility is happening at point Instrumentation. Cranfield, UK
A which is the midpoint of a floor plan (refer
figure 3.8). The maximum of 54% of vibration is Ewins, D.J., 2000. Modal Testing: Theory,
being transmitted from 2nd to 1st floor when the Practice and Application, Research Studies
excitation was at the 2nd floor and the same Press, Ltd.
amount is also being transmitted from 3rd to 4th Lui W and Ewins D J, 1998. ‘Transmissibility
floor when the excitation was at the 3rd floor. Properties of MDOF Systems’, Proceedings of
The probable reason for the high response and the 16th IMAC, Santa Barbara, CA.
transmission at point A could be due to the
reason that, it is located at the centre of a floor Pavic A, Widjaja T, and Reynolds P (2002).
panel and far away from any supports or ‘The use of modal testing and FE model
constraints. Moreover it is a known fact that the updating to investigate vibration transmission
maximum deflection of any slab is at the between two nominally identical building
midpoint. floors’, International Conference on Structural
Dynamics Modelling - Test, Analysis,
6 CONCLUSIONS Correlation and Validation, pp. 347-355,
Madeira Island, Portugal, 3-5 June.
A wide range of transmission amounts is
observed between the floors. The highest Pavic, A. and Willford, M.R. (2005), ‘Appendix
transmissibility is from the 3rd to the 4th floor at a G: Vibration serviceability of post-tensioned
frequency of 3.75Hz which is very close to the concrete floors’, Post-tensioned concrete floors
fundamental frequency of 3.69Hz. It is also design handbook, Slough, UK, Concrete Society,
observed that most of transmissions occurred at p 99-107.
the frequencies of 4Hz, 4.50Hz and 5.2Hz. And
Widjaja T (2004), ‘Vibration transmission
it can be witnessed that transmissibility depends
between two nominally identical building
on the location of the point in the structure as
floors’, PhD thesis, The University of Sheffield,
well as the mode shape amplitudes of the
UK.
corresponding points. Apart from these, it can
be concluded that the presence of closely spaced
modes increases the vibration transmission
between floors.
After the detailed study on transmission of
vibration, transmissibility can be regarded as a
parameter to assess the performance of a multi-
storey building. It is a single numerical value
120
Design of Retaining Walls to Eurocode 7

Damian Conboy
ABSTRACT Eurocode 7 has brought a unified approach to the geotechnical design. However there
remain a number of ambiguities, particularly with respect to retaining wall design that require
clarification. Water pressures have a major influence on the design of retaining walls. With the density
of water know accurately and water levels which can be determined quite accurately, questions have
been asked as to whether a partial factor should be applied to water effects in retaining design. This
paper is focused primarily on cantilever embedded walls in stiff clay. Conventional and numerical
analysis was used for a parametric study of a range of wall scenarios. Four cases will be analysed
taking into account of water and the effects of clay. The author seeks to evaluate a range of design
assumptions and to recommend a clear and consistent approach to the use of Eurocode 7 in these
circumstances.
debate and criticism. This review addresses three

1 INTRODUCTION
elements of this criticism that are particularly
The Eurocodes are a compilation of ten design relevant to this dissertation‟s Retaining Wall
codes that have been published to supersede Design: Application of factors of safety,
existing design codes within the European Union clarification of effective earth pressures and
community. They are designed to aid and guide design with water pressures.
an engineer in the design of building and civil
2.1 Partial Safety Factor Application
engineering works. The aim of the Eurocode
standards is to bring together a unified approach In the case of embedded wall or sheet pile wall
to building and civil engineering design across design safety factors and their application has
Europe. become the subject of much debate.
Traditionally older codes of practice such as BS
With the introduction of the Eurocode‟s as the
8002 and CIRIA 104 has used the lump factor
standard structural design codes in Europe,
method. This method applies a factor of safety at
engineers are trying to familiarise themselves
the start to a soil parameter or at the end to either
with the new codes. Differences of opinions
the moments or embedment depth. Eurocode 7
have arisen between engineers when using
uses the partial factor approach which applies
Eurocode 7. The aim of the engineer is produce
factors at different stages of the design. Debate
a design that is safe and economical. This it
arises at which stage to apply these partial
seems is where most of the problems arise.
factors and in what combination. The Eurocode
Areas such as the application of safety factors,
7 has implemented three design approaches that
clarification of water pressure and how it should
allow countries to choose from using their
be factorised are some of the areas where most
national indexes for supplementary information
debate continues. Much debate owes itself to the
such as partial factors. In the UK design
fact that so many countries have adopted the
approach 1 (DA1) has been adopted as the main
Eurocode but are sceptical of using a singular
design approach.
procedure especially if it is different to their own
national procedure when it comes to Design approach 1 is primarily used to check
geotechnical design. foundation reliability with two combination
checks. The first check, termed „Combination 1
(DA1/1)‟ applies partial factors to action only
2 AMBIGUITIES IN DESIGN while ground strengths and resistances are left
un-factored. The second check termed
Although seen as an essential part of structural
„Combination 2 (DA1/2)‟ applies partial safety
design practice by engineers, participation with
factors to ground strengths and variable actions
Eurocode 7 has been slow and followed by much while non-variable actions and resistances are
121
left un-factored. Design approach 2 applies wall.... water pressures shall correspond to a
partial safety factors to actions or action effects water table at the surface of the retained
and to resistances simultaneously, with ground material.” (1995)
strengths un-factored in order to check the
The Eurocode requirement would suggest taking
foundation‟s reliability
the water level to the top of the soil. This is a
It has been suggested that in DA2 a passive very conservative approach as it is highly
pressure on the restraining side of an embedded unlikely that the natural water table will be at the
wall is both an action and resistance and surface. Once the water level has been chosen
therefore should be factored by the combination the question of what partial safety factor is to be
of both these factors (Bond and Harris, 2008). applied to the corresponding water pressure.
All other literature assumes the standard
For embedded walls it should first be decided
application of factors to resistances only. This
whether the design will incorporate total water
paper will therefore conduct a parametric study
pressures or net pressures for the design process.
to establish the best combination of partial
Farrell and Orr states that using total water
factors on a cantilevered wall.
pressures instead of using net pressures produces
2.2 Earth Pressures a lower and different factor of safety (Farrell and
Orr, 1998). Water pressures have a major impact
Clause 2.4.2(9) of (EC7 1995) states:
on the design of sheet pile walls even more so if
“Unfavourable (or destabilising) and favourable they are designed for embedment in clay soils.
(or stabilising) permanent actions may in some Other factors such as seepage must be taken into
situations be considered as coming from a single account. Previous design codes such a BS 8002
source. If they are considered so, a single partial and CIRIA 104 incorporate seepage into the
factor may be applied to the sum of these actions design of embedded walls.
or to the sum of their effects.”
Using net water pressures offers a more defined
This note has become known as the „Single approach to solving the issues of water
source principle‟ and it seems that this is how pressures. With the use of net water pressures
Eurocode 7 has dealt with the distinction of the resulting forces can be applied to one side of
favourable and unfavourable actions. The Single the wall and factored accordingly. This method
source principle has proven hard to interpret for may be considered conservative but simplifies
some engineers especially when dealing with an already complicated design process. It also
effective earth pressures. reduces the errors in the calculation.
Passive pressures play a major role in the design For the purpose of this study water pressures
of sheet pile walls. The design becomes more will be design for using the net water pressure
complex as it is unclear where the active and method. Figure 1 shows the total and net
passive pressures occur. It has been argued that pressure distribution along an embedded wall.
passive earth pressure on an embedded wall
should be viewed as a resistance, not a
favourable action (Driscoll et al., 2006).
Schuppener also takes the passive earth pressure
in the embedded wall also as a resistance and
factor it the same as bearing resistance
(Schuppener et al., 1998). Bond and Harris argue
that passive earth pressure should be treated as
both unfavourable action and a resistance
simultaneously as mentioned previously in this
chapter. This method produces similar results for
all three design approaches but over
conservative. Figure 1-Water pressure distribution as proposed
2.4 Design Of Water Pressures by CIRIA 104
The factoring and design for water levels and It has been suggested that water pressures should
pressures is a highly debated subject with the be considered in two design situations (a) “the
implementation of the new Eurocodes. With the most unfavourable values that could occur
use of partial factors in design it is crucial to during the design lifetime of the structure”
take the most unfavourable water level in the where the values correspond to design values
design. Eurocode 7 states specifically that: (Simpson et al., 2011). The second situation (b)
“For structures retaining earth of medium or “the most unfavourable occurring in normal
low permeability (silts and clays), water circumstances” would use characteristic values
pressures shall be assumed to act behind the where no partial factors or additional waters
122
levels are introduced. Simpson also introduced a  Shear forces and bending moment
modified design approach where by DA1/1 uses diagrams are calculated separately
(b), “the most unfavourable occurring in normal based on the net pressure distribution.
circumstances”, but applies partial safety factor
of 1.35 the effects of actions such as the bending 3.2 Numerical Procedure
moment of a sheet pile wall.
LimitState:GEO is a computer software program
For DA1/2 it is suggested to use (a), “the most that solves geotechnical problems rapidly using
unfavourable values that could occur during the Discontinuity Layout Optimization (DLO) limit
design lifetime of the structure”, with factors of analysis technology. The software assesses the
unity applied to all permanent actions and their stability of a design by driving the design system
effects. Soil is a frictional material and therefore to ultimate limit state. The previous method
is highly affected by water pressures. The described in this chapter is what is called an
subject of this paper, among the others implicit analysis. LimitState:GEO, as a
discussed, will be to shed some light on what the numerical analysis program, uses an explicit
best possible way water pressures should be process to carry out its calculations.
factored, if at all.
In terms of embedded wall design the software
3 DESIGN PROCEDURE will force the system to failure and output a load
The design procedure for this parametric study
will involved the use of Microsoft Excel and
LimitState:GEO software. LimitState:GEO has
been obtained through the University of
Sheffield.
Figure 3 - LimitState:GEO design of sheet pile

wall
factor or „adequacy factor‟. It is by this factor
the load should be increased in order to achieve
ultimate limit state. The program also can reduce
soil strengths or impose additional loads.The
design procedure for an embedded wall in clay
Figure 2- Excel spreadsheet parameters
using LimitState: GEO is as follows:
3.1 Analytical Procedure
The design procedures for all three design code  Create geometry of soil and wall.
are quite similar. A spreadsheet has been  Create and define materials to be
formulated to calculate the embedment depth applied to geometry (e.g. soils, wall
needed to satisfy overall equilibrium of the wall materials)
against failure. The general points of design are  Apply boundaries conditions to model
as follows:  Assign loads if any to model
 A net pressure method is used to obtain  Assign geometry with corresponding
equilibrium. materials
 Water pressures are calculated using net  Define a water table (if needed)
water pressures procedure.  Define a soil/structure interaction
 Total water pressures are obtained and  Assign factors of safety by relevant
subtracted from the relevant total code of practice
pressure to obtain effective stresses  Run analysis
acting on the wall.
 Horizontal forces due to stresses are The depth of embedment will be altered to give
calculated along with their adequacy factors of 1 or near to it. This will
corresponding lever arms. then allow the comparisons of wall depths with
 Moments are then calculated. the analytical spreadsheet.
 An iterative program within Excel is
used to find the embedment depth.
123
4 SCOPE OF DESIGN along the wall is envisaged resulting in active
and passive pressures acting below the point of
There are many different types of earth-retaining
rotation. Figure 4 shows the two pressure
structure. It is critical that the designer chooses
distributions that can be used in solving a
the most appropriate type of structure for the
cantilever wall using the equilibrium method.
given application. The arrangement of subsoil‟s
Lateral earth pressures for effective analysis are
and water table depths must be evaluated before
calculated using the following:
the design can take place.
 Active pressure –
Limit state design is preformed so that the
structure is designed not to fail. Retaining
structures can fail in many ways and this chapter  Passive pressure –
will detail the most common earth-retaining
structures in use today and their common failure
states. where Ka and Kp are earth pressure coefficients,
q is the surcharge on retained side of wall, γ is
4.1 Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall the bulk weight of soil, z is the distance from the
surface and c’ is the cohesion intercept value for
Cantilever walls can be installed rapidly in any effective stresses analysis.
soil. They do not require and ties or anchors to
aid them. They rely on the bending moment of 4.3 Factors Of Safety
the wall to resist the lateral pressures from the
soil. Usually cantilever walls do not retain more Eurocode 7 uses three design approaches 1, 2
than 6 metres of retained earth but with different and 3. Design approach 1 (DA1) uses two
sections and stronger materials higher walls can combination 1 (DA1/1) and 2 (DA1/2). DA1/1
be achieved factors the actions while DA1/2 factors the
4.2 Earth Pressures material properties of a design scenario. Design
approach 2 (DA2) factors action or effects of
Earth pressures or lateral earth pressures come action along with resistances simultaneously.
from the horizontal stresses in the soil acting on Design Approach 3 (DA3) factors structural
the surface of the wall. Earth pressures primarily action or effects of action and material
depend on whether a wall is moving towards or properties.
away from the ground and on the properties of A BS 8002 designed embedded wall is designed
the soil. There are two types of earth pressures to a state of equilibrium with factors placed on
associated with retaining wall design. Active the soil strengths. For effective stress analysis
pressures occur when the soil is allowed to the design strength should be taken as the lesser
expand or extend in a relaxed state. So in the of:
case of a sheet pile wall the active pressure a) Design tan φ‟ = represented peak tan
φmax‟/M
Design c‟ = representative cpeak/M
Where M= 1.2 for both values
b) Representative critical state strength
Design tan φ‟ = representative tan φcv‟
ccv‟ = 0
φ is the angle of friction for the chosen soil. In
addition to this safety factor, or mobilisation
factor as referred to in BS 8002, an additional
20% is applied to the calculated embedment
depth to account for the simplicity of the design
method.
Figure 4 - Cantilevered wall: a) Simplified CIRIA 104 uses a single factor of safety or
pressure distribution, b) Idealised pressure “lumped factor” compared to that of the partial
distribution factor method used in Eurocode 7. CIRIA 104
allows a designer to choose from two different
would be the acting on the retained side of the approaches:
wall as it rotated at the point of failure.  Moderately conservative
Conversely passive pressures act in a  Worst credible
compressive manner on the wall resulting in the
maximum lateral pressure exerted on the wall. Once the approach has been chosen the designer
Passive pressure acts where the soil is restraining must choose which factor of safety approach is
the wall from rotating at failure. cantilever sheet the most appropriate. CIRIA 104 specifies 4
pile walls the calculation of active and passive options for applying factors of safety on a design
pressures can be complex. A point of rotation of embedded wall. These are as follows:
124
 Factor on embedment – a wall is design highest walls over the range of heights study is
to satisfy equilibrium of fully mobilised the factor on strength approach (CIRIA 104/Fs)
strength. The factor of safety is then of the CIRIA 104 design code. This is mainly
applied to the calculated embedment due to a high factor of safety of 1.5 for long term
depth. analysis placed on material strengths such as the
 Factor on soil strength –A factor of angle of friction and cohesion.
safety (Fs) for effective stress design is 5.2 Structural Effects Comparisons
applied to:
The following section compares the bending
o tan φ‟m = moment diagrams for a 4 metre wall for cases I-
o c‟m = IV. It should be noted that these depths are the
depths corresponding to wall pressure
 Factor on moments – this is a factor on calculations therefore they do not include the
the moment (Fp) dues to the lateral 20% addition to the length of the embedment
pressures acting on the wall. depth. The maximum bending moment will
occur at the point of zero shear. Residual
5 COMPARISONS OF CODES
moments appear at the toe of the wall due to
Four design cases will be analysed in the rotation about this point. The wall extends pass
parametric study. They are as follows: this point so therefore a point of contra-flexure
 Case I – no water, no compaction in the bending moment might occur. This will
 Case II – water, no compaction cause a change in the bending moment. For the
 Case III – no water, compaction most part, both ends of the wall are assumed to
 Case IV – water, compaction have zero bending moments.
It can be seen from the bending moment
5.1 Embedment Depth diagrams that longest wall does not always
The first comparison of the codes will be by way
of embedment depth or design depth. This is the Case II
-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
length of wall embedded in the soil from the 0
DA1/1
dredge line down to the toe of the wall. The total 2
4
length of the wall is the retained height plus the 6
DA1/2
design depth. The total depth of wall for all four

Depth (m)
8 DA2
cases will be analysed. For the purpose of 10

BS8002
clarity a 4m wall will be used for this 12
14
comparison. 16
CIRIA10
4/Fs
18 CIRIA
Figure 5 shows the six different parts of the 20
104/Fp
various codes for a range of wall from 1m up to Bending moment (kNm/m)

5.5m. The comparisons of Case II are shown. Figure 6 - Comparisons of bending moment forces
Case II has some of the highest walls compared for various design codes for case II
to other cases due to no compaction and having produce the largest bending moment. CIRIA
Wall depth/retained height comparison (Case II) 104‟s factor on strength approach produces the
22 largest bending moments while the smallest
bending moment is the factor on moments
16.5
Case IV
Total depth (m)
DA1/1
DA1/2 -2
11 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
DA2
BS8002 0
DA1/1
CIRIA 104/Fs 2
CIRIA 104/Fp
5.5
4 DA1/2
Depth (m)
6
DA2
8
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 10 BS8002
Retained height (m)
12
Figure 5- Total depth of wall for various 14
CIRIA10
4/Fs
retaining heights - Case II 16 CIRIA
104/Fp
18
Bending moment (kNm/m)
water pressure in the calculation. This is
understandable as compaction tends to decrease Figure 7- Comparisons of bending moment forces
the active pressures while increasing the passive for various design codes for case IV
pressure. With the calculated zero pressure the approach by CIRIA 104. This approach
theoretical wall starts lower from the surface specifically factors the passive moments
compared to cases I and II. For all four cases the therefore reducing the overall moment needed to
125
satisfy equilibrium. DA1/2 which governs the 1. A limit of 5.5m of a retained height should be
design of the embedded wall for Eurocode observed for cantilevered sheet pile walls in stiff
design produces similar bending moments to BS clay.
8002 but with a shorter wall.
2. In the use of DA1/2 a partial factor of 1.05
5.3 Influence Of Factoring Water Pressures should be applied to water pressures when a net
water pressure distribution is used. This should
Water pressures have a major influence on the
satisfy any doubts of uncertainties in
bending moment. With the addition of water
determining accurate water pressures while
pressures in case IV maximum bending
reducing the structural effects.
moments double. DA1/2 has no factor placed on
3. The single source principle should be
-400 -200 0 200
Case
400
II 600 800 1000
observed in order to avoid the differentiation of
0 favourable and unfavourable actions resulting
2 from water pressures.
DA1/2*
4
4. Passive pressures should be designed as an
unfavourable action and a resistance
Depth (m)
6
Limitstate
8 :GEO simultaneously when using DA2. Although an
10 unusual interpretation of the code, this
DA1/2
12
application produces results that are more
14
economic and in parallel to previous codes and
DA1/1.
16
Bending moment (kNm/m)
Figure 8 - Comparisons of numerical analysis REFERENCES
and water pressure interpretations 1995. Eurocode 7 : geotechnical design. Pt.1,
water pressures as factors only apply to General rules, London, BSI.
materials. The question then arises should water BOND, A. & HARRIS, A. 2008. Decoding
pressures be factored and by how much? If these Eurocode 7.
pressures were to be factored in DA1/2 then it
would have to be by a small margin of about 5- DRISCOLL, R., SCOTT, P. & POWELL, J.
10%. This result can be seen in Figure 8 as 2006. EC7 - implications for UK
DA1/2*. DA1/2* has water pressures factored practice : Eurocode 7 geotechnical
up by 5%. The difference in overall wall depth is design, (CIRIA)
small but the structural effects have become FARRELL, E. & ORR, T. 1998. Safety of
smaller. This would suggest that with a small retaining walls with high water loadings
factor placed on water pressures it would when designed to Eurocode 7 using
enhance the stability and structural effects of the partial factors. Ground engineering, 31,
wall and also give a safety margin on water. 36-38.
As it can be seen from Figure 8 the numerical SCHUPPENER, B., WALZ, B.,
analysis (LimitState:GEO) produces a much WEISSENBAC, 1998. EC7 Part 1: A
shorter wall. The structural effects of the wall critical review and proprosal for
such as the bending moment are considerably improvement: A german perspective.
less than that of a conventionally designed wall. Ground engineering, 31.
SIMPSON, B., VOGT,. Geotechnical safety in
6 CONCLUSIONS relation to water pressures. 2011.
After the applications of factors of safety to

several walls over a range of design codes, it can
be summarised that the new Eurocode and the
use of partial factors produce a more economical
design while satisfying all safety requirements.
Wall lengths and structural effects such as
bending moments are considerable lower than
some previous codes such as BS 8002 Numerical
analysis and finite element software packages
will always give a more accurate and specific
result compared to that of conventional analysis.
Following the parametric study this paper
recommends the following points in the design
of embedded walls:
126
Seismic Design and Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Buildings

Cui Sheng
ABSTRACT The aim of this dissertation is to investigate aspects of seismic design and
analysis of reinforce concrete RC structures, focusing on infill walls. The first part of the project is
a literature survey and theoretical analysis. This part aims to identify the state-of-the-art in the field
and make comparisons between china code and Eurocode8. In the end, the differences about the
earthquake-resistant RC building especially in infill walls were given. In addition, the failure type
of infill walls in Wenchuan earthquake had been fully investigated and analysed in theory. The
second part of this project is analytical, investigating the effect of key parameters using computer-
modelling. A building that collapsed in Wenchuan earthquake was selected to reproduce under
china seismic code by PKPM software in this part. In addition, the model of this frame was
investigated to obtain the influence of infill walls on reinforce concrete RC structures under
seismic action through non-linear static and dynamic analysis by using SAP2000 software.
1 INTRODUCTION Research in behaviours of real buildings

during an earthquake and their performance
Earthquakes are one of the most devastating
after an earthquake can gives engineers much
natural hazards which are commonly caused
valuable date such as the failure type of
by a sudden movement of the earth’s
building, construction, dynamic
lithosphere. A severed earthquake usually
characteristics, influence of soil condition
cause fire, toxic gas exhausting and pestilence
which are very important to improve the future
at the same time and it followed by tsunamis
seismic design and detailing of structures.
generated by offshore events, rock-falls,
However, on the other hand, computer
landslides and other hazards which could
programs are also able to model the buildings’
cause great loss of life and livelihood. On
behaviour under earthquake loads that is
average, 10,000 people die each year due to
becoming the most effective way for engineers
earthquakes, at the same time it causes billions
to analyse the expected response of a structure
of dollars economic losses every year which a
subjected to seismic excitation which can
large percentage of GDP of some countries.
improve the design of a specific structure and
To protect the safety of people who stay in the provide great recommendations for future
building during and immediately following an seismic design improvement.
earthquake, seismic design of buildings have
been adopted into structure engineering. The
goals of seismic design are save lives and 2 SEISMIC DESIGN CODES
reduce injuries, not to eliminate property loss.
The performance of a building during an
Based on this concept, engineers are always
earthquake is good or not depends on the
trying to keep the balance of seismic design
intensity of the earthquake and on the quality
code between spending of the building and
of the structure. We cannot estimate the
capacity of building during earthquake.
intensity of one coming earthquake. Therefore,
Building codes are only minimum design
the seismic design codes are adopted to limit
standards. The first quantitative seismic code
the quality of the building to make it strong
was developed by an Italian commission
enough to survival after a severe earthquake.
following the 1908 Messina-Reggio
Their purpose is to allow people have enough
earthquake, which killed 160,000 people.[1]
time to leave a building when earthquake
127
happens. Seismic codes attempt to prevent provides good weather, thermal and sound
general failures (total collapse), but allow for insulation. It is very widely used in RC frame.
local damage. For ground shaking of intensity
In generally, infill walls are those structures
greater than that corresponding to the
that contact with the concrete frames, but
serviceability limit state, some damage may
without special connection to them, and are
occur.[2] Therefore, a building in compliance
considered in the first instance as non-
with the code probably will not collapse, but it
structural elements. This type of masonry infill
may be unfit for continued use. According to
is very common used in the region where
these reasons, two objectives are commonly
seismicity is very high.
recognized in earthquake-resistant design.
2.3 Influence of masonry infill walls
 To prevent collapse during the worst
credible event, although accepting that In fact, this type infill walls have a
some structural damage may occur. considerable strength and stiffness, they do
have an effect on the seismic response of the
 To prevent structural damage and limit
RC frame structure. The influence can be
non-structural damage in the
summarized as follow [3]
earthquake expected to occur once or
twice during the lifetime of a structure.  As a consequence of increase in stiffness
of buildings, the fundamental period is
Based on the seismic philosophy, this chapter
decreased and the base shear is increased.
will explain the development of china seismic
code and the history of international seismic  The lateral stiffness in plan and elevation
design code. Then, it tries to compare some of is modified.
the modern seismic codes such as Eurocode 8:
 The structural system is relieved of
design of structures for earthquake resistance
seismic action as part of the load is
and Code for seismic design of building
carried by the infill’s.
(NATIONAL STANDARD OF THE
PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA) and  Energy dissipation capacity of the
analysis the main difference in reinforce building is substantially increased.
concrete structure.
The more flexible the structural system, the
above effects of the infill walls is greater. The
infill walls have less strength and
2.1 Comparison of Seismic Design Codes
deformability than the structure system;
The comparison between china code therefor they absorb and dissipate large
(GB50011-2010) and the Eurocode 8 (EC8: quantities energy, acting as the first line of
2004) had been done in this section and the seismic defence of the building and fail first.
differences between these two code in The failure always happened at the early
response spectrum, detailed design and the deformation stage, and then it transfers an
provision of infill walls had been pointed out. impulse loading from the infill walls to the
structural system when it failures.
In general, response spectrum and eurocode8
have the same basic characters; they all consist 2.4 Failure of infill walls
of 4 sections, which are linear increase
There are five different possible failure modes
section, horizontal section and two decrease
for masonry Infilled frames which are Tension
sections. However, they employed different
failure of the tension column resulting from
equations to express response spectrum.
applied overturning moments, sliding shear
In terms of seismic design , Both china code failure of the masonry infill walls which
and eurocode8 follow the strong column weak generally occurred at or close to midheight of
beam design principle to ensure the plastic the panel, diagonal tensile cracking of the
hinges occurred at the end of beam rather panel, compression failure of the diagonal
column when the structure experiencing big strut, and flexural or shear failure of the
earthquake. columns.
2.2 Infill walls Sometimes the failure is a combination of
some of the failure above. For example,
Infill wall can be defined as the unreinforced
flexural of shear failure of the columns will
brick or block work that is used to fill up the
generally follow a sliding shear failure, or
space between beams and columns. The infill
diagonal compression failure, of the masonry.
wall system is cheap and easy to build and
128
2.5 Infill walls in Wenchuan earthquake 3.1 Real building
As we known, apart from hollow shale tiles, The building considered, is a six storey
solid clay bricks were also used as infill walls commercial building which located in
in the old buildings in the epicenter region of Dujiangyan city. It is a RC frame structure
the Wenchuan earthquake. Solid bricks have building with 7.2+2.5+7.2m span in transverse
much more significant strength and elastic direction and 9x6m span in longitudinal
stiffness than the hollow shale tiles. In some direction. The plan of the sample structure are
case, no connection between frame and infill given in the following figure.
wall could be found. Therefore, the different
lateral deformation between RC frame and the
infill wall resulted in infill wall damage during
the Wenchuan earthquake and damage in
frame was minor.
Figure 3.1 Plan view of the sample structure

The seismic precaution intensity of this region
is 8 which mean design acceleration of ground
motion is 0.2g.The height of first floor is 3.6m
and two to six floor is 3m.The concrete
material is C30 and reinforcement material
HRB335 for sample structure. Young’s
Modulus is Ec = 3000 MPa.
3.2 PKPM analysis
After analysed by PKPM, the reinforcement
Figure 2.1 infill shear and major frame plan of beam and column is shown below. The
damages maximum reinforcement ratio is 1.36%, the
maximum Axial-load ratio is 0.45 which
3 CASE STUDY completely meet the requirement of current
Millions of house building experienced severe china seismic code.
damage or even collapsed in Wenchuan Following this design of the building, a time
earthquake. Based on the literature analysis history analyses is applied to check this
the three highest proportion of collapsed structure is safe or not. From the results we
building type are brick-concrete structure, can get that the maximum lateral drifts
bottom brick-concrete structure, and displacement (blue line) and lateral drift angle
reinforcement concrete frame structure. The (blue line) is 31.4mm and 1/443 rad
main reason of RC frame collapse is the respectively. In china seismic code, the limit
intensity of Wenchuan earthquake is beyond value of elastic story drift rotation for
the fortification intensity which required in the reinforced concrete frame is 1/550 which is
china seismic code. greater than the results show. Thus, this means
However, there are still some buildings of RC the design of this structure is safety.
frame structure which near the region
epicentre did not collapse which indicate that
the capacity of this part of building is higher 4 MODEL SETTING UP
than it is required in the seismic code. To analysis the influence of infill walls on
Therefore, it is very worth to analysis of these behaviour of RC frame structure, a two
building and try to figure out what was dimensional models, which is a one frame that
happened to them during the earthquake. extracted from the previous design and for the
In this chapter a building which collapsed in reason that it is able to do time history
Wenchuan earthquake will be redesigned analyses in sap2000, will be set up in this
according to china code, and its behaviour chapter. This reinforce concrete structure also
under seismic loads will be modelled by the were designed according to china seismic code
aid of PKPM (china structure analysis (2001), which is the existing codes used in
software)
129
china. A limit state design concept has been which beyond yield limit. Thus, the structure
used to proportion the structural member will respond in a nonlinear way. Non-linear
static (pushover analyses) and non-linear
4.1 modelling of infill walls
dynamic (time-history) analysis of the frame
Model development of any structures is crucial discussed was done in sap2000 software
to achieve accurate output results. However, it program. The aim of this analysis is to check
is difficult to model the as-built structures due the influence of infill wall on RC frame
to numerous constraints with as it is difficult to structures.
incorporate all physical parameters associated
5.1 Static pushover analyses
with the behaviour of an infilled frame
structure. Even if all the physical parameters, The pushover analyse is used to make an
such as contact coefficient between the frame estimate of post-yield behaviour of a structure.
and infill, separation and slipping between the An equivalent static force is applied to the
two components and the orthotropic of structure that usually according to the
material properties are considered, there is no requirement of the seismic code. The structure
guarantee that the structure behaved similar to is going to yield point progressively by the
the model as they also depend on the quality of loads are increased progressively. In this
material and construction techniques. process, the plastic hinges can be introduced at
the yielding points in beam or columns and the
There are two methods have been developed
distribution of the damage can be observed.[5]
to simulate the structure behaviour of infilled
frame, which are Micro model and Macro 5.2 Modelling in pushover analyses
model. The micro model method is a Finite
this study adopted the compression diagonal
element Method where the frames elements,
model to estimation of the infill wall stiffness.
masonry work, contact surface, slipping and
From the below picture, the elastic in-plane
separation are modelled to achieve the results.
stiffness of a solid unreinforced masonry infill
The macro model which is also called a
wall is represented by an equivalent diagonal
Simplified model or Equivalent diagonal strut
compression strut of width Wef.[6]
method was developed to study the global
response of the infilled frames.[4]
Both the two model are adopted in this study.
The compression diagonal model was used in
the pushover analyses, while a finite element
method was introduced in time history
analyses in which a gap element in was
defined to deal with the connection between
infill walls and surrounding frame
4.2 Four types models
And then 4 different infill wall applications of
this frame is analyzed which are Model 1( bear
frame), Model 2 (infill walls in the whole
Figure 5.1 The diagonal compression struts
structure), Model 3 (infill walls in the 2-6
storey) and Model 4 (infill walls in 2,4,6 All equations should be numbered and all
storey) as given in the following figures. symbols defined in the text. This width is
given by:
Where
Figure 4.2 Four different types of models
5 ANALYSIS OF THE FREM

The earthquake response of most building will Where H, L, EC, EI, t, q and Ic are the height of
cause deformations of the structural elements the frame, the elastic module of the column
130
and of the infill panel, the thickness of the The time-dependent response of the structure
infill panel, the angle defining diagonal strut, may be obtained through direct numerical
the modulus of inertia of the column and Hi is integration of its differential equations of
the height of the infill panel respectively. motion, using accelerograms to represent the
ground motions.[7]
5.3 Analysis results
5.5 Modelling in pushover analysis
Under uniform load the result of pushover
analysis can be summarized as follow. A gap element was adopted here to model the
connection between infills and surrounding
frames. This element is generally used to
Forces (kN)
represent the contact between two structures
and to transmit the contact forces between
model Linear behavior Collapse limits them, for example, a pounding study of the
limits two structures under the time-history load.
Both linear and non-linear options are
1 332 481 available but its usage has been limited to
linear range in this study.
2 615 1846 The structural members were modelled as
beam elements while the infill masonry was
3 588 770 modelled with plane stress plane stress
elements as shown in figure below.
4 602 802
Table 5.1 the structural capacity of sample

modes
The results of this analysis are the same with
the damages of this building caused in the real
earthquake which indicated the veracity of
modelling and the analysis process. In
addition, this analysis also shows the poor
seismic performance of RC frame buildings
with masonry infill walls.
According to the results of this study, it is Figure 5.2 Modelling of infill and gap
evidenced that structural infill walls have very elements
important effects on structural behaviour under
earthquake effects. The capacities of structure The infill panels were meshed with finite
under earthquake effect are affected by the elements in order to avoid the infill behaving
structural irregularities. The presence of non- as a shear panel, to increase the accuracy of
structural masonry infill walls can modify the the result and to provide adequate
global seismic behaviour of framed buildings convergence of results.[8]
to a large extent. The stability and integrity of 5.6 Results of time history analysis
reinforced concrete frames are enhanced with
masonry infill walls. Presence of masonry In general engineering practice, empirical
infill wall also alters displacements and base Equations are used to estimate the period of
shear of the frame. Irregular distributions of structures since the modelling of infill walls is
masonry infill walls in elevation can result in complicated and costly. However, according
unacceptably elastic displacement in the soft to the above results which analysed by the
storey frame. The behaviour of structure with nonlinear time history analyses, it is easily to
infilled walls can be predicted by means of find that, the percentage of infill walls
equivalent strut diagonal models. These presence on the frame have an effect on the
relatively simple and accurate models played fundamental period of models which is the
an important role to get the results in terms of fundamental period increases as the
the effects of the infill walls. percentages of infill walls decrease.
5.4 Time history analysis The roof displacement is a measure of global

structural response under later loads and the
amount of deformation primarily depends on
131
lateral stiffness, mass and the magnitude of the concrete structure under seismic action. Two
load. The results show that the roof different modelling of infill walls have been
displacement decrease as the percentage of set up to suit for the nonlinear pushover
infill wall increase. For example, under EI- analyses and nonlinear time history analyses
Centro earthquake the roof displacement are and the necessarily discussions were present
26.1mm 3.8mm 14.8mm and 17.6mm for the followed the analysis results. In this part, the
model 1 to 4 respectively. The reason of that is research of influence of infill walls on RC
the later stiffness of the global structure was structure was developed, and some assumption
changed by the presence of infill walls. about infill walls was proved by the analysis
results.
In addition, the results also indicated the same
fact as the pushover analyses, which is mode 2 REFERENCES
has the best seismic capacity and the structure
[1] Building Seismic Safety Council. (1986).
capacity of mode 3 and mode 4 is better than
Improving the seismic safety of New
mode 1(bare frame). This can be explained as
buidlings. A community Handbook of Societal
follow the infill walls increased the lateral
Implications. 83
bending resistance of the global system.
However, at the same time, infill walls also [2] Building seismic safety Council, An
increased the seismic capacity of beams by architect’s guide to non-structural seismic
working together with beams when the hazards, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1990.
structure under earthquake loads. This
[3] T.Paulay and M.J.N.Priestley
probably causes the real capacity of beams
(1992). Seismic Design of Reinforced
beyond the design capacity and then result in
Concrete and Masonry Buildings. New York
the plastic hinges occurred at the end of
column first rather the end of beam which is [4] Development of earthquake engineering in
unacceptable in seismic design. china, Yuxian HU, 13th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, August 1-6, 2004.
[5] T.Paulay and M.Priestley (1992) Seismic
6 CONCLUSION
Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry
On 28th May, 2008 a severe earthquake stuck Buildings
Wenchuan town of china, which was a large
[6] Eurocode 8. (2004). Design of structures
event with very high ground motions that far
for earthquake resistance-Part1: General
beyond the design ground motion stipulated by
rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings.
2001 Chinese seismic code. Hundreds and
thousands buildings were destroyed in this [7] General introduction to engineering
earthquake, which would suggest that the damage during Wenchuan earthquake, CEA,
Chinese seismic code is very necessarily to be vol.28, October 2008.
revised in some sections. A detailed
[8] T.Paulay and M.J.N.Priestley
comparison between china code and Eurocode
(1992). Seismic Design of Reinforced
8 have been done in the first part of this thesis,
Concrete and Masonry Buildings. New York
some of difference and shortages in Chinese
seismic code had been pointed out, especially
in terms of infill walls.
Masonry infill panels in RC frames have been
widely used as a structural system in china. A
large quantity of infill walls damages and
collapsed building due to infill walls system in
Wenchuan earthquake has been reported. In
the third chapter of this thesis, a building
collapsed in Wenchuan earthquake with this
type damage was selected to be modelled in
PKPM software for the further research.
In the last section of this thesis, nonlinear
static and dynamic analysis have been done to
this modelling by the aid of computer program
sap2000 to research the influence of infill
walls on the behaviour of reinforcement
132
Structural Concrete with Minimum Cement Content

Olzhas Daurenbekov
ABSTRACT Due to unsustainability of traditional Portland cement, there is a high demand for its
reduction in concrete. Among available partial cement replacing materials Ground Granulated
Blastfurnace slag (GGBS) can be used in high quantities to get competitive properties of concrete.
Traditionally GGBS partially replaced Ordinary Portland Cement. With the introduction of Portland-
composite cements its use with GGBS can provide further reduction in cement content. In present
research 40, 60 and 80% of GGBS are partially replaced total content of Portland-fly ash or Portland-
limestone cement (CEM II) with 15 % of main constituent and used as binder material in concrete.
Moreover, similar amounts of GGBS were also combined with Ordinary Portland cement (CEM I) and
used as reference samples. Concrete samples were cast and mist cured (20°C). Compressive strength,
porosity and oxygen permeability tests were performed at 7 and 28 days. According to experimental
results introduction of the third material in the mix with Portland cement and GGBS improved the
workability of concrete. Compressive strength of investigated ternary systems were slightly lower than
CEM I/GGBS combinations, especially when Portland-fly ash cement is used. However, Portland-
limestone cement with 40 % and 60 % of GGBS, and Portland-fly ash cement with 40 % of GGBS have
higher compressive strength than mean target strength of the mix design. CEM II/GGBS samples have
slightly higher oxygen permeability than that of CEM I/GGBS samples. However, oxygen permeability
values for all specimens are still indicating excellent durability performance, due to the presence of
GGBS in large quantities.
levels (up to 90 %) of partial cement

1 INTRODUCTION
replacement (Lynsdale 2011). It was stated by
Portland cement is most used cementitious Neviell (2010) that the use of GGBS leads to
product now and around 1.5 billion tons are superior performance of concrete. Angular shape
manufactured every year producing about 7 and smoother texture surface compared to
percent of global CO2 emission. Besides, cement results in an improved workability; low
production of Portland cement is energy peak temperature due to slow heat development;
intensive. One of the most important matters is a However, the rate of reaction between GGBS
reduction of cement amount in concrete. Among and water is slower than that of OPC and water
wide variety of by-products used in blended which leads to slower strength development,
cements fly ash, ground granulated furnace slag, even though in long-term concrete will have
limestone filler and silica fume increasing in higher compressive strength than that of OPC
demand. concrete. Hydrated cement paste have denser
microstructure leading to reduced permeability
Unfortunately, lack of alkalis i.e. Na2O and K2O
i.e. superior durability.
in cementitious by-products makes it impossible
to replace 100 percent of binder material in Traditionally GGBS partially replaced Ordinary
concrete. Because, reaction between Portland Portland Cement (CEM I) which consists of 95%
cement and water liberate alkalis which activates of clinker and 5% of gypsum. The first unified
latent hydraulic properties of partial replacing standard for cement in European Union and
material. However, the products of the reaction some other European countries was published by
between alkalis and aggregates cause European Committee for Standards. BS EN 197-
disintegration of the concrete. 1:2000 identifies CEM II, that comprise
Portland cement and up to 35% of other single
Among all materials in use and on the account of
constituents. Shift to CEM II with lower CO2
material requirements Ground Granulated
footprint and economical benefits also demands
Blastfurnace (GGBS) slag provided maximum
investigation in partial replacement with GGBS.
133
In summary, making blended cement with major 2.4 Casting and Curing
compound of slag and partially replaced cement
All concrete specimens were cast and compacted
i.e. Portland-composite cement might lead to
in two layers on a vibrating table, in order to
further significant decrease of Portland cement in
remove trapped air from concrete. Before casting
concrete. These ternary systems can be made in
moulds were prepared by cleaning and applying
order to obtain desired final property of
lubricant. After casting, specimens were kept for
concrete.
24 hours covered under polyethylene sheets and
A purpose of the present investigation is to study demoulded on following day. 100 mm and 50
workability, compressive strength, porosity and mm cubic samples and 150 mm diameter and 50
oxygen permeability of concrete containing mm thickness cylindrical samples were cast to
Portland-fly ash cement (CEM II/A-V), or measure compressive strength, porosity and
Portland-limestone cement (CEM II/A-L) and oxygen permeability respectively. All samples
different partial cement replacement amounts of were mist cured in a mist room at 20°C under
GGBS. 100% of Relative Humidity. Specimens were
tested at 7 and 28 days.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMM
2.5 Testing Procedures
2.1 Materials
2.5.1 Workability
In this investigation Ordinary Portland cement
(CEM I), Portland-fly ash cement (CEM II/A-V), Slump test was used to measure workability of
Portland Limestone (CEM II/A-L) conforming concrete, which was modified by introduction of
requirements of BS EN 197–1, Ground partial cement replacing material only, since
granulated blast furnace slag complying with the other compounds of the mix were kept constant.
requirements of BS EN 15167-1 are used. Also, Test was performed as it is prescribed in BS EN
natural gravel with 10 mm maximum size, 12350-1:2000.
uncrushed and fine aggregate – fines passing 600
2.5.2 Compressive strength
µm sieve = 60%, uncrushed were used for
aggregates. Portland-Composite cements (CEM Compressive strength was performed in
II) with 15 % of main constituent were produced compliance with BS EN 1881:116:1983, which
by blending CEM I with PFA or Limestone filler requires specimens to be tested in wet condition.
complying with the requirements of BS EN 450
2.5.3 Porosity
and BS 7979:2001 respectively.
Porosity of concrete was measured by Vacuum
Saturation Method using recommendations of
2.2 Mixing Procedure RILEM CPC-11 (1984). In this procedure cubic
concrete samples of 50 mm are dried in the oven
Reference CEM I mix was designed using
for 24 hours at 105°C. Then they were placed in
British method of mix design, with mean target
desiccators under 1 bar of vacuum until cooled
strength of 35 MPa at 28 days and 45 mm of
down. After this stage dry weights of samples are
slump. Initially, water/binder ratio of 0.56 was
measured. Then de-aired water is used to fill the
obtained from the mix design however,
desiccators, so that all samples are submerged.
water/binder ratio of 0.51 was used for all mixes.
All samples are kept in the vacuum for the next
Binder materials were prepared separately by
24 hours under vacuum pressure of 10 bars
intermixing in a 5 kg capacity mixer and mixer
which was applied by mechanical pump. After
with 20 liter capacity was used for batches.
samples are fully saturated their saturated and
2.3 Selection of Binder Proportions submerged weights are measured. The porosity
of concrete samples is calculated using the
In the investigation, replacement level of GGBS
formula below:
was gradually increased in order to asses
performance of concrete and reduce total amount
of Portland Cement. Three binary mixes with
CEM I and 40, 60 and 80% of GGBS (MIX 1A,
MIX 1B, MIX1C) were used as reference mixes.
Then, 3 mixes with Portland-fly ash and 40, 60 Where P is porosity (%), Woven is oven-dry
80% of GGBS (MIX 2A, MIX 2B, MIX2C) and weight, Wsat is saturated surface dry weight, Wsub
3 mixes with Portland-limestone cement and 40, is submerged weight.
60 and 80% of GGBS (MIX 3A, MIX 3B,
MIX3C) were used as total cementitious content.
2.5.4 Oxygen Permeability
134
Oxygen permeameter developed by Cabrera and cement and slag particles resulting in improved
Lynsdale (1988) was used to measure fluidity of the mix. According to Zhang C. et al.
permeability. The method is based on the (1996) both GGBS and PFA have water-
measuring the intrinsic permeability which is reducing effect because their volcanic glass
obtained by modifying Darcy’s law for flow rate activity. Due to their similar glass structure with
of oxygen is calculated as follows: higher activity, particles of these materials are
weaker in water absorption. Portland Limestone
cement resulted in the highest values for
workability compared to all mixes with same
replacement amounts of GGBS. In fact, fineness
where: R is oxygen flow rate (cm3/m), P1 is of limestone filler is lower compared to GGBS,
atmospheric pressure (1 bar), P2 is absolute however, water demand for limestone filler is
applied pressure (bars), η is viscosity of oxygen reduced. This effect of limestone filler in the mix
at 20°C (2.02×10-5 Ns/m2), A is cross sectional can be attributed to the variation in particle size
area of the concrete cylinder (m2), L is the length distribution. It was stated by Tsivilis S. et al.
of the concrete cylinder (m). (2003) that cement blends incorporating
limestone have a wider particle size distribution
Since oxygen permeability is very sensitive to i.e. uniformity factor for limestone cements is
the moisture content of the concrete, samples lower compared to Portland cements and GGBS.
were kept in the oven at 105°C for 24 hours for
drying. When weights of samples were constant, 3.2 Compressive Strength
they were put in desiccators to allow cooling Compressive strength of concrete mixes with
down until tests were executed. Before the test CEM I and all GGBS replacement levels are
oxygen flow through solid other than concrete greater than 35 MPa at 28 days (Figure 2). All
was blocked and carefully checked. samples show superior compressive strength at
28 days compared to 7 days. Fundamental
hydration products are produced when Portland
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS cement, GGBS and water are mixed and
particularly, C-S-H gel is similar to the
3.1 Workability compound formed by calcium silicate hydration
in Portland cement. As it is known (Menendez
All concrete mixes with CEM II/GGBS appeared G. et al. 2003) the rate of hydration of GGBS is
to be more workable compared to mixes with initially lower than that of Portland cements.
CEM I/GGBS. Moreover, mixes with Portland Therefore, GGBS blended Portland cement
limestone cement demonstrated higher would demonstrate lower strength at early age
workability compared to PFA Portland Cement and higher or similar strength at later ages
mixes (Figure 1).
Figure 2
Figure 1
MIX 2A with Portland fly-ash cement and 40%
Fineness of GGBS is higher than that of PFA or GGBS replacement demonstrated competitive
Limestone. Furthermore, particle morphology of values at 7 and 28 days. However, compressive
GGBS is angular, which makes them difficult to strength of samples with 60 and 80% did not
roll in fresh paste. This is due to fraction exceed the values of all other mixes with the
resistance of both cement and GGBS particles. same GGBS amount at all ages. Moreover,
Portland fly-ash cement and different amount of strength of Portland-fly ash with 60 and 80% of
GGBS incorporation appeared to be more GGBS replacement level were lower than target
workable compared to all similar replacement mean strength i.e. 35 MPa. It is important
levels of CEM I/GGBS. Particles of fly ash are observation from Figure 3 that MIX 2B and MIX
spherical which can reduce fraction resistance of 2C did not develop significant strength between
135
7 and 28 days. This behavior is resulted due to relationship. Porosity values at 28 days follow
not sufficient proportioning materials. Proportion particular trend increasing with the rise of slag
of GGBS in ternary system with pulverized fly- amount. Though, porosity values with 40 and
ash should be thoroughly controlled and tested 60% GGBS replacement amount did not results
before use. in significant difference. In general, mixes with
Portland fly-ash cement samples demonstrated
Compressive strength of samples incorporating
slightly higher porosity values compared to the
Portland limestone cement with 40% and 60% of
same replacement amount of GGBS with CEM I.
GGBS replacements performed sufficiently at 28
days. The samples gained significant strength at Porosity values for MIX 3A, MIX 3B and MIX
28 days compared to 7 days. Combination of 3C with Portland limestone cement appeared to
GGBS and limestone filler in a ternary system be in the similar range with 60 and 80% of
can assist to compose cement with appropriate GGBS replacement compared to the mixes with
strength development, because with limestone CEM I/GGBS and lower range compared to
filler early strength can be achieved, while mixes with Portland fly and 60 and 80% of
GGBS contributes to long-term strength. replacement levels of GGBS at both 7 and 28
days. There is a general trend to increase in
porosity with the increase of GGBS amount,
3.3 Porosity however 40 and 60 % of GGBS incorporation
resulted in similar porosity values. Regarding
compressive strength – porosity relationship all
mixes with Portland limestone cement at 28 days
did not follow certain order yielding 50.35 and
46.37 MPa for 13.78 and 13.50 % of porosity
respectively. This paradox is also the case at 7
days porosity and compressive strength for these
mixes. Furthermore, it seems that at 7 days
porosity values are scattered i.e. incorporation
level of GGBS did show clear picture at this age.
In fact, incorporation of limestone filler
Figure 4 attributed acceleration in hydration at early age
which yields in higher compressive strength at
Porosity values for MIX 1A, MIX 1B and MIX
this period. This effect of Limestone filler on
1C with CEM I and GGBS follow particular
hydration known as “filler effect”, modifies pore
order (Figure 4). There is a direct link between
size distribution of concrete i.e. number of larger
slag replacement amount porosity values, since
pores, compared to smaller ones decrease with
later increases with the increase of the former.
time more faster than Portland cement/slag
Another important observation from Figure 4 is
cement concrete. In fact, slag also accelerates
that porosity values of samples at 28 days are
hydration rate of clinker phase at early ages, but
decreased compared to 7 days values. Blended
hydration rate of slag is delayed than that of
cement with GGBS contains less lime and more
cement phase. That is the reason of low strength
silica than OPC alone and hydration of slag
of slag cement concretes at early age. However,
blended cement will produce more C-S-H gel.
in long term slag cement concrete increases
As it is known (Neville A. 2010) incorporation
production of C-S-H gel and improves
of GGBS in concrete reduces porosity of
homogeneity and density of microstructure
concrete. GGBS cement paste hydration will
through CH crystalline liberated by silicate
result in denser microstructure compared to
phases. The rate of this effect dependent on
Portland cement paste only, since with C-S-H gel
particle size distribution for slag and is better
produced by GGBS, fills more pore space.
known as “pore-size refinement”.
Porosity values for MIX 2A, MIX 2B and MIX
3.3.1 Relationship Between Compressive
2C with Portland fly-ash cement and GGBS are
Strength and Porosity
scattered at the age of 7 days. As it is known,
regarding compressive strength values for this Total porosity of concrete is an important
mixes higher value of porosity for MIX 2B at 7 parameter in predicting compressive strength.
days was expected, because compressive Roy D. and Gauda G. (1973) investigated
strength for MIX 2B is higher at 28 days relationship between strength and porosity. They
compared to 7 days. MIX 2C showed maximum suggested exponential relationship for these
porosity obtained in the experiment with 16.14% properties as:
at 7 days and 15.86% at 28 days and this values
P=P0exp(-Kfc) (3)
were in concurrence with strength-porosity
136
where: P is porosity, P0 is zero-strength porosity, MIX 3A, MIX 3B and MIX 3C with Portland
fc is compressive strength, K is constant. limestone cement and GGBS demonstrated
competitive permeability at all ages. If
In the present research, the values of
permeability values with 40 and 60 % GGBS
compressive strength of all concrete mixes with
were in similar range with mixes with CEM
constant w/b ratio of 0.51 were plotted against
I/GGBS replacement, 80% GGBS yielded in
their corresponding porosity values as shown in
slightly higher result compared to CEM I and
Figure 5.
80% GGBS replacement. With 40 and 80% of
GGBS substitution permeability values stayed in
similar boundaries, however with 60% GGBS it
slightly reduced at 28 days compared to 7 days.
In general, there is a trend for permeability
reduction with a length of curing period for
given combination of binders.
Whether high amounts of GGBS is used with
CEM I or CEM II concrete it will result in
superior durability performance. This advantage
of GGBS containing concrete is due to denser
matrix and calcium hydroxide amount reduction
Figure 5 in the system. Also, due to longer hydration
In general, compressive strength and porosity period of GGBS, secondary phase of C-S-H gel
relationship is in similar trend. It can be will be formed which in turn locks up much of
concluded that compressive strength-porosity alumina in the system which will not be
relationship for all concrete samples in the accessible to produce ettringite during sulfate
experiment follow the trend as in the case of attack (Gollop R., and Taylor H 1996).
plain OPC concrete or OPC/GGBS concrete.
3.4.1 Relationship Between Oxygen
3.4 Oxygen Permeability Permeability and Porosity
Concrete mixes with CEM I and all GGBS There is a relationship between permeability and
replacement amount have lower permeability at porosity. Porosity is total volume of pores in
28 days compared to other mixes (Figure 6). concrete and permeability is dependent on
However, permeability values at 7 days for interconnectivity of the pores. But this does not
mixes with CEM I and 40 or 60% GGBS necessarily mean that permeability increases with
replacement were in similar range to other mixes the rise of total pore volume. Permeability might
with the same GGBS substitution level. be still low if pore systems are disconnected.
MIX 2A, MIX 2B and MIX 2C with fly ash and In this investigation in order to find the link
GGBS have the highest permeability values between porosity and permeability their
compared to the other mixes with the similar respective values were plotted and presented in
GGBS substitution ratio at 28 days. However at Figure 7. As it can be seen from Figure 7,
7 days if permeability values for samples with 40 concrete containing Limestone filler and
and 60 % GGBS replacement were in similar Pulverized fly ash demonstrated good correlation
boundary, with 80 % GGBS it was lower between permeability and porosity. Porosity
compared to Limestone filler and 80% GGBS values get higher for high values of permeability
sample. MIX 2B with 60% GGBS at 28 days which were obtained for large replacement
demonstrated lower permeability compared to amounts of GGBS (80%) i.e. for more workable
MIX 2A and MIX 2C with 40 and 80% GGBS concrete.
Figure 6 Figure 7
137
 PFA/GGBS/PC can be used in ground
structures due to good sulphate resistance
4 CONCLUSIONS
 All cement combinations are superior in
A summary of the findings after experimental durability performance regarding
tests are given below: transportation in concrete.
 The incorporation of 40, 60 and 80%  In tidal zones air-entraining admixtures
GGBS as a partial replacement with either must be added to enhance freeze-thaw
fly ash cement or limestone cement results resistance.
in an improvement in workability.  Use of limestone with GGBS must be
 For similar substitution amount of GGBS, carefully proportioned to enhance sulfate
all concrete specimens have similar range attack performance.
value in compressive strength at 7 days.  Carbonation depth at early age is slightly
However, at 28 days compressive strength higher for concrete containing GGBS, so
of OPC/GGBS specimens are higher. this parameter should be tested before using
 Concrete with limestone cement and 40 or more than 60% of GGBS.
60% of GGBS as partial cement
replacement have respectively 43.8% and
REFERENCES
32.5%, higher compressive strength than
Cabrera J G, Lynsdale C J, (1988) A new gas
mean target strength of 35 MPa in mix
permeameter for measuring the permeability of
design. Compressive strength of Portland-
mortar and concrete. Magazine of Concrete
fly ash cement and 40% GGBS also
Research, Vol 40, p 177-182.
exceeded 35 MPa by 35.8%.
Gollop R., and Taylor H. (1996),
 Oxygen permeability and porosity values Microstructural and microanalitical studies of
for both fly ash and limestone filler with sulfate attack: comparisons of different slag
GGBS are higher than OPC and blends. Cem Conr Res, Vol 26, N7, p. 1029-
corresponding amounts of GGBS. Due to 1044.
the presence of high amounts of GGBS Lynsdale, C.J. (2011), Sustainable Concrete
porosity is likely to reduce, because GGBS Technology, CIV 6610 Handouts, University of
will produce more C-S-H gel to occupy Sheffield.
pores in concrete, during further hydration. Menendez G., Bonavetti V. and Irassar E.
 Limestone cement and GGBS samples (2003), Strength development of ternary blended
demonstrated slightly lower oxygen cement with limestone filler and blast-furnace
permeability values compared to Portland- slag., Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 2.
fly ash cement and GGBS. Both cement P. 61-67
types with 80% GGBS appeared to be more Neville A.M. (2010), Properties of concrete, 4th
permeable compared to 40 or 60% GGBS Edition, Pearson Education Limited.
levels. RILEM CPC 11.3 (1984), Absorption of water
by immersion under vacuum. Mater Struct, Vol.
4.1 Particular application of investigated 17(101), p.391–94.
cements Roy D. and Gauda G. (1973), Porosity-Strength
Based on past literature and experimental results relationship in Cementitious materials with Very
following conclusions can be made for High Strength, Journal of The American
application of cements: Ceramic Society, Vol 56., N 10, p. 549-550.
 All cement combinations with up to 40% Tsivilis S., Chaniotakis E., Kakali G. and Batis
GGBS is assumed to give equal G. (2002), An analysis of the properties of
compressive strength as with plain Portland Portland limestone cements and concrete., Cem.
cement. Conr. Research., Vol. 24., p. 371-378.
 Addition of high GGBS amounts results in Zhang C., Wang A., Tang M. and Liu X. (1996),
retardation which can be beneficially used The filling role of pozzolanic material, Cem.
in hot environment and high workability Concr. Res., Vol 26, p. 943-947.
and mobility of GGBS concrete is efficient
in elevated constructions.
 Incorporation of GGBS reduces hydration
temperature and this can be employed in
mass concrete constructions.
 All cement combination have ability to
prevent alkali-silica-reaction, due to low
amount of water soluble alkalis in these
materials.
138
Modified Transformation Factors for Single Degree of Freedom analysis of

Structural Response to Blast and Impact.
Raveesh Dubey
ABSTRACT Often while calculating effects of blast loads on given structures various simplified
approaches are used. To simulate these models certain assumptions are made, deformation profile is
one of them, and transformation factors hence calculated are based on these assumptions.
Transformation factors are used to establish equivalence of energy entities (Internal Energy, Kinetic
Energy and Work done) in order to transform a real structure to a single-degree-of-freedom-structure.
However, due to lack of a defined set of rules to predict a deformation profile, even before the start of
calculations, nurtures suspicions concerning its accuracy and effects on transformation factors, which
leads us to the question; are we considering right deformation profile while transforming the
structures to SDOF model in order to simplify the calculations? Revised factors presented in
(Morison 2006) are used for SDOF method in this work. The comparison of subsequent outputs
generated by using nonlinear explicit Finite Element Analysis with the help of LS-DYNA (LSTC May
1988) model against those generated from SDOF model concludes that transformation factors are
still inaccurate. Mainly, because of contribution from higher modes i.e. evolution of deformed shape
and the transformation factors with time.
(Biggs 1964) used some tables taken from EM-
1 INTRODUCTION
1110-345-416. He upgraded three values in the
In the wake of recent terrorist attacks, the field tables. The up gradations made by him were
of blast and impact engineering has become a widely accepted and incorporated by the military
topic of major interest for both the governments manuals.
and scholars around the world. Now, in order to
make more robust and economical structures it is
essential to understand the underlying concepts 2 Explosion Phenomenon
of blast load and its characteristics thoroughly.
A blast or explosion is characterized by an
Lots of simplified design techniques have been
extremely high amount of energy released in a
introduced due to complex nature of the problem
very short duration of time. It is a rapid change
in hand. Most of the manuals in this field were
of potential energy to work, which is then
initially written by the US armed forces, either
transmitted to the environment in the form of a
by themselves or with external help, and
quickly moving pressure rise known as blast or
published by the US Army Corps of Engineers
shock wave. The shock wave can cause
(USACE) and the US Air Force Weapons
substantial damage when met by resistance from
Laboratory (USAFWL), which are based on two
any kind of obstruction. (Cormie, Mays, &
core methodologies, the single-degree-of-
Smith 2009)
freedom Modal method and single-degree-of-
freedom Equivalent method. It is in 1946 when 2.1 Shock Wave Propagation
the Modal SDOF method was published for the
first time in a US Manual, „„Fundamentals of Basic shock wave propagation is explained by
Protective Design (Non-Nuclear)‟‟ EM 1110- (Longinow 2003). The initial peak value of the
pressure keeps on decreasing, behind the shock
345-405. Later on, almost after a decade in 1957
wave front, as it moves away from the source. A
the equivalent SDOF method featured in two
simplified pressure time variation is illustrated in
parts of the USACE manual EM 1110-345-415
„„Design of Structures to resist the Effects of Fig.-1 and can be expressed as in Eq.1:
Atomic Weapons-Principals of Dynamic (1)
Analysis and Design (US Army Corps of
Engineers March 1957), and EM 1110-345-416 Where,
„„Structural Elements Subjected to Dynamic p(t) = Positive phase overpressure, at time t
Loads‟‟ (US Army Corps of Engineers March to = Positive phase time duration
1957), along with a wide range of parameters Figure -1 Pressure Time History-Friedlander‟s
obtained using this method. In 1964 Biggs Curve
139
Reverse Ramp Load
35,000
30,000
25,000
(4)
Force (N)
20,000
15,000 Force vs Time
10,000
5,000
(5)
0
0.000 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015
Time (s)
(Tyas et al. 2011) further explains that when the (6)

wave particles impinges onto the wall at or near
the edge, rarefaction or “clearing” takes place
3 Structural Response to Blast Load
around the free edges of the obstruction, which
affects the total impulse imparted to the structure 3.1 Classification of Structural Response
and in fact a reduction in incident pressure  Impulsive - In it duration of impact „td‟ is
appears. very short as compared to the natural time
period „T‟ of the structure (td/T≤0.4).
2.2 TNT Equivalency
 Dynamic - In it time duration of blast and
In UFC manual (US Dept. of Army, Navy and time period of the structure are in close
Airforce 2008) the data given is mainly for the proximity of each other (0.4≤td/T≤4).
blast parameters of spherical TNT charge.  Quasi-Static – In it the time duration of
However, this data can be used for any other impact is significantly greater than the time
explosive materials. In order to do this UFC period of the structure (4≤td/T).
presents Eq. 2 to establish the correlation of the
energy released by the explosive materials of 3.2 SDOF Equivalent Method
similar shape against TNT.
(US Dept. of Army, Navy and Airforce 2008) In
(2) an actual structure load, mass and stiffness are
distributed throughout three dimensionally. In it
Where,
the uniformly distributed stiffness, mass and
WTNT = Effective charge wt. of equivalent TNT
loading of the original system are replaced with
WEXP = Weight of the explosive in question
equivalent lumped mass, stiffness and
concentrated force. Thus a single degree of
2.4 Blast Load Scaling freedom spring mass system is generated and
(Smith & Hetherington 1994) states that blast analysed for response instead of the actual
parameters for various explosives at different system. A typical example of real and equivalent
standoff distances can be associated with the structure is shown in Fig. 2 and 3.
help of scaled distance. Wave scaling laws were
initially accomplished by Hopkinson and Cranz Figure-2 Real Structure (Tyas 2011)
independently in their work (Hopkinson 1915)
and (Cranz, Elder, & Roller 1944) popularly
known as Hopkinson-Cranz “cube root” scaling
law. Eq. 3 is used in general practice.
(3)
Where,
S = Standoff distance (m)
W = Charge weight (generally expressed in Figure-3 Transformed SDOF System (Tyas
kilograms) 2011)
2.4 Blast Load Parameters
(Remennikov 2003) describes empirical methods
as correlations between experimental data. These
methods are restricted by the experimental
database on which they are based. The best
fitting curve in correlation to the data can be
expressed as (Tyas 2011).
140
(Morison 2006) Factors applied on actual values assuming the deformed shape it determines it
to derive equivalent values are called with the help of calculations.
transformation factors.
3.3 SDOF-Numerical Technique
4 Methodology
There are several methods to model it, out of
The most significant assumption of the
which, Average Acceleration method has been
simplified approach is the deformation profile of
used. In it velocity and displacement are given
the element. It determines the transformation
by (US Dept. of Army, Navy and Airforce
factors. Usually elastic or plastic deformed shape
2008):
is assumed at the start of any simplified
(7) approach. If the deformation profile assumed
(8) were exact it would give highly accurate results.
Where, Three stages of structural response are
(t) = Acceleration at time, „t‟ in m/s2 schematically shown in Figure -5
v(t) = Velocity at time, „t‟ in m/s Figure -5 Modes of Beam Response to Uniform
z(t) = Displacement at time, „t‟ in m Pressure Loading (Langdon 2005)
These values can then be substituted in the

dynamic equilibrium equation rearranged for
elastic-perfectly plastic analysis as:
(9)
Where,
R = Resistance offered by the system
A non-linear resistance-deflection curve is
shown schematically in Fig.-4.
Figure -4 Non-Linear Resistance Deflection Stage 1: Represents the elastic deformed profile
Relationship before the formation of any plastic hinges.
Resistance vs Displacement Stage 2: Depicts the elasto-plastic behaviour of
20,000 the element. In addition, plastic hinges are
15,000 formed at the support locations.
10,000 Stage 3: Fully plastic behaviour is shown, where
plastic hinge is formed at the mid-point as well.
Resistance (N)
5,000
0
SDOF
This phase transition phenomenon of the
-5,000
element as it progresses through time was
-10,000
initially introduced by (Martin & Symonds
-15,000 1966). As structures go through these changes in
-20,000
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
time, the “velocity field” and “deformation
Displacement (m) shapes” keeps on changing as well. This leads to
the evolution of transformation factors through
time each time step will have a unique
3.3 FEA Method
transformation factor. Assumptions made during
A decade later, in 1990 Mayor and Flanders, the analysis are enlisted below.
while working for US Department of
1. An idealised pressure time history has been
Transportation modified a SDOF computer
assumed for this study, which is illustrated
model, used for analysing building walls, under
in Fig.-1 and given by Eq. 1.
blast pressure from conventional explosives. A
2. Negative phase pressure has been ignored as
Technical Manual (Mayor & Flanders 1990)
it is not significant in this case. In addition,
providing theoretical background and references
effect of incidence angle „θ‟ is negligible.
was developed in the end. Since then for last
3. “Clearing” effects have also not been taken
couple of decades transient dynamic finite
into account.
element analysis took precedence over SDOF
4. Blast load could produce substantially
methods especially for complex structures.
higher strain rates in the range, which can
The accuracy of a FEA model largely depends enhance the strength of the material
on mesh generation, time step taken, material significantly. It has not been modelled in
creation and application of loads. Instead of either of the analysis procedure in this work.
Hence, it will not have an impact on the
141
comparison results owing to identical dt = Time Step in „s‟ = 0.00001
conditions in both methods. When impulse strikes the structure, at time zero
5. Bilinear resistance curve has been adopted there will not be any resistance. Other values at
as illustrated in Fig.-4. this time will be:
6. All the transformation factors have been Pt ; derived from the load curve illustrated in
taken from (Morison 2006). Fig.-1.
Pet = kLxPt or k‟LxPt (Based on elastic or plastic
Initial setup of the explosive and panel
phase)
placement is as illustrated in Fig.-.
vt = 0; zt = 0; Zmaxt = 0; Ret = 0;
Figure-6 Geometrical Setup of the Analytical In addition, any displacement occurred at any
Model time should be stored in Zmax after each step, and
value of displacement should be checked against
it.
Step 2: At time, t = t+dt
Eq. 9 will be used for acceleration so as to
include resistance. Algorithm to calculate it can
be expressed as:
= − −1/ (17)
‘If zt-1 ≤Zu
Use elastic transformation factors,
SDOF Equivalent approach else,
If zt-1≥Zmaxt-1,
I′= 1×t′3/12 (10) Use plastic transformation factors,
k= 808.5 ′/ ′2 (11) else,
= 1× ′2/6 (12) Use elastic transformation factors,
= (13) End’
=44 (14) Step 3: Calculate Velocity using Eq. 7
= (15) Step 4: Calculate displacement using Eq. 8
= (16) Step 5: To calculate resistance we will have to
incorporate another algorithm, which is as
Where,
follows:
l‟= Length of plate
‘If zt ≤Zu
t‟ = Thickness of plate
Ret = kexZt,
I‟ = Second moment of area per unit width of
else,
panel
If zt≥Zmaxt,
k = Material stiffness of the real system
Ret = Ry,
kK = Elastic equivalent stiffness transformation
else,
factor
Ret = Ry-(Zmaxt-zt)xke,
Zp = Plastic modulus per metre length
End’
Ru = Ultimate resistance
Step 6:
Ry = Equivalent ultimate resistance
Go to step 2 and continue till desired iterations
Mp = Plastic moment capacity per metre length
are completed.
Zu = Displacement at ultimate resistance
LS-DYNA program
After deriving these values we can then go on to
Element shown in Fig.-6 is simulated with same
set up the Non-linear Numerical Model.
set of conditions as in the SDOF numerical
Description regarding the parameters used in
method. For this purpose, structural plate has
algorithm is given below.
been split into ten by ten millimetre elements
Re(t) = Dynamic resistance at time, „t‟ in (N)
with the help of conventional meshing procedure
Pe(t) = Reverse ramp load at time, „t‟ in (N)
in the software package.
Zmax = Maximum displacement occurred at any
time,„t‟ in m
Entities used with subscript „e‟ are equivalent
values unless mentioned otherwise. An 5 RESULTS
algorithm will be embedded in the equations to Graphs obtained from FEA software are coupled
track whether the element is in elastic stage or with the ones generated using SDOF equivalent
plastic stage. Whenever, the deflection goes numerical method. Most significant ones are
beyond the displacement at ultimate resistance shown schematically in this section. These
„Zu‟ calculated above it is considered to be a responses (Displacement, Velocity) are of the
plastic phase. central node of the panel.
Step 1: At time, t = 0
Time step for this study is:
142
Original Transformation Factors from (Morison, Now the transformation factors have been reset
2006) are used for Fig.-7 and 8. to an optimum value by hit and trial method.
kL = kK = 0.308, kM = 0.182, k'L = k'K = 0.318, Alterations due to the changes made can be seen
k'M = 0.16 in Fig.-9 and 10. Altered values of the
kL = Elastic equivalent load transformation transformation factors are as given below.
factor
kL = 0.26, kK = 0.25, kM = 0.2, k'L = 0.26, k'K =
kM = Elastic equivalent mass transformation
0.25, k'M = 0.2
factor
k‟K = Plastic equivalent stiffness transformation After modifying the factors the results indicate
factor that the peak values can be matched. The
k‟L = Plastic equivalent load transformation deflection values for both analyses are similar
factor but the velocity still exceeds to some extent.
k‟M = Plastic equivalent mass transformation However, dynamic behaviour of the two
factor
Figure-9 Displacement Time History (Modified
Fig.-7 illustrates the displacement time history of
Transformation Factors)
the aluminium panel extracted from LS-DYNA
and SDOF approach. Considerable variation in Displacement vs Time
0.09
the dynamic behaviour of the panel is clearly
0.08
visible in the graph. In LS-DYNA curve panel 0.07
achieves a maximum displacement of 78
Displacement (m)
0.06
millimetres. Whereas, SDOF curve peaks at a 0.05
value of 95 mm; which is about 22 per cent 0.04 SDOF

LS-DYNA
0.03
higher than the software output
0.02
Figure-7 Displacement Time History 0.01
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Displacement vs Time Time (s)
0.1
0.09 Figure-10 Velocity Time History (Modified

0.08 Transformation Factors)
0.07
Displacement (m)
Velocity vs Time
0.06
30
0.05
SDOF
0.04
LS-DYNA 20
0.03
0.02 10
Velocity (m/s)
0.01
0 0
SDOF
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
LS-DYNA
Time (s)
-10
Similar pattern of behaviour can be noticed in -20
Figure-8 for velocity time history graph. In FEA

analysis model it peaks at a velocity of about -30
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
„24m/s‟ and than it goes on diminishing rapidly Time (s)
with time. On the other hand, in SDOF analysis

the central point reaches to a peak velocity of elements is still substantially out of sync.
„30m/s‟ initially, which is 25 per cent higher Finally, for merging the two curves, factors have
than the SDOF maximum response. been modified further. This time along with the
equivalent parameters a multiple of eight has
Figure-8 Velocity Time History been applied to the panel resistance coefficient.
Velocity vs Time kL = 0.31, kK = 0.255, kM = 0.182, k'L = 0.31, k'K
40
= 0.255, k'M = 0.16
30
Fig.-11 and 12 reflect the outcome of the
20 additional changes made. It can be seen that both
the curves are now matching exactly and not just
Velocity (m/s)
10
the peak values of the structural responses but
SDOF
0
LS-DYNA also the dynamic behaviour of the panel is now
-10
in sync for both SDOF and MDOF (LS-DYNA)
approaches.
-20
Figure-11 Displacement Time History (Modified
-30
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Factors 2)
Time (s)
143
Displacement vs Time
0.09
0.08 REFERENCES
0.07
Displacement (m)
0.06
BIGGS, J.M. (1964). Introduction to Structural
0.05
SDOF
Dynamics. London, McGraw-Hill.
0.04
0.03
LS-DYNA CORMIE, David, MAYS, Geoff and SMITH, Peter
0.02
(2009). Blast Effects on Buildings. 2nd ed., London,
0.01
Thomas Telford Ltd.
0 CRANZ, K. J., ELDER, J. D. and ROLLER, D. E.
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time (s)
(1944). A translation of Cranz's Textbook of ballistics
(Lehrbuch der Ballistik). Berlin, [Washington?],
Figure-12 Velocity Time History (Modified Technical Reports Section for Armor and Ordnance,
Factors 2) National Defense research Committee.
HOPKINSON, B (1915). British Ordnance Board
Velocity vs Time Minutes.(13565).
30 LANGDON, G.S (2005). Inelastic deformation and
failure of profiled stainless steel blast wall panels. Part
20
II: Analytical modelling considerations. International
Journal of Impact Engineering, 31 (4), 371–399.
10
LONGINOW, A. (2003). Blast Basics. In: Proc. AISC
Velocity (m/s)
Steel Building Symposium: Blast and Progressive

0
SDOF Collapse Resistance, New York, 4-5 December. New
LS-DYNA
-10
York.
LSTC (May 1988). LS-DYNA Users Manual.
-20
Livemore Software Technology Corporation.
MARTIN, J.B. and SYMONDS, P.S. (1966). Mode
-30 approximations for impulsively loaded rigid-plastic
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time (s)
structures. Journal of Engineering Mech Div, 92, 43–
66.
5 CONCLUSIONS MAYOR, R.P. and FLANDERS, R (1990). Technical
manual, simplified computer model of air blast effects
Conclusions derived are collectively based on on building walls. Washington, DC, US Department
the literature review and outcome of a two-way of State, Office of Diplomatic Security.
aluminium panel analysed both analytically and MORISON, Colin M. (2006). Dynamic response of
with FEA method to validate this idea and to walls and slabs by single-degree-of freedom analysis-
a critical review and revision. International Journal of
exemplify the delicate nature of transformation
Impact Engineering, 32 (8), 1214.
factors. Results show that the transformation REMENNIKOV, AM (2003). A Review of Methods
factors used for two way elements are still for Predicting Bomb Blast Effects on Buildings.
inaccurate. Journal of Battlefield Technology, 6 (3), 5-10.
SMITH, Peter D and HETHERINGTON, John G
 Displacement parameter, obtained by SDOF (1994). Blast and ballistic loading of structures.
analysis, for the provided set of problem, is Oxford : Butterworth-Heinemann.
twenty two per cent higher than the one TYAS, Andrew (2011). Blast and Impact Effects on
estimated by the FEA analysis. Structures. Course Notes, Sheffield, The University of
 Velocity output, calculated by SDOF Sheffield (CIV6410).
analysis for the similar problem is twenty TYAS, A., et al. (2011). Prediction of Clearing
five per cent higher than the FEA analysis Effects in Far-Field Blast Loading of Finite Targets.
result. Shock Waves, 21 (2), 111.
US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS (March 1957).
 New and improved design codes in Design of structures to resist the effects of atomic
correlation with latest research and weapons-principals of structural elements subjected
developments are required. to dynamic loads. Washington, DC, US Army Corps
of Engineers. EM, 1110-345-416.
US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS (March 1957).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Design of structures to resist the effects of atomic
weapons-principles of dynamic analysis and design.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Washington, DC, US Army Corps of Engineers. EM,
Andrew Tyas, for his excellent guidance and 1110-345-415.
support during the course of my dissertation. US DEPT. OF ARMY, NAVY AND AIRFORCE
(2008). Structures to Resist the Accidental Effects of
Software package used (LS-DYNA) has been Explosions. Washington DC, US Department of
generously made available by Oasys Ltd., which Army, Navy and Airforce. UFC-3-340-02.
is the software house of Arup and distributor of
LS-DYNA in UK. I am grateful to Arup for this
support.
144
Developing a Rational Approach to Intumescent Fire Protection of Steel

Sections Including Cellular Beams
Mehmet Evram
Candidate MSc (Eng.) Steel Construction
ABSTRACT A parametric fire tests are performed to understand the behaviour of different film
thicknesses of intumescent coatings for four different short cellular beams. In this test, short I-section
cellular beams are protected by different thickness of the same spray applied coating. The steel sections
were protected with different thickness of „Intumescent A‟. Cellular beam web post temperatures are
analysed for each beam section. This article investigates temperature distribution and relationships for
each beam section. Four different beam sections are categorized according to beam sections,
geometries and intumescent dry film thicknesses. In order to develop ideas and recommendations in
terms of developing a rational approach to intumescent fire protection of steel beam sections. Current
design methods, which is giving in Steel Construction Institute publications used to determine the
parametric web post temperatures of steel sections based on average bottom flange temperatures. These
temperatures are compared with test temperatures to decide which one is more conservative.
of cellular beams is determined using a

1 INTRODUCTION
modification factor, which is giving in the ASFP
Cellular beams are extensively used in current “Yellow Book”. The Steel Construction Institute
commercial building constructions due to the published a new design guide, which argued that
need for open-plan spaces that are clear of the web-post temperature is higher than the
columns. Large spans are very useful for expected web-post temperature. (Bailey, 2004)
commercial buildings, particularly spans created This argument has an effect on the thickness of
by fabricated composite cellular beams. These the intumescent coating protection layer. This
beams are protected by sprayed off-site higher temperature will result in a non-
intumescent paint. Generally, structural conservative thickness of protection. Therefore
steelwork designers rely on guidance from the different temperatures may apply to different
Association of Specialist Fire Protection (ASFP) types of cellular beam. The temperature depends
and the Steel Construction Institute (SCI). on the residual mass, and the shape, location and
Product performance testing and procedures for spacing of the cellular beam web openings.
determining the required thickness for fire
The level of fire resistance of cellular beams is
protection are detailed in the ASFP publication
related to the thickness of the intumescent
Fire Protection for Structural Steel in Buildings,
paint. The rule regarding adequate thickness of
the so-called „Yellow Book‟. The Yellow Book's
intumescent paint is, however, arbitrary.
latest guidance on cellular beams adopts the
Therefore manufacturers of intumescent
recommendations from the Steel Construction
protection have suggested more rational ways
Institute as published in RT1085 (ASFP, 2008).
of providing the required thickness of
Most cellular beams with circular web openings intumescent paint. But determining a more
are protected by simpler tabular help based on rational way of protection thickness is not an
specific product analysis according to the ASFP easy task. A lot of resource and work has to be
fire test protocol for circular web openings. done to determine this.
Cellular beams have to be considered differently
In this article we are going to consider the
from beams without openings in terms of their
web-post temperature distribution and compare
fire protection requirements. (ASFP, 2008)
it with the existing method. With this analysis
Under normal conditions, for cellular beams, the
we will be able to see the validity of the
fire protection requirements linked to the
existing method, which is in use today.
required fire protection period. Limiting the
Following that, the required intumescent
temperature of the cellular beam is the main
factor in fire protection. Web-post temperature
145
thickness can be determined according to these Beam ACTUAL DIMENSIONS
temperatures. T
Ref. A B B2 C C2 D D2
2 EXPERIMENTAL TEST PROGRAM SB E A 602 172 11.2 7.2
Four different cellular beam sections were SB F B 602 172 12.6 8.1
referenced as SB E, SB F, SB G, and SB H.
Referenced beams SB E and SB F are symmetric SB G C 603 172 182 11.5 12.9 6.8 8.4
steel sections. Short cellular beam SB H is a
fabricated plate girder beam section. Finally, SB H B 548 202 24.5 9.9
short cellular beam SB G is an asymmetric steel
Table 1 – Detailed dimensions
section. The length of all four different types of
short steel section is 1200 mm. Each steel 2.1 Testing Procedure
section has two web-posts, and these are of
Four different short steel cellular beams were
different widths for each section. The
subjected to heating conditions according to BS
dimensions of the web-posts with the beam
476: Part 20: 1987 within the furnace. These
geometry are given in Figure 1 and all the beams
sections are protected with different protection
web post diameters are 400 mm. Finally detailed
thickness, but with same protection material and
dimensions for the beams are given in Table 1.
system. The short steel sections are fixed to the
(a) Symmetrical cellular beam (SB E): The beam roof of the furnace with bolts, and therefore they
SB E has been produced on the basis of achieve 3-sided exposure. For four different steel
356x171x51 kg/m as a top tee section and of sections, the ends and tops of the sections were
356x171x51 kg/m as a bottom tee section. insulated. With this approach, heat transfer is
minimised at these positions. The increase in the
(b) Symmetrical cellular beam (SB F): The beam short steel sections‟ temperature is recorded with
SB F has been produced on the basis of thermocouples, which are fixed on the steel
356x171x57 kg/m as a top tee section and of sections of the protective coating.
356x171x57 kg/m as a bottom tee section.
Large amount of test data is examined, to
(c) Asymmetrical cellular beam (SB G): The attempt to develop ideas. Web-post temperatures
beam SB G has been produced on the basis are analysis according to thermocouples
of 356x171x51 kg/m as a top tee section and position. The thermocouples are numbered
of 406x178x67 kg/m as a bottom tee section. differently for the four different types of short
(d) Symmetrical cellular beam (SB H): The steel section. These thermocouples are
beam SB H has been produced on the basis positioned on the web-post and flanges of the
of fabricated plate girder of 550x200x25x10 short cellular beams to record the test
as a top tee section and of 550x200x25x10 as temperatures. Typical thermocouple positions
a bottom tee section. are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 – Typical thermocouples locations
2.2 Intumescent Fire Protection

Intumescent paints are designed to expand in the
due to heat. The style in which these paints burn
and turn into high-volume char is the reason to
use them as a fire retardant. Heat in a fire make a
catalytic reaction causing the expansion of an
insulating char layer up to 50 times the
intumescent film thickness, as shown in Figure
3. Intumescent fire protection is commonly used
to provide fire protection to structural steelwork.
Intumescent coatings are designed to maintain
the completeness of the steel building for
Figure 1 – Beam geometries
between 1 to 3h perform under difficult fire
conditions. It expands to many times its initial
146
thickness in the presence of fire. Intumescent (2.1)
coatings form on heating an expanded
multicellular layer. This multicellular layer used
Where;
as a thermal wall and protects the steel against a
rapid increase of temperature. In addition, the θ is expressed in degrees centigrade
char swells and produces an insulating multi-
θF,t is the top flange temperature
cellular protective layer. This layer limits both
the heat transfer from the source to the steel and θF,b is the bottom flange temperature
mass transfers from the steel to the heat
Symmetric Sections: According to SCI, the top
source.(Jimenez et al., 2006)
flange temperature is assumed to be at a
temperature of 70% of the bottom flange
temperature for symmetric sections. There are
some formulae for determining these
temperatures.
Web-post buckling temperature:
When (2.2)
Where;
is a function of the width of the web-
post, So (mm)
Figure 3 – Intumescent char (2.3)

There is much research that is related to the
physical-chemical mechanisms, flammability,
and characterisation of intumescent coatings. To Figure 4 illustrates this relationship, which is
provide an effective char layer against fire, the using for determining the web-post temperature.
coating has to be formulated in terms of physical
and chemical properties.(Yew and Ramli
Sulong, 2011) In addition, the stick ability of an
intumescent coating is important; because poor
stick ability reduces its ability to protect the steel
during fire. The adhesion property of the
intumescent layer between the structural steel
and intumescent coating is providing longer
protection.
To provide an efficient intumescent char to
protect the steel from fire, we have to meet Figure 4 - Assumed generic web-post temperature
different requirements, such as good mechanical variation
resistance, rapid swelling and good adhesion.
3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AND
PROTECTION
3.1 Temperature Distribution of Cellular
Beams
For beams with circular and rectangular web
Figure 5 – Temperature distribution of cellular beams
openings, the web-post temperature increased
more rapidly than the web of solid beams. For this article web post temperature calculation
Temperature distribution of cellular beams and equation 2.2 assumed for approach 1 and Figure
the temperatures required for temperature 4 assumed for approach 2.
calculations are shown in Figure 5.
According to the SCI publication RT1187, the
temperature of the top flange relative to the
bottom flange uses the relationship: (SCI, 2011)
147
3.2 Fire protection process of cellular beams web-post temperatures for edge and centre zones
of beams are analysed to understand the
Simplified guidance is available from the
relationship between them. After that validation
intumescent fire protection manufacturers in the
of test results are done based on the edge and
form of tables of limiting temperatures, but only
centre ratio of web post temperatures.
for beams with circular web openings. In
addition to them geometrical limitations apply to Step 3: In third step relationship between bottom
the position and size of the openings. The flanges and web posts are analysed to check the
structural designer should prepare suitable validation of test results with existing methods.
information on the geometry and loading, to There are two different methods to calculate the
apply the fire protection manufacturer to web-post temperature according to bottom
determine an correct limiting temperature for the flange temperature of beam section.
cellular beam.(ASFP, 2008)
Step 4: Each beam section has different dry film
The procedure for determining the required thickness. According these different dry film
protection thickness should be applied to a beam thicknesses beam temperatures are analysed to
with web openings using the appropriate design understand the intumescent behaviour and to
tables. This geometric limitations cause the very give recommendations related with dry film
narrow opportunity to apply required fire thicknesses.
protection. According bottom flange
temperatures and assessment temperatures
required fire protection is determined based on 5 RESULTS
manufacturers‟ information. But web post
According to chosen critical temperatures edge
temperatures are more critical in case of cellular
and centre temperatures are checked for each
beam. Therefore web post temperatures are
web post to see the relationship between them.
analysed in this article.
These chosen critical temperatures are 30, 60
and 90 minutes. At 30 minutes intumescent
starts to react, at 60 minutes is the most critical
4 ANALYSES
part because 60 minutes is the required fire
The analysis performed for four different types safety minutes. 90 minutes is the end of
of beam sections. These analyses are performed intumescent protection time according to
basically for web-post temperatures of short intumescent properties.
cellular beams. Web-post temperatures are
analysis according to thermocouples position. 5.1 Edge and Centre Temperature Ratios
These thermocouples positions are grouped such
All beams edge and centre temperatures are
as edges and centre‟s to generate ideas of web-
recorded for the critical minutes, which are they
post temperatures.
chosen before. For these critical minutes ratio of
In this analysis each beam section edge and edge to centre temperatures are calculated for
centre web-post temperatures are analysis to WP1 and WP2. After that average ratio is
understand the relationship between each other. calculated for WP1 and WP2. Lower tee WP1
In addition to them, validity of test temperatures and WP2 ratios are given in Table 2.
is checked with existing methods. That existing
WP1 WP2
method is based on the bottom flange SB E - (130 mm) SB E - (225 mm)
temperature. Ave. Ratio 1.033 Ave. Ratio 1.098
SB F - (130 mm) SB F - (160 mm)
The analysis performed basically consisted of
Ave. Ratio 1.014 Ave. Ratio 1.116
four steps. They are described shortly below: SB G - (130 mm) SB G - (160 mm)
Step 1: Each beam section analysed separately Ave. Ratio 0.920 Ave. Ratio 1.110
according to web-post temperatures. Four SB H - (130 mm) SB H - (160 mm)
Ave. Ratio 1.059 Ave. Ratio 1.054
different beam sections have different properties.
Beam SB H is analysed along the web post G. Ave. Ratio 1.007 G. Ave. Ratio 1.095
horizontally and vertically. Beam SB E and SB F
Table 2 – Lower tee ratios
are analysed along the web post for
thermocouples at edges and centre. These As Table 2 shows that calculated ratios for WP1
analyses are done separately for the upper and and WP2 are bigger than the one (>1) also
lower tee of cellular beams, which is defined general ratio is bigger than one for both web
above and below the centreline of beam section post. This means that edge temperatures hotter
respectively. than centre. Section factor is one of the reasons
of this temperature difference. According to that
Step 2: In this step three different critical factors validation of test results and assumed
minutes are chosen. These are 30, 60 and 90 temperature according to factors are done,
minutes. According to these critical minutes
148
Figure 5 has been plotted to observe the shows that most of the values stayed below the
accuracy of temperatures between test and perfect line. That means that parametric
assumed temperatures. temperatures are more conservative. To
determine the safety factor according to first
approach slope line is plotted based on minimum
value. That slope is 0.79 and the angle of slope
is 38.31 degree. This slope is safety factor for
calculated parametric temperatures.
As shown in a Figure 7 web post temperature
which is calculated based on second approach
shows that most of the values stayed below the
perfect line. Same as first approach parametric
temperatures are more conservative. Plotted
slope line shows that safety factor for second
approach is 0.80 and the angle of slope is 38.65
Figure 5 degrees.
5.3 DFT Relationship
5.2 Bottom Flange – Web post Relationship
Short cellular beam sections have different dry
There are two different approaches to determine film thickness of intumescent coating.
the web post temperature based on bottom flange Intumescent coatings dry film thicknesses are
temperature. These two different approaches are given in Table 3.
defined in SCI publication RT 1187, which is
published May 2008. SCI have based the Reference SB E SB F SB G SB H
relationship on an average of many products.
(SCI, 2011) Standard DFT (mm) 2.334 2.797 3.810 1.558
Table 3 - Intumescent dry film thicknesses
Web post temperatures are calculated based on
approach 1 and approach 2, which is giving in
section 3.1. Calculated web post temperatures
based on factors are named as „parametric web
post temperature‟. Validation of test and
parametric temperatures are checked and plotted
in Figure 6 and Figure 7.
Figure 8
Figure 6
Figure 9
These analyses are between the 30 and 90

minutes. Temperature differences are generally
similar between both approaches. Temperature
differences showing in Figure 8 and Figure 9
represented the temperature difference of
parametric temperature to test temperature. For
Figure 7 the beams SB E, SB F and SB H intumescent
As shown in Figure 6 web post temperatures, coating is working well. Which can be seen from
which are calculated, based on first approach the Figure 8 test temperatures is lower than the
149
parametric temperatures during the chosen time Figure 9. According to that temperature
interval. However for the beam SB G after 50 differences on center of web post, we can
minutes parametric temperatures are lower than say that intumescent dry film thickness on
the test temperatures, shown in Figure 8. This beam SB E and SB H are working very
means that intumescent coating is not working effectively on WP1. Dry film thickness for
properly. According to temperature difference SB E and SB H are 2.334 mm and 1.558
we can say that intumescent coating dry film mm respectively. Intumescent dry film
thickness on the beam SB E and SB H very thicknesses 3.810 mm on the beam SB G is
effectively. not working well on WP1 and WP2. Thick
intumescent thicknesses are not working
properly because to apply that amount of
6 CONCLUSIONS intumescent thickness, we have to apply 2
or 3-layer intumescent coating. In my
The study included recorded temperatures from opinion because of that reason bonds
fire test and parametric temperatures, which is
between these layers is not strong. As a
calculated based on current methods. Cellular
result of this problem conductivity of
beams forms with one and two half holes with
intumescent char will increase and it will
two different web post width. Four different
affect the unexpected increasing
beams are protected with different intumescent temperature on the cellular beam. In
dry film thicknesses. addition to them intumescent can fall down
Some of the conclusions from the test and on the thick dry film thicknesses because of
analysis are made below: stick ability problem, which can be seen
from the test pictures. Thin intumescent
1. Comparison of the temperatures recorded thickness such as 1.558 mm and 2.334 mm
from the limited test data obtained at the on the beams SB H and SB E respectively
middle of the web post with the working better. Because this thicknesses can
temperatures recorded at the edge of the apply at one or maximum in two layer.
web post of the cellular beam showed that Therefore bond between layers are stronger.
the edge web post temperatures was hotter That will decrease the conductivity of
than the centre web post temperatures for intumescent char.
the duration of test.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2. Edge and centre web post temperature ratios
are calculated separately for WP1 and WP2. First of all, I would like to express my sincere
Calculated edge temperatures based on gratefulness and deep sense of respect to my
centre temperatures and edge test supervisor Prof. Ian Burgess who has guided me
temperatures plotted on the Figure 5 for through my dissertation. I am also proud of
lower tee. Figure 5 show that calculated working with him because of his help, support
edge temperatures based on ratios are more and patience during the time of study. He
conservative. positively affects the quality of this dissertation
by his advices. In addition to them I would like
3. Web post center temperatures are calculated to thank you International Paint Ltd., who is
based on average bottom flange providing test data‟s to use in this dissertation.
temperatures according to current design
methods. Results obtained from these
approaches were compared with the test
REFERENCES
temperatures, for these temperatures
validation done and plotted on the Figure 6 ASFP 2008. Guidance note for the fire protection of steel
beams with web openings. TGN 009:2008. Association for
and Figure 7 for approach 1 and approach 2 Specialist Fire Protection.
respectively. We can conclude from the
Figure 6 and Figure 7 calculated web post BAILEY, C. 2004. Indicative fire tests to investigate the
behaviour of cellular beams protected with intumescent
temperatures based on existing design coatings. Fire Safety Journal, 39, 689-709.
methods are more conservative than the test
JIMENEZ, M., DUQUESNE, S. & BOURBIGOT, S. 2006.
temperatures. Plotted slope line on the
Characterization of the performance of an intumescent fire
graphs show that the safety factors, which protective coating. Surface and Coatings Technology, 201,
they are 0.79 for approach 1 and 0.80 for 979-987.
approach 2. From the safety factors we can SCI 2011. Guidance on the Fire Protection of Beams with
say that both of the methods give the similar Web Openings. RT1187. The Steel Construction Institute.
temperatures.
YEW, M. C. & RAMLI SULONG, N. H. 2011. Fire-resistive
4. Based on different intumescent dry film performance of intumescent flame-retardant coatings for
steel. Materials & Design, In Press, Corrected Proof.
thicknesses web post center temperature
differences are plotted on Figure 8 and
150
Interaction of Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas putida with

radionuclides: U (VI) and Re (VII) as a surrogate of Tc (VII)
Jesús Adrián Fernández Reyes
ABSTRACT As nuclear energy gains strength as a way to suffice global energetic needs, the
release of radionuclides to the environment is of great concern due to their long-lives, high mobility
and toxicity. Potential environmental protection strategies include the usage of bacterial communities
capable of uptaking and accumulating radionuclides. In this study, batch sorption experiments were
used to investigate the interactions between bacteria and dissolved uranium (VI) and rhenium (VII) -as
a chemical analog of technetium (VII)-. Two bacterial species, Bacillus subtilis (Gram positive) and
Pseudomonas putida (Gram negative), were exposed for 24 hours to known concentrations of uranium
and rhenium. ICP-MS spectrometry was used to quantify the residual concentration of radionuclides in
solution after biosorption. Metal uptake by these bacterial species used was found to be non-
metabolism dependent and mainly governed by chemical speciation related to the pH experimental
conditions and to complexation with inorganic and organic ligands in the cell wall. The initial
concentration of uranyl solutions (50 and 500 μg/L) was effectively lowered by 80 to 92% at pH=6;
with both bacterial species performing similarly in the concentration reduction following a first-order
kinetics reaction. No decrease in the concentration of rhenium in solution was achieved because a
higher pH was required for the perrhenate anion, ReO4-, to be present in solution and thus undergo
biosorption. The same behaviour is expected for the pertechnetate anion, TcO4-, in the environment.
precautions to deal with and research is

1 INTRODUCTION
generally carried out in non-radioactive
Nuclear energy processes related to electricity analogues, such as Re (VII).
generation and weapon building and testing have
Metal-microorganism interactions give insight
resulted in the release of long-lived
into the ability of microorganisms to modify the
radionuclides to the environment. Currently,
toxicity, fate and transport of radionuclides in
immobilisation approaches are seen as solutions
the environment. In the present study, the
to reduce the dispersion of radionuclides in soils
interaction between two aerobic bacteria,
and groundwater. Since the fixation of
Pseudomonas putida and Bacillus subtilis, with
radionuclides by physicochemical amendments
U(VI) and Re(VII) as a Tc(VII) surrogate is
is complex and usually not economically viable,
analysed in terms of the microorganisms’ ability
microbiological and biotechnological approaches
to lower the initial concentration of the
taking advantage of naturally occurring
radioactive species. The decrease in the
biogeochemical cycles to impede radionuclide
radionuclide concentration is quantified by
movement are highly attractive remediation
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.
options (Lloyd & Renshaw, 2005). The
mechanisms by which bacteria can immobilise
radionuclides include biosorption to cell
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
components or extracellular structures (Vankar,
2008), bioaccumulation (Merroun & Selenska- Commonly, batch sorption experiments are used
Pobell,2008), precipitation and reduction to for monitoring metal-bacteria interactions. A
insoluble forms (Lovley et al., 1991). biomass sample is exposed to known
concentrations of metal ions and monitored
Among the radionuclides released by
during the reaction time. When the desired
anthropogenic processes, uranium and
exposure time is reached, the solution is
technetium are particularly important because
centrifuged and the metal concentration in the
they are very mobile, persistent and toxic when
supernatant is quantified and compared to the
in dissolved form: as uranyl, U(VI), and
initial concentration by spectroscopic methods.
pertechnetate, Tc(VII). The high radioactivity of
The methods employed to grow and harvest the
technetium requires special training and
bacteria are described below, along with the
151
procedure followed to obtain the data for the 2.4 ICP-MS sample preparation
metal-biomass interactions.
Seven uranium and rhenium standards for ICP-
2.1 Biomass growth MS were prepared, with concentrations of 0.1,
0.25, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5 and 10 ppb (μg/L).. The
The species used to study the removal of uranyl
blanks used were Pseudomonas putida or
and perrhenate from solution were Bacillus
Bacillus subtilis with ultrapure water (18
subtilis and a Pseudomonas putida KT2440
MOhm), and the controls for comparing the
strain. Streak plate techniques were used for the
results were the solutions of the rhenium AAS
isolation of single colonies. Nutrient agar and
standard (Fluka) and UO2(NO3)2 50 and 500ppb.
nutrient broth were used as the culturing media.
The instrument used to carry out the analysis
Overnight cultures (incubated at 29°C, 16-24
was a PerkinElmer-SCIEX ELAN DRC II
hour cultures) were employed throughout the
inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer.
experimental work. After culturing overnight,
the desired single colonies from both species The samples were analysed from low to high
were transferred from the agar to liquid media concentration, with wash cycles (1% nitric acid
(nutrient broth, 400 mL), and incubated solution) between every six samples to remove
overnight. The operation was done in triplicate any impurities and to avoid cross-contamination
for both microbial species. Subsequently, the between samples. Additionally, after each wash
liquid cultures were transferred to 50 mL cycle, two of the standards (0.5 and 5 ppb) were
Eppendorf tubes and centrifuged (3000 rpm, 10 measured in order to monitor the performance of
min) in order not to lyse the cells. Afterwards, the instrument to assess the quality of the
the bacterial cells from the same batch were analytical data retrieved.
pooled together to increase the available biomass
for the experiments. Pooling the different
samples is justified because the microorganisms 3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
are considered to be growing in homogeneous
conditions and exposed to the same treatments. 3.1 Bacterial cultures
Overnight cultures proved to be adequate to let
2.2 Uranium and rhenium solutions
the bacterial species grow at their optimum due
A 2 mg/L uranyl nitrate stock solution to high nutrient presence in the growth media.
UO2(NO3)2 was initially prepared by weighing
Morphologically, Bacillus subtilis colonies are
1mg of uranyl nitrate hexahydrate (yellow
crystals) and dissolving it in 500mL. From this light brown coloured, mucoid and small at the
uranyl nitrate solution, a 500ppb and 50ppb were start of their growth, but they rapidly become
medium-sized. The colonies are irregular and
prepared. A 1000 ppm rhenium standard for
have their margins undulated. Higher yields of
spectroscopy (Fluka) was used as the source to
bacteria can be achieved after 24 hours of
provide Re (VII) for the experiments. The
standard was then diluted to obtain a 50 and 500 incubation time at 29°C, but the colonies
ppb rhenium solution. increase their size considerably and start to
merge with each other as a result. The optimum
2.3 Kinetics growth temperature for this species ranges
between 30 and 37°C, with a maximum
A sample equivalent to 10mg of biomass (dry
temperature of 43°C and a minimum of 18°C
weight) of P. putida and B. subtilis, was added
(Korsten & Cook , 1996). Pseudomonas putida
to twelve 50mL PP tubes. Subsequently, 25 mL
are round-shaped, light brown colonies. The
of the uranyl nitrate and rhenium 50 ppb and
edges are regular and well defined and the
500ppb solutions were added to the different
colonies are small and rough Pseudomonas
tubes. The concentrations were chosen
putida has various strains, of which the one used
considering a ratio of interaction between
in the study (KT2440) grows optimally at 25-
biomass:uranium of 200:1, based on previous
30°C, conditions in which it was incubated
radionuclide reduction and biosorption studies
(Nelson et. al, 2002).
(Sar & D'Souza, 2002; Anderson, 2011). After
the bacteria were put in contact with uranium 3.1.1 Plate counts
and rhenium, the reaction progress was
As the number of microorganisms grown in
monitored by taking 2 mL of the solution of each
nutritious media is very large, a serial dilution
tube after 1, 2, 4, 7 and 24 hours of exposure in
order to study the kinetics of the reaction. Each approach (successive 1/10 dilutions) was
time, the reaction was quenched by followed to analyse a fewer number of colonies
to calculate the number of microorganisms per
centrifugation. In all cases, the supernatant was
milliliter of sample. The 10-4 dilution plates
removed and transferred into another tube for
presented an average of 120 colony forming
ICP-MS analysis.
units. The number of microorganisms found per
milliliter was 1.2x107. If the number of cells is
152
higher than 107 cells/mL, uranyl removal from After exposing the bacterial cultures to the
solution can be facilitated by bacterial processes, uranyl 50 and 500 ppb solutions, the pH of the
having the highest efficiency between 109 and solution was measured. The average pH of the
1011 cells per milliliter (Mullen, 2002). samples was 6.1. Uranium speciation in solution
defines the type of interaction with bacterial
3.1.2 Optical Density
surfaces. As observed in the pe vs pH diagram
Optical density (OD) measurements allow the below (Fig. 1), at the pH measured, and in
estimation of the number of cells per volume of oxidising conditions, the predominant species in
a bacterial sample since light going through a the electrochemical system is the uranyl cation,
suspension of microorganisms is scattered (UO2)2+.
depending on the dry weight of the cells
contained in a sample (Sutton, 2010). The
samples were taken from overnight cultures in
liquid broth and diluted ten times before carrying
out the turbidity measurement using fresh
nutrient broth as blank (Table 1). All turbidity
measurements were taken one day after the
bacteria were inoculated into the nutrient broth,
during the log phase of growth since cell sizes
vary with different growth phases.
Fig. 1 pe vs pH diagram for U-O-H system

(Brookins, 1988)
Table 1 OD measurements at 600nm After a 24-hour exposure to uranyl, the biomass
The average optical density found for P. putida was inoculated in nutrient agar plates to
samples was 0.52, whereas for B. subtilis a value investigate whether the organisms were still
of 0.48 was calculated. This correlates with the alive. The bacterial species were able to grow
successfully.
fact that B. subtilis was observed to grow at a
slightly slower rate than P. putida. As a rule of To quantify the uranyl concentration in the
thumb, an OD of 1 corresponds to approximately samples, ICP-MS analysis was followed by
1g/L of cells (Koch, 1970), so approximately screening U-238; isotope representing 99.3% of
200mg of biomass can be harvested from a 400 the uranium natural abundance (NIRAS, 2011).
mL liquid culture, which was the volume used to
culture each batch of bacteria. Since 10mg of In a typical ICP-MS quantitative analysis, the
bacterial cells are needed for each sample (6 in concentration of the element in the desired
total), a volume of 400 mL of liquid culture was sample is found by comparing an external
sufficient to provide biomass for the experiment. calibration curve to the values measured for the
selected isotope. The signal intensity given after
3.1.3 Wet and dry weight measurements running the experiment is compared to the
calibration curve to determine the concentration
Since living cells were needed for the analysis, of a species. Calibration for a good quantitative
measurements of initial wet weight of three analysis was carried out by external
samples for each bacterial species were taken. standardisation, by preparing and measuring the
The comparison between wet and dry weight uranium and rhenium concentrations of known
showed an average 65-75% weight loss after analyte concentrations covering the
drying the samples for Pseudomonas putida and concentration range of interest. However,
60-70% weight loss for Bacillus subtilis. Based although the calibration standard solutions were
on these figures, the wet biomass used for the adequately prepared, after the instrument run
experiments was measured in a way that it several samples, the concentration of uranium
would be equivalent to a dry weight of 10mg, to measured in the standards did not remain
make sure constant biomass was used constant; on the contrary, reducing
throughout all the experiments. systematically. The relative standard deviation
3.2 Metal radionuclide interactions (RSD) found for the 0.5 ppb standard was 14%,
whereas for the 5 ppb standard, a value of 12%
3.2.1 Uranium-bacteria was found. The RSD compares the uncertainty
among measurements and can be considered as
153
an expression of the repeatability and precision groups: ligands such as amine, hydroxyl,
of an experiment (Johnson & Kuby, 2007). carboxyl, phosphate and sulfhydryl moieties.
When analysing the samples, one or several of Both B. subtilis and P. putida presented very
the calibration standards are measured to ensure rapid cation uptake after short sorbent-solution
the ICP-MS the response is not drifting. If an contact times. It can be seen in Fig. 2 that after 6
RSD of 10% is observed, the samples must be hours of exposure, the initial concentration of
analysed again and the instrument recalibrated uranyl dropped considerably, corresponding to
(Barwick, 1999). The instrument response was an average 80 to 92% concentration decrease in
found to be drifting. For instance, when the the presence of B. subtilis and P. putida for the
calibration standard of 5ppb was initially 500ppb uranyl solution. For the 50ppb solution,
measured, the uranium concentration given by a similar trend was observed.
the instrument was 5.05ppb. However, after 40
to 50 samples were measured, the concentration
dropped to 3.66, value corresponding almost to a
30% difference from the original. The RSD
value obtained for the whole dataset was 14%.
Thus, this high degree of uncertainty cannot
account for confidence in the data retrieved.
Nevertheless, qualitatively speaking, the
interaction between rhenium, uranium and
bacteria can be analysed.
Possible interferences of uranyl with phosphates
and carbonates were minimised by washing the
Fig. 2 Bacteria-uranyl interaction. U=500 ppb
harvested microbial cells with NaCl 0.1% M
prior to putting them in contact with the metal. The curve above emulates a first-order decay
The ligands mentioned are the most important reaction, where the rate of reaction is
ones in terms of uranium speciation in proportional to the concentration of one of the
groundwater, being able to greatly augment the reactants:
solubility of uranyl compounds (Farrell, 1999).
For instance, formation of insoluble uranyl- eq. 1
phosphate precipitates is likely to occur if the Where [U0] and [Uf] are the initial and final
cells are not properly washed (Vazquez, 2007; uranyl concentrations, respectively. [Uf] is
Knox, 2008). included because the final concentration reached
A reduction of the uranyl species in solution was was not zero. For the model to be accurate, the
determined after ICP-MS data was retrieved. [U0] value has to be much higher than [Uf]. In
The decrease in the concentration occurred due order to linearise the equation to obtain the rate
to radionuclide uptake by biomass, where of reaction at which the concentration of uranyl
metabolism independent bioaccumulation is decreasing over time, a plot of ln (C/C0) vs
processes took place. Non-metabolic dependent time was produced (Fig. 6.12). Uranyl molar
biosorption is based on physicochemical concentrations, [UO2]2+ = 270 g/mol, were used
interactions between ligand present on the to construct the graphs.
microbial cell surface and the metal, constituting The rate of removal, k, found was 0.02 h-1 for
a rapid and reversible process (Kuyucak & the experiments carried out in presence of P.
Volesky, 1988); whereas bioaccumulation putida and 0.04 h-1 for B. subtilis. The latter
involves metabolic processes, such as metal value being higher since within the same 24-
reduction or precipitation, occurring within the hour timeframe the concentration of uranyl at the
bacterial cells (Velásquez, 2009). end of the reaction was found to be lower in the
Sorption is a fast process, taking place within the presence of B. subtilis.
short amount of time that is required to add the Initially the rate of the reaction is large,
uranyl and perrhenate solutions to the biomass. decreasing slowly and reaching the equilibrium
The reaction finishes when either the binding after approximately four to six hours. A
sites are occupied or the reaction is quenched by concentration of zero ppb is not reached, due to
centrifuging the cells and separating the a saturation effect taking place when the
supernatant from the pellet. bacterial cells can only uptake a very small
The cell wall, mainly composed of layers of quantity of the metal because of limited
polysaccharides, proteins and lipids, is of great availability of binding sites in the cell wall.
importance to biosorption processes due to the Although the kinetics curve analysed resemble a
fact that it contains various radionuclide binding first order reaction, the value of the fitted
correlation coefficients obtained after linearising
154
is very low. Supposing the reaction might not be No considerable reduction of the metal
first-order because of the non-linearity of the concentration was achieved after 24 hours of
graph shown in Fig.2, the possibility of a exposure. The interaction between both
second-order reaction should was assessed. microorganisms and rhenium in solution
throughout the 24-hour exposure time can be
In second-order reaction patterns, the rate is
observed in the graph below (Fig. 3).
proportional to the product of two reactant
concentrations (or the square of one of them). A
plot of 1/[UO2]2+ vs time was produced to assess
if the reaction followed second order kinetics.
An r-squared value close to one would indicate
this mechanism of reaction is present. A
comparison between the r-squared values for the
first order and second order fitted curves for
both species can be observed in the table below
(Table 2).
Fig. 3 Rhenium removal of solution by B.

subtilis
Table 2 R2 values obtained for the first order
As perrhenate is a negatively charged species,
and second order kinetic fitted curves
ReO4-, the unsuccessful metal removal from
After analysing the values in Table 2, and solution might be partially explained by
although the values obtained are considerably repulsion in the electrostatic forces involved in
low, it would seem a second order reaction is the binding due to the negatively charged
taking place because of the r-squared values perrhenate approaching the negatively charged
being closer to one than the correlation microbial surface. This behaviour would reflect
coefficients obtained from the first order on a less effective metal reduction, but not fully
reactions. However, uranyl uptake kinetics impede it since other binding processes
reported in the literature follow first-order including ion exchange, complexation,
kinetics (Lloyd et al. 2005) precipitation, and coordination might take place.
Additionally, intact living or dead cells are able
For this reason, a more robust dataset is required
to act as efficient sorbents for perrhenate and its
to properly analyse the trends and adequately
analogous pertechnetate ions, being particularly
define the order of reaction. A more
effective in the process microorganisms from the
comprehensive dataset would allow for the
Bacillus species (Ghazvini, 2009).
identification of statistical outliers. For instance,
the measurement taken after 7 hours of exposure A more comprehensive explanation relates to the
to uranyl shows a numerically higher value than pH conditions of the experiment. The average
the previous readings (and a higher error as it pH of the P. putida and B. subtilis samples with
can be seen from the error bars in the rhenium found was 6.1. At this pH, and in
corresponding graph), maybe due to improper oxidising conditions, higher pH values (near 11-
mixing when retrieving the sample. This value 12) are needed for the presence of perrhenate or
greatly affects the regression analyses. With the pertechnetate in solution. Thus, the relatively
availability of a larger dataset, this value might low initial pH is probably the most important
be discarded as an outlier and the regression parameter affecting the performance of
analysis would improve. Moreover, since the biosorption (Friis & Myers-Keith, 1986), since it
number of active binding sites changes as a influences the speciation and chemistry of Re
function of time, more readings should be and Tc as well as the activity of the functional
retrieved after 7 hours of exposure, since the groups in the membrane acting as coordination
available values mainly take into account the sites.
rapid uptake phase (first 1-4 hours). Although
The relatively low pH did not affect P. putida
this stage is considerably more important in
and B. subtilis metabolic processes, since both
terms of biosorption, some points at the
equilibrium are also needed to produce a better species were able grow after being exposed for
regression analysis. Comprehensive batch 24 hours to rhenium oxyanions in solution.
kinetic experiments require measurements at the
time of reaction completion as well as readings
taken at frequent and regular intervals. 4 CONCLUSIONS
3.2.2 Rhenium-bacteria interaction Potential applications of bioremediation of

dissolved metals can follow two basic
155
approaches: an active one implying a change in achieved. In situ remediation schemes might
the chemical species such as reduction or take advantage of bacteria-radionuclide
precipitation; or a passive one, where the species interactions to stimulate indigenous bacteria
are removed from solution after being sorbed by capable of reducing the uranyl concentration in
biomass. the environment.
The latter one, biosorption process independent
of bacterial metabolic activities, was covered in
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
this study. The process was found to be strongly
dependent on the distribution of chemical I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. María
species in solution. Pseudomonas putida and Romero and all the members at GPRG who
Bacillus subtilis were able to reduce the offered me guidance and support throughout this
concentration of dissolved uranyl, (UO2)2+, at a study.
pH of 6 but were unable to lower the
concentration of dissolved rhenium. A pH higher 6 REFERENCES
than 11 is needed to ensure the presence in Barwick, (1999). Estimation of uncertainties in
solution and uptake of the perrhenate and ICP-MS analysis: a practical methodology.
pertechnetate anions, ReO4- and TcO4-, given Analytica Chimica Acta, 394 , 281-291.
their analogous chemistry. Farrell, J. (1999). Uranium removal from
groundwater using zero valent iron media.
As a function of chemical speciation due to pH,
Groundwater, 37 (4) , 617-624.
rapid uranyl uptake was observed during the first
Friis, N., & Myers-Keith, P. (1986). Biosorption
four hours of reaction, following a first-order
of uranium and lead by Streptomyces
kinetics scheme. Uranyl uptake occurred due to
longwoodensis. Biotechnology Bioengineering,
physicochemical interactions between the
28 , 21-28.
actinide and functional groups present on the
Ghazvini, P. (2009). Screening of bacterial cells
microbial cell surface, being adsorption, ion
for biosorption of oxyanions; application of
exchange and complexation the main processes
micro-PIXE for measurement of biosorption.
involved. Apart from pH, other substantial
Hydrometallurgy, 96 , 246*252.
factors exerting influence on biosorption
Johnson, R., & Kuby, P. (2007). Elementary
processes are: the concentration of bacterial cells
Statistics. USA: Brooks/Cole.
(deeply associated to the availability of binding
Koch, A. (1970). Turbidity Measurements of
sites for immobilisation), reversibility of the
Bacterial Cultures in some available commercial
sorption processes, the concentration of actinides
instruments. Analytical Biochemistry 38 , 252-
or metals, temperature and the presence of other
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various anions or cations in solution competing
Korsten, L., & Cook , N. (1996). Optimising
for the available binding sites.
culturing conditions for Bacillus subtilis. South
When analysing the samples by ICP-MS, African Avocado Growers Association , 54-58.
instrumental drifts characterised by small, Kuyucak, N., & Volesky, B. (1988). Biosorbents
continuous changes in the value of the standards forrecovery of metals from industrial solutions.
concentrations were encountered. Fluctuations Biotechnology letters, 10 (2) , 137-142.
sometimes higher than 10% in terms of the Lloyd, J., & Renshaw, J. (2005). Bioremediation
relative standard deviation of the measurements of radioactive waste: radionuclide-microbe
were calculated for the uranyl standards. Quality interactions in laboratory and field-scale studies.
control requirements and performance factors Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 16 , 154-160.
related to vacuum pressure flaws, temperature Lovley, D., Philips, E., Gorby, Y., & Landa, E.
fluctuations, and carry over contamination (1991). Microbial reduction of uranium. Nature,
should be taken care of to minimise the 350 , 413-416.
uncertainties derived from instrumental errors. Merroun, M., & Selenska-Pobell, S. (2008).
Bacterial interactions with uranium: an
Sorption by biomass is inefficient compared to
environmental perspective. Journal of
other immobilisation methods and strategies
Contaminant Hydrology, 102 , 285-295.
because the ratio of sorbed radionuclide to
NIRAS. (2011). Uranium-2388 screen by ICP-
biomass is small. Nevertheless, the actinide and
MS. Retrieved August 10, 2011, from NIRAS :
metal uptake overall efficiency can be enhanced http://www.niras.com/
by active, metabolism-dependent processes
Sutton, S. (2010). Measurement of Cell
carried out by specific viable bacterial cells.
Concentration in Suspension by Optical Density.
By analysing the kinetics of metal removal from Journal of Validation Technology , 46-49.
solution and the influence of the aforementioned Velásquez, L. (2009). Biosorption and
external factors, the design of more successful bioaccumulation of heavy metals on dead and
and appropriate uranium and technetium living biomass of Bacillus sphaericus. Journal of
remediation schemes in the environment can be Hazardous Materials, 167 , 713-716.
156
A Test for Colliery Spoil Expansiveness

Xiaoguang Ge
Candidate MSc Urban Water Engineering and Management
ABSTRACT Colliery spoil is widely produced in UK and used as backfill material on engineering
sites. It is a mixture of rocks which consists of mudstones, shale and coal mainly. Related problems
such as expansion and collapse occur and have been drawing attentions by a number of companies and
researchers. Expansion is primarily caused by pyrite oxidation and collapse by saturation, but there is
no test available to identify expansion types. Therefore, tests were developed to check degree of
swelling and settlement. For expansion tests, new swelling apparatuses were utilised with various
heights and samples with different densities were prepared. Due to time limitation and constriction of
laboratory environments, calcium sulphate was introduced into system directly. No apparent swelling
occurred and 1.98% was the maximum swelling rate of sample which with lower density maybe
because lower densities samples owned higher permeability. For saturation tests, Rowe cells were
utilised with different densities samples, to which pressures from 50 to 350 kpa applied. As results,
whether in saturation condition or not, once the pressure was adequate, settling appeared. High density
sample settled smaller than the low one but no significant difference from their coefficients of
compressibility. At last, higher pressure leads to higher settlement.
and collapse. The expansion is caused by pyrite

1 INTRODUCTION
oxidation and collapse by saturation.
Colliery spoil is a mixture of rocks which results
When exposed to weathering conditions, pyrite
from coal mining industry, large amount of
which exists in colliery spoil, would react with
which were produced at mine sites but very
water and oxygen and then form gypsum which
limited amount of them can be disposed in
leads to swelling. And most of colliery spoil
commercial ways in UK. It is believed by
contains this substance based on report of
Department of Environment (1998) that a huge
Hoover and Lehmann (2009).
amount of these waste materials exposed nearby
the coal area till 1980’s and some fifty million Compared with colliery spoil, slag has similar
tons of discards accumulated throughout the swelling properties and is also popular in
whole country without treatment, and about 65% structure sites. There are several reports
of them were discarded in coal areas of the available to identify its expansion types which
Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire can be utilized as a reference to design swelling
where now face increasing pressure due to this tests of colliery spoil.
material occupying relative high natural space.
The aims of this project are to prove scientific
To meet both environmental and economical
evidence of expansion of colliery spoil due to no
benefits, a great amount of spoil colliery has
sufficient analysis on this aspect and identify
been used as backfill material on both
degradation property of this material.
engineering and non-engineering sites, e.g.
embankment, supporting floor slab and car
parks, etc.
2 PROPERTIES OF COLLIERY SPOIL
Due to consisting of various rocks, colliery spoil AND WEATHERING PROCESSES
possesses multiply properties which make it
Properties of spoil colliery is discussed below
vulnerable to many risks when being utilized on
construction sites. Problems such as structure which gives a fundamental understanding of the
erosion and underground water pollution have source of expansion and saturation collapse. In
this project, lower lias clay, one kind of
been drawing attentions and analyzed by many
mudstones which is the main component in
researchers. This paper focus on another
colliery spoil, was utilized to conduct laboratory
primarily problem caused by colliery spoil:
damage on engineering sites due to expansion work.
157
2.1 Origin and Classification 2.3 Geochemistry
Originally, colliery spoil is produced Sulphate is one dominate element in mudstones
accompanying by mining behaviours, e.g. and clay stones. When under weathering
coalface-cutting, excavations, development, sub- conditions, pyrite can produce sulphur matters,
surface mining, etc. There are two kinds of e.g. sulphuric acid and ferrous sulphate by being
discards which can be separated at sample oxidised. Based on the national standards of the
preparation stage: fine discard and coarse majority of European countries, two main
discard. The ways that dispose them are sulphur indicators: water soluble sulphate and
different: for coarse discard, tips are common acid soluble sulphate which are both expressed
place to be disposed into; for fine discards by percent sulphur trioxide, should be less than
including slurry and tailings, more than a half of 0.2% and 1%, respectively. (Head, 1992)
them are disposed into lagoons.
Silica oxide mainly occurs in quartz, as well as
2.2 Main Composition alumina oxide which has a characteristic of
weathering resistant, it can be concluded
The main constitutes of colliery spoil are clay
therefore that high percentages of quartz exist in
minerals (claystones and clay shales),
both coarse discard and fine discard because
mudstones, coal shales, sandstones, sporadical
high total silica to alumina ratio: for coarse
conglomerates and chips of coal, and
discard, 2.34, for fine one, 1.99. (Taylor, 1984)
compositions of minestones may widely vary
due to regions where they are distributed and Potassium and sodium ions both exist in clay
layers where they are stored. The typical stones with different proportions. They can be
proportion of claystones is 50%-70%, and based indicators to clay minerals and high ratio of
on samples collected from Upper Silesia which illustrates that high 10A material appears,
coalfield, Poland, it is shown that claystones is a in contrary, other clay minerals such as kaolinite
primary component of minestone but their may mainly occur if ratios of them is low.
proportions are various (from less than 20% to
PH value of colliery discards is between 7 and
around 95%) even samples are collected from
7.6 under fresh and wrought conditions.
the same site. (Rainbow, 1993)
2.4 Weathering Processed
For coarse spoil, the main rock types are large
size mudstone and shale. In some cases, little Pyrite (FeS2), commonly occurring in
sandstone appears, and roof rock contains which mudstones, can be oxidized and therefore leads
is a typical rock in tips (Rainbow, 1993). For to expansion and precipitation. There are three
fine discards, based on the research of sediments kinds of weathering which contribute to swelling
(National coal board, 1972), sediments, with of colliery spoil: physical, chemical and
change of types of rocks at different heights, is biological weathering. Chemical weathering
more valuable to be investigated than ones with dominates expansion process, and both physical
similar distribution of rocks through all their and biological weathering which offer reaction
heights. According to thesis of Kirby (1980), a agent affect the mechanical characteristics of
beach formed with quartz, illite and kaolinite these discards, and then, expansion as well
would have a high formation speed. (Hoover and Lehmann, 2009). Several factors
influence on degree of weathering, e.g.
Mudstones are sedimentary rocks whose
permeability of rock, water conditions and
properties between rocks and soils because their
properties of rock itself (Hawkins 1986).
components are clay and muds.
2.4.1 Physical Weathering
Clay minerals, which are the primary component
in colliery discards, are ultrafine-grained and Physical weathering, which increases reaction
widespread in fine-grained stones e.g. area of stones by breaking them into smaller
mudstones, shale, etc. fragments, boosts the reaction process. Not only
surface area of stones increases, after physical
Pyrite, another mineral in colliery spoil, has
weathering, but more permeable rocks and
essential effort on expansion although it is not
increase of void space, which lead to increase of
the dominate component. It is usually occurs in
inside area, allow more reaction to conduct
black rocks which are rich in mudstone (Hoover,
inside. (Steward and Cripps, 1983) According to
2009) and distributes widely throughout UK
the report of Price (1995), several mechanisms
(Czerewko et al, 2003).
affect the procedure and degree of physical
The concentration of organic carbon (less than weathering, which are summarized below:
2.5%) is much smaller than that of inorganic Formations of ice and crystals in rocks enlarge
carbon (around 20%)(Head, 1992). Both of these existing cracks or initiate new ones, which leads
two minerals make contributions to properties of to damage of structure. Plant roots may grow in
colliery spoil. cracks of structures, especially old ones, which
158
could lead to damages on structures. Factors that and Pinches (1986), the most common oxidizing
affect physical weathering effects are sunshine bacteria are Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and
duration, wind degree, rock types, etc (Price, Thiobacillus thiooxidans.
1995).
2.4 Related Problems
2.4.2 Chemical Weathering
2.4.1 Expansion
Chemical weathering dominates expansion
During pyrite oxidation process, new materials,
phenomenon because pyrite oxidation plays a
e.g. gypsum and jarosite are formed which have
key role in gypsum formation which leads to
larger volume. Therefore, expansion arises and
increase of volume. Pyrite, a reactor in gypsum
this phenomenon exists throughout the world.
forming (Taylor, 1988), causes a concentrated
pyritic zone where significant expansion and Due to expansion, a heave pressure is generated
heave pressure occur and concentrations of to floors and internal walls, and based on report
reactants such as metals and sulphur increase of Cripps (2009), a formula (equation 5) which
(Hoover, 2009). The most important step of shows relationship between heave pressure and
chemical weathering is pyrite oxidation, at its corresponding factors is given by Winkler
which pyrite react with oxygen and water to and Singer (1972):
produce sulphuric acid which then generates 5.
gypsum reacting with calcite. Here are main
reactions: Acidic environment is built due to
occurrence of product hydrogen ion. This is the Where Pc = Heave pressure
initial oxidation process (Equation 1) and energy R = Gas constant, 8.314 J/Kmol
is released so physical weathering process may
occur at the same time (Price, 1995). Then, T = Absolute temperature (0℃=273F)
ferrous iron existing can be oxidized in rich
oxygen environment and produces ferric iron c = concentration of solution (g/Litre)
(Equation 2). In this step, ferrous iron is the cs = concentration of saturated solution
reactant, and biological agent is needed (g/Litre)
otherwise, the rating of reaction is quite slow
(Hawkins and Pinches 1997). Step 2 and 3 According to report of Cripps (2009), various
(Equation 2 and 3) are circular reactions. factors affect expansion, e.g. concentration of
Equation 4 shows the formation of gypsum: sulfuric, permeability, temperature and height of
when sulphuric produced by pyrite oxidation capillary reach, etc. It is very hard to determine
discussed above encounters calcite, gypsum is the swelling level and heave pressure without in
formed with carbon dioxide, and water is needed situ testing due to condition difference on
in this reaction. engineering sites.
1. 2FeS2 (s) + 2H2O + 7O2 → 2Fe2+ + 4SO42- 2.4.2 Saturation Collapse
Pyrite Ferrous iron The reasons for this phenomenon were analyzed
+ by Asadzadeh and Soroush (2009): first of all,
+ 4H (aq) the pressure between particles of rock is negative
in dry and half dry conditions, but when
2. 4Fe2+ + 4H+(aq) + O2 → 4Fe3+ + 2H2O
saturated with water, particles have positive
pressures between them, which lead to
Ferrous iron Ferric iron movement. Then, water soften surfaces of
3. FeS2 + 14Fe3+ + 8H2O →15Fe2+ + 2SO42- + particles which reduce frictions between them,
finally, particles may be broken into smaller
Pyrite Ferric iron Ferrous iron sizes which is easy to move. In addition, it
+
16H (aq) should be remembered that water is not the
cause of degradation but an accelerator.
4. H2SO4(l) + CaCO3(s) + H3O(l) → CO2(g) +
2.4.3 Other Problems
Sulfuric acid Calcite
Other common problems accompanying with
CaSO4.2H20(s) pyrite oxidation are erosion and geotechnical
Gypsum pollution. There are two kinds of erosion: for
cement hydrated substance and for steel. These
2.4.3 Biological Weathering phenomenons are common in concrete structure.
Biological weathering occurs accompanying During pyrite oxidation process, hydrogen ion
with chemical weathering, and bacteria often and metal ions are produced and then may be
perform as accelerators which can increase the transported by underground water. Furthermore,
rating of reaction rapidly. According to Hawkins the water containing these ions may react with
159
rocks containing metal ions and then produce After obtaining the values of dry density and
polluted water. moisture content, a smooth curve between dry
density and it corresponding moisture content
was plotted. Without air voids lines, it was not a
3 LABORATORY WORK complete graph, so curves for 0, 5% and 10%
were needed to plot.
3.1 Preliminary work
Here is the brief procedure: put each sample into
In this section, sample preparation was done. 1 liter mould; Measure the volume (V) and
First of all, the mass of samples needed to be weight (m) of sample. Put sample into an oven
calculated. There were three kinds of laboratory
overnight and then weight sample to calculate
tests next. In each kind of tests, two groups of
moisture content (ω); Calculate bulk density (ρ)
samples were prepared: one with maximum dry
by equation 6; Calculate dry density (ρD) by
density and the other with a density of 80%
equation 7; Plot a graph of relationship between
maximum so that comparison can be done to
observe different results with density difference. moisture content and dry density; Read
maximum dry density.
In the compaction test, according to manual of
soil laboratory testing, volume 1 (Head, 1992), 6.
at least five samples were needed to find the
optimum moisture content and maximum dry 7.
density. The mass of each sample in compaction
tests was 2.5 kg and the total mass was 12.5 kg. 3.4 Expansion Tests
For swelling tests, in lower tubes, the mass of
samples were 14 kg and 15 kg; in the higher Calcium is directly introduced in these tests and
tubes, the mass of samples were 18 and 24 kg, so mudstone is used as mould due to its mechanical
the total mass of samples in swelling tests was and physical properties. The equipments were
71kg. The mass of samples in saturation tests used in these tests are: swelling apparatuses
were 9.2kg and 8.3kg. Overall, the total mass of (tubes), solution containers, gauges, plastic
all the samples was 101 kg. Due to unexpected plates, filter paper, screwdriver, handcart, trays,
loss such as lost of sample when mixing with balance, thermometer, stopwatch, rammer,
water or passing through sieve, another 5% watch, measuring pot and calcium sulphate.
materials are prepared in case. Totally, mass of Samples with two different densities (2.06 g/cm3
samples was 106kg (1.05 times 101 kg). and 1.95 kg/cm3) were prepared and there were
Most of samples’ sizes were less than 25mm. two kinds of swelling apparatuses (tubes): one
First of all, put mudstone go through a sieve of with 327 mm height and the other 427 mm,
size 19 mm. then, put samples remained in sieve therefore, four sample groups were tested: high
into mould, and dropped rammer on them to density sample in low tube, high density in high
crash, after that, put samples go through the tube, low density sample in low tube and low
sieve again and used rammer to deal with the density in high tube. Each of them was placed
remain ones, considering lower lias clay was into a box with calcium sulphate solution.
quite easy to be crushed, after several rounds, Here is the brief procedure: put each sample into
most of samples were less than 19 mm by a swelling apparatus; put a plastic plate on
making aggregation samples into individual surface of sample and plat it; set gauge into
ones, which was suitable for swelling tests and system and zero it; place apparatus into a box
consolidation tests. with calcium sulphate solution; begin to record
3.2 Material list at 1 min, 2 min, 4min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 hour, 2
hour…..then once a day. Plot a graph of
Main materials and equipments used in this relationship between time and sample height.
project were lower lias clay, calcium sulphate,
cylindrical metal mould with collar, stopwatch, 3.5 Saturation Tests
sieve of size 19mm, balance, swelling Rowe cell is an apparatus which is utilized to
apparatuses, Rowe cells and filter papers. conduct consolidation tests and may overcome
3.3 Compaction Tests several disadvantages which traditional
apparatuses have with low permeability
By conducting compaction tests, particles of the materials (Head, 1992).
sample were packed more close with each other
and a certain compaction level can be achieved The samples were mixed with water to achieve
to meet engineering requirement. Then the value certain moisture content expected. In these tests,
of maximum dry density and optimum moisture the moisture content (20.63%) corresponded
content can be furnished and at the same time, with maximum dry density was used.
relationship between moisture content and dry
density was worked out as well.
160
The materials and equipments used in this test researches show that laboratory tests did not
were: Rowe cells, lower lias clay, plastic plates, show apparent results of swelling because
rigid loading plates, water cylinders, gauges, factors impacting on swelling are hard to
rammer, buckets, stopwatch, screwdrivers and simulate in real laboratory environments. Low
pinchers. temperature leads to no apparent swelling
results. Samples swelled before testing (were
The temperature in these tests was 20℃. partially weathered and gypsum was found in
Two samples were put into Rowe cells to raw materials), which might be another reason
conduct saturation tests with different densities why no significant swelling occurred. Compared
(2.06 g/cm3 and 1.95 kg/cm3). with samples with lower density, higher density
samples have lower permeability which makes
Here is a brief procedure: put each sample into a expansion hard to happen. Improvements can be
Rowe cell; apply pressure with 50 kpa, 100 kpa, done to boost accurate and efficiency of
150 kpa, 250 kpa and 350 kpa, for each pressure, expansion tests: increasing temperature to
record gauge reading at 1 min, 2min, 4 min, 8 optimum one for swelling; applying slight
min, 15 min, 30 min……4 hours, then once each pressure on surface of samples; adding more
day; after applying 350 kpa pressure, saturate filter paper to give solution more pathways to
sample and keep pressure at 350 kpa; calculate samples.
coefficient of compressibility (mv) and 5.2 Saturation Collapse Tests
consolidation (cv).
Lower lias clay settled no matter saturated or not
once pressure applied reached a certain level.
4 RESULTS
Higher pressure leads to higher consolidation
4.1 Compaction Tests Results which is supported by both data from this year
and last year. Collapse is not significant maybe
Maximum dry density was determined, the value
because re-saturation of samples. Lower density
of which was 1.7078 g/cm3, and the
sample leads to higher consolidation and maybe
corresponding moisture content was 20.63%.
needs relative lower pressure to settle. Collapse
4.2 Expansion Tests Results is inescapable due to existing void and water
among particles. When collapse happened,
Samples with high density did not swell but
volume of sample decreased rapidly. Errors
settled at a lower rate (0.20% and 0.13%).
between data obtained from tests and “real” ones
Samples with lower density settled at very
existed, it should be considered if data would be
beginning and then swelled and the swelling rate
utilized as reference for further analysis.
were 1.98% and 0.42%, respectively.
4.3 Saturation Tests Results
6 CONCLUSIONS
When under unsaturated condition, and the
pressure applied was 50 kpa, samples did not Three main tests have been done in this project.
settle. Then samples were settled as pressure Compaction tests were did firstly which
increasing. After being saturated, samples settled determined sample’ maximum dry density
at higher rates but not as much as expected. (1.7078 g/cm3) and its corresponding optimum
Lower density sample settled more than higher moisture content (20.63%), and the results gave
one but the value of consolidation of data support of consequent tests.
compressibility is not significant difference, for
In expansion tests, the step of gypsum forming
example, under 350 kpa, for high density, c v is
was omitted and calcium sulphate was
1.991 m2/year and for low density one, cv is
introduced directly to these tests to save time.
2.229 m2/year.
Even though, slightly swelling phenomenon
occurred for low density samples with the
maximum swelling rate is 1.98% for
5 DISCCUSION approximately 4 weeks; for high density
5.1 Expansion Tests samples, only settlement was found maybe
because lower permeability they had which
The swelling tests usually take long time, e.g. made calcium sulphate solution hard to transport
several weeks, even several months in some through samples, therefore, difficult to react
cases to finish, so monitoring swelling data is with.
keep going throughout this project and might
after, in other words, this project focuses on the From saturation tests, it is found that no matter
current data which might be not the complete in saturation condition or not, settlement
swelling data. More monitoring work need to be happened. Lower density sample had a high
done if possible in further. A number of degree of collapse and when it happened, the
volume of sample decreased rapidly at the very
161
beginning and then took long time to finish. But Kirby, (1980) Shear strength, consolidation and
the settlement degree was not large compared drainage of colliery tailings lagoons.
with data from last year’s project in similar Unpublished Ph. D thesis, (McMullen and
conditions. The reason might be that lower lias Birchfield 1996). University of Durham, p 377.
clay samples experienced saturation before so
National coal board: Headquarters research
these partially saturated material cannot settle
project (1972) Review of research on properties
much. Another thing should be mentioned is that
of spoil tip materials. Lab. Ref. No. S/7307,
settlement is inescapable so it is necessary to
Wimpey Laboratories Ltd., Hayes, Middlesex.
conduct risk assessment before using it on
engineering sites. Penner E and Eden W J (1972) Expansion of
Pyritic Shales, Canadian Building Digest, CBD-
152. National Research Council Canada, Ottawa,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ON. World Wide Web Address:
www.nrc.ca/irc/cbd/cbd152e.html.
I wish to acknowledge the generous support and
assistance provided by Dr John Cripps, Mr. Paul Price D (1995) Weathering and Weathering
Osborne, Mr. Mark Foster and Mr. David Process. Quarterly Journal of Engineering
Callaghan. Thanks for the four gentlemen as Geology and Hydrogeology, 28, p 243-253.
well as staff and my friends who have been
Rainbow, A K M (1993) Properties and
supporting me during these days, without their
Application of Colliery discard in the
help and support, I cannot finish my project.
Construction Industry. International Minestone
This is indeed beyond description for my
Executive service, Consultants on the
gratitude and hope all of them can share the
Reclamation, Treatment and Utilization of Coal
glory with me. Thanks again.
mining Wastes, p 23-44, p 73-97.
Taylor R (1988) Coal Measure Mudrocks:
REFERENCES Composition, Classification and Weathering
Process. Quarterly Journal of Engineering
Asadzadeh M and Soroush A (2009) Direct
Geology and Hydrogeology, 21 p 85-99.
Shear Testing on a Rockfill Material. The
Abrian Journal for Science and Engineering, 34, Taylor R (1984) Composition and Engineering
p 379-396. Properties of British Colliery Spoil Discards.
London: the National Coal Board.
Bryant L D (2003) Geotechnical Problems with
Pyritic Rock and Soil. Faculty of the Virginia Wiggering H (1993) Sulfide Oxidation- An
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Environmental Problem within Colliery Spoil
Blacksburg, Virginia, p 15-22 Dumps. Environmental Geology, 22, p 99-105.
Cripps J C (2009) Mechanism of Expansion Due
to Pyrite Oxidation Beneath Groud Supported
Floor Slabs.
Hawkins, A.B. and Pincher, G.M. (1986) Cause
and significance of heave at Llandough
Hospital, Cardiff—a case history of ground
heave due to gypsum growth. Quarterly Journal
of Engineering Geology, chapter 20, p 41–57.
Head K H (1992) Manual of Soil laboratory
Testing, Volume 1: Soil Classification and
Compaction Tests, second edition. Pentch press,
London.
Head K H (1992) Manual of Soil laboratory
Testing, Volume 3: Effective Stress Tests, second
edition. Pentch press, London.
Hoover S E and Lehmann D (2009) The
expansive effects of concentrated pyritic zones
within the Devonian Marcellus Shale Formation
of North America, Quarterly Journal of
Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 2009;
doi: 10.1144/1470-9236/07-086, v. 42; p. 157-
164
162
Size Effect – Smaller the stronger

Sudhin George Mathew
ABSTRACT. The theory of size effect is prevalent in all forms of nature. But the over the years the
importance of the size effect has come into the picture especially after many structural catastrophes.
Currently there are many predominant theories behind the possible size effect, particularly Bazant‟s size
effect law which talks about nominal strength in relation with size of the specimen. Bazant‟s size effect
law state that nominal strength increases as the size reduces, hence proving “smaller the stronger”.
Further the effects of size are more common in quasibrittle materials like concrete and modelling its
behaviour is a complex in nature. The study is carried out based on the above understanding of the
topic using a finite element package namely ANSYS. The finite element model helps to understand the
possible material behaviour using both linear elastic and non-linear analysis. Further the material used
for the study is concrete, a quasibrittle material. The analysis is carried out on a three point bending test
of a concrete beam with notches. Both proportionate and constant notches are considered in the
analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION many material models for various type of

analysis. ANSYS was used in this project for the
In reality many materials exhibit this so-called deterministic nonlinear approach type analysis of
"size effect", i.e. if the structural dimensions and concrete beams of different sizes and presented
the loading conditions are all scaled in this paper.
proportionally, it is found that smaller specimens
are relative stronger than larger specimens. This 2 SIZE EFFECT HISTORY
phenomenon must be understood in depth in
order to relate the results of (small scale) When maximum load or peak load of a structure
laboratory tests to (large scale) real-life is divided by the representative area it gives the
scenarios. The two fundamental approaches with nominal strength of the structure which is similar
different views to the size effect are statistical in geometry but it does not depend on its size.
and deterministic. The statistical approach was Size effect is exhibited only when the size of the
coined mainly by Weibull and also other structure is considered. The classical theories of
mathematicians. This approach shows that larger continuum mechanics do not have any size effect
structures will start to fracture under smaller mentioned in them. Size effect is a related to a
loads. Then researches shifted from statistical problem of scaling of structural response.(Bazant
approach to deterministic which focused on the 2001). When structural response is scaled, we
energy basis of size effect. But recent research observe possible size effects, this is an age old
by Bazant et all shows how for smaller sizes the problem. Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo have
deterministic approach dominates but for very also discussed about the possible size effects.
large size the Weibull statistical approach is Leonardo stated “Among long cords of equal
more effective (Antonio et al, 1998). thickness the longest is the least strong”.. He
also wrote a cord “is so much stronger…..as it is
Progress in structural design requires stronger”. But this was considered a strong
probabilistic modelling of quasibrittle fracture, exaggeration of the actual size effect.(Bazant
which is typical of concrete, fibre composites, 2005)
rocks, toughened ceramics, sea ice and many
„high tech‟ materials. The most important
consequence of quasibrittle behaviour is a
deterministic (energetic) size effect, the theory of
which evolved near the end of last century. The
aim of this paper is to present some results of the
size effect obtained by computer simulation of a
concrete beam using the Finite element program
ANSYS. ANSYS is well-known software for
non-linear finite element solution of concrete Figure 2.1: Early Size effect discussions
structures and also other materials. It includes
163
Galilieo rejected Leonardo‟s theory by arguing size of the specimen and we can write the
the chord had various points cut hence making equation( Bazant 2001)
its weak (Figure 2.1). He manifested that large
animals have bulkier bones than smaller ones, (3.4)
which he called the “weakness of giants.”
(Bazant 2005) This equation is useful for the unknown law of
2.1 The Statistical Period scaling f(D) and further has only one solution the
power law.(Bazant 2001).
The size effect was mainly considered to be only
statistical during this period till the 1980‟s and it f(D) = (D/c1)s (3.5)
was randomness of material strength locally where c1 and s are constants. When
during this period. The statistical size effect had characteristic length is not available, the power
been only quantitatively studied for many scaling principle will apply for all physical
centuries but a proper mathematical justification theory. The elasticity, elasto-plasticity and
was carried out by Weilbull in the 1900‟s cited LEFM failure theories have their fracture
by (Bazant 2001). He came up with the weakest process zones concentrated into a point. We can
link model which said that most materials have determine the value of exponent s but
many microscopic flaws which defined the considering the failure criteria of the material.
actually strength of materials. But this theory by The value of exponent s is equal to zero for both
Weibull was rejected and considered very elasticity and plasticity when the response Y is
statistical. (Bazant 2001) representing either stress or strain. This holds
2.2 The Deterministic Period true for nominal strength σN or even nominal
stress at failure. This nominal strength σN is a
The second period is called the deterministic parameter of maximum load Pmax or peak load
period and it mainly focused on the Fpeak and hence nominal strength σN =
inconsistencies with the previous statistical Pmax/bD, Pmax/D2 or Fpeak/bD, Fpeak/D2 for
theory. However with numerous research carried similar geometries where D is structure size. We
out, many theories of failure in concrete which can observe that if there is no characteristic
describe the deterministic size effect was dimension, then all similar geometry structures
available. These included the crack band, of various geometrical sizes will fail at the same
cohesive crack, nonlocal damage models. nominal stress and thus no size effect. But when
Further various size effect formulae were constant s= -1/2 when similar notches are
developed by researchers for material failures considered, the log σN when plotted versus log
with a large FPZ zone in notched specimens and D we can observe a straight line according to the
also crack initiated failures on a smooth surface. power law as per Figure3.1. But for plastic or
During this period it was shown that quasibrittle elastic material models with strength limit the
materials exhibited a deterministic size effect. power laws vanishes thus causing the line slope
(Bazant 2001). to be zero compared to a slope of -1/2 for LEFM
(Bazant 2001).
3 SCALING OF STRUCTURES
In the absence of characteristic length the

specimens exhibit scaling through power laws.
Hence when we infer the response Z from the
system or specimen say the maximum stress or
maybe maximum displacement as a function of
its size D of specimen (Bazant 2001, 2005) Figure 3.1: (a) Specimens of various sizes and
(b) scaling laws
Z = Zof(D) (3.1)
In quasibrittle materials, the problem of scaling
First let us consider three different specimen
is more complex since the material possesses a
sized namely 1, D and D‟ as shown in Figure 3.1,
characteristic length. Hence the power of scaling
and let 1 be the reference size. The following
laws applies asymptotically for sufficiently large
will be the responses for D and D‟
sizes.(Bazant 2001). The material length
Z = f(D) (3.2) becomes unimportant for very small structure
sizes which mean that the size effect will apply
Z‟ = f(D‟) (3.3)
for small sizes because a discrete crack cannot
Further due to the absence of characteristic be discerned as the entire specimen falls in the
length we can also consider D as the reference fracture process zone, the exponent of the power
law becomes zero. But for very large structure
164
sizes the crack band width becomes external load P are all related together in an
negligible.(Bazant 2001).
equation by means of matrices and as
4 COHESIVE CRACK MODELS (I,j = 1,2,…N) (4.1)
The prediction of size effect is reasonably well in where N is the number of nodes along the crack.
terms of structural response of concrete
specimens of different sizes and geometries,
notched and unnotched (Elices et al). The
structures become brittle as they increase in size.
Hence as an example the modulus of rupture
increases as beam size reduces. The brittleness is
not justified by Linear elastic fracture mechanics
in the case of unnotched geometries but it Figure 4.1:Superposition of many elastic
entirely not justified in the case of notched solutions
beams or geometries. The cracking behaviour of The paper by Elices, Guinea and Planas shows
cementitious materials and rocks were how concrete was modelled as a cohesive
successfully captured by the cohesive crack material with a bilinear softening curve as
model. (Carpinteri 2003, 2005,2010), (Elices et showing in the fig above. The parameters chosen
al). Further these models give a simplified (Elices et al) were
approach to cracking of concrete compared to
the equivalent models by (Karihaloo 2002) and and (4.2)
models based on Bazant‟s size effect law
(Bazant 2000,2001,2002,2004, 2005) cited by Load P, the solution sought for this problem is
(Elices et al).
conveniently written as normal stress .
According to (Elices et al) the cohesive crack
model is mainly characterized by the properties
(4.3)
of the bulk material. The following are the
general assumptions for the cohesive crack where P, D, B and S varied by keeping B
model:- constant for all beams and the shape factor s(x)
a. The material behaviour follows a linear for the notched beams. The size D is the key
elastic and isotropic stress-strain variable in this problem and it is conveniently
relationship with elastic modulus E and written as intrinsic size D
Poisson‟s ratio ν. This assumption makes
computations very easy.
b. Formation of cracks normal to the direction
of the principal stress, and hence crack (4.4)
initiates at the point where the principal Following are some plots from the experiments
stress σ reaches the tensile stress (ft) done by (Elices et al), this will help understand
c. After crack formation there is stress transfer the size effect in notched(constant and
from one face to another and this transferred proportionate) and unnotched beams better.
stress is called the cohesive stress, σ=f(w),
this function f(w), is called softening
function / curve.
These above assumptions are mainly aimed to
make computations easy and use well known
methods of LEFM.
4.1 Computational Procedures
Most of the computer programs use
superposition of results. Thus to obtain crack
propagation the approach used here is to show Figure 4.2: Nominal Strength vs Size for
how the software superimposes a number of Proportionate notched beams and unnotched
elastic solutions to get a non-linear solution beams
(Elices et al). An example of the superposition is
show in Figure 4.1,where the crack opening at
each node, , the nodal forces, , and the
165
to be accurate to the real life structure and hence
all the parameters have to been carefully entered.
The following are the major steps involved in
building the model.
Pre Processor Stage
1. Define Job name
2. Define Element type – SOLID65
3. Selecting Material Models
a.)Linear Elastic Isotropic Model
Figure 4.3: Nominal Strength vs Size for b.)Non-Linear (Mises Plasticity Model)
Constant notched beams and unnotched beams 4. Building the Geometry
The plot shown in Figure 4.3 shows the a.) define dimensions
maximum load size effect for beams with a b.) define key points
constant notch size. Usually the notch is also c.) define volumes
scaled with the size of the specimen. Here we d.) define mesh (brick mesh)
can see that maximum strength increases as the
size D increases. Later, as the size of the defect Solution Stage
becomes much smaller that the beam depth, the 1. Define Analysis type - STATIC
trend seems to merge with the unnotched beams. 2. Define Boundary Conditions
3. Define Loads
5 METHODOLOGY 4. Solve for solution
Post Processing/ Results Stage:

The FE modelling in ANSYS is done based on a 1. Process results
Three-Point bending test on a beam as shown in
Figure 5.1. The beam will be scaled to different 6 RESULTS
sizes and loads proportionally. The FE model is
verified and rigorous checks are carried out and The analysis is carried out in ANSYS for both
constant and proportionate notched beams of
the model is validated for obtaining the final
sizes 2.5m, 5m and 10m using Linear and Non-
results. Linear analysis.
6.1 Initial size considerations
Figure 6.1 shows the initial sizing of a
rectangular concrete FE specimen.
Figure 5.1: Three-point bending test
5.1 Stages in ANSYS
a
Pre-processor Stage:
This is the first stage in any analysis, it involves
in selecting the appropriate material model,
building the model for analysis including Figure 6.1Beam and notch dimensions
selecting and applying the appropriate and
Size of rectangular beam is proportioned
suitable meshes for the geometry.
according to
Solution Stage:
This stage involves in selecting type of analysis, , where (6.1)
applying the boundary conditions, defining loads
The initial sizing of notch is based on the
and other analysis parameters to get the
following rule of thumb
appropriate output.
Post Processing/ Results Stage: Notch height, a = α h, where α = (6.2)
This stage involves in interpreting the results and 6.2 Linear Analysis Results
outputs from the analysis. Concrete is assumed to reach a strain limit of
ε0=0.0035. For linear elastic analysis the
5.2 Building the Model maximum principal stress will be noticed
The most important step in finite element when the specimen reaches its maximum strain
analysis is building the model. The model needs limit ε, i.e. strain of concrete (ε0=0.0035). It is
166
assumed that maximum elastic stress occurs at
Nominal Strength, σ = (6.4)
the crack tip of the notch and the following study
is carried out based on this principle. Further in
The analysis is carried out for both constant and
the entire experiment the principal stress, proportionate notched beams.
corresponding to the maximum strain of concrete
ε0 is taken as the nominal strength σ of the
specimen. This is used as an indication for
strength of the specimen.
Maximum Principal Stress, = Nominal

Strength σ (6.3)
The figure below shows the results for both
constant and proportionate notches beams.
Figure 6.4 Plot showing the Theoretical and FE
Model – Load vs Displacement for proportionate
notched beams
Figure 6.2 Plot comparing experimental FE

model linear results with Bazant‟s size effect law
The results from the both proportionate and Figure 6.5 Plot showing the Theoretical and FE
constant notched beam infer that there is Model – Load vs Displacement for constant
negligible size effect in these beams samples notched beams
since the plot is horizontal. This maybe also due But since the plot from ANSYS model does not
to the limitations in the FE model and limited behave in a non-linear manner the peak load
samples tested for the size effect. The plots give Fpeak cannot be obtained for further calculation
a negative trend line showing a possible of strength. This may be possible due to the
reduction in strength but it has not been carried different approach of modelling used. The
out with other sizes due to the limitations in the convergence issues in the FE model also is an
scope of this paper. The results do not entirely important factor for the linear trend in load vs
correspond with Bazant‟s size effect law where displacement plot. Nonlinear analysis requires
there is decrease in nominal strength when the loads to be applied in steps or increments. The
size increases but once again this can be due to results can be checked at several load steps in a
the limitations of the FE model. single nonlinear solution by the use of
incremental loads. The increments can be based
6.3 Non - Linear Analysis Results on time, which in turn is load increment. The
Non-Linear analysis is considered more accurate loads are incremented based on the number of
when compared to linear analysis especially sub-steps till the solution converges. But in this
when there are large deformations and there is analysis we can observe that the solution does
change in geometry. The stress-strain factors also not converge in higher load steps thus causing
influence material non-linearity. According to the analysis to stop.
Bazant/ Carpenteri we can deduce the nominal
strength of any structure by dividing the peak
load by the representative area. 7 CONCLUSIONS
The paper gives an understanding of the size

effect laws and theories but the study mainly
focuses on Bazant‟s size effect law based on
LEFM where nominal strength of the structure
increases when size reduces. First the linear
analysis is performed and further from the linear
Figure 6.3 Nominal strength calculations results discussed in section 6.2, we can
167
understand that we use the stress-strain ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
relationship to deduce the strength of the
specimen. The linear analysis is done in both Inputs and comments from Professor Harm
constant and proportionate notched beams and Askes are gratefully acknowledged.
the results shows a negligible size effect in the
beam specimens. The strength does not vary by REFERENCES
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in the model but we also can conclude that linear materials tensile strength: The increase of the
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Further the limitations in the model and Computational Mechanics, New trends and
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an overall view of the size effect relation to B.L.Karihaloo, Q Z XIAOl “Size effect in the
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deduce the peak loads in the analysis. The
problems faced with convergence also have to be
considered by future researchers using this finite
element software.
168
seventeenth Postgraduate Student Conference on MSc Dissertations 2010-2011
Controls on Thaumasite Sulfate Attack in Concrete

Hadria Ghanim
Candidate MSc(Eng) Structural and Concrete Engineering
ABSTRACT
The resistance of concrete to thaumasite sulphate attack vary by using different cement types. In this
study, different binder types were investigate thaumasite formation. Mortar specimens made of
CEMI,CEMI with 10%, 20% limestone filler, CEMI with 50%,25% PFA, CEMI with 70%,40% GGBS
were utilised. Powder samples were exposed to strong solution at 5 for five weeks . XRD and
Infrared spectroscopy instrument were used to analysis and identify the minor quantities and
microstructure of mortar samples. In addition, existing mortar specimens prepared from of CEMI,
CEMI with 10% limestone filler, CEMI with 50% PFA, CEMI with 70% GGBS placed on SD3 and
SD4 for three and six months were investigate as well The results indicate to that thaumasite was
detected in powder samples made of CEMI, CEMI with 50%,25% PFA, CEMI with 70%,40% GGBS.
The different between samples was in the intensity of form phases where CEMI and CEMI with 10%
and 20% LF were more intense than 25%,50% PFA and 40% and 70% GGBS. In addition, using
powder sample gave indication to that ignore physical properties in mortar matrix can reduce the
resistance of PFA and GGBS to thaumasite sulphate attack.
presence of groundwater and low temperature,

1. INTRODUCTON
the second set involve secondary risk factors that
It is known thaumasite one of the material that include binder types, quality of concrete and
cause deterioration in concrete which the most change to ground chemistry and water regime
serious case of thaumasite attack might be from construction[3].
founded in Canada Arctic. Furthermore, serious
The principle aim of this study is to investigate
deterioration due to thaumasite sulphate attack
the effect of cement content in thaumasite
was found in concrete foundations for 30 year-
sulphate attack formation in mortar made with
old bridges in Gloucestershire that was
different cementitious system, and to investigate
investigated by A UK Government Expert Group
whether physical properties GGBS and PFA
in April 1998 [1].
mortar are the main factor for the high resistance
Conventional sulphate attack can be formed as to thaumasite sulphate attack or the chemical
result of the reaction between external sulphate composition is mainly responsible. The main
ions or sulphate from groundwater with calcium objective of the study as follow:-
aluminate phases in concrete and hydroxide to 1. To investigate the role of chemical
form gypsum and ettringite that with time composition of cements on resistance of
convert to thaumasite. Thaumasite sulphate TSA by omitted the effect of physical
attack can be formed from reacting sulphate with properties such as permeability, using
carbonate ions under cold and wet condition [2]. powder and crushed mortar sample.
The most common example for thauamsite
formation in buried concrete are foundations, 2. To study the influence of amount of
tunnel linings, floor slabs and pavements. cement replacement on TSA. made of
However, thauamsite can form above ground CEMI, CEMI with 10%,20% limestone
building in gypsum plaster and in brickwork that filler, CEMI with 50%,25% PFA and
is noted in historical buildings, but sulphate CEMI with 70%,40% GGBS.
attack in brickwork is not considered the main
problem in field. Moreover, it is noted that the 3. To study the influence of sulphate
formation of thaumasite sulphate attack need concentration on the extent of
specific conditions it is mentioned two sets of thaumasite formation.
conditions. First set include primary risk factors
such as source of sulphate and carbonate,
169
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK 2.3 Mortar Powder Specimens Tests:-
2.1 Materials and Mortar Mixes:- 2.3.1- Compressive Strength
Mortar samples made of plain CEMI, CEMI/
10%,20% limestone filler, CEMI/ 25%,50% The compressive strength test for (50 50 50
pulverized fuel ash and (PFA), CEMI/ 40%,70% mm) cube was done according to BS1881: part
blastfurnace slag (GGBS). Fine aggregate that 116:1983.
pass from 5mm to 75 micron that comply with
BS 1260:2002-A; 2008 was used
2.3.2- Porosity Test:-
To measure the porosity of mortar specimens,
2.2 Samples Preparation and Exposure vacuum saturation equipment was utilised. first
conditions:- step before start the test the samples were dried
Samples were casted and compacted to remove
entrapped air. After 24 hours the specimens were in oven at 70 for 24 hours and were
de-moulded cured in water for seven days and cooled for 24 hours, then the samples were
21 days in air then were crashed and immersed in weighted (W1 dry) and put the samples in
strong solutions at different temperature . in the vacuum instrument for approximately 5 hours to
crushed sample, sample were cured in water for fully saturate. After that the surface of specimens
seven days before immersing in sulphate solution were dried and weighted them in air (W sat ).
SD3 and SD4. The mix design for different Thereafter, the samples were weighted in water
percentage of cement replacement shown in table (Wsub). By using this formula the porosity can
2.1 and 2.2 respectively be calculated
Table 2.1:Mix design for mortar samples exposed porosity = 100 ( Wsat – Wdry )/ ( Wsat –
to solution:- Wsub ).
Cement CE
w/c LF GGBS PFA Sand
type MI
2.3.3- X- Ray Diffraction (XRD):-
CEM I 0.65 380 0 0 0 950
After the samples were dried and ground by hand
CEM I + to fine powder, then the powder packed into back
0.65 342 38 0 0 950
10%LF filled specimens for starting XRD diffraction
analysis. X- ray diffraction is considered non
CEM I +
50%PFA
0.65 190 0 0 190 950 distractive technique that use to give information
about chemical compositions and
CEM I + crystallographic structure in nature and artificial
0.65 114 0 266 0 950
70%GGBS materials. Collected powder materials and
samples obtained from surface of mortar were
examined by using XRD. XRD analysis were
performed using Philips PW 1825 X-ray
generator with PW 1716 diffracometer and PW
Table 2.2:Mix design for mortar samples exposed
to solution:- 1950/25 detector. To offer radiation copper
electrode is used. In addition, 40kV and 30mA
Cement CE
w/c LF GGBS PFA Sand are normal operating conditions. The analysis of
type MI
samples were with step size 0.02 from 5-70
CEM I 0.65 380 0 0 0 950
degree 2 . Various phases that find in patterns
CEM I + was identified by the database of the joint
0.65 304 76 0 0 950
20%LF committee for powder diffraction file (JCPDF) in
WinXPOW software.
CEM I +
0.65 285 0 0 95 950
25%PFA
CEM I + 2.3.4- Infrared Spectroscopy :

0.65 228 0 152 0 950
40%GGBS
Infrared spectroscopy is one of the test that use
to identify the chemical structures for concrete, it
is utilised as analytical tools to measure the
purity of compounds. It contains on special tool
which named IR spectrometer. The advantages
170
of IR spectra is easy and quick to run because it Figure 3.2 illustrates the results of XRD analysis
has interferometer which has the ability to reduce for mortar specimens prepared of CEMI, CEMI
the time from several minutes to few second. In with 10% LF, immersed in SD4 at 5 degree
addition, when the IR radiation passes through centigrade for six months. It can be seen the most
specimens some of radiation pass through sample dominant phase was thaumasite and ettringite
while others will be absorbed in the sample. followed by calcite and gypsum which might
Molecular fingerprint of the sample can be present due to the calcium hydroxide in CEMI
created as result of molecular absorption and mortar samples. in addition, Present quartz at
transmission. 24.5, 31 and 42.9 2 θ that refer to using fine
aggregate in specimens in this specimens. there
was clear indication to form thaumasite at
3. RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION various peaks in specimen contain 10%
limestone filler, These results confirm that high
3.1.1- XRD Diffraction:-
sulphate and low temperature participate in
Figure 3.1 shows the XRD analysis for mortar thaumasite formation. High carbonate in
samples made of CEMI, CEMI with 10% LF, limestone filler contribute in accelerate the form
50% PFA and 70% GGBS immersed in SD4 at 5 of thaumasite. Other phases such as gypsum,
degree centigrade for three months. By ettringite, quartz and calcite were observed in
comparison those mortar specimens the results samples.
shows thaumasite was detected in CEMI mortar
sample at 9 2θ. Gypsum was found at peaks 20.9,
23.9 and 432θ which might be due to the
reaction among portlandite and magnesium
sulphate. In CEMI with 10% LF thaumasite
presented at 9 2θ , ettringite at 9, 15.8, 17.9 and
23 2θ and gypsum at peaks 23.5 and 43 2θ .
Quartz which might be due to existing sand
particles in mortar presented at 26.5, 36.5 and 51
2θ . In addition, calcite was detected at 29.3,
39.3 and 47.5 2θ that would be expected as
result of level of cement replacement by
limestone. In CEMI with 50% PFA mortar
specimens after three month exposed in SD4
solution no thaumasite did present in all samples Figure 3.2:XRD diffraction for CEMI, CEMI with 10%
at 5 degree centigrade , and Brucite presented at exposed to SD4 at 5 degree centigrade for six months
19 2 θ in sample at 5 degree centigrade might
belong to appear the portlandite due to the
chemical reaction among PFA and calcium
As shown in figure 3.3 thaumasite was detected
hydroxide in cement matrix. It is noted that
at 10.9 2 θ in mortar sample with 10 %LF
GGBS mortar sample give good performance to
placed in SD4 for five weeks that might be due
resist the formation of thaumasite sulphate
to high carbonate contain in limestone filler
attack.
which accelerate thaumasite formation. Gypsum
produced as result the reaction among sulphate,
portlandite and calcite was detected at 11.9, 24.5
and 32.3 2 θ . furthermore, ettringite, quartz and
calcite presented at 37.5, 26 and 36 respectively.
As mention in literature many research indicate
to that PFA can resist of thaumasite than
limestone, the result that obtain in this study
confirm that there was no sign to form
thaumasite in 50% PFA mortar specimens. XRD
results for samples made of CEMI with 70%
GGBS immersed in SD4 for five weeks at 5
degree centigrade shows that the most dominant
phases in specimen was ettringite followed by
Figure 3.1:XRD diffraction for CEMI, CEMI with 10% gypsum.
LF, 50% PFA and 70%GGBS samples exposed to SD4
at 5 degree centigrade for three months
171
gypsum and thaumasite. Moreover, carbonate
phase that belong to thaumasite and calcite
appeared at peak 1410 . In 70% GGBS
mortar sample sulphate phase detected at
500 . According to above results
thaumasite was detected in powdered samples.
Therefore, physical properties of concrete
prepared with GGBS play an important role to
resist thaumasite sulphate attack because low
permeable concrete does not allow to ingress
Figure 3.3:XRD diffraction for CEMI, CEMI with 10%,
sulphate ions to avoid thaumasite formation.
50% PFA and 70% GGBS exposed to SD4 at 5 degree
centigrade for five weeks
3.1.2- Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis Results:
The graph 3.4 illustrates analysis specimens

made of CEMI, 10%LF, 50%PFA and 70%
GGBS exposed to SD4 at 5 degree centigrade. It
is noted that there was slight peak at
500 which sign to in CEMI
mortar sample, this indicated thaumasite
formation after three months of exposure, the Figure 3.4: infrared spectra for CEMI, 10%LF,
50%PFA and 70% GGBS samples at 5 degree centigrade
results showed the presence of group at exposed to SD4 for three months
peak 550, 610 and 1110 which belong

sulphate phase. Carbonate phase was also Infrared spectra for CEMI, 10%LF and 70
identify in these samples at 5 degree centigrade samples at 5 degree centigrade exposed to SD4
which belong calcite and thaumasite. In 10% LF for six months illustrates in figure 3.5. the results
mortar samples Thaumasite phase was detected shows thaumasite is detected in CEMI mortar
at 500 while the group presented at samples exposed to SD4 at 5 for 24 weeks
which confirm high sulphate and low
peak 610 and 1100 that might refer to temperature participate significantly in the
formation of gypsum and etteringite. formation of thaumasite. However, this results
Furthermore, carbonate phase which belong are more accurate than XRD results because IR
spectra is as figure print and can identify the
calcite and appeared at peak 1400 . It is
existing thaumasite or ettringite. Other phase
concluded that thaumasite form in samples
such as calcite, carbonate and sulphate present in
contains 10% limestone filler than that in
specimens prepared from CEMI. The study by specimens at 875, 1400 and 1100
Zhou et al (2006) supported this result by respectively. Taumasite was observed in samples
examine samples made from 20%LF and CEMI made of 10 % limestone filler
where the analysis explained more thaumasite
was detected in samples contains 20% than
CEMI. The result shows the analysis of 50%
PFA powder samples by using infrared spectra.
It is clear to see small peak at 500 at low
temperature (5 ) which indicate to thaumasite

formation this result did not appear in XRD
analysis because IR spectra analysis is more
Figure 3.5 Infrared spectra for CEMI, 10%LF samples
accurate. In addition, it is found group at at 5 degree centigrade exposed to SD4 for six months.
peak 1100 that associated to ettringite,
172
Figure 3.6 illustrates the comparison between 4.2- Recommendations for future work:-
mortar specimens made of CEMI with 10% and
The recommended study for further work as
50% PFA and 70% GGBS exposed to SD4
solution at 5 degree centigrade for five weeks. following:
I. Long term study to investigate the
Peak at 500 was detected in CEMI with
effect of chemical composition of
10% limestone filler sample which belong
GGBS and PFA with different
, this result ensure that higher percentage of replacement in thaumasite
percentage of limestone filler increase the formation.
amount of thaumasite in concrete. In mortar II. Link the long term investigation with
specimens with 50% PFA there is no any sign to geochemical modelling which may give
form thaumasite, This result cannot be notice in a prediction of concrete performance
XRD analysis because it is difficult to distinguish exposed to different aggressive
between thaumasite and etteringite due to the conditions.
similarity in their structure, . group III. Investigate the role of pH of aggressive
condition exposure on the formation of
identified at 603 ,675 and 1100 . The
thaumasite
result shows calcite at peak 875 which
might be due to cement hydration. As mention in
literature increase the amount of PFA prevent
thaumasite formation. It can be seen that mortar
sample made of 70% GGBS did not record any
sign to form thaumasite. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wish to thank Dr John
Cripps for supervision and valuable comments
on this study. Mr. Kieran Nash is acknowledged
for his extensive technical support in this
research study.
REFERENCES
[1]- Crammond(2003) the thaumasite form of

sulphate attack in the UK. Cement & concrete
composites. 25:809-818.
Figure 3.6: infrared spectra for CEMI with 10%LF,
50%PFA and 70% GGBS samples at 5 degree centigrade
exposed to SD4 for five weeks. [2]- Bersted (2003) thaumasite – direct,
woodfordite and other possible formation routes,
4. Conclusion and Recommendations
cement & concrete composites. 25: 1059 – 1066.
4.1- Conclusion:-
The results of this study indicates that using high
[3]- Belmann abd Stark (2007) prevention of
sulphate solution SD4 contribute significantly in
thaumasite formation and extent of TSA. thaumasite formation in concrete exposed to
Thaumasite can form at high and low
sulphate attack, cement & concrete research. 37:
temperature. Thaumasite was detected in all
samples where PFA and GGBS were used as 1215- 1222.
replaced cement in all powder samples that effect
of permeability was ignored, indicating that
physical properties of mortar/concrete containing
GGBS and PFA is mainly responsible for their
resistance rather than their chemical
composition.
173
Optimization of MTMDs for low frequency floor

Evridiki Giamouzi
ABSTRACT The low damping properties of lightweight composite building floors may lead to
undesirable dynamic responses even to ordinary human actions like walking. This study investigated
through a finite element modelling a real low frequency floor. Applying real walking forces
indicated high level of accelerations at the points of maximum vibration and critical value of the
response factor (R) for a considerable area of the floor.
In order to compensate for the lack of sufficient inherent damping a passive control system
comprised of tuned mass dampers (MTMDs) was designed and installed in the composite floor
model using optimum properties. The first four modal frequencies were considered covering a
frequency range of (5.92-8.81Hz). The main criteria for this study towards optimisation included: (i)
accurate tuning, (ii) distance from the excitation source and between TMDs, (iii) different phase
between modes, (iv) number of TMDs and (v) their effectiveness over a frequency range. Results
were produced by means of harmonic analysis and used to argue over the effectiveness of multiple
TMD configurations for contributing in floors with closely spaced modes of vibration.
with closely spaced modes has not yet been

1 INTRODUCTION
established.
In the past, floors were designed with larger
sections and shorter spans, providing an adequate
vibration serviceability performance. In the 2 TUNED MASS DAMPERS
modern design approaches sections with slender
Frahm (1911), first conceived a linear attachment
and longer spans have led to a reduction in
comprised of a mass (m) and a spring (k), coupled
stiffness, damping, floor mass and consequently to
to a harmonically forced oscillator to reduce the
the floor’s dominant frequency, resulting into
amplitudes of motion in mechanical systems.
increased susceptibility rates to vibrations. While
these floor types are satisfying the strength The first design criterion for optimising the
requirements and traditional live load stiffness properties of TMDs was proposed by Den Hartog
criteria, they are usually prone to annoying (1956). Through theoretical analysis, it was
vibration problems due to human induced indicated that the provision of a damping element
excitation forces. A floor system with a low natural to the vibration absorber enhanced the vibration
frequency can be susceptible to resonance, which control over a wider frequency range. A closed
can cause large displacement and acceleration form solution was developed for two-degree-of-
amplitudes. Remedial methods have been freedom system configuration and equations for
developed in order to improve the vibration optimum frequency and damping ratio to obtain
performance of structures by increasing the the tuned response of the system were derived.
inherent damping which can increase the energy
Optimum frequency:
absorption and therefore reduce the floor response
in both time and frequency domain. Incorporating  1 
Tuned Mass Dampers (TMDs) is a common f opt    f n Eq. 2.1
technique applied with various levels of success. 1  
Although TMDs have proved to work efficiently
Optimum damping:
for structures with distinct frequencies, the
effectiveness of their performance for structures
174
The height of the columns at the bottom and the
 3  top until the floor level is 3.725m. At the time of
 opt   
3 
Eq.2.2 the testing there were services and ceilings
 81     mounted on the bottom and the top of the floor
which represent an additional weight. From
experimental analysis it was determined that the
μ-mass ratio most problematic area was located in a central
When the vibration absorber is tuned, the systems span of the floor.
response curve has equal peaks at the two resonant
modes. If optimised parameters are used for the
design, then the response corresponding to these 4 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
frequencies is considerably reduced. Moreover, it The FE model constructed for the purpose of the
was suggested that the most significant variable for analysis was based on best engineering judgment
the TMD is the mass ratio, since more mass results and information available from designer’s
in more inertia for counteracting the motion of the drawings.
main mass.
For modelling the composite floor slab orthotropic
Unlike structural stiffening, mechanical dampers SHELL63 element was used with constant
are a rather cheaper alternative solution since they thickness. This thickness was determined by the
can be easily installed and have low maintenance condition that 1m width of element in the direction
cost without interrupting the operational activities of the ribs has the same bending stiffness as 1m
in the building. width of the real ribbed section. Considering the
The devices can be installed above, in or below the existence of 130mm deep ribs supporting 60mm
problematic floor (integrated in the supporting deep slab every 300mm, the bending stiffness of
floor structure) at the point of maximum the element in the less stiff direction perpendicular
deflection. to the ribs was adjusted accordingly to 20% of the
main stiffness.
A passive TMD is a cost-effective method of
targeting a single mode of vibration. However, it The column sections were modelled using BEAM4
has the disadvantage of being prone to off-tuning elements.
and is requiring one TMD per problematic mode The main cellular beams were modelled using
of vibration. ANSYS BEAM44 elements. This element is
While a single TMD is effective for controlling a practical for beam type elements where the
particular mode for which it has been designed, centroid of the section must be offset from the
MTMD systems can cover a wider frequency range location of the FE nodes in order to give the
than the single TMD system by optimising its composite stiffness of the slab and the beam.
parameters including mass, frequency, and For modelling the TMD elements MASS21 was
damping ratio. used for the mass and COMBIN14 for the stiffness
and damping coefficient of the damper.
3 FLOOR DESCRIPTION The modulus of elasticity assumed for lightweight

concrete was 30 N/mm2 and 205 N/mm2 for steel.
The vibration problem of interest was investigated All beam–beam and beam–column connections
through modelling of a floor structure situated on were assumed to be rigid and columns were fixed
the fourth floor in a seven-storey building. The to their ends.
structure is a composite-steel floor spanning 10.5
m between gridlines. The floor model constructed was used to calculate
dynamic properties through modal analysis to
As it is typical for these type of floors the steel obtain natural frequencies as well as the
decking supporting the concrete slab is spanning in corresponding mode shapes. Results indicated 15
one direction which is orthogonal to the direction modes of vertical floor vibration having
of the primary beams. For the secondary steel frequencies between 5.92 Hz and 15Hz, classifying
sections prefabricated cellular beams were used the structure as a low frequency floor. Using unity
with different dimensions. normalised mode shapes by setting the value of the
The slab has 130mm thickness and is made by maximum displacement as 1 for every mode it was
lightweight cast in situ concrete. For the possible to determine mode shape factor φ and the
construction of the composite slab trapezoidal anti-node of every mode. The value of the modal
profile steel sheeting was used, with ribs running in mass which is an important parameter for
the y-direction. evaluating the response of the floor was calculated
as:
175
Figure 2: Acceleration response of anti-node 1
with four MTMD tuned to each mode
1
mn  The application of the first TMD in anti-node1
n 2 Eq. 2.3 reduced the peak acceleration significantly. The
single TMD did not optimise the acceleration
response in a wide frequency range, while
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF additional TMDs further contributed towards the
HARMONIC ANALYSIS reduction of the acceleration response in a
Harmonic analysis was performed using mode frequency range closer to their modal frequency.
superposition by taking into account the More TMDs further reduced the total acceleration
contribution from 9 modes and modal damping response in the frequency domain, with their
ratio of 2% which is typical value for floors. contribution varying depending on the relative
Unity scaled results were produced for acceleration distance from the excitation point. Also the ability
response, as the main cause of human discomfort, of TMDs to reduce the response deteriorates for
by applying 1N force on anti-nodes of the floor higher modal frequencies.
model. Figure 3 provides a better visualisation of the
TMDs contribution towards optimisation, both in
terms of total and peak acceleration response
percentage of reduction compared to the response
of the floor without TMDs.
Cumulative TMDs Contribution
24
22
Response reduction (%)
20
18
16
14 Total response
12 reduction
10
8
6 Peak response
reduction
4
2
0
1 2 3 4
Number of TMDs
Figure 1: Examined positions of TMDs on the Figure 3: MTMDs contribution for reduction in
peak and total response at anti-node 1
floor
More TMDs further reduce the acceleration
In order to investigate the contribution of TMDs response of anti-node 1 as the level of energy
towards the low frequency floor optimisation, dissipated by the TMDs is reducing the kinetic
various TMD configurations for the first four anti- energy which excited the anti-node 1.
nodes (Figure 1) were applied: Although the beneficial effect of additional TMDs
towards the optimization of the floor’s response in
the frequency domain was proved, the trend for
5.1 GRADUAL APPLICATION OF TMDs reduction of the peak acceleration is different.
TUNED TO EACH MODE Additional TMDs were not adequate to further
The TMDs contribution in a cumulative manner is decrease the peak acceleration response, while an
depicted in Figure 2. adjusted and perfectly tuned TMD to the anti-node
of the examined mode optimises the floor’s
performance.
1.40E-05
TMDs add extra stiffness and mass on the floor
1.20E-05
and slightly affect the modal dynamic properties.
1.00E-05
The incorporation of additional TMDs in the anti-
Acceleration (m/sec2)
8.00E-06 no TMD
1 TMD nodes of other modes could worsen the peak
6.00E-06
2 TMDs
3 TMDs
acceleration response due to the phase shift of their
4.00E-06
4 TMDs corresponding vibration oscillation mode.
2.00E-06
0.00E+00 Each column in Figure 4 represents the additional

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency contribution of each TMD.
176
The contribution in optimising the response of
TMDs Efficiency
10
anti-node 1 is different for TMDs tuned to each
9 mode from TMDs all tuned to mode 1. The TMDs
Response reduction (%)
8
7 tuned to mode 1, reduce more the acceleration
6
5
responses in the frequency domain and the peak
4 acceleration amplitude. Apparently the more
3
2 stiffness in correlation with the mass provided by
1
0
the additional TMDs are decreasing the modal
1 2 3 4 frequency.
TMDs corresponding to 4 modes
Figure 4: Efficiency of MTMDs tuned to each Additional TMDs tuned to higher modes, more
mode for anti-node 1 distant from anti-node 1, contribute less to
optimisation.
Additional TMDs reduced further the floor’s
acceleration response.
5.2 COMPARISON OF TWO
CONFIGURATIONS
5.2 TMDs TUNED TO MODE 1
For verification purposes upon the floor’s
Unlike the previous configuration with TMDs optimisation, with the use of four TMDs and for
tuned to their own modal frequencies, different performing a comparison among the effect on the
resulting response has been observed for the nodal response depending on the TMDs tuning, the
configuration of TMDs tuned to 1st mode, Figure excitation point is alternatively placed at anti-
5. node2.
1.40E-05
1.20E-05 1.80E-05
1.60E-05 no TMD
Accelearation (m/sec2)
1.00E-05
1.40E-05
Tuned to 1st
Acceleration (m/sec2 )
1.20E-05
8.00E-06
no TMD
1.00E-05 Tuned to each
1 TMD
6.00E-06 2 TMDs 8.00E-06
3 TMDs
6.00E-06
4.00E-06 4 TMDs
4.00E-06
2.00E-06 2.00E-06
0.00E+00
0.00E+00 4 6 8 10
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5: Acceleration response of anti-node 1 Figure 6: Acceleration response of anti-node 2

for MTMDs tuned to first mode with two different MTMD configurations
Additional TMDs can further reduce the The performance of TMDs tuned to each mode is
acceleration response of anti-node 1, while the optimum configuration since the total and peak
optimising the performance in a closely spaced acceleration response is comparatively smaller,
frequency range (5.5-7Hz). For the area of higher Figure 6.
frequencies, TMDs do not affect the nodal However, for closely spaced frequencies around
response. 5.9Hz, the TMDs tuning to 1st mode, resulted into
Apparently the optimum TMD configuration higher reductions of the response, whilst the TMDs
minimizing the floor’s responses is highly tuned to each mode were superior for the rest of
dependent upon the frequency range of the the frequency range.
excitation force, the position of TMD and proper For optimising the response of anti-node 1 the
tuning. combination of 4 TMDs tuned to the first mode
Overall, the second configuration (tuning all was more efficient. For anti-node 2 the higher level
TMDs to 1st mode) is found to be more efficient of reduction is achieved when the 4 TMDs are
from the first (tuned to each node) for floor tuned to each mode.
excitations of the first mode, while for higher
frequencies the first configuration is more
effective. 5.3 INDIVIDUAL APPLICATION OF TMDs
Higher energy dissipated by more TMDs, has been For assessing the TMDs effectiveness depending
proved to be beneficial for the floor response over on their relative position to the excitation point, a
the frequency domain, regardless of the mode to force has been applied at two different anti-nodes.
which they are tuned.
177
At first the excitation force is applied at anti-node The peak acceleration of the un-damped floor was
2 and TMDs are placed in the following two reduced more under the first configuration in
configurations: comparison to the second. Although in the two
configurations TMDs are tuned to the same mode,
 single TMD tuned to mode 3 located at
it is demonstrated that the distance between the
anti-node 3
TMD and the excitation point is crucial.
 single TMD tuned to mode 1 located at
anti-node 1
6.CONCLUSIONS
1.20E-05
This study proved that peak acceleration amplitude
1.00E-05 developed at any node can be reduced effectively
Acceleration (m/sec2)
8.00E-06 from a TMD tuned to the corresponding mode,

6.00E-06
no TMD
TMD on node 1
while additional TMDs will reduce the nodal
4.00E-06 TMD on node 3 acceleration more effectively on their
2.00E-06 corresponding frequencies. As a result the passive
0.00E+00
absorbers were found to be more effective in a
4 5 6 7 8 9 narrow frequency range close to the natural
Frequency (Hz)
frequency of the linear oscillator, while for
Figure 7: Acceleration response of anti-node 3 frequencies diverging from the frequency of the
with two TMD configurations tuned to each absorbers the TMDs performance is deteriorated.
mode
The response of the anti-nodes depicted the
As indicated in Figure 7 both configurations importance of the TMDs tuning frequency in
reduce the acceleration amplitude, with their governing optimisation..
biggest contribution in the frequency range close to
their tuning frequency. Although the distance from Through analysis it was demonstrated that TMDs
the excitation point is higher, the TMD at anti- performance is optimised when placed at a close
node 1 is more efficient for this frequency range. distance from the excitation point.
As expected the TMD at anti-node 1 did not The optimised configuration among the 4
optimise the acceleration response for frequencies employed TMDs has been found to be both the
higher than 6.6 Hz, while the TMD at anti-node 3 placement of TMDs to each anti-node and
was inadequate to optimise the response of anti- achieving perfect tuning in terms of the
node 3 for frequencies smaller than 6.8 Hz. corresponding modal frequency.
For further comparison of the TMDs performance,
the excitation force is applied at anti-node 3 while
TMDs are placed in the following two ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
configurations:
 single TMD tuned to mode 3 located at I wish to acknowledge the extensive support and
anti-node 3 guidance provided by my project supervisor Prof.
 single TMD tuned to mode 3 located at Aleksandar Pavic during this project.
anti-node 1
1.20E-05
REFERENCES
1.00E-05
Den Hartog, J P (1956) Mechanical Vibrations.

Acceleration (m/sec2 )
8.00E-06
6.00E-06 no TMD 4th Edition, New York : McGraw-Hill.

TMD on mode 1
4.00E-06 TMD on mode 3 Frahm, H (1911) Device for Damping Vibrations
2.00E-06
of Bodies, U.S. Patent , No. 989, 958, 3576–3580.
0.00E+00
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rahul R and Soong T T (1998) Parametric study
Frequency (Hz) and simplified design of tuned mass dampers.
Figure 8: Acceleration response of anti-node 3 Engineering Structures, 20 (3):193-204.
with two TMD configurations tuned to mode 3 Varela, WD Battista, R C (2011) Control of
According to the Figure 8, TMDs are optimising vibrations induced by people walking on large
the nodal performance in the frequency range of span composite floor decks. Engineering
(7-8.3Hz), where both depict their highest Structures, 33, 2485–2494.
efficiency, due to optimum tuning to mode 3. Webster, A and Vaicaitis, R (1992) “Application
of Tuned Mass Dampers to control vibration of
178
composite floor dampers”. Engineering Journal
AISC, third quarter, pp 116-124.
179
Comparison of Geotechnical Codes For Shallow Foundations

Christos Hadjiprodromou
ABSTRACT All over the world, various codes and design practices are being used nowadays for
the solutions of geotechnical design problems, each being based on different approach/philosophy as
far as the bearing capacity of the foundation and its effect on the structure being supported.
This paper deals with three codes which are considered to be representative of what is going on today
worldwide. These codes are: Eurocode 7, BS 8004:1986 ,Geotechnical Code of Practice used by US
Army Corps of Engineers.
A whole chapter is given on the comparison of these codes .with analysis as to their main strong points
and differences in design philosophy. A whole chapter is devoted on numerical examples. These deal
with analytical methods (program Limit state:GEO,Terzaghi‟s and Meyerhof‟s) in order to show which
code is more or less conservative.
From the examples chosen it has been found that, in general, Eurocode 7 is less conservative than BS
8004:1986 and the American Code (Geotechnical Code used by US Army Corps of Engineers. Also,
the DA3 is less conservative from the other two DAs because it governs the design (it is nearer to the
critical value of 1 for the adequacy factor). Finally, from Terzaghi‟s, Meyerhof‟s and GEO software
(without any partial factors), Meyerhof‟s is more conservative, therefore, uneconomical structure.
The main objectives of this paper are to

1 INTRODUCTION
compare various geotechnical codes on the
1.1 Why foundations are needed in structures design and construction of shallow foundations.
Foundations are the most important part of a The main topics of comparison are the
structure for two reasons: it is what everything following: a)Philosophy of design (design
else rests on; and is the only element in a requirements, design situations, methods of
structure which is in contact with the ground. design etc). b) Geotechnical data (geotechnical
Foundations are an integral part of a structure. investigations, evaluation of geotechnical
Due to the law of gravity all loads have to be parameters etc). c)Effect of water .d) Overall
transferred to the ground beneath. Therefore, Stability.
foundations are necessary in order to support the 1.4 Allowable stresses verses Limit state
structure safely. Foundations ensure that the design philosophy
load of the structure is spread evenly over the The design approach for foundations till now
ground underneath the building. has been the use of allowable stresses (by
dividing either the gross or net ultimate bearing
1.2 Why design Codes? capacity by an appropriate factor of safety –
The design codes of the construction industry usually 3). The modern approach, however,
consist of the applied rules that will provide the nowadays, is the use of the limit state design
minimum acceptable level of safety to the philosophy which appears more rational. For the
structures. In many the cases and since the ultimate limit state the loads (or actions) are
design codes have to do with the protection of multiplied by a certain partial factor of safety
public health, welfare and safety they have been whilst the material strengths (bearing capacity,
incorporated into law by the relative in this case) are divided by other appropriate
jurisdiction. Geotechnical codes deals partial factors of safety. This is the „‟why‟‟ of
particularly with guidelines, rules, procedures this dissertation.
and recommendations to the geotechnical The comparison of these different design
engineer for safe, sound and durable philosophies will result in an in-depth look into
foundations to structures e.g. buildings, bridges, what is going on worldwide and especially in
retaining walls, dams etc. Europe, nowadays, in the area of geotechnical
1.3 Objectives design.
180
One of the scopes of this study is to endeavour
to find out which code is more or less
conservative in the design of footing. This will Where: qnet =qult – qo
be attempted to be proven when dealing with qo=γ Df
numerical examples, which will be presented in
a different chapter of this dissertation. Df = Depth of foundation
F or FS= Factor of Safety
2 EC7 VERSUS BRITISH STANDARDS 2.3 US Army Corps of Engineers
AND GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN USED BY The scope and purpose of US Army Corps of
Engineers is to establishes criteria and presents
US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
guidance for geotechnical investigations during
2.1 Eurocode 7 the various stages of development for civil and
EC7 code is based on a design philosophy military projects. The manual is intended to be a
which deals with limit states: Ultimate and guide for planning and conducting geotechnical
investigations and not a textbook on engineering
Serviceability limit states. A limit state is
defined as „‟the state beyond which the geology and soils exploration. Its philosophy is
structure no longer fulfils the relevant design based on the allowable bearing capacity which
are given as:
criteria. EC7, regarding foundation design,
clearly distinguishes between ULS and
Serviceability Limit State (SLS) design. As an
example applied on spread foundation the FS is often determined in the range of 2 to 4
following ULS requirements are single out by
EC7-1 (J. Wang & N.I Thusyanthan, 2008).
 Overall Stability
3 COMPARISON OF THE
 Adequate Bearing Resistance GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN CODES
 Adequate Sliding Resistance
 Adequate Structural Capacity 3.1 GENERAL
 No Combined Failure of Ground and The philosophical difference between Eurocode

Structure 7 and the other two codes present a great
According to Clause 2.4.7.3.1 when checking challenge to geotechnical engineers worldwide
the bearing resistance of a shallow foundation, and especially in Europe where Eurocode 7 is
the GEO criterion must be checked, which is how replacing their national geotechnical codes.
related to failure in the ground. Therefore, the Due to their fundamental difference in design
following disparity must be satisfied: philosophy the British and American Codes, it
where Vd or Ed = the design is a little difficult to establish which parts of
value of the effect of actions, Rd=Rk/γR = the these codes are in „conflict‟ with Eurocode 7.
design value of the bearing resistance of the
Both the British and American codes provide a
ground which is given by equation D.1
comprehensive guidance on design for
of Annex D of EC7-1:
experienced geotechnical engineers.
The British code provides much advisory
where Rk = characteristic value of bearing information is not obligatory and often refers
resistance, c = soil cohesion, A = foundation geotechnical engineers to datasheets and other
area, Nc, Nq, Nγ = bearing capacity factors, sc, sq, publications.
sγ = shape factors, q = overburden pressure at
level of foundation base, B = foundation width, The American code consists of three manuals
D = embedment depth, γd = design value of soil which endeavor to deal with all aspects of
unit weight. geotechnical design. One manual is titled
2.2 BS 8004:1986 Geotechnical Investigations and deals with the
Under The British Standard (BS) code of establishment of the criteria for a proper site
practice for the design and construction of investigation and presents guidance for
foundations recommendations of what should be geotechnical investigations during the various
used and is acceptable are provided. These stages of development for both civil and
recommendations are applicable to normal military projects. The second manual deals with
ranges of buildings and other engineering the bearing capacity of soils and provides
constructions. guidelines for the determination of the bearing
Its philosophy is based on the allowable bearing capacity of foundations. The third manual deals
pressures which are given as: with the very important aspect of geotechnical
design which is settlement Analysis and
181
provides guidelines for the calculation of GEO: “Failure or excessive deformation of the
settlement under shallow foundations. ground, in which the strength of soil or rock is
significant in providing resistance”.
UPL: “loss of equilibrium of the structure or the
3.2 BASIS OF GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN ground due to uplift by water pressure
(buoyancy) or other vertical actions”.
Both the British and American codes have an
HYD: “Hydraulic heave, internal erosion and
entirely different philosophy in geotechnical piping in the ground caused by hydraulic
design than Eurocode 7. These two codes base gradients”.
their design on allowable (or safe) bearing
As far as ULS foundation design is concerned,
capacity whilst Eurocode 7 deals with limit state the main limit states to be considered are GEO
design philosophy. Because of this nature in and STR. UPL and HYD are checked only if
their design philosophy, the British and heaving soil is possible and hydraulic gradients
American codes do not distinguish ULS from
are present in the ground. EQU is mainly
SLS explicitly, but go through a whole list relevant to structural design and is rarely used.
design considerations which often overlap with
items in Eurocode 7. Some of these are shown In the British Code specific equations or safety
below: factors are rarely mentioned therefore, it is
rather difficult to persuade geotechnical
Eurocode 7 British Code American engineers to give up their traditional freedom
Code under this informative geotechnical code and
bury themselves in the rigidity of Eurocode 7
Overall Ground Settlement, which, by the way, distinguishes many of its
stability, movement soil clauses by „”P” for principles of design
settlement movements signifying that these clauses are obligatory to
the engineer.
Soil/structure Ground/STR Ground/STR
In the American Code quite a few equations are
interaction int- behavior
given both for bearing capacity and settlement
erdependence
analysis calculations.
Eurocode 7 includes the observational method
Structural Structural Structural
as one of its acceptable design methods. In the
capacity considerations considerations
observational method the design is reviewed in
a planned manner during the course of the
Heave, Uplift Ground Heaving soil,
construction and in response to the observed
Water, seepage
performance of the structure. This is an
Flooding
important new development in geotechnical
design as compared to previous practices
Bearing Allowable Allowable
(British and American Codes of practice). This
capacity bearing bearing
could have significant implications for
pressure capacity
geotechnical design, offering a more important
Table 3.1: Relationship between EC7, BS 8004:1986,
role for Geotechnics in order to achieve more
USACE economic designs and shorter construction times
in difficult ground conditions (T.L, Orr, 2002).
Eurocode 7 takes one step further than other two
cods by subdividing ULS requirements into five Some of the advantages of introducing
broad categories. Each category has a particular Eurocode 7 as compared to the other two codes
set of partial factor values associated with it. are the following:
These categories are listed below: 1) It provides a clear distinction between
EQU: “loss of equilibrium of the structure or the ultimate and serviceability limit states. This is
ground, considered as a rigid body, in which the not the case with the British and American
strengths of structural materials and the ground Codes. Usually in these codes the factor of
are insignificant in providing resistance. “ safety is chosen to limit deformations as well as
STR: “internal failure or excessive deformation to prevent failure of the foundation.
of the structure or structural element including 2) It requires geotechnical designers to focus on
footings, piles, and basement walls etc in all the limit states which may affect a particular
which the structural material is significant in structure.
providing resistance”. 3) It gives a very good set of principles and a
rational and consistent framework for
foundation design.
182
4) It clarifies various aspects of geotechnical The simple example below illustrates the
design that could have caused confusion, such analytical design procedures for spread
as the distinction between loads (actions) and foundations based on Section 6 and Annex D of
resistances and the selection of the appropriate EC7-1, as well as the BS 8004 approach.
parameter value to be used in design
calculations. Parameter Fac DA DA DA DA
5) It draws attention to the various factors that -tor 1/1 1/2 2 3
Partial load
need to be taken into consideration in any factors (F)
particular geotechnical design problem. Permanent G 1.35 1.00 1.00 1.35
6) Provides a unified set of principles for unfavourable
geotechnical designs. action
Variable Q 1.50 1.30 1.30 1.50
7) Bridges the philosophical division between unfavourable
geotechnical design and superstructure design. action
8) Requires z more systematic approach about Permanent G 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
the uncertainties in geotechnical material favourable action
Variable Q 0 0 0 0
parameters. favourable action
The use of partial factors, as employed in EC7, Partial material
is sometimes criticized because it can be lead to factors (m)
apparent problems when the relationship tan  tan 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.25
between actions and/or material properties and 
Effective c 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.25
their corresponding action effects of a partial cohesion c
factor applied at one analysis level unimportant Undrained shear cu 1.00 1.00 1.40 1.40
when considered at another level of design strength cu
analysis. C. Smith and M. Gilbert propose (a) Unit weight of g 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
ground 
only partial factors relevant to the analysis level
Partial
under consideration should be applied to the Resistance Factor
relevant quantities (i.e. actions, action effects γR
and resistances) and (b) in principle checks at Bearing Capacity γRv 1.00 1.00 1.40 1.00
Sliding γRH 1.00 1.00 1.10 1.00
all three analysis levels should be undertaken
Resistance
when verifying a geotechnical design ( C.Smith
and M.Gilbert, 2010). Table 4.1:Partial Factors sets for ULS shallow
foundation design based on EC7
Since overall factors of safety (OFS) for ULS
design in EC7 are generally lower than Description of Design Task:
traditionally used by British and American Determine the minimum width of a d=0.5 m
Codes for geotechnical foundation design. (The thick and cover = 0.5m, strip footing foundation
OFS for EC7 range from 1.41 for DA 1/1 to to satisfy ULS requirements for a permanent
1.97 for DA2 and DA3 by Trevor Orr, 2010), it vertical load of Pk=300 kN/m and a variable
is likely that settlement considerations and vertical load of Qk= 80 kN/m. The bearing of
hence SLS requirements will control more the foundation is on firm clay 1 m below ground
foundation designs, particularly on cohesive level. The detailed configuration and soil
soils and when using DA1. This challenge has properties are cu =60 kPa, γk= 23 kN/m3, γsat=
to be tackled by geotechnical engineers when 20kN/m3.The column on the foundation is
the situation arises. ignored for simplicity.
Due to the changes put forward by EC7, EC7-1: Design Approach 1 Combination 2
structural engineers and geotechnical engineers
will have to work more closely in order to
design foundations since now EC7 in most The design value of vertical actions is given by:
European countries is mandatory. As a result
there will be a large cost burden in European
countries to train geotechnical engineers to The design value of Rd is given by equation D.1
follow the principles and guidelines of the new of Annex D of EC7-1:
code.
4 EXAMPLE
From table 4.1 note that give only the partial
factor for STR & GEO limit states are
incorporated, which are most relevant for ULS bc = 1(horizontal surface), ic = 1 (loads purely
shallow foundation design. vertical)
183
sc = 1 + 0.2B‟/L‟ = 1 + 0 = 1 (strip footing) Existing Approach by US Army Corps of
Engineers:
qd = (20 / 1.0) × (0.5 + 0.5) = 20 kPa
A‟ = A = B×1 (m2) (no loading eccentricity, no
bending moments).
And check for Vd ≤ Rd Based on this particular

It is required that Vd ≤ Rd, i.e. 404+ 21.5 × B ≤
design situation:
240.3 × B, and the minimum B would be 1.85 m
for this approach.
EC7-1: Design Approach 1 Combination 1 cu,k = 60 kPa, bc = 1, ic = 1, sc = 1, γ = 3.0
qk = 20 kPa, A‟ = A = B × 1 (m2)
It is required that Vd ≤ Rd, i.e. 380 + 21.5 × B ≤

109.5 × B, and the minimum B would be 4.32 m
for this existing US Army Corps approach.
For the worked example it can be concluded
It is required that Vd ≤ Rd, i.e. 525 + 29 × B ≤ that the American Code is more conservative
328.4 × B × 1, and the minimum B would be than the other two (B= 4.32 m). Eurocode 7 is
1.75 m for this approach. the least conservative (B = 2.55m, from Design
EC7-1: Design Approach 2 Approach 2). The British Code (BS 8004:1986)
is somewhere in the middle but nearer to the
findings of the American Code (B = 3.75m).
According to similar worked examples that
were performed the above statement is confirm
for cohesionless soil and saturate soil as well.
cu,k = 60 kPa, A‟ = A = B×1 (m2)
Settlement Check
,
The total settlement of a foundation on cohesive
soil may be evaluated using elasticity theory and
It is required that Vd ≤ Rd, i.e. 525 + 29 × B × 1 an equation from (Annex F, EC7).
≤ 234.6 × B × 1, and the minimum B would be
2.55 m for this approach.
EC7-1: Design Approach 3
Where:
Em: is the design value of the modulus of
elasticity
qd = (20 / 1.0) × (0.5 + 0.5) = 20 kPa, f :is the settlement coefficient
p: is the bearing pressure, linearly distributed on
the base of the foundation
It is required that Vd ≤ Rd, i.e. 525 + 29 × B × 1
≤ 240.3 × B × 1, and the minimum B would be μ:¨Poison‟s ratio for soil (=0.5 in saturated soil)
2.48 m for this approach. Ip:an influence factor depending upon
Existing Approach by BS 8004: dimensions of the foundations.
Annex H, paragraph (4) states that total

settlements of up to 50mm are usually
cu,k = 60 kPa, qk = 20 kPa acceptable for normal structures. In the above
settlement check s=20mm, which is less than
50mm, is deemed satisfactory.
It is required that Vd ≤ Rd, i.e. 380 + 21.5 × B ≤ According to (Ian G.N Smith, 1998) a different
122.8 × B, and the minimum B would be 3.75 m method involves in the case of cohesionless soil.
for this existing BS approach. This method, however, requires in situ test
184
results. The lack of such test results, for the Eurocode 7, British Code BS8004: 1986 and the
purposes of this study, renders the evaluation of Geotechnical Code used by the US Army Corps
settlement for this case impossible. The of Engineers. A comparison between these
interested reader is referred to (Ian G.N Smith, codes was attempted in Chapter 3. Because
1998) for the more detailed description of this Eurocode 7 is the recent development in
method. Geotechnical Design and is based on an entirely
new philosophy (Limit state Design Philosophy)
4.1 Parametric Study it is believed by most geotechnical engineers
that this is a big step forward and, of course,
A parametric study was performed in order to
time will tell.
investigate the following:
Moreover, from results as discussed in Chapter
1) Variation of the adequacy factor verses
4 the American code is more conservative than
various geotechnical design parameters (width
the other two and the Eurocode 7 is the least
of footing(b), shear strength, parameters (c, φ)
conservative. Also, the water level is rising
and depth of foundation, eccentricity etc) for
(especially for cohesionless soils) and the
analytical methods: numerical analysis using
bearing capacity on foundation decreases, then
Limit State:GEO (depicted in graphs as the
width of footing must be increase. Furthermore,
Unity), Terzaghi‟s and Meyerhof‟s.
from parametric study found that the DA3 is
2) Variation of the adequacy factor verses the less conservative because it governs the design
geotechnical design parameters mentioned (it is nearer to the critical value of 1 for the
above for the three Design Approaches of adequacy factor). From Terzaghi‟s, Meyerhof‟s
Eurocode 7. and GEO software (without any partial factors),
Meyerhof‟s is more conservative from the other
From parametric study it is concluded that for two, therefore, uneconomical structure.
all parameters the DA 3 is the most critical and
these will be governing the design of the 6 REFERENCES
foundation. In addition for all studies it was
British Standard 8004:1986 Code of practice
discovered that Meyerhof‟s method of analysis
for Foundations (Formerly CP 2004).
is the most conservative of the three i.e. more
critical.This can be confirmed in Figures: Colin Smith & Matthew Gilbert “Ultimate limit
4.2(a)-4.2(b). state design to Eurocode 7 using numerical
methods” Department of Civil and Structural
Engineering, University of Sheffield,2010.
Eurocode 7: “Geotechnical design Part 1:
General rules” February 2009
G.N.Smith and Ian G.N Smith “Elements of
Soils Mechanics,7th Edition” Formely of
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh,1998
J WANG & N I THUSYANTHAN
“EVALUATING FOUNDATION DESIGN
CONCEPTS OF EUROCODE 7 & 8” Trinity
Figure: 4.2(a) Adequacy Factor verses Depth College, University of Cambridge, Trinity
Street, Cambridge,2008
Trevor L.L. ORR “Implications of Eurocode 7
for Geotechnical Design in Ireland” Trinity
College Dublin Institution of Engineers of
Ireland on 4th November 2002
Trevor ORR “The Concepts of Eurocode 7 for
Harmonised Geotechnical Design in Europe”
Trinity College Dublin, 8th -12th February,2010
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Washington, DC
20314-1000 “Engineering and Design
Figure: 4.2(b) Adequacy Factor verses Depth GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS”. 1
January 2001
5 CONCLUSIONS
The main objective of this paper was to
investigate and compare the three codes of
geotechnical design under consideration in
185
Vibration Serviceability Assessment of a Real-Life Laboratory Floor

Atheer Hameed
ABSTRACT There is an increasing trend towards constructing more innovative and slender
structures during the last few years. These structures proved to have problems in their vibration
serviceability performance. Floors accommodating sensitive machinery are part of these structures;
usually these floors tend to be high frequency floors (HFF). In this paper the full process of finite
element modelling, model updating and correlating for HFF accommodating laboratories has been
carried out. After finishing the manual model updating, a good correlation between the analytical
modal analysis results and the experimental modal test results has been obtained with up to 3.54%
difference in the frequencies of the first seven modes. Some material properties that affect these results
have been listed and discussed. Two approaches have been used to assess the floor vibration
performance, applying real walking measured forces and the Concrete Society (2005) procedure for
HFF, a comparison between both procedures has shown that the Concrete Society procedure is
underestimating vibration levels at high pacing frequencies (above 2 Hz). It has been found that the
vibration levels of the floor are acceptable for the purpose of the floor. Finally, the ability of the
vibration passive control technique Tuned Mass Damper (TMD) to reduce the vibration response of
HFF with such closely spaced modal frequencies has been examined showing that it is possible to
remedy excessive HFF vibration levels using this technique.
1 INTRODUCTION To this end, analysis shall be held, and finite

element analysis (FEA) is very recommended to
Floors were normally designed in the past with
compute dynamic properties of the floors as
relatively large slab sections and short beam
Pavic et al. (2001) recommended. Then, after
spans, which provided good behaviour in
obtaining dynamic properties of the floor,
vibration serviceability. As the use of new
vibration levels could be estimated using any
materials and techniques has been increasing and
desired approach, either by following simplified
the demand on more light structures has been
procedures proposed by guidelines or applying
increasing as well, more floors are designed with
basic dynamic principles to simulate the real life
small thickness and long spans (slender floors),
excitation sources. Finally, estimated vibration
leading to more floors failing in the vibration
levels would be compared to the criteria
serviceability. As a consequence, floor
threshold and decision about whether the
vibrations have become a very important
vibration levels are accepted or not could be
concern for structural designers, and, the amount
made.
of research on the vibration serviceability of
floors and vibration criteria (VC) was increased
in the last decade.
2 BACKGROUND
Firstly, as stated by Brownjohn & Middleton
2.1 Types of Floors
(2008), vibration levels should be compared and
fulfil restricted vibration criteria (VC). Then, Floors are divided into two categories according
after specifying VC, Middleton & Brownjohn to their response to internal excitation, such as
(2010) stated that some steps should be made human footfall: low frequency floor (LFF) in
before doing the analysis and making a final which resonance can be built up and excited by
decision, these steps are: the design force should one of the harmonics of walking force when its
be specified, and tolerable accuracy for stiffness frequency is equal or approaches floor
and mass distributions should be assessed and a frequency. The second type is high frequency
proper level of damping needs to be defined for floor (HFF) where the resonant response cannot
the floor. be build up by the walking force harmonics and
the floor generates transient response due to
186
walking force. Figure.1 and Figure.2 illustrate effects, Relocation of activities, Stiffening,
the response of each type respectively. Damping, and Isolation. One of these solutions
will be examined in the research, which is
damping by the use of Tuned Mass Dampers
(TMDs), shown in Figure.3, TMDs vary and
considered according to their damping system or
construction fashion.
Figure.1: Response of a low-frequency floor

having natural frequency of 4.6 Hz subject to
walking at 2.3 Hz. A resonant build up is clearly
observable, After Smith et al. (2009).
Figure.3: Two TMDs appended to the bottom of
a floor. After DEICON: Dynamics & Control.
3 THEORY
3.1 Modal Analysis
It is the analysis used to estimate modal
properties (modal frequencies, masses and mode
shapes). For dynamic analysis, general equation
Figure.2: Response of a high-frequency floor, of motion is given by:
having natural frequency of 12.6 Hz, subject to , -* ̈ ( )+ , -* ̇ ( )+ , -* ( )+
walking at 2.1 Hz. A series of peaks followed by * ( )+ Eq.1
decaying responses is clearly observable. No
resonant build up is observable, After Smith et Where: , -: Mass matrix, * ̈ ( )+: Acceleration,
al. (2009). , -: Damping matrix, * ̇ ( )+: Velocity, , -:
2.2 Vibration Perception Stiffness matrix, * ( )+: Displacement, * ( )+:
Force. Consider undamped structure with free
The decision about whether an estimated vibration, Equation.1 became as follows:
vibration level is accepted or not is based on
how much receivers (objects or persons) are , -* ̈ ( )+ , -* ( )+ Eq.2
sensitive to the vibration. Middleton & Assuming a trail solution for Equation.2 results
Brownjohn (2010) discussed briefly the into eigenvalue problem given by:
vibration criteria (VC) for humans as well as for
machinery, and how human VC contributes to (, - , -)* + * + Eq.3
machinery VC. The authors stated that human Solution of Equation.3 can be used to determine
perception depends on the posture of the person; values of ω2 (eigenvalues), the square roots of
also they made a notice that in the early research those values are the natural frequencies of the
work the VC for humans were developed in the structure. Substitute those eigenvalues back into
laboratory based on the comfort of humans in Equation.3, mode shapes can be calculated as the
different postures and there was no consideration eigenvectors {q}, which can be scaled to be
to the activity or excitation type. After that, in mass normalized mode shapes or unity scaled
the next stage of research work the activity type mode shapes.
was considered and taken into account. That was
the basis of the current used VC. The authors, Modal masses can be calculated then by using
Middleton & Brownjohn (2010), also explained these mode shapes, considering unity scaled
the different types of machinery VC and mode shapes [Ф], modal mass Mn is given by:
development of each criterion. , - , -, - Eq.4
2.3 Vibration Control In Equation.4 (n) represent the mode number.
When the vibration levels of an existing floor 3.2 Floor Vibration Response Using GRF
exceed desired levels, solutions then should be
provided to damp these excessive responses. Considering the general equation of motion
Allen & Pernica (1998) discussed the commonly shown in Equation.1, the force (f(t)) is
used solutions to remedy excessive floor considered to be modal force and calculated
vibrations, these solutions include: Reduction of using mode shape [Ф] for the excitation point (j)
187
and vector of real walking forces F(t), it is given for offices. Along each bay, the columns centre-
by: to-centre spacing is 6.6 m.
() ( ), - Eq.5 Before the modal test results were available, a
fairly detailed FE model was created using
Now, substitute Equation.5 into Equation.1 can ANSYS 12.0 software and considered as the
define the variable (q(t)), which can be used to preliminary model, its purpose is to have a basis
calculate the floor displacement response (x(t)) for manual model updating. For this model, to
for (n) modes by using mode shape [Ф] for the simulate boundary conditions, above and below
response point (i) and given by the mode super columns were modelled.
position equation:
Three different elements were used to model the
different structural components of the floor;
() ∑, - () Eq.6 ANSYS SHELL63 element was used to model
precast units with constant thickness of 475 mm.
First derivative of Equation.6 gives the floor ANSYS BEAM44 element was used to model
velocity response and second derivative gives beams and columns of the floor making use of
the floor acceleration response. its offset option wherever applicable within the
floor. ANSYS BEAM4 element was used to
3.3 Current State-of-Art
model some of the internal columns where no
The current assessment procedure for HFF, offset required.
CSTR43AppG (2005), is based on implementing
Assumptions were made for material properties
effective impulse to simulate the real footfall
and some boundary conditions because there
steps. This effective impulse (Ieff) depends on
was no available information about these
pacing rate (fp) and natural frequency (fn) and it
properties and conditions used in the
is given by:
construction of the floor. Modal analysis was
performed to get first 20 mode shapes,
Eq.7 fundamental frequency was 12.793 Hz, first
mode occurred in the 9.2 m span (offices) as
Making use of Equation.7, the procedure then single curvature which was expected because it
provides the following equation to calculate the is the longest span, this mode was followed by
total response to each footfall: three modes occurring in the same area. Fifth
() mode appeared in the span of 7.3 m
(laboratories) as single curvature as well.
∑ ( ) Eq.8
Where: : Velocity, : Location of where the

response is to be calculated, : Location of where
the force is to be applied, : Mode number, :
Mode shape amplitude, : Modal Mass, :
Damping ratio, : Natural frequency
(rad/sec), √ : Damped natural
frequency (rad/sec), and : Natural frequency
(Hz).
4 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING Figure4.: Floor plan and cross sections

4.1 Structure Description and Pre-Test Model
4.2 Model Updating and Correlation
The floor considered in this research comprises
After the modal test results became available, it
composite construction, in which the slab is
appeared that the sequence of mode shapes is
hollow core concrete precast units (planks) of
incorrect. That required a manual updating for
400 mm thickness supported by steel frame;
the model. The beginning was by providing
there is 75 mm reinforced concrete in-situ screed
fixed supports all around lift shaft area and
on top of precast planks. Internal steel beams
horizontal support all around the floor. This has
support the concrete units by widened bottom
affected the shapes of mode shapes with no
flange, while external steel beams support the
significant changes on the modal frequencies.
floor by top flange. The floor as shown in
After that, manual updates were made
Figure4. consists of three bays, with spans of 7.3
considering material properties that were used
m for laboratories, 6.0 m as a corridor and 9.2 m
188
and not very sure about them in the preliminary
model. A sensitive analysis has been done for Analytical Modal Expermental Modal
the FE model, started by changing Poisson’s Analysis Analysis
ratio value which has non-significant effect on
the results. That’s why it has been removed from
the variables in the sensitive analysis.
After that, the concrete dynamic Young’s
modulus was increased by 5% from 38 GPa to f = 16.07 Hz Mode 4 f = 16.27 Hz
40 GPa. Then changing the shell element from
isotropic to orthotropic taking into account the
reduction in Young’s modulus between parallel
and normal directions of precast units, this
reduction was 5% from 40 GPa to 38 GPa which
could be explained because of the discontinuity f = 18.368 Hz Mode 5 f = 18.34 Hz
of the precast units in the normal direction due to
the joints at each 1.2 m, these joints make that
direction bending resistance less than the other.
Lastly, concrete shear modulus in the horizontal
plane of the slab was reduced by 63 % from 16.3
GPa to 6.0 GPa which has a significant effect on f = 18.72 Hz Mode 6 f = 19.05 Hz
the sequence of mode shapes. This reduction
could be justified by considering that shear
modulus is related to shear strength, and for
concrete hollow core units the shear strength in
the horizontal plane is less than that for solid
concrete units, as the cross sectional area that f = 19.117 Hz Mode 7 f = 19.67 Hz
resist shear forces in the horizontal plane is less
than that for solid units due to presence of cores. Figure.5: Analytical and experimental first
seven mode shapes (Continued)
Up to this point both mode shapes sequence and
natural frequencies were close to those obtained
by modal test. Qualitative check was used to 5 VIBRATION ASSESSMENT
check that mode shapes are correlated. Figure.5
shows the first seven modes of both Two approaches were used to assess vibration
experimental and analytical modal analyses. level of the floor considered in this research;
assessment using real walking forces (GRFs)
and assessment using CSTR43AppG HFF
Analytical Modal Expermental Modal procedure. It has been found that the general
Analysis Analysis trend of the response estimated using
CSTR43AppG was similar to the trend of the
response calculated using GRFs. That means
both approaches provide increase in the response
with the increase of pacing frequency, and both
approaches showed transient response for HFF.
f = 12.792 Hz Mode 1 f = 12.66 Hz Generally, the vibration performance of the floor
is acceptable compared to BS 6472 (1992)
proposed response factor value (R=1) for critical
working areas like precision laboratories; this
decision is based on pacing frequency about 2.0
Hz (2.09 Hz exactly), which is the commonly
f = 13.487 Hz Mode 2 f = 13.79 Hz expected case on such floor.
Although both procedures have the same trend,
the comparison between the two different
approaches for range of pacing frequency of
1.77 Hz to 2.52 Hz showed that CSTR43AppG
approach underestimates the response when
f =14.478 Hz Mode 3 f =15.01 Hz pacing frequency exceeds 2.0 Hz. This can be
Figure.5: Analytical and experimental first seen clearly from Figure.6, Figure.7 and
seven mode shapes Figure.8 for pacing frequency of 2.4 Hz.
189
Figure.7: Response factor
Figure.6: Response factor Figure.8: Response factor at pacing
contour plot using
contour plot using GRF at frequency 2.4 Hz vs. percentage of
CSTR43AppG at pacing
pacing frequency 2.4 Hz. floor area.
frequency 2.4 Hz.
6 TMD APPLICATION ON THE FLOOR

B1 B6
To remedy the excessive levels of floor
vibration, TMDs technique was examined. Two
different approaches was used; Approach A
which was investigating the response of each of
the first five modes individually when TMDs are
applied individually for each mode and
Approach B which was the application of TMDs
for first mode to fifth mode cumulatively, and
the response of each mode of first five modes Mode 2
was investigated individually for each step.
Approach A has six steps (A1 to A6) and its
results showed that some TMDs when installed
and tuned to some modes could worsen the
response of other modes. This procedure was
used to check this phenomenon only. It is not a
real-life case simulation. Approach B also has
six steps (B1 to B6), and its last step (B6) is the Mode 3
real-life case when all TMDs are applied on the
floor. The results of this approach showed that it
is possible to remedy the response of the floor by
using the TMD technique. The results are shown
in Figure.9 where the no TMD case (B1) is
compared to all TMDs tuned and applied (B6)
for first five modes.
B1 B6 Mode 4
Mode 1 Mode 5
Figure.9: Comparison between Step B1 (No Figure.9: Comparison between Step B1 (No
TMDs) and Step B6 (All TMDs tuned and TMDs) and Step B6 (All TMDs tuned and
applied on the floor) for first five modes applied on the floor) for first five modes
(Continued)
190
7 CONCLUSIONS tuned to specific mode is reducing the
response of that mode but may increase the
During the work of this research, many
response of other modes.
conclusions have been made and listed as
following: 2. For the HFF considered in this research, the
application of TMDs cumulatively (real life
A. Regarding FE modelling techniques:
simulation) using Approach B has shown a
1. It has been seen that for bare HFF, it is good improvement in the reduction of the
possible to correlate analytical modal results floor vibration response with no response
with experimental modal test results by worsening.
implementing fairly detailed FE model.
Maximum error found was 3.54% in
frequency, while excellent mode shapes ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
sequence obtained.
I, proudly, would like to thank my supervisor
2. The suggestions cited in literature about Professor Aleksandar Pavic. This work would
modelling above and below columns with not have been possible unless his wise guidance,
fixing the ends of each column were quite encouragement and advisory. Many thanks to the
practical and useful to follow. Higher Committee for Education Development
in Iraq (HCED Iraq) for their financial support
3. The reduction in concrete Young’s dynamic
provided as full scholarship.
modulus in minor direction of precast planks
by 5% has significant effect on the results of
FE model. This reduction was justified as the
REFERENCES
precast units have joints at each 1.2 m which
could make the planks bending resistance Allen, D.E. and Pernica, G. (1998), Control of
less than the other direction. Floor Vibration, Construction Technology
Update No.22, National Research Council
4. The reduction in concrete shear modulus of
Canada.
precast hollow units up to 63% in the
horizontal plane has really significant effect Brownjohn, J.M.W. and Middleton, C.J. (2008),
on the sequence of mode shapes; this Procedures for vibration serviceability
reduction was explained as the planks has assessment of high-frequency floors,
lower shear resistance in that plane as Engineering Structures, No. 30, p 1548-1559.
hollows appeared in the cross sectional area
leading to reduce the shear resisting area. BS 6472:1992, Guide to Evaluation of human
exposure to vibration in buildings (1 Hz to 80
B. Regarding floor vibration response Hz), British Standards.
estimation:
DEICON: Dynamics & Control, Viscously
1. The estimated floor vibration level was Damped Coil Spring Suspended Tuned Mass
acceptable compared to current guideline Dampers, http://www.deicon.com/.
limit of response factor (R=1).
Middleton, C.J. and Brownjohn, J.M.W. (2010),
2. Two different approaches were followed to Response of high frequency floors: A literature
estimate floor vibration response, the review, Engineering Structures, No. 32, p 337-
application of GRFs and CSTR43AppG 352.
procedure. It has been observed that both
Pavic, A. and Willford, M.R. (2005), Appendix
procedures have the same response trend for
HFF, by considering the transient response G: Vibration serviceability of post-tensioned
shape and the increase of the response with concrete floors, Post-tensioned concrete floors
design handbook, Slough, UK, Concrete Society,
the increase of pacing frequency.
p 99-107.
3. Also, it has been found that CSTR43AppG
Pavic, A., Reynolds, P., Waldron, P. and Bennett
HFF procedure tends to underestimate the
K. (2001), Dynamic modelling of post-tensioned
vibration response levels compared to GRF
approach when the pacing frequency concrete floors using finite element analysis,
increased. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, No. 37,
p 305-323.
C. Regarding TMDs application on the floor:
Smith, A.L., Hicks, S.J. and Devine, P.J. (2009),
1. To check the efficiency of TMDs on the HFF SCI P354: Design of floors for vibration: A new
under investigation, two different approaches approach (Revised Edition, February 2009), SCI,
were followed for response calculations, Ascot, Berkshire.
Approach A and Approach B. It has been
observed from Approach A that the TMD
191
Water Quality Analysis of Combined Sewer Overflows and Sensitivity

Testing
Bing Han
ABSTRACT In this study a real combined sewer systems located in Derby, England are investigated
based on an InfoWorks CS model. A CSO system is set up within the InfoWorks with provided urban
map, geology data and sewer network information in an InfoWorks model. This InfoWorks model is
simulated under different conditions including the dry weather flow, the rainfall simulation without
pollution and the rainfall simulation with pollution. Based on the numerous simulating results, the
effect of total load, the first foul flush strength and the duration of the first flush are analysed.
Additionally, sensitivity test are carried out in detail by simulating the model with different
parameters. The influences of sewer diameter and of the dimension of sediment particles are analysed.
The analysis of the results in different conditions show that enlarging the pipe diameter and increase of
the particle size as well as the specific gravity will worsen the pollution of water, which gives a good
reference for the prediction and control of the water quality and even for the design of the combined
sewer systems in Derby.
sewer system at a point prior to the publicly-

1 INTRODUCTION
owned treatment works treatment plant.
The conveyance of domestic and industrial
Those sewer discharges have become an
effluents and the surface runoff from catchment
unnoticed pollution source as a result of the high
surfaces in underground conduits have been
concentration of pollutants, such as, nitrogen,
regarded as the foundation for the establishment
dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen demand,
of sewerage system in the UK. In terms of the
heavy metals and the like (Gupta, K., and Saul,
types of sewer systems, there are mainly three
A. J. 1996). Except for this literature, Hogland
kinds: sanitary (foul) sewers, storm (or surface
et al (1984) also suggested that TSS can be
water) sewers and combined sewer systems
regarded one of the pollutants because a large
(www1, 2011).
quantity of dissolved pollutants can be attached
It is inevitable that those sewer systems bring to those particles or adhere closely to the
about a series of domestic sewer discharge sediments through some complexation reactions
problems to those urban water bodies, especially or polymerization. Thus, it is in desperate need
in the combined sewers (U.S. EPA, 2004). And of finding out an economical management way
currently, most of sewer systems in the UK are and developing suitable technologies and tools
combined ones to deal with two types of water to control the urban sewer water quality.
that require drainage: wastewater and storm
The proposed research focuses on using the
water (Gouda et al, 2007). During the periods
Infoworks CS to simulate the sediment transport
when the rainfall is heavy, the amount and
and BOD loads and concentration in a
frequency of overflows vary a lot in dry weather
catchment operated by Yorkshire Water to
the capacity of the collection system and the
analyse the water quality and phenomenon of
treatment plant is exceeded during periods like
the first foul flush (strength and duration).
heavy rainfall or snowmelt. And finally
combined sewer systems can discharge excess The specific objectives are given as following:
wastewater directly to nearby streams, rivers,
(a) Construct a CSO system according to
lakes or other urban water bodies. That is so-
provided urban map, geology data and sewer
called combined sewer overflows (CSOs). It is
network information of Derby.
defined by the U.S. EPA (2004) that the term
“CSO” refers to a discharge from a combined
192
(b) Generate the rainfall obtain graphs in The target pipe is the continuation pipe. The
three conditions: dry weather flow, the CSO chamber dimensions were listed in below.
hydrograph and pollutograph.
(c) Analyse the loads of pollutants, the
Parameter Inlet Inlet Chamber
strength and duration of the first foul flush to diameter width
evaluate the water quality based on the results. Length
(m)
(m)
(d) Carry out the sensitivity testing to (m)
compare different influences on the water
quality of the pipe.
Value 0.6 0.5 0.85
Weir Weir Outlet

2 INFOWORKS CS AND WQ MODEL length
height length
2.1 InfoWorks CS (m)
(m) (m)
The approach used in this study to investigate
0.5 2.85 1.5
the pollutants in the inlet sewer pipe to CSO
system utilises InfoWorks CS (A proprietary Table 1: CSO chamber dimensions design
package from Wallingford Software, UK).
InfoWorks CS is a comprehensive, easy-to-use 4 SIMULATION WITH RAINFALL
and flexible system for the management of urban EVENTS
drainage network models. It is a software which
simulates the quality of surface runoff, transport 4.1 Dry Weather Flow
and erosion of sediment and pollution in a sewer Butter and Graham (1995) said that the flow
pipe system through a series of deterministic data is also acceptable if the obtained flow is
modules. By doing this, surface sediment build- preceded by at least 24 hours dry weather period
up, erosion and wash-off and sediment transport dry weather days on or after midnight. In this
in sewers along with the related flow quality study, there are nine rainfall events performed
parameters are predicted (Gouda et al, 2007). with InfoWorks CS.
2.2 The Water Quality Model
The InfoWorks Water Quality model could
simulate the build-up of sediment in the network
and the movement of sediment and pollutants
through the drainage system during a rainfall
event. In the water quality model, it involves a
separate calculation process that effectively
occurs in parallel with the hydraulic modelling
calculations. In fact the hydraulic calculations
take place before the water quality calculations
at each timestep. Output from the hydraulic
model is used in the water quality calculations. Figure 1 Dry weather flow rate
It can be seen that there are two apparent peaks
3 INTRODUCTION OF THE CSO SYSTEM in the dry weather flow. The first time when the
flow rises slowly at about 03:20. The time 08:00
This study is based on comprehensive storm sees the highest value of the flow. The second
water dataset which contains rainfall, storm peak (0.0025m3/s) is reached at 18:30 after the
water flows and pollutant concentrations from a low point. Since then, the flow declines
real urban catchment. The study area is located continually to the bottom 0.00016m3/s during
in part of Derby, England. A CSO system is set the period 02:00 to 03:00. The variation of the
up within the InfoWorks with provided urban dry weather flow follows a diurnal patten and
map, geology data and sewer network almost the similar trend every day during the dry
information in an InfoWorks model. By weather.
simulating with the water quality model, the
content of the TSS and BOD and the change of 4.2 SIMULATION WITHOUT
these two pollutants with various rainfall POLLUTANTS
intensities are analysed, thereby better measures Generate rainfall event with the InfoWorks CS
can be taken to improve the sewer water quality. of 1, 5 and 30 year return period rainfall, with
193
30, 60, 120 minutes durations, and then simulate
the CSO model with these storm events.
Emphasize of the analysis is on the total
pollution load and the first flush, thus only
observe the load during the first flush time.
When the nine hydrographs are generated, there
are no pollutants added in the waste water and
trade waste events. However, results show there
are BOD and TSS in the sewer pipes. This may
be due to the wash-off of sediments. TSS and
any pollutants which are attached to sediments,
build up on the catchment surface during dry Figure 2 Maximum divergence of TSS and BOD
weather periods. During the rainfall they are
washed off the surface into the drainage system As for the total pollutant loads, the effects
by surface runoff. In terms of BOD, a dissolved caused by the rainfall duration on TSS and BOD
pollutant, accumulates in gully pots in the dry are opposite. The longer rainfall duration leads
weather days. When the rainfall comes, surface to more loads of TSS. This phenomenon may be
runoff entering the drainage system washes because the long time flow caused by the heavy
these dissolved pollutants into the network. rain brings about more waste water to the
Thus, TSS and BOD still exist in the simulation sewers, thereby leading to the increase of the
even there are no pollutants added in the loads in pipes. On the contrary, the longer
wastewater events. raining time will lead to the decrease of the total
load of BOD.
4.3 POLLUTOGRAPH (TSS AND BOD)
AND ANALYSIS
Pollutants of sediment fraction and BOD are
edited in both the trade waste water and the
domestic waste water. In the trade water editor,
the concentration of the sediment and the
dissolved BOD are both set 500mg/L. In the
domestic waste water editor, concentration of
both sediment fraction and BOD are 400mg/L.
Gupta and Saul (1996) defined it as the part of
the storm event to the point of maximum
divergence between the cumulative percentage
Figure 3 Total load of TSS and BOD
of pollutant load and the cumulative percentage
of flow plotted against the cumulative Figure 4 shows the trends of the first flush time
percentage duration of a storm event. According on both BOD and TSS are similar. For the same
to this definition, the time of the first foul flush return-period rainfall event, the longer duration
can be found out. The strength of the first foul the rainfall has, the longer the first flush will
flush can be identified by the magnitude of the last. However, for the events with different
divergence between the cumulative percentage return period, the longer return periods are
of pollutants load and the cumulative percentage always related to the shorter first foul flush.
of the flow.
It can be seen from that Figure 2 that TSS and
BOD follow different trends with the increase of
the rainfall time. During the period of the first
flush, the maximum divergence of TSS is the
smallest when the rainfall duration is the longest
in the same return period. However, for the
BOD, the result is opposite. In the same return
period, the maximum divergence goes up as
rainfall duration becomes longer. But the
maximum divergence of BOD is constantly
higher than that of TSS. Figure 4 First flush time of TSS and BOD
5 SENSITIVITY TESTING
194
5.1 Change Of The Inlet Pipe Diameter (b) In the same rainfall event, the
maximum divergence of TSS reduces gradually.
The initial diameter of the inlet pipe is 600mm.
The wider the pipe is, the smaller the maximum
Change the width of the pipe to four more
divergence will be, which means lower strength
values: 400mm, 500mm, 800mm and 900mm.
of the first foul flush.
Then rerun the simulation with these nine
rainfall events. As for the pollutant BOD, there are some slight
differences. It seems that the maximum
As for the total load of TSS during the time of
divergence increases when the rainfall duration
the first flush, it can be seen from Figure 5 that
augments. However, there is no apparent change
for the same rainfall event, the thicker is the
regularity with the variations of pipe diameter. It
pipe, the more loads of TSS are tested. Thicker
seems that increasing the width will lead to the
pipes enable more flow and contaminants into
increment of the first flush intensity in most
the pipes, thus the accumulative load of
cases. But there are a few abnormalities for
sediments during the first flush time increases
several values.
with the increment of pipe width. For different
rainfall events, the events with longer rainfall 5.2 Change Of The Average Sediment
duration are related to more loads. Particle Size
The default value of the average sediment
particle size is 0.04mm. Simulations of sediment
sizes of 0.01mm, 0.03mm, 0.05mm and 0.07mm
are conducted.
In general, for the same rainfall event, the TSS
load decreases as the particle sizes increases.
Besides, compared to the increment of time
from 30 minutes to 60 minutes for the rainfall
duration, the load of TSS rises significantly
when the intensity increases from 60 minutes to
120 minutes. Interestingly, with the 0.01 mm
Figure 5 Total load of TSS of different inlet pipe particle size, the TSS load in M30-30 event is
diameters much higher than the other particle sizes.
Though more BOD is tested when the pipe is The loads of BOD do not vary regularly with the
enlarged, the increase is not evitable. For event particle size ranges. But for the simulation with
with the same return period, the total BOD will the same particle diameter, the longer rainfall
decrease if the rain lasts long, which is opposite duration results in the lower load of BOD in the
to the trend of TSS. sewer system.
Figure 7 Total load of TSS of different particle sizes

Figure 6 Total load of BOD of different inlet pipe
diameters (a) The effect on the TSS of changing the
particle size is similar to that of modifying the
For TSS, diameter. The larger size of particles related to
(a) No matter what the dimension of the the lower first flush intensity, which means the
pipe width is, in the same return period, the less pollution.
maximum divergence of TSS always decreases (b) For the same return period, the strength
as the rainfall duration adds, which means the of the first foul flush for rainfall events with 30
strength of the first flush reduces as the rain lasts minutes duration is always the highest. Longer
long. rainfall duration contributes to the abatement of
acute impact of TSS. First flush strengths of
195
60min rainfalls are all smaller than their increases when higher dissolved BOD
corresponding strengths of 30min. And there are concentrations. The effect is so obvious and it
quite obvious drop of the maximum divergence means changes on the pollution concentration in
values of 120 minutes compared to values of the waste water will exert great influence on the
other two durations. sewer water quality. And the increase of the
BOD will shape growth in the total loads of
5.3 Change Of The Specific Gravity BOD, while the impact caused by reducing the
In the water quality model of the InfoWorks CS, BOD concentration is relatively insignificant.
the density parameter of the active sediments is Additionally, for rainfall events with the same
initially set as 1.7. In the sensitivity testing, this return period, the total load of BOD decreases
value is then changed to four values as well: 1.5, as the rainfall duration increases.
1.6, 1.8 and 1.9.
The figure demonstrates the response of TSS
load from the alteration of gravity. As shown in
the graph, the result follows the trend that the
TSS load is negatively correlated to the
magnitude of gravity. Total loads of BOD are
shown in Table in appendix. There is no
apparent effect as well this parameter is not
related to the dissolved BOD.
Figure 9 Figure 26 Total load of BOD of different

concentrations of BOD in waste water
In terms of the first foul flush of BOD, for the
same rainfall event, the maximum divergence
increases with the augment of the concentration
of BOD. Higher concentration of BOD implies
heavier pollution of the sewer water, thus it is
conceivable that the intensity of the first flush
should be higher.
Figure 8 Total load of TSS of different specific

gravities 6. CONCLUSIONS
The results of changing the density of the From the pollutogragh, it can be seen that the
sediment fraction and the particle size are total load of TSS during the first flush time is
almost the same. correlated positively with the rainfall duration
5.4 Change Of Concentration Of Dissolved whereas there is negative correlation among the
BOD BOD and the rainfall duration. The relationship
between the first foul flush strength of the two
Initially, the concentrations of dissolved BOD pollutants follows the same trend: the first foul
are set for the trade water event and waste water flush strength of TSS increases as the raining
event are 500mg/l and 400mg/l, respectively. In time becomes longer, while the first foul flush
this test, the control variable method is applied strength of the BOD reduces at the same time.
and only one parameter is changed to observe However, the longer rainfall duration could
the impact. Hence, the concentration of the delay the time of the first foul flush strength for
dissolved BOD in the waste water is modified both TSS and BOD.
because in this catchment, the trade water use is
very rare and changes pollutants concentration And sensitivity testings are conducted next to
in the trade waste water editor will not bring observe the effects of changing those four
about too many changes. parameters below.
The concentration of dissolved BOD is modified (a) Change of the inlet pipe diameter: the
to 200mg/l, 300mg/l, 500mg/l and 600mg/l, total loads for both TSS and BOD increase as
whereas the dissolved BOD in the trade water the pipe diameter augments, which means the
event is kept the same. thicker pipe may bring about more pollution to
the sewer water. And the degree of the loads
It can be observed from Figure 9 that for a change is decided by the extent the diameter
particular rainfall event, the total load of BOD modifies.
196
As for the first foul flush strength, the wider instructions and essential encouragement,
the pipe leads to smaller value of maximum generous assistance and invaluable suggestion,
divergence of TSS, which means less serious all of which have been of precious worth for me
pollution. But there is no apparent relation to complete dissertation. Secondly, my sincere
between the pipe width and the first foul flush thanks go to Dr. Will Shepherd, who has helped
strength of BOD. immensely and taught earnestly. His advice and
suggestion benefited me a good many during the
(b) Change of the average sediment
design part of my dissertation.
particle size: Generally, a negative correlation
was found between the total TSS and the
particle sizes. The tendencies of first foul flush
REFERENCES
strength of TSS are similar. There will be a
reduce of the first foul flush strength if the Gouda, H. et al., 2007. Sewer sediment
diameter of the sediment increases. management and hydraulic modelling. In
WaPUG Spring Conference.
(c) Change of the specific gravity - density
of the sediment fraction: Similarly, the Gupta, K. & Saul, A. J., 1996. Specific
magnitude of gravity is negatively correlated to relationships for the first flush load in combined
the trend of the TSS load but positive to the first sewer flows. Water Research, 30(5), p.1244-
foul flush strength of the TSS. 1252.
(d) Change of concentration of dissolved Hogland W., Berndtsson R. and Larson M.
BOD: Both the total load of BOD and the first 1984. Estimation of quality and pollution load
foul flush strength of BOD increase when higher of combined sewer overflow discharge. Proc.
dissolved BOD concentrations is edited in the 111 Inc. Conf. on Urban Storm Drainage
simulation. Goteborg, Sweden, 841-850.
It seems that the duration of the first foul flush U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
does not vary as all the parameters changes for Washington, D.C. 2004."Report to Congress:
both TSS and BOD. Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs."
Document No. EPA-833-R-04-001.
The results indicate that among those
parameters, enlargement of the pipe diameter www1.http://www.niwater.com/theseweragesyst
and increase of the particle size as well as the em.asp. (Accessed 26 July 2011)
specific gravity will have a detrimental effect on
the water quality, whereas the pollution of BOD
will mount as the sewer pipe become thicker and
BOD increases in the waste water. The influence
generated by the augment of the BOD content is
the most notable, which means cause most
serious contamination.
Thus further study should emphasize on
simulation with more values for one parameter
to observe the numerical relationship of altering
the parameter. Moreover, simulations with more
types of pollutants like COD, nitrogen, phosphor
can be run to test the loads and concentrations in
the urban sewer pipes.
Lastly, what should be mention is that some
complicated processes of physical or chemical
reactions are simplified in the model simulation.
Therefore, further information about the site-
specific problems are needed to make sure the
modelling more accurate and successful.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank and
extend my hearty gratitude to my supervisor,
Professor Adrian Saul, for his patient
197
Building a Teaching Exercise for Groundwater Modelling

Caroline Hepburn
Candidate MSc Contaminant Hydrogeology
ABSTRACT Groundwater is an important resource which must be managed prudently. However it is difficult
to accurately characterise a groundwater system due to its inherent heterogeneity. Groundwater models are
utilised by hydrogeologists to learn as much as possible from the available data.
The aim of this project was to design and produce a self-study exercise to teach groundwater modelling to
students on the Contaminant Hydrogeology MSc at the University of Sheffield. The Sherwood Sandstone
aquifer beneath Nottingham was chosen as the case study for the exercise. A simple model of the aquifer was
created with the Interactive Ground Water (IGW) software and used to generate heads which are presented to
the students as “field data”. Students undertaking the exercise recreate this model by building it up in stages –
adding a new level of complexity and solving and calibrating the model at each stage. There is an opportunity,
towards the end of the exercise, for students to experiment with different methods of representing the geology
under Nottingham. Finally, the students are asked to write a report which will be marked as a piece of
coursework. The different aspects of the exercise are designed to incorporate Kolb’s four learning methods to
make the exercise accessible to all students.
The students studying for the MSc in the current year (2010/11) were asked to test the exercise. The students’
experience was generally positive – they had enjoyed the exercise and felt it had increased their understanding
of groundwater modelling. However they needed onsite supervision.
1 INTRODUCTION current and groundwater flow), and viscous fluid

Groundwater is a precious resource: one third of models (Fetter, 1988). Mathematical models use
public water supply in England and Wales comes equations to represent the processes occurring in a
from underground (Downing, 1998). This figure is field situation and include analytical, numerical and
much greater in countries with less reliable rainfall. stochastic models (Fetter, 1988).
Groundwater modelling is an important tool used by
hydrogeologists to aid prudent management of This project focuses on numerical modelling since
groundwater resources. this is the type most often used in industry. It allows
heterogeneous systems to be modelled without the
1.1 Groundwater Modelling crippling assumptions required by analytical models.
Fetter (1988) defines a model as ‘any representation Numerical models are based on a computer program
of a real system’. Bedient et al (1997) are more approximating the controlling partial differential
utilitarian, stating that ‘a ground water model is a equations as simultaneous equations expressed in
tool designed to represent a simplified version of a matrix form. The power of numerical modelling
real field site’. Anderson and Woessner (2002) reflects the efficiency of computers in solving large
agree, defining a model as ‘any device that numbers of simultaneous equations.
represents an approximation of a field situation’.
The overriding concept is that a model enables the 1.2 Teaching
user to use limited field data to find the An important concept in educational psychology is
(approximate) answers to questions posed. that students differ in their learning styles and will
learn most effectively when the teaching method is
Models can be used to aid understanding of a system tailored to their individual learning style (Cagiltay,
and to predict future behaviour (Anderson and 2008). A well-established model is Kolb’s
Woessner, 2002). experimental learning model, which divides the
learning experience into four sections. Students are
There are two main types of model: physical and categorised by which section they are most
mathematical. Physical models include scale models comfortable with. Engineers are commonly
made up of the same materials as modelled system “convergers” who are ‘strong in the practical
(for example sand tanks), electrical models (which application of ideas’ (Holvikivi, 2007), whilst
use the analogous equations governing electrical scientists tend to be “assimilators”. Assimilators
198
specialise in ‘understanding a wide range of model. The model is two-dimensional so only a plan
information and putting information into a concise view is required, shown in figure 2.1 below.
and logical form’ (Loo, 2004). However it is likely
that students with all the learning styles will be
present in a class due to the ‘increasing diversity of
the student population’ (Evans et al, 2010).
1.3 Teaching groundwater modelling

The author has been unable to find any published
exercises teaching groundwater modelling. As
discussed above, this is an important skill and it
seems likely that such exercises exist, but have not
been published. This may be to protect intellectual
property (in the author’s experience at two
universities, accessing online learning material
almost always requires a password) or it may be that
the authors of other exercises did not consider them
to be of interest or use to the academic or general
community.
The University of Sheffield offers an MSc in Figure 2.1: Model zones (Tait et al, 2008).
Contaminant Hydrogeology. As this is an advanced
vocational course, it is assumed that many of the The zones have different parameters in the model,
students attending this course hope to become based on data taken from Tait et al (2008). In Zone 1
professional hydrogeologists. During their careers the aquifer is confined. In Zone 2 the aquifer is also
they are likely to be exposed to groundwater models, confined so it has the same recharge rate as Zone 1,
and could be asked to create their own. It is therefore but a lower hydraulic conductivity as the aquifer is
desirable that during the MSc course elements of deeper and more dense. Zones 3 and 4 are
groundwater modelling are taught. Currently unconfined so they have a different hydraulic
groundwater modelling is only mentioned in passing conductivity and higher recharge rate than Zones 1
where it is relevant in other modules. This project and 2; Zone 4 has the highest recharge rate due to the
will develop a self-study exercise to provide an urban (shaded) area.
introduction to groundwater modelling and which
students can complete in their own time. The River Lean runs along the left-hand (Western)
boundary of the study area and the River Trent runs
2 METHODOLOGY approximately along the bottom (Southern) boundary
The exercise was developed in stages. Computer but is not hydraulically connected to the aquifer. All
software and a case study were chosen and the boundaries except the River Lean are no-flow
exercise was designed. The first draft of the exercise boundaries.
was tested on volunteer students. Students’ feedback
and the author’s observations from the test sessions 2.2 Software Selection
were used to improve the exercises. A published modelling program is required for the
students to use in the exercises. Interactive Ground
2.1 Case Study Selection Water (IGW) was chosen for its simplicity and ease
A case study is used to bring some realism into the of use.
exercise. A completely artificial data set is not very
interesting and is often unrealistic, particularly in MODFLOW is the most commonly used program in
terms of geometry. industry, but it is too complex for an introduction to
modelling (D.N. Lerner, 2011, personal
The Sherwood Sandstone beneath Nottingham was communication). IGW is much simpler, whilst
selected as the case study as it is a well-studied remaining sufficiently complex to make the exercises
aquifer and several published papers are available in worthwhile. The 2D version was selected for further
the literature on which to base the model (e.g. Tait et simplicity, but a 3D version is also available should
al, 2008; Yang et al, 1999). However, like any this be desired during further work.
aquifer system, there are some complexities which
would have distracted from the purpose of this IGW is user-friendly for the students attempting the
learning exercise so these were simplified. exercises. It is freely downloadable from the IGW
website (http://www.egr.msu.edu/igw/ - downloads).
A model was built of the aquifer. The models built It can be run on an ordinary student laptop with no
by the students during the exercise are based on this need for a high power computer.
199
2.3 Exercise Format The test students were daunted by the length of the
The exercise takes the format of a long case study tutorial (it is twenty chapters long), so, instead of
where the students build up a model of the asking the students to complete the whole tutorial,
Nottingham aquifer in stages. This allows them to the pertinent chapters are identified. The students
grapple with the concepts of the modelling processes need to complete seven chapters before starting the
whilst their model is still simple whilst maintaining exercise and are instructed to complete three more
the realism of a (slightly) complex scenario. chapters later as these become relevant.
Loo (2004) recommends that ‘educators use a 3.2 The Case Study
variety of learning methods’. The exercise is The students are presented with data from the case
designed to encompass all of Kolb’s proposed study (Nottingham). This includes a geological map
learning methods. Concrete evidence is provided as and cross-sections and “field heads” which represent
the students build models for themselves and observe the water levels from observation boreholes in the
the results; abstract conceptualisation occurs as study area, but in reality these have been extracted
part of the explanation of how models work; active from the case study model (described in section 2.1).
experimentation is pertinent in a section towards the Using synthetic data avoids the complications
end of the exercise in which the students are associated with real data such as fluctuations in the
encourage to experiment with different methods of water table or incorrect readings.
representing the geology in the model; and finally
the report provides an opportunity for reflective The students are given the task of assessing the
observation. This means that all students should find potential impact of contaminant spills on a new
a part of the exercise suited to them, whatever their industrial supply borehole.
learning style.
3.3 Exercises
2.4 Questionnaires The first step in a modelling project is to define the
A preliminary questionnaire was given to the MSc purpose of the model. The students are asked to
students to gather their thoughts on the project. Five explicitly state the purpose of their model (to make a
of the six students stated that they would probably prediction) and to list the questions they wish their
complete the exercise if they were given it, which is model to answer.
positive, although they may not have been honest.
Four felt that a long case study exercise was Uploading the basemap into the computer program
preferable to a series of short unlinked exercises and proved more problematic than expected since the
four thought that a coursework report was the best students needed to convert OS National Grid co-
option for assessing the exercise. These results were ordinates into a co-ordinate system for IGW, which
taken into account when designing the exercise. gives the options of metres, centimetres, feet or
inches. It was expected that if the students were not
A second questionnaire was used to collect feedback familiar with National Grid co-ordinates, they would
from the test students. The feedback questionnaire use the internet to find out how to convert these into
combined rating-based questions for quantitative metres. Instead, all the test students simply entered
information about the exercise (Sanders et al, 2009) the co-ordinates of the bottom left hand corner as
and free-form answer sections for students to record they were written in the handout. An understanding
their thoughts about the exercise, with particular of the National Grid co-ordinate system is very
emphasis on areas for improvement. The important as almost all data related to location will
quantitative results are discussed in section 4 of this be given in this format (in the UK). An extra
paper. paragraph was subsequently added to the exercise,
explaining how to adapt the co-ordinate system.
3 THE EXERCISE
3.1 Getting Started The students’ next task is to convert the real world
The exercise handout begins with uninspiring, but boundaries of the study area (a river, a flowline, a
necessary, instructions to download and install the groundwater divide and a non-transmissive
modelling software from the IGW website. The geological fault) into mathematical boundary
student is then instructed to complete the online conditions (Dirichlet, Neumann and Cauchy). The
tutorial provided on the IGW website. The tutorial test students found this section challenging but
uses an embedded example to teach the students how correctly identified the River Lean as a Cauchy
to enter data and use the functions within the (head-dependant flux) boundary and the rest as
program. It is important the students complete this Neumann (specified flux) boundaries.
tutorial before starting the exercise so that they can
concentrate on the learning objectives of the The students define their first model by defining a
exercise, instead of wondering which button to click. zone around the whole study area and entering
200
aquifer depths as directed. They are asked to solve The students’ model is now complete and they are
this model. The model does not yet contain any asked to undertake a water balance. The purpose of
information about heads so there is no unique this is to encourage the students to examine the
solution. Some modelling programs might give an model they have built in more detail.
error message in this situation but IGW gives a
meaningless solution. If the model is solved The task given to the students can now be addressed.
repeatedly a different solution is given every time The students are instructed to add the industrial
but in all cases the head contours are strangely pumping well to their model and complete another
angular. The students are asked to explain their water balance to observe the effect of the well.
unexpected results but the test students all thought Backwards particle tracking is used to find the
they had made a mistake rather than realising this capture area of the well over fifty years and one
was deliberate. It has now been made clearer in the hundred years, i.e. the area in which all particles will
handout that the explanation for this phenomenon is be caught be the well. This provides a measure of
found in section 7.4.3: Identifying the Model the risk of contamination. A simple analytical
Boundaries. Teaching by forcing an error is used in equation for the catchment area of the well is given
this case to enforce a point which otherwise can and the students are asked to compare the results of
seem very abstract: to solve a differential equation, the model and the analytical equation. Doing this
the program needs sufficient boundary conditions. provides a “reality check” for the model results.
This teaching method also helps students to spot
errors in their work, which is a useful skill in itself. A sensitivity analysis is carried out by the students
on the model results (i.e. the capture area of the
Adding the River Lean to the model gives a well).
reference head and allows a unique solution to be
found. The students are given little guidance about Uncertainty is an important issue in groundwater
what values to use for the three parameters IGW modelling since heads measured in boreholes are the
requires to model a river. They are asked to calibrate usual data used to calibrate a model, but heads are
their model using the “field heads” given in the case insensitive to the parameters used to define a model
study information. Asking the students to solve their (Evers & Lerner, 1998). This means that different
model whilst it is so simple serves two purposes: to calibrations are possible for one model, potentially
allow them to attempt to calibrate a model before leading to a wide variation in “answers” to the
they have a large number of parameters, and to questions posed. Evers & Lerner (1998) and
motivate them by showing they have created a model Brookes et al (1994) recommend searching for
which works. different calibrations of a model in order to provide a
range of answers. In order to give the students an
The next two stages of the exercise build on this by appreciation of this issue, each student will give the
asking students to refine their model by adding zones module leader the values of their model parameters
with different recharge rates, then zones of varying and the module leader will compile a spreadsheet
hydraulic conductivity. The students recalibrate the with all the values and send this back to the students.
model after each step. This helps them to appreciate The students have purposely been given little
the effects of the changes in the model. guidance about what values to use for their model
parameters so there should be a wide variation. The
The River Trent is the final addition to the model. students are asked to think about which results they
However this is another case of teaching by forcing would present to a client. This should emphasise the
an error since the River Trent is not hydraulically fact that each student only produced one of these sets
connected to the aquifer. The students will find their of results and therefore might not have the “best” set
data matches the “field heads” more accurately if to present. The students are expected to choose either
they do not include the River Trent. Clues to this a worst-case (i.e. the largest capture area) or an
can be found in the geological information given. envelope between the best- and worst-case.
This is intended to teach the students to continuously
question their conceptual model and adapt it if Finally the students are given the opportunity to
appropriate. experiment with further refining their models
without guidance. The geology has thus far been
The process of validation is really only applicable to represented as an unconfined aquifer of uniform
time-variant models in which one set of historical thickness. The students are encouraged investigate
data is used to calibrate the model and a second set to ways of creating a more realistic representation of
validate it. To simulate this, and introduce the field conditions.
students to the concept of validation, a new set of
“field heads” is provided. 3.4 Report
Asking the students to write a report provides an
opportunity for the students to reflect upon and
201
discuss their experience during the exercise. It also student A thought his understanding of groundwater
allows the module leader to ensure the learning modelling processes have been improved by a score
objectives are being attained. At its most cynical, the of four, his understanding of groundwater modelling
report (and associated marks) gives the students a uncertainty by a score of three and his overall
concrete reason to complete the exercise. Only two understanding of groundwater modelling by four.
volunteers out of seven MSc students participated Student B gave scores of four, four and five for the
fully in the testing of the exercise, so it appears that same questions. This is very promising, particularly
the learning opportunity (and a bar of chocolate) is as the students had not completed the exercise and so
insufficient motivation. cannot have had the full benefit from it. It should be
noted that neither student had reached section 7.4.16:
4 FEEDBACK Uncertainty so their scores for the improvement of
The two students who gave feedback seem to have their understanding of uncertainty are not related to
worked at roughly the same rate which suggests that this section.
neither of them got “stuck”. Student A completed up
to section 1.1.1: Recharge in four hours. Student B 5 IMPLEMENTATION
reached section 1.1.1: The River Lean in three hours. The exercise was intended to be an entirely self-
study project whereby students are given the handout
Both students felt the exercise was too long (giving a and complete the exercise in their own time, subject
score of two for length where one = too long and five to a deadline for the report. However since the entire
= too short). However they may have been expecting exercise has not yet been completed by a student, a
to complete the exercise in one day (since they were phased implementation is recommended.
only asked to attend one test session). When the
exercise is presented as a module, students will In the first year the exercise is used as part of the
expect it to take longer. MSc there should be scheduled sessions in a
university computer room at which the SMR (Staff
Student A felt the complexity of the exercise was Member Responsible) or a representative is present.
about right (giving a score of three where one = too These sessions will be similar to the test sessions run
complex and five = too simple). However student B by the author, except that the students will have a
gave a score of one, indicating she felt the exercise stake in the exercise and motivation for completing it
was too complicated. This is a little worrying since successfully. The presence of the SMR allows
the exercise cannot be simplified much more without students to ask questions. The SMR can record any
losing its teaching value. Some of the text in the areas of the exercise which commonly cause
handout was modified after the test session so it is problems and need refinement. A series of three or
hoped that this might help student B. four afternoon sessions is suggested as this should
give most students enough time to work through the
Both students would have liked more guidance to be handout. Any students who do not finish in the
provided in the handout. Student A gave a score of scheduled sessions will, of course, be able to
two and student B a score of one where one = not complete the exercise on their own. The students
enough guidance and five = too much. However they will subsequently write the report in their own time
both seemed to be capable of progressing through the as usual for coursework. There should be a
exercise. Some extra information has been added to coursework tutorial (as for other modules) during
the guidance as a result of questions asked but which students raise questions about any remaining
increasing the amount of guidance substantially issues with the exercise or about the report.
would result in the students simply putting numbers
into the computer program without understanding The second year should be the same as the first,
why. except that only one scheduled session occurs. This
will give students a chance to get started under
Both students felt they would have been worried supervision, but complete the exercise on their own.
about the report if they had been asked to write it. Most problems are likely to occur towards the
Again student A gave a score of two and student B a beginning, when the students are less familiar with
score of one where one = very worried about the the exercise format.
report and five = very confident. However student B
did note that she thought that writing the report In following years (or later is the SMR thinks it
would be straightforward if ‘we have done very well advisable) the students will be given the handouts
in previous questions’. and complete the exercise on their own as intended,
however one or more coursework tutorials should
More positive results were gained when the students still be held so students have a chance to ask
were asked how they thought the exercise had questions. Based on experiences during the test
improved their understanding of groundwater sessions, this may prove problematic and it could be
modelling. Where one = not at all and five = a lot
202
best to keep the one scheduled session to get the Downing, R.A. 1998. On behalf of UK Groundwater
students started. Forum. “Groundwater – Our Hidden Asset”.
Nottingham: British Geological Survey.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Groundwater modelling is an important skill in the Evans, C., Cools, E. & Charlesworth, Z.M. 2010.
hydrogeologist’s toolbox, but it is vital to recognise “Learning in Higher Education – How Cognitive and
the limitations of models. The aim of this project was Learning Styles Matter”. Teaching in Higher
to design a self-study exercise to teach groundwater Education, vol. 15, no. 4, p467-478.
modelling to students studying for Sheffield
University’s MSc in Contaminant Hydrogeology. Evers, S & Lerner, D.N. 1998. “How Uncertain is
Our Estimate of a Wellhead Protection Zone?”
An exercise was created using the Interactive Ground Ground Water, vol.36, no.1, p49-57.
Water (IGW) software and using the Nottingham
area as a case study. This was tested on volunteers Fetter, C.W. 1988. “Applied Hydrogeology”. 2nd
from the current cohort of MSc students. edition. New York: Macmillan, Inc.
Creating the exercise was feasible but not Holvikivi, J. 2007. “Learning styles in Engineering
straightforward. Each of Kolb’s learning methods Education: the Quest to Improve Didactic Practices”.
was incorporated into the exercise to make it European Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 32,
accessible to all students. A staged approach adopted no. 4, p401-408.
to allow students to solve the model at each stage,
providing feedback and the opportunity to observe Loo, R. 2004. “Kolb’s Learning Styles and Learning
the effects of editing the model. Preferences: Is There a Linkage?” Educational
Psychology, vol. 24, no. 1, p99-108.
Students who tested the exercise found it useful and
enjoyable, however they required onsite help. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. 2009.
Further testing of the exercise is required to identify “Research methods for business students”. 5th
and rectify any remaining problems. It is envisaged edition. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
that an initial supervised session will be required to
launch the exercise for students. Tait, N.G., Davison, R.M., Leharne, S.A. & Lerner,
D.N. 2008. “Borehole Optimisation System (BOS) –
Motivation of students remains an issue. Few A case study assessing options for abstraction of
students volunteered to attempt the exercise for the urban groundwater in Nottingham, UK”.
reward of learning. Only two students gave feedback. Environmental Modelling & Software, vol. 23, p611-
If the exercise is used as a part of the MSc course, 621.
the marks available to students for writing a report
will provide motivation. This report should be Yang, Y., Lerner, D.N., Barrett, M.H. & Tellam, J.H.
equivalent to an ordinary piece of coursework. 1999. “Quantification of groundwater recharge in
the city of Nottingham, UK”. Environmental
REFERENCES Geology, vol. 38, issue 3, p183-198.
Anderson, M.P. & Woessner, W.W. 2002. “Applied
Groundwater Modelling: Simulation of Flow and
Advective Transport”. California: Academic Press.
Bedient, P.B., Rifai, H.S. & Newell, C.J. 1997.

“Ground Water Contamination: Transport and
Remediation”. 2nd edition. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall PTR.
Brookes, R.J., Lerner, D.N. & Tobias, A.M. 1994.

“Determining the Range of Predictions of a
Groundwater Model Which Arises from Alternative
Calibrations”. Water Resources Research, vol. 30,
no. 11, p2993-3000.
Cagiltay, N.E. 2008. “Using Learning Styles in

Engineering Education”. European Journal of
Engineering Education, vol. 33, no. 4, p415-424.
203
Electricity generation from biochemical energy transformation of

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) utilising PAHs as carbon sources.
Wen Sung Huang

ABSTRACT The contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has posed a threat
nowadays due to their carcinogenic effects upon ecological systems and humans. In this research,
naphthalene and pyrene were introduced into microbial fuel cell (MFC) system to transform their
biochemical energy into electricity. By employing biosludge from Corus coke plant as the original
bacteria, the results demonstrate that significant electrical current and voltage occurred with
naphthalene as the sole carbon source, but not with pyrene. Biofilm on the electrode was observed after
start-up period, and it increased electron transfer efficiency. With two degenerate primers for
naphthalene degradation genes, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to identify specific
naphthalene degradation genes enriched in MFC system. Two types of naphthalene degradation
systems, including Pseudomonas sp. and Comamonas sp. degrader, are characterised. The bacteria
encoding nahAc gene from Pseudomonas sp. 9816-4 are found in pure culture and MFC biosludge,
while some unculturable microorganisms with Pseudomonas sp. AN10 gene is dominant on biofilms
and plays an important role in electricity generation. Besides, the naphthalene degradation gene found
in Comamonas sp. shares high similarity with nagAc (99%), which performs as hybridization of
Ralstonia sp. U2 and Polaromonas sp. CJ2, indicating horizontal gene transfer (HGT) might occur and
be enhanced in MFC system.
electrons. The electrons then travel through

1 INTRODUCTION
metallic wire to the cathode. The electron
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are acceptors, usually oxygen in the cathode
persistent, high molecular organic compounds chamber, receive the electrons, and the reductive
that consist of fused benzene rings with different reaction takes place with protons coming from
compositions in the environment. PAHs are both proton exchange membrane (PEM) between two
harmful to human health and environment. The chambers. The overall reaction is therefore
exposure of residual concentration through food completed and electric current is generated
ingestion, water, and inhalation of particulates (Logan et al., 2006), as shown in Figure 1.1.
might lead to carcinogenic effects on human
body (Shields et al., 1993). Naphthalene is a
low-molecular-weight aromatic hydrocarbon
fused with two benzene rings, whereas pyrene is
composed of three benzene rings. The
biodegradation of naphthalene and pyrene are
well-documented, and the aerobic process is the
most common pathway for PAHs degradation. In
general, naphthalene is degraded to either
catechol or gentisate, then transforming into
CO2. Pyrene is normally mineralized to cinnamic
acid and catechol. However, some different Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of MFC device.
metabolites were also found due to different
position for addition of hydroxyl group.(Habe Many researches have carried out with different
and Omori, 2003) carbon sources such as glucose, sucrose, or fatty
acids in MFC, but no study has ever utilised
The fundamental theory of microbial fuel cell PAHs as carbon source for MFC system. The
(MFC) is that the carbon source is oxidised and recent phenol application indicated that
degraded by the microorganisms in the anode chemicals with benzene ring can be used for
chamber, extracting carbon dioxide and
204
electricity generation (Luo et al., 2009). In the lyse cell for 30 seconds at speed 5.5. Cool tubes
meanwhile, some bacteria, such as Pseudomonas on ice and centrifuge at 14,000 rpm for 5 min
sp., have both capability of PAHs degradation (chilled). Extract water phase and add an equal
and producing electricity. (Habe and Omori, volume of chloroform:isoamyl alcohol, mix
2003) (Pham et al., 2008) Therefore, in this well. Centrifuge for 5 min at 14,000 rpm. Extract
research we will test the ability of MFC to top layer and precipitate DNA by adding 0.6
degrade PAHs for future application of volume of isopropanol and 3 µl 5mg/ml
groundwater remediation. glycogen, then mix well. Stand tubes on the
bench for 1-2 hours at room temperature.
Centrifuge at 14,000 rpm for 10 min and pour
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS off supernatant and wash pellet with 200 µl 70%
ethanol. Centrifuge at 14,000 rpm for 10 min,
2.1 MFC construction and PAHs degradation pour off ethanol and leave pellet dry in the
The two-chamber MFC devices are set up with vacuum machine or air. Resuspend pellet in 50
carbon cloth electrodes, Nifion proton exchange µl TE Buffer or water. The detailed information
membrane (PEM) which is properly placed regarding 10 samples from DNA extraction from
between two chambers. Minimal medium (MM) inoculated samples and colonies from petri
solution is used as anode solution, prepared by plates are arranged in Table 2.1.
adding 2.5 g Na2HPO4, 2.5 g KH2PO4, 1.0 g
NH4Cl, 0.1 g MgSO4• 7H2O, 10 µL saturated
CaCl2 solution, 10 µL saturated FeSO4 solution Table 2.1 Sample details for DNA extraction.
and 1 µL Bauchop & Elsden solution into
deionized water and adjusted to 1 L, 10 g Samples Category description
disodium hydrogen phosphate is mixed with 800 D1 From liquid MM
ml water for phosphate buffer, performing as
cathode solution. After 3000 rpm centrifuge for D4 MFC saved in the fridge
10 minutes, 25 mL biosludge from Corus coke D7 biofilm Colony from D1
plant was placed into anode chamber to remove
all soluble carbon source, with another 25 mL D9 Colony from D4
deionized water and 150 ml MM, while 200 mL
D2 From liquid MM
phosphate buffer was in cathode chamber The
open circuit voltage (OCV) was measured twice D5 MFC Saved in the fridge
a day, and the closed-circuit voltage (CCV) was sludge
measured when the system is stabilised. D8 Colony from D2
2.2 Biofilm formation and electron transfer D10 Colony from D5
After 40 days experiment, the biofilm was D3 Original From liquid MM

washed gently with deionized water. The biofilm D6 biosludge Saved in the fridge
electrode is therefore applied to the new MFC
system with same protocol to investigate the
effect of biofilm formation on electron transfer 2.4 PCR and DNA sequencing
efficiency.
After the DNA extraction, 50 µl solution are
2.3 bacteria inoculation and DNA extraction prepared for PCR replication of 16s DNA, com1
All the bacteria from MFC biofilm, MFC sludge gene, and pse1 gene. 50 µl solution for 16s DNA
and original biosludge samples were incubated is prepared by adding 29 µl dH2O, 5 µl Taq
in MM liquid solution with 0.2 g naphthalene as reaction buffer × 10, 2 µl dNTPs, 5 mM, 5 µl
sole carbon sources for a week. Thereafter, all GC338F, 5 µM, 5 µl 530R, 5 µM, 0.5 µl BSA, 3
the direct and incubated samples were inoculated µl DNA extract, 0.5 µl Taq polymerase. 50 µl
into minimal medium agar. solution for com1 gene is prepared by mixing
39.5 µl dH2O, 5 µl Taq reaction buffer × 10, 2 µl
After the colonies grow on the petri plates, the dNTPs, 5 mM, 5 µl COM1_f, 5 µM , 5
DNA of incubated samples, saved samples and COM1_r, 5 µM, 0.5 µl BSA, 3 µl DNA extract,
inoculated colonies from petri plates are 0.5 µl Taq polymerase., and the one for pse1
extracted for further analysis. The DNA gene follows the same protocol as com1 gene,
extraction protocol is illustrated below. only use 5 µl PSE1_f, 5 µM, 5 PSE1_r instead
Pass 50 ml biosludge or samples through 0.22 of COM1_f and COM1_r.
µm filter and put filter into into BIO-101 tube
(Q-biogene). Add 1 ml DNA extraction buffer
and incubate tubes in 65 oC water bath for 30
min. Place tubes in Fast-prep beadbeater and
205
2.5 Agarose gel electrophoresis phase sometimes can be reduced through series
of means such as phosphate buffer concentration,
Agarose gel electrophoresis is used to examine if
the addition of extra substrates in the system,
the DNA extraction and PCR is successful by
control of anode potential, and the augmentation
boiling 50 ml TAE buffer and 0.5 g agarose agar
of different additives (Liu et al., 2011). Even
in the microwave, cooling it until 40 oc. 5 µl
though the potential was mostly arbitrary due to
Ethidium bromide is then added to the gel
the inconsistent electron discharge from
solution. Pour the gel onto electrophoresis box
biological activities throughout the time, overall
and put the well comb on the gel in order to
the system was able to provide the
make wells for injection of PCR products. Then
electrochemical potential about 200-300mv in
wait for 30 minutes. After 30 minutes, add a
the final stage, with the maximum 388mv was
mixture of loading buffer, PCR products into the
achieved on day 34.
wells respectively. Then turn on the
electrophoresis system and switch the voltage to 3.2 Enhancement of electron transfer through
90 mv, and wait for another 30 minutes for the biofilm
solution to travel through the gel. When the
work is done, put the gel into the dark chamber
and run the programme, check the DNA ladder
and compare with the control ladder.
3 RESULTS
3.1 PAHs biodegradation in MFC
The result shows that the voltage of pyrene was
constantly negative. The reason is unknown,
possibly due to the contribution of negative
charge from cell surfaces (Torimura et al.,
1999). Therefore one can argue the absence of Figure 3.2 The curve of voltage against time for
degradation due to insufficient generation of naphthalene degradation in MFC for batch three
electrical potential from pyrene system. On the
As demonstrated in Figure 3.2, the lag phase of
contrary, the data of naphthalene systems
biofilm system (No. 10) was greatly reduced. It
showed different results, as shown in Figure 3.1.
can also be inferred that the biofilm helps the
MFC efficiently for electron transfer (Reguera et
al., 2006). As the biofilm system quickly passed
the startup time and produced the electricity, it
offered the voltage in average 150- 200 mv, with
maximum potential at 329 mv on day 24.
Furthermore, compared to the biosludge system
(No. 1), the one with biofilm (No. 10) possessed
less electrochemical potential possibly due to the
lack of some suspended exoelectrogenic strains
or the absence of some bacteria producing
soluble mediator to assist electron transfer
mechanism (Zhang et al., 2011; Freguia et al.,
2009)). For instance, Marsili et al. discovered
that a mixture of flavins extracted from biofilm
of Shewanella sp. is capable of mediating the
electron transfer to anode for more power output
Figure 3.1 The curve of voltage measurement
(Marsili et al., 2008). Finally, in the absence of
for naphthalene in MFC (batch one)
other carbon source in biofilm MFC system, the
From the Figure 3.1, one can claim the hypothesis of naphthalene biodegradation
occurrence of naphthalene degradation in MFC through MFC could be certified. At the last
system (No.1) is highly possible. The small stage, 10 ml LB broth was added into the anode
voltage output in the early stage could be chamber and recorded the voltage change. The
attributed to both the adaptation of potential rose in biosludge and control system
microorganisms within biosludge in MFC greatly the next day after the LB broth addition,
system, and the large amount of internal losses while no substantial change in voltage was
from the PEM (Clauwaert et al., 2008). It took measured in biofilm system.
about 23-25 days for the system to pass the “lag
phase” and reach the maximum output. The lag
206
4 DISCUSSION bacteria take up the carbon source might affect
the gene expression, with the Com1 degrading
4.1 16s DNA and naphthalene-degrading gene
gene expression is inhibited by the absence of
analysis
MFC system serving as naphthalene-fed
The 16s DNA and total DNA of microorganisms chamber, whereas for Pse1 gene the normal
in each sample was extracted, though the DNA naphthalene-fed condition does not show any
contents are impure. This possible content could significant change in gene expression. Finally,
be proteins that were not fully separated from horizontal gene transfer can be a possibility if
the DNA supernatant when conducting the DNA only a single colony is found from sample D9
extraction. and D10. overall, it can be concluded from the
result of Figure 4.1 that the naphthalene-fed
As delineated in Figure 4.1, it can be inferred
condition in MFC system is more suitable for
that Comamonas sp. is responsible for Comamonas type degraders, whereas under
naphthalene degradation in original biosludge normal incubation condition Pseudomonas type
sample, as a DNA band can be seen in com1
degraders will control naphthalene degradation.
type ladder. Moreover, the different intensity of
signals in DNA bands between D3 and D6 4.2 Homologous study from DNA sequencing
indicates that naphthalene degraders are
The result of sequencing is presented in
reinforced by the presence of naphthalene. It was
Pseudomonas type and Comamonas type
propsosed that the degradative ability of bacteria
sequences correlation. Different nitrogen bases
can be attributed to either functionality of
are marked to compare for possibility of point
enzymes or the capacity of microorganisms to
mutation or gene hybridisation.
utilise a specific substrate (Vandermeer et al.,
1992). Phenol is a typical example to regulate
the degrading-gene expression. It was further
proved that catachol 2,3-dioxygenase (C230),
the ubiquitous degrader which can be found
mainly in PAHs-degader Pseudomonas and
Sphigomonas strains, is the enzyme that is
subjected to induction of phenol (Arai et al.,
1998; Meyer et al., 1999). Comparing the
distinctive band in D1, D2, D4, D5 to D3 and D6
in Com1 gene expression one can argue that the
MFC system or naphthalene-fed condition
induces the biodegradation.
Figure 4.2 Fragment of multi-alignment of

nahAc from nah operon in MFC system and
original biosludge with Pseudomonas sp. AN10
and Pseudomonas sp. 9816-4. represented
bases of gene from Pseudomonas sp. AN10 with
no homology with Pseudomonas sp. 9816-4.
represented point mutation bases between gene
from samples and Pseudomonas sp. AN10.
represented point mutation bases between gene
from samples and Pseudomonas sp. 9816-4.
As presented in alignment of Pseudomonas sp.

type degrading genes in Figure 4.2 below,
Pseudomonas sp. AN10 and Pseudomonas sp.
9816-4 can be found, and they match the
sequence in the Pseudomonas system, with 99%
Figure 4.1 The agarose gel electrophoresis from similarity respectively. two types of
PCR result using two different primers of microorganisms are present in Pseudomonas sp.
naphthalene-degrading gene. system. It is notable that A type bacteria is
Furthermore, inoculation of MFC bacteria after homologous to Pseudomonas sp. AN10, while B
culturing in the saturated naphthalene minimal type microorganism basically shares the same
medium (MM) solution (D7 and D8) didn’t sequence as Pseudomonas sp. 9816-4, with only
provide a strong band in result of Com1 gene one point mutation among 818 nitrogen bases.
PCR replication, suggesting that the way Also, the result from nitrogen base sequences of
207
D4 and D5 implies that the MFC system investigate the naphthalene degradation
harvests A type microorganism. The whole mechanism within MFC systems.
sequence matches with nahAc sequence, which
can be found in Pseudomonas sp. AN10 and
Pseudomonas sp. 9816-4, with only certain types 5 CONCLUSIONS
of reading frames are missing in Pseudomonas
In our experiment, no significant voltage was
sp. AN10 degrader (Goyal and Zylstra, 1997).
Overall from the result of Pseudomonas obtained in pyrene, while in the naphthalene
sequence one can deduce that the microbial system electrical voltage rose rapidly in 2 days,
suggesting that electricity transfer happens in
evolution mainly comes from the indegenous
MFC system. Besides, the growth of biofilm
groups existing in the original biosludge, and
could be seen when the start-up time was passed,
mutiplies due to the naphthalene-fed condition.
and the voltage rose significantly.
Two naphthalene degradation gene were
identified. nahAc type naphthalene degradation
genes that consists of uncultrable Pseudomonas
sp. AN10, which were predominantly found in
MFC biofilm electrode, and culturable
Pseudomonas sp. 9816-4 enriched in MFC
solution. The results suggested that the main
contributor for the significant voltage rise comes
from these unculturable Pseudomonas sp. AN10.
Additionally, the gene of Comamonas sp. is
encoded with sequence derived from Ralstonia
Figure 4.3 Fragment of multi-alignment of
sp.U2 and Polaromonas sp. CJ2. The fact that
nagAc from nag operon in MFC system and
possible gene hybridizations and multiple point
original biosludge with P. CJ2 and R. U2.
mutations on certain spots indicates the
represented homologous bases between gene
evolution of Comamonas type degrader from
from samples and R. U2, but different with that
Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), which migh be
from P. CJ2. represented homologous bases
enhanced in MFC system.
between gene from samples and P. CJ2, but
different with that from R. U2. represented
bases of gene from samples with no homology
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
with either P. CJ2 or R. U2.
I would like to show my deepest gratitude to Dr.
Wei Huang for his academic support throughout
Compared with the Pseudomonas type system, the whole MSc project. Also, I would like to
the sequence of Comamonas sp. system derives thank the post-doc researcher, Dayi Zhang, for
either from Palaromonas naphthalenivorans CJ2 his help to develop my research skills.
or Ralstonia sp. U2, with about 90% and 93%
similarity in homology. The nagAc can be
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209
Computational Analysis of Slabs Using Discontinuity Layout

Optimisation
Laura Hulme
Candidate MScEarthquake and Civil Engineering Dynamics
ABSTRACT The aim of this project has been to develop a reliable lower bound solution for the
Discontinuity Layout Optimisation (DLO) concrete slab analysis method. DLO is a technique which
has been developed at the University of Sheffield, and is capable of determining critical yield line in
the plastic analysis of plates or slabs. As yield line analysis provides results which are an upper bound
on the true solution, there is a risk that unsafe capacity values may be calculated. This project has
explored the potential of four separate hypotheses to address the problem of reliably estimating the
degree of over capacity reporting. Unfortunately it has not been possible to devise a rigorous proof of a
lower bound solution, but one of the hypotheses has shown good potential for providing a probabilistic
estimation of error bounds, and various avenues for further study have been identified.
1 INTRODUCTION
Yield line analysis a well established technique Johansen’s work which brought the theory to
for determining the ultimate load capacity of prominence, and prompted extensive research
plates. One of the key challenges of the method, through the 60s, 70s, and 80s. Despite the
however, is the selection of the correct critical efficiency benefits of plastic yield line analysis,
failure mechanism. When undertaken by hand, it is not as widely used as alternative elastic
this stage of the process relies on engineering methods. Relatively recently, a Concrete Centre
judgement and past experience, to choose the report (Kennedy & Goodchild 2004) has been
appropriate, critical, pattern of yield lines. In published to try an address this imbalance
order to improve robustness and efficiency of the
2.2 Automation of Yield Line Theory
method, many attempts have been made in the
past to automate the process of yield line The seminal 1978 paper by Munroe & Fonseca,
analysis, but reliable determination of critical sets out the principles of formulating the yield
yield patterns using computational methods has line problem using linear programming, and
proved difficult. Recent progress has been applies the technique using a triangular grid of
made, however, at the University of Sheffield, by elements as a starting point for optimisation.
applying the technique of ‘Discontinuity Layout This technique suffers from the constraint that it
Optimisation’ to yield line pattern determination can only formulate patterns which rigidly follow
(Gilbert et al unpublished). The aim of this the element boundaries. Later attempt at solving
paper will be to explore the potential for the problem have been susceptible to
improving the robustness of this application, by convergence at local optima. (Johnson 1996)
developing a reliable method for estimating the (Thavalingam et. al. 1999).
bounds of errors occurring in the yield line
2.3 Discontinuity Layout Optimisation
patterns, and in the subsequent load capacity
results.This study will conduct 4 investigations The Discontinuity Layout Optimisation (DLO)
into separate potential methods for error technique has been developed at the University
estimation. of Sheffield. It was first applied to plane
plasticity conditions, and used to determine the
2 PAST RESEARCH AND
critical arrangement of shear discontinuities in
BACKGROUND THEORY
geotechnical problems (Smith & Gilbert, 2007)
2.1 Yield Line Theory The technique makes use of a ‘fully connected
ground structure’, composed of all available
The Danish engineer Johansen is considered to
links between a predefined grid of nodes, as a
be the pioneer of yield line theory (Johansen
basis for conducting optimisation through linear
1962). Although a plastic approach had been
programming.
proposed earlier (Ingerslev, 1923) it was
210
Figure 3.1 The Effect of Node Density on Accuracy
It has been found that the method can also be

applied to yield line theories, and appears to
This formulation has been applied in a Matlab
provide greater flexibility and accuracy of
script written by Dr Canh Le, which will form
solutions than previous attempts at automation.
the basis of the investigations in this study.
For the Yield line application, the discontinuities
are the lines of plastic rotations forming the yield
mechanism. An unpublished document ‘‘Yield- 3 THE NEED FOR RELIABLE ERROR
line analysis of slabs using discontinuity layout ESTIMATION
optimization’ (Gilbert et al. unpublished) sets out
3.1 Scepticism about Upper Bound
the formulation for the yield line application, as
Theorems
follows.
It has been noted (Kennedy & Goodchild) that
Minimise fLTd = -fDTd + gTp (2.1)
the yield line method suffers from scepticism
subject to Bd = 0 (2.2) among the engineering profession, due to the fact
that it is an upper bound theorem, and hence is
Np – d = 0 (2.3) perceived as unsafe. For yield line software to
fLTd =1 (2.4) be commercially successful therefore, it is
important that it is able to address these concerns
p≥0 (2.5) and return reliably safe results.
Where 3.2 Inherent Errors in Discrete Methods
= the load factor For a discrete optimisation method to be
g = work equation coefficients successful, the density of the nodal grid needs to
be sufficient to fully represent the optimal yield
p = plastic multipliers line pattern. As yield line analysis is an upper
d = displacements along discontinuities bound method, any divergence from the true
optima would result in an unsafe overestimation
B = the compatibility matrix of load capacity. The principle is demonstrated
fL = a vector of live load effects in figure 3.1. The aim of this study will be to
quantify the dimensions labelled ‘Over
fD = a vector of dead load effects estimation of Capacity’.
211
4 INVESTIGATION 1: design case, which has a target ‘actual’ load
capacity factor of 42.85.
In this investigation the possibility of using the
angular spacing between the available yield line
positions to establish a likely degree of error, is
explored. The principle is illustrated in figure
4.1. For each yield line that the optimisation has
chosen, it could be assumed that the chosen
position must give a more optimal solution than
the nearest available alternative line on the
ground structure. This implies that the range of
the possible angular error from the true optimal
is equal to half the distance between the chosen
line and the rejected line.
Once the maximum possible angular error has
been established, this could be converted into a
moment correction factor using a Mohr circle
plot, as shown in figure 4.2. The inverse of the
moment correction factor could alternatively be
applied to the calculated load capacity, to obtain
a more conservative load capacity, which it is
hoped would be beneath the target ‘actual
solution.
Figure 4.2 Converting the error angle into a
Correction Factor
This target is shown by the straight horizontal

line in the centre of the plot. The solid line at
the top of the plot is the raw load factor before
error correction is applied, and the other three
lines, M1a, M1b and M1c are the results from
three different options of applying the alternative
angle correction technique. The best
performance is shown for method M1b, which
uses the maximum angle error occuring at each
yield line element to apply an individual
correction factor to each element. The error
estimation technique achieves accuracy within
3% for a 10x10 node density.
Figure 4.1 The Alternative Angles Method
4.1 Implementation of the Alternative

Angles method
This method was applied by adding a function
‘angleErrors’ to the Matlab DLO code, which
added error correction to the load factors.
The Matlab programme was then run using 7
benchmark design cases at a range of nodal
densities.
4.2 Results from the Alternative Angles
Method
Figure 4.3 shows a typical output plot from the
matlab analysis, showing how error estimation
performance varies with node grid density. This
plot corresponds to the square fixed edge slab Figure 4.3 Case 1 using Alternative Angles
212
Similar performance was seen for the remaining
6 benchmark design cases. Only one yield
violation can seen to occur for method M1b in
figure 4.3 at node grid of 11x11. The other 6
design cases did not have any violations using
method M1b.
5 INVESTIGATION 2: ERROR
ESTIMATION BY DEGREE OF
PERPENDICULARITY
One of the established principles of yield line
patterns is that where positive and negative yield
lines intersect they must be perpendicular to one
another as the yield lines must occur at the
perpendicular principal values (Qunitas 2003). A
yield line pattern formed upon a discrete grid of
nodes is likely to result in yield line intersects
5.2Figure 5.2 of
Results Definition of Perpendicularity
the Perpendicularity Method
which are not precisely perpendicular. This can
Errors
be seen in the Matlab output in figure 5.1.
(Dashed yield lines are positive, solid are
Performance of the perpendicularity method was
negative). The degree of variance from the
generally not as reliable as the alternative angle
perpendicular can be used to generate correction
method from investigation 1.
factors, using the principle of Mohr’s circle in a
similar manner to investigation 1. Most of the 7 design cases did converge towards
the target load factor with increasing node
density, but the accuracy was not as good as
investigation 1, leading to overly conservative
results in many cases. Figure 5.3 shows the
convergence results for Case 1, the equivalent of
Figure 4.3
Figure 5.1 Output from Matlab DLO

showing non perpendicularity
Figure 5.3 Case 1 using Degree of

5.1 Implementation of the Perpendicularity Perpendicularity
Method
Again, this method was implemented by adding a
subfunction to the Matlab DLO formulation, this On the other hand, certain design cases were
time titled ‘perpAngleErrors’. The subfunction found to give unconservative, or unsafe, results.
calculates the residual errors from the Cases having only simple supports do not have
perpendicular between all of the positive and any positive yield lines, meaning that no
negative yield lines (labelled 1 and 2 in figure correction is applied by the perpendicularity
5.2) and converts these into correction factors method, and the unsafe upper bound results
using the Mohr’s circle principles. remain unchanged.
213
6 INVESTIGATION 3: ERROR
ESTIMATION BY TORSION FORCES AT
YIELD LINES
In principle, a correct yield line pattern should
be formed by lines which transfer direct
moments only, and do not transfer any twisting
torsional forces. If a yield line is transferring a
torsional force as well as direct moment, this
implies that there is a higher principal moment
occurring at the same point but in a different
orientation. The aim of this investigation was to
explore the occurrence of torsional forces within
incorrect yield line patterns, and see whether the
values of these forces could be used to predict
the degree of capacity overestimation.
6.1 Implementation
Figure 6.1 Partially transformed element
It can be shown that the linear programming torsion data
kinematic formulation, previously described in
section 2.3, is accompanied by a dual
equilibrium formulation, which can be used to 7.1 Implementation of Investigation 4
determine internal forces.
Nodal forces were extracted using the dual
formulation as described in section 6.1.
Transformations were then applied to obtain the
nodal values of Myy and Mxx across the
Subject to problem. A plot of moment values is shown in
figure 7.1. The derivatives of these direct
moment values can potentially be used to
Where, determine the torsion values Mxy and Myx. This
information would enable principal moments to
BiT = the transpose of the compatibility matrix be determined, and the overall moment field
ti = equivalent nodal forces. = the load factor could then be compared against yield conditions
to determine whether load capacity correction is
qi = the yield line forces required. Unfortunately it has not been possible
fLi = the external live load effects as applied to within the time constraints of this study to
discontinuity i explore this hypothesis more fully.
The Matlab code was adapted to provide dual

output, and the resulting element moments and
torsions were plotted. Unfortunately it has
proved difficult to transform the raw torsion
output into ‘real’ torsion values, and it has not
been possible to complete this exercise within
this study. Figure 6.1 shows some of the
partially transformed data.
7 INVESTIGATION 4: ASSESSMENT OF
NODAL MOMENT FIELDS
In this investigation, the possibility of using
nodal force outputs to assess the overall field of
principal moments across the problem was
explored, with the aim developing a rigorous
method of scaling the moment field within yield
conditions, to generate a proven lower bound Figure 7.1 Myy plot of nodal forces for a
solution. fixed edge slab
214
8 CONCLUSIONS
The most successful study was investigation 1, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
corresponding to the alternative angles method.
I would like to thank my supervisor Matthew
This method showed good convergence towards
Gilbert his guidance and support. This work has
target benchmark results, and reasonable
been reliant in large part upon unpublished draft
efficiency even at low node densities. Using
documents produced in the Computational
method M1b, the majority of error corrected
Mechanics and Design research group at the
results were below the target benchmark, thereby
University of Sheffield, written by Matthew
giving safe results, but there was one violation
Gilbert, Colin Smith, Canh Le, Hushad Ahmed
occurring in the fixed edge square slab design
and Marcus Shepherd. The practical
case, and this method could not be relied upon to
investigations have made extensive use of a
give safe results in all situations. Investigation 2,
Matlab script written by Canh Le. Help has also
using perpendicularity of yield lines gave
been given by PhD student Samuel Hawksbee in
unreliable results and does not appear to be a
implementing the Mosek optimisation tool
candidate for further development. The
within Matlab.
implementations of investigations 3 and 4 have
not been completed, but some progress has been
made with each of them, and it is possible that
REFERENCES
with further work these options could yield more
sophisticated results than the alternative angles Gilbert, M., Smith, C., Le, C. & Ahmed, H. Not
method. The comprehensive coverage offered yet published. Yield-line analysis of slabs using
by the hypothesis of investigation 4 also has the discontinuity layout optimization.
potential for delivering a rigorous lower bound
Ingerslev, A. 1923. The Strength of Rectangular
proof, but this has not been achieved within this
Slabs. Institution of Structural Engineers. 1(1),
study,
pp.3-14.
Johansen, K. W. 1962. Yield-Line Theory.
9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE Cement and Concrete Association.
WORK
Johnson, D. 1995. Yield Line Analysis by
The following two avenues of further study Sequential Linear Programming. International
appear to offer the greatest potential for Journal Solids Structures. 32(10), pp.1395-
successfully delivering the original aims and 1404.
objectives of the investigations.
Kennedy, G. & Goodchild, C. H. 2004. Practical
9.1 Extension of the angle error method Yield Line Design. The Concrete Centre.
(Investigation 1).
Munro, J. & Da Fonseca, A. M. A. 1978. Yield
Further testing could be carried out using more line method by finite elements and linear
sophisticated and irregular design cases. programming. The Structural Engineer. 56B(2),
LimitState SLAB software could be used to pp.37-44.
investigate the performance of angle error
estimation at varying nodal densities, with the Qunitas, Valentin. 2003. Two Main Methods for
aim of establishing the statistical level of Yield Line Analysis of Slabs. Journal of
reliability of the method. One problem with this Engineering Mechanics., pp.223-231.
investigation, however, could be the circularity Smith, C & Gilbert, M. 2007. Application of
of the results. LimitState SLAB software would discontinuity layout optimization to plane
be being used to determine its own reliability. plasticity problems. In: Proceedings of the Royal
While this study may achieve some improvement Society., pp.2461-2484.
of confidence in results, it would not be possible
to establish a rigorous proof through this route. Thavalingam, A., Jennings, A., Sloan, D. &
Mckeown, J. J. 1999. Computer-assisted
9.2 Extension of the assessment of moment generation of yield-line patterns for uniformly
fields method (Investigation 4). loaded isotropic slabs using an optimisation
Further interrogation of nodal moment and strategy. Engineering Structures. 21, pp.488-
torsion forces, and generation of fields for a 496.
range of design cases, may yield useful results.
Some initial progress has been made in this area,
as described in section 7. This method would
have the potential of delivering a rigorous lower
bound proof.
215
Flexural Strengthening of Concrete Vehicular Barrier Using FRPs

Mohammadali Javaheriafif
Candidate MSc(Eng) Structural & Concrete
ABSTRACT Concrete is known for being weak and brittle in tension. Within the last decade the use
of composite materials with high tensile strength and high modulus of elasticity has become popular for
strengthening application of RC structures. Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) are one of the composites
that have been proved to be an acceptable material to strengthen the concrete structure and help the
concrete to last longer without making significant changes in the physical appearance of the structure
or cause high levels of work disruption. Concrete vehicular barriers are a type of structure which may
be imposed to extreme loads by possible road accidents. In the present study an investigation has been
carried out to assess the effects of FRP laminates as a flexural strengthening material on the
performance of vehicular concrete parapets. Finite element analysis has been employed to analyze the
performance of a crushed and strengthened parapet and the material performance in terms of their
mechanical properties has been indicated by a parametric study. Three types of FRP composites were
used in the FE model. The project indicated that CFRP and AFRP composites can be used for the
purpose of flexural strengthening of vehicular barriers in order to comply with the new European
standard EN1317 and are an economically efficient substitution to crushing and replacing the in
current, in need of rehabilitation, parapets
main advantage of this method is that there are

1 INTRODUCTION
no large changes in the physical appearance of
Similar to all types of construction materials, structure as well as having low level of work
concrete has a limited life time. It mainly disruption. FRPs are one of the composites that
depends on the environmental conditions, have been proved to be an acceptable material to
aggressiveness of the environment and the strength the concrete structure (vehicle concrete
physical and mechanical properties of the parapet in this case), and help the concrete to last
concrete itself. Sometimes the concrete structure longer. Therefore, an investigation has been
may have to carry larger loads in the later date carried on the effects of FRP as strengthening
due to the change of usage demands or fulfils a materials on the performance of vehicular
new standard, furthermore, in some extreme concrete parapets. The project hopes to find that,
cases the performance of the concrete structure FRPs are practical and suitable for the
may be damaged because of an accident, such as strengthening process and as a result instead of
what normally happen to the vehicular concrete crushing the current parapets and replacing
barrier on the bridges and carriageways. If this is them, they could still be used with the help of
the case, strengthening can be an option to FRPs which is a more economically sound
maintain the performance of the RC structure. alternative.
Within the last decade the use of composite
materials with high tensile strength and high
modulus of elasticity has become popular for
strengthening application of RC structures. The
216
2 THE NEED FOR STRENGTHENING OF 2.3 Flexural strengthening
CONCRETE BARRIER
Flexural strengthening of concrete barrier is very
Concrete has been used for many decades in the similar to the flexural strengthening of RC
construction of bridge parapets to prevent beam/slab structure by means of applying FRP
vehicles from leaving the carriageways, laminates in the tension zone of the barrier. The
especially in the USA and many European use of plate bonding technique for strengthening
countries but not in the UK until mid 1980s. The of concrete structure is based on the fact that
use of concrete safety barrier is beneficial, concrete is a material with high compressive
particularly, when the space for the deflection of strength and very low tensile strength thus it will
the barrier is limited and where the access for crack at relatively small load when is subjected
maintenance is restricted (PD6634, 1999) to bending. The performance of concrete in
According to the UK Highway Agency, with tension zone can be improved by applying FRP
effect from January 2005 and based primarily on laminates to the tension side of the section in
safety grounds, the Agency's policy implies that order to increase section moment and bearing
all new motorway schemes are to use high capacity.
containment concrete barriers in the central
reserve. All existing motorways will introduce
concrete barriers into the central reserve as part
of ongoing upgrades and through replacement as
and when these systems have reached the end of
their useful life. This change of policy applies
only to barriers in the central reserve of high-
speed roads and not to verge side barriers. Other
routes will continue to use steel barriers (TD19,
2006). According to the new provision, the
nominal load of 50 KN/m for normal
containment level (N1) must be designed for an
equivalent static nominal load for a nominal Figure 1: Rectangular stress-strain block
bending moment of 100 KN/m. Strengthening RC structure with FRP results in
increasing flexural capacity of the section at
ultimate limit state similar to the reinforced
2.1 Basic principal design structure.
2.1.1 Containment level
Parapets are designed to satisfy a selected level 3 METHODOLOGY
of containment depending on the applications
they have been applied for. Containment 3.1 General
capacity is the ability of the parapet to restrain For the purpose of this study, a vehicular
the impact of an errant vehicle and to redirect it concrete safety barrier was designed according
away in a controlled manner (BS6779-2, 1991). to BS6779 for an equivalent nominal static load
of 50KN/m, which was the design load for
barrier with normal level of containment (N1).
2.1.2 Standard The barrier should be upgraded to be able to take
EN1317 is a still developing standard with five the nominal edge load of 100KN/m (N2) and to
sections which is set as a substitute for the comply with the new European standard, EN
corresponding British Standard BS6779. Vehicle 1317. To address the above issue FRP
parapet shall be tested to comply with the composites can be used as the external
requirements of EN 1371-1 and EN1317-2 + reinforcement to upgrade the containment level
EN1317-2/A1. of barrier, thus this project aims to investigate
the effects of FRP laminates on flexural
strengthening of concrete barrier. The concrete
2.2 Failure criteria barrier has dimensions of 3.5×1.25× 0.332,
The type of failure occurring in the concrete which represent the length, the height and the
vehicular barrier is highly dependent on the width of the barrier respectively. It is assumed to
intensity and velocity of the applied load. be fully restrained at the bottom, as it is required
Vehicular barriers are designed to work on by the standard for bridge parapet. In order to
Ultimate Limit State (ULS); therefore, the have a better understanding of the behaviour and
overall failure types of the vehicular barrier the effect of FRP composites for the
subjected to an impact includes flexural and strengthening application of concrete barrier, it
shear failure (CEN, 1991). was decided to model and study the barrier
under three different loading condition namely;
217
edge load (which is the location of applied load 3.3 Numerical solution
according to BS 6779), central patch load and
Computational numerical analysis is done using
corner patch load. For central patch load the
ANSYS version 12.1. The software can solve
location of applied load was determined with
problems ranging from simple linear to the most
respect to the center of gravity of the errant
complex non-linear analyses with the help of
vehicle for normal level of containment, which
some powerful engineering simulation programs
is at 0.6m of the height of the barrier. For each
based on finite element method.
of the load cases, some elements from the
designed barrier were selected at critical The following assumption has been made for the
locations of RC section, where the maximum purpose of this study:
tensile stress was generated.. • Plain section remains plain; distribution
3.2 Preliminary Analysis of the strain is linear through the full
depth of the concrete.
3.2.1 Containment level • No slip between FRP composite and
Concrete barrier should be designed at normal face of the concrete; perfect bonding.
level of containment to be able to resist • Perfect bonding between fibers and
penetration of the following vehicle impact matrix.
characteristics. • No voids or irregularities in composite
lamina.
Table 1 • Fibers are uniformly distributed and
Vehicle Mass Center Angle Speed perfectly aligned.
(kg) of of Km/h • Maximum compressive strain of the
gravity impact concrete is 0.0035
Salooncar 1500 600 20 113 3.3.1 Element type

Concrete
Solid 65 is a 3D element particularly designed to
concrete vehicular barrier was designed to resist model concrete structure. The element is capable
loading appropriate to the normal level of of defining four different materials, one matrix
containment (N1) using equivalent static material such as concrete and a maximum of
nominal loading from table 2. three independent reinforcing materials. Solid 65
is offered as an eight nodes element with three
Table 2 degree of freedom at each node (UX, UY, UZ) –
Parapet Panel Panel Panel translations in the nodal x-,y-, and z-directions
containment nominal nominal join (Srinivasan et al, 2010)
level BM shear shear
Steel reinforcement
Normal 50 KN/m 80L - Link 8 is a 3D spar element with two nodes and
three degrees of freedom at each node
(translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions).
3.2.2 Concrete Similar to solid 65, this element is also capable
of plastic deformation. Discrete model has been
Concrete of grade 40 (fck= 40 Mpa) was used for the purpose of this study, where steel
specified with respect to BS 5400-7 and BS bars are connected to the nodes of meshing
5400-8. The concrete was assumed to be air concrete.
entrained.
3.2.3 Reinforcement FRP composite
Solid 46 is a layered element which has eight
The flexural reinforcement of the safety barrier nodes and three degrees of freedom at each
was designed to meet the requirements of node. This element is an upgraded version of
BS6779 for bridge highway barriers. solid 45 and is specially designed to model
3.2.4 FRP composite layered thick shells and solid.
The required area for external composite 3.3.2 3D meshing
reinforcement were calculated with respect to
ultimate tensile strength of steel and FRP Solid 65 was meshed such that square or
composites using force equilibrium equations. rectangular elements were created. ANSYS theory
reference recommends rectangular elements in
Efrp.σfrp = Es.σs (1) order to obtain more accurate results. FRP plates
are meshed using volume sweep command,
therefore, the width and length of the FRPs
218
element sets to be the same as the elements and 4 Results & discussion
nodes in the concrete portions of the model. Line
The cracks occur in concrete when principal
elements were used to mesh the steel
tensile stresses reach ultimate tensile strength of
reinforcement so nodes of the line elements locate
concrete ftm=3.5Mpa (for the purpose of this
exactly over the nodes of solid elements, therefore,
project), while concrete crushes when principal
once they are merged the concrete element and the
compressive stresses reach the ultimate
steel rebar will have the same nodes (Srinivasan et
compressive strength of concrete fcm=40Mpa. In
al, 2010).
finite element analysis, it was assumed that the
perfect bonding is provided between concrete
and reinforcement; this implies that, the full
composite action can be assumed in the model
and the analysis can be run till the crushing
failure in compressive zone of the concrete. The
nominal static load of 50KN/m and 100KN/m,
representing (N1) and (N2) respectively, were
applied at the edge of the barrier as mentioned in
table 4, and for each loading condition three
types of FRP composites (Carbon, Aramid,
Glass) were tested.
Table 4
Design Load type FRP
Figure 2: 3D meshing of concrete barrier
static load composite
(KN)
3.3.3 Load & boundary condition Glass
Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of the load 50 & 100 Edge load Aramid
along the edge of the concrete barrier. In order to
get a unique solution of the model, displacement Carbon
boundary conditions are needed to be restrained.
According to BS 6779, highway bridge barrier
should be designed with zero working width and 4.1 Static nominal load, 50KN/m
dynamic deflection. Therefore in order to comply The initial design load of 50KN/m was applied
with the standard it was assumed that the at the edge of the section for both strengthened
symmetric boundary conditions between the and un-strengthened barriers (normal barrier,
barrier and the bridge is fully fixed where the GFRP barrier, AFRP barrier and CFRP barrier)
constrains are in x, y and z directions (Ux= 0, Uy= and the stress and strain of the concrete elements
0, Uz = 0). at critical locations were obtained from the
numerical analysis. Table 5 shows the
distribution of the stress and strain at critical
3.3.4 Material properties elements for both strengthened and un-
Table 3 strengthened barriers.
Elastic Poisson Ultimate Table 5

modulus ratio strength Load Type Element Stress Strain
(Mpa) (Mpa) (KN) of number (Mpa) (‰)
Compressive 30 0.3 40 barrier
concrete N- 875 2.1290 0.7E-4
Tensile 39 0.3 3.5 barrier
975 1.8716 0.5E-4
concrete
GFRP 875 2.1091 0.7E-4
Tensile steel 200 0.2 605 barrier
50 975 1.8737 0.5E-4
Compressive 200 0.2 605
steel AFRP 875 2.0924 0.6E-4
barrier
975 1.8422 0.5E-4
Carbon FRP 180 0.35 1400
CFRP 875 2.0876 0.6E-4
Aramid FRP 100 0.35 1100
barrier
975 1.7707 0.5E-4
Glass FRP 50 0.35 800
219
Since the load was applied at the edge of the reaching the ultimate tensile strength; therefore,
barrier, the tension and the compression zones of no crack occurred in the concrete tension face.
the barrier are assumed to be on the front and
back face of the barrier respectively. The figure
shows the maximum tensile stress of 2.5Mpa at 4.2 Static nominal load, 100KN/m
the front face which is less than the ultimate
The main purpose of this project is to investigate
tensile strength of the concrete, while the
the application of FRPs for flexural
maximum strain of the section shows the value
strengthening of vehicular concrete barriers.
of 0.005 which is by far more than the cracked
Therefore, a concrete barrier was designed and
strain of the concrete (εcrack=0.0001). This
modelled according to the relative standard for
phenomenon can be explained by the non linear
the nominal static load of 50KN/m. The barrier
behaviour of the concrete after crack; concrete
was strengthened with CFRP and AFRP
starts to behave in a non linear manner when it
composites with respect to the equivalent
reaches its ultimate tensile strength. This implies
required steel reinforcement area in order to be
that, after the crack point the tensile strength of
the concrete will decrease while the tensile strain able to take the load of 100KN/m at the edge
increases until the concrete completely loses its along the length of the barrier. This is the new
designed load for safety barrier stated by
integrity. With respect to this theory it can be
European standard BS-EN 1317. Table 6 and
stated that, for the applied edge load of 50KN/m,
illustrates stress-strain distribution of the
concrete failed in tension once it reached the
strengthened barriers subjected to the new
ultimate tensile strength of 3.5Mpa and tensile
design load. It is worth mentioning that, GFRP
stress was carried by the internal steel
composite was ignored for the strengthening
reinforcement afterward.
purpose at this stage, this was done due to the
The effect of FRP composites on the stress-strain convergence problem at low level of applied
performance of the vehicular barrier is shown in load.
above figures. With respect to the non-linear
Table 6
behaviour of concrete, using GFRP composites
is helpful to reduce the maximum tensile strain Load Type Element Stress Strain
of the section by 20%, while the tensile stress in (KN) of Number (Mpa) (‰)
the front face increased by slightly less than 5%. barrier
It also helps the deflection of the barrier, as the
compressive strength of the section also reduced AFRP 875 0.0073 0.0023
by 14%. AFRP composite seems to have a better barrier
100 975 1.3966 0.0010
performance than glass, which may be due to the
higher modulus of elasticity and higher tensile CFRP 875 0.0074 0.0020
strength capacity in Aramid fibers. According to barrier
table 5, using GFRPs result in massive reduction 975 1.3703 0.0010
of the tensile strain by approximately 45% which The non linear finite element analysis was
is still greater than the tensile strain of the successfully run for the maximum design load of
concrete at crack. On the other hand, it tends to 100KN/m. FE output shows that, the maximum
increase the maximum tensile stress on the face tensile stress of the barrier reached the value of
of the barrier by 6.6% as a consequence of 5.23Mpa at the front face which is greater than
reduction in the tensile strain. Aramid fiber has a ultimate tensile strength of 3.5Mpa.
higher modulus of elasticity, which makes it Furthermore, the maximum tensile strain was
stiffer in terms of deflection and thus the around 0.006 which indicates that the concrete
compressive strength of the section has also has failed in tension zone by passing the ultimate
reduced by 19%. CFRPs are known for their tensile strain. Even the concrete was failed in
high modulus and high tensile strength capacity. tension; the stress will be distributed through the
In fact, it can be assumed as the strongest type of steel and FRP reinforcement. At the same time
FRP composites used for structural applications. the compressive strength of the concrete reached
The stress and strain distribution in barrier the maximum value of 23.2Mpa with the
strengthened with CFRP is different in maximum compressive strain of 0.0006, which
comparison with barriers strengthened with the is far from concrete crushing strain. The low
other two fibers. CFRP barrier subjected to edge values of compressive stress and strain can be
load of 50KN/m behaves linear elastic due to explained by the presence of steel reinforcement
large reduction in the magnitude of tensile stress in compression zone, which reduce applied
and strain of the barrier. The section has a stress on concrete at the back face. It can be
maximum tensile stress of 3.3Mpa while the stated that, the strengthening of concrete barrier
maximum tensile strain is around 0.0001, which with FRP composites is a possible practical
is the maximum strain of concrete just before method for upgrading the barriers instead of
220
replacing them. Similar to AFRP, carbon REFERENCES
laminate also shows a good performance in
terms of flexural strengthening of the barrier.
BS-EN 1317-2: 2010, Road restraint system,
The non linear analysis indicates that, the barrier
strengthened with CFRP has a maximum tensile Performance classes, impact test acceptance
stress of 4Mpa with the ultimate tensile strain of
criteria and test methods for safety barriers
0.00432. In addition, the section has a
compressive stress of 20Mpa which is almost including vehicle parapets.
half the designed compressive strength of the
PD 6634-3: 1999, Development of vehicle
barrier with a very small strain value of 0.0006,
which again can be reasoned by the over highway barriers in the United kingdom.
reinforcement of the section in compression side.
CEN (1991), “Eurocode 2: Design of
concrete structure – part 1-1: General rules and
5 Conclusion
rules for buildings ”, ENV 1992-1, Comité
The objective of this research project was to
Européen de Normalisation (CEN), Brussels,
investigate the flexural strengthening of concrete
vehicular barriers using Fiber Reinforced Belgium, 263 pp.
Polymer (FRP) laminates. Numerical results
TD 19/06, Criteria for the provision of vehicle
have demonstrated that the model adequately
reproduce strength and stiffness of parapet under parapet, Volume 2, Section 2
quasi static loading. Three types of FRP
BS 6779-2: 1991, Highway parapets for
composites were used for strengthening concrete
barrier using finite element analysis. It can be bridge and other structure – Specification for
stated form this project that CFRP and AFRP
vehicle containment parapets of concrete
composites can be used for the purpose of
flexural strengthening of vehicular barrier in construction.
order to comply with the new European standard
Flexural Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete
EN1317. Following points are the summarized
of this project. Beams Using Finite Element Analysis (Elastic
1) For the initial edge load of 50KN/m, using
Analysis). Srinivasan, R and Sathiya, K.
GFRP helps to reduce the maximum tensile
strength of the section by 20%, while AFRP Tomul : Gheorghe Asachi technical university,
composites seems to have a better performance
2010, Vol. 4.
that the glass as; massive reduction of the tensile
strain by 45% was achieved and at the same ANSYS Refrence Theory, version 12.1
time the maximum tensile stress increased by
6.6%. However carbon shows the best
performance among composites by reducing the
tensile strain and stress of the parapet to be less
than the maximum tensile stress and strain of the
concrete.
2) With respect to the ultimate design load of
100KN/m, the non linear analysis indicates that
CFRP and AFRP show a similar performance in
terms of flexural strengthening of the barrier.
Both AFRP and CFRP barriers were
successfully achieved the ultimate design load of
100 KN/m. However, the required reinforcement
area for CFRP was less than AFRP, which
makes CFRP more cost effective than the other
one. It was decided to ignore GFRP composite at
this stage due to the early convergence problem.
3) With respect to the low compressive stress of
the section and relatively low tensile strength of
the FRP composites it can be stated that the
section can take higher level of load than the one
that it was initially designed for.
221
Bearing Capacity of Eccentrically Loaded Shallow Foundations

XIN JIE
ABSTRACT The target of this paper is to obtain the bearing capacity of shallow foundations on
sand by exploring the influence of the eccentricity. A brief background of footing failure mode which
caused by the central load or eccentric load is mentioned. Furthermore, some previous studies and real
cases of this research scope are investigated and analysed. To test the footing subjected to central as
well as eccentric loading, a laboratory experiment can be involved into this project. For every test, the
ultimate bearing capacity and soil displacement has been determined. And these results of either central
or eccentric loads have been compared with each other. Moreover, the failure mode development of
each eccentrically loaded footing can be discussed by using GeoPIV program which is a MatLab
module. Both of ultimate bearing capacity and failure mechanism mode patterns as experimental results
should be validated by a numerical modelling analysis. Limit State GEO software which is applicable to
analyse for geotechnical stability problems have been taken account into this stage. A reasonable
agreement was made between the physical results and numerical outputs.
design, the footing should have sufficient safety

1 INTRODUCTION
against failure and settlement should be met the
In general, shallow foundation is designed to allowable value.
transfer vertical load to relatively shallow depth
through end bearing. In practice the point load
which acts on the centre of the foundation is
usually difficult to achieve since small deviations
may be involved during the construction process.
As result, in fact the applied vertical load places
at an eccentricity e away from the centroid of the
foundation (shown in figure1.1). Even though
tolerances are taken account into the design, the Figure1.1 Load eccentricity for spread footings.
presence of certain amount of eccentricity of
loading in the foundation will apparently induce
a moment which will cause the rotation of the 2 BEARING CAPACITY TESTS WITH
foundation. As result, the overturning of the ECCENTRIC LOADS
foundation will reduce the load bearing capacity
The main task of this project should be
and its overall stability. Subsequently, the failure
undertaken during the bearing capacity tests. An
could occur under this circumstance.
experimental instrument was involved to test a
footing subjected to eccentric loading. And the
footing was going to rest on semi-infinite layer
In design practice, it is vital to understand the
of sand so that these tests may spend relative
behaviour of surrounding soil when the
shorter time and operate much easily than using
foundation is subjected to vertical and eccentric
other type of soil. Silica sands were used as the
loads. Based on the conventional approach
experimental soil. To investigate the impact of
(Meyerhof, 1982) of the shallow foundation
load eccentricity on this foundation, the
222
maximum bearing capacity and shear failure the bearing capacity of footing on the silica sand.
mechanism was able to analyse. Moreover, based on the figure of axial
displacements versus the axial loads, the stiffness
2.1 Experimental Apparatus and its operating
as a parameter of soil can be investigated as well.
principles
In Figure 2.1, a footing test rig was fitted up with
a soil plane strain box. When different pressure The values of maximum bearing capacity can be
was applied by the pneumatic system, the footing concluded in Table2.1. In order to analyse how
started to move down. Meanwhile, the load cell the eccentricity effect on the footing bearing
recorded the ultimate bearing capacity of the capacity, Figure2.3 and 2.4 show the difference
footing, one displacement transducer is utilized among all the variable eccentric loads.
to measure the axial displacement and another
displacement transducer is used to measure the e (cm) 0 0.5 0.8 1.65 2.5 3.35 4.5
rotation. (as shown in Figure2.2) Then the Capacity
acquired output results were transmitted to 208 212 210 132 87 48 31
(kN/m2)
computer through a DataTrack box. Photo was
taken by every applied pressure to survey how Table2.1 Bearing Capacity of different eccentric
the soil shifted. Bearing capacity tests should be loads
performed when the load eccentricity is equal to
0m,0.005m,0.008mm,0.0165mm,0.025mm,0.033
5mm and 0.045mm respectively.
Figure2.3 Axial Displacements vs. Axial Load

The footing under the central loading has better
bearing capacity. As can be seen from figure and
table, it is obvious that the bearing capacity
reduces if the eccentricity increases. Moreover, it
is observed that when the footing failure almost
Figure2.1 The experimental test rig occurred, the stiffness of soil in every test is
approach to zero.
Figure2.2 The application of the load cell and

displacement transducers
2.2 Experimental Results
Figure2.4 Side Displacements vs. Axial Load
2.2.1 Analysis Procedures by conventional
approach Generally, for the load is applied close to the
footing centre, the settlements are relative larger
In this section detail experimental analysis are and if eccentricity becomes larger, the
illustrated for various eccentricities to determine
223
settlements displace smaller. However, the
outcomes in Figure2.4 show otherwise. A
possible reason is that the displacement
transducer should be always placed at where the
largest displacement occurs. But actually, it was
placed on the other side of the footing for some
tests, which leads to the inaccuracy of the data.
2.2.2 Outputs analysis by GeoPIV
Soil displacement outputs are acquired by taking Figure2.8 Cumulative displacement digital
a series of continuous images during the bearing images for e/B=0.165
capacity tests, from applying 5kpa pressure on
footing until the soil fails. A numerical software
GeoPIV which is designed to run in the Matlab
environment should be used as an appropriate
method to evaluate the produced strain when the
soil is subjected to increasing loads. The Particle
Image Velocimetry (PIV) is able to run by
tracking soil particles arrangement or soil texture
(for example, the brightness dimensional
variation) in a specific region through a series of Figure2.9 Cumulative displacement digital
images. images for e/B=0.25
Figure2.5 Cumulative displacement digital

images for e/B=0 Figure2.10 Cumulative displacement digital
images for e/B=0.335

images for e/B=0.05
images for e/B=0.45
To estimate the effect of eccentricity, it makes
significant differences among these bearing
capacity experiments. (as shown in these figures
above) For the vertical load without any
eccentricity, the footing does not rotate and the
soil failure pattern is symmetrical. As long as the
applied load acts away from the footing centre,
the footing starts to rotate and the failure pattern
Figure2.7 Cumulative displacement digital becomes asymmetry. Specifically, the load
images for e/B=0.08 position determines the soil failure pattern and
on the side of the foundation where a shear
failure occurs, apparent surface soil dilation can
be observed.
224
3 VALIDATION OF EXPERIMENTAL Based on Figure3.3 of the maximum shear stress
RESULTS BY LIMIT STATE GEO against the related vertical stress for each test,
the friction angle (φ) from the slope of the
Validation of experimental results should be
approximated Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope
performed by using a numerical program which
can be determined.
is named Limit State Geo. The ultimate bearing
capacity of each test varying the load
The principle equation is .
eccentricities can be compared with the output
However, for silica sand is cohesionless hence c’
which is computed by this numerical program.
= 0. (Barnes, 2000)
Moreover, displaying two soil failure patterns
from GeoPIV program and Limit State Geo
together are able to observe the similarities and
differences among the various texts.
3.1 Direct Shear Tests
To operate Limit State Geo, the soil properties
are required. As a result, two parameters such as
the shear resistance angle φ and density γ of the
sample silica sand can be obtained by carry out
the direct shear test. A photo of a typical direct
shear device is shown below in Figure3.1
Figure3.3 Shear stress against normal stress for

silica sand
According to the laboratory findings, the average
density γ and shear resistance angle φ are
summarized in the Table below.
Loose silica sand
Average density 15.93 kN/m3
Peak friction angle φ 39.3°
Ultimate friction angle φ 32.3°
Table3.1 Results of density and friction angle for

silica sand
Figure3.1 Typical Direct Shear Apparatus
3.3 Limit State GEO Numerical Analysis
3.2 Direct Shear Tests Results
Limit State Geo is outstanding software which
can be applied to analyse geotechnical stability
and critical failure mechanism efficiently. In
specific, it can be determine very accurate
solutions of a sudden failure mechanism by using
an efficient mean ‘Discontinuity Layout
Optimization’ (DLO), which cannot be achieved
by any conventional ultimate limit state
numerical analysis software. In addition, the
outputs provide remarkably interpretation of the
failure mechanism.
According to the Limit State GEO operating

Figure3.2 Shear force versus strain comparison technical, solution accuracy is determined by the
among the test results number of the nodes used in the simulation. The
nodal density controls the accuracy of the
This figure indicates represents that the peak solution, finer nodal density more precise
shear strength is the maximum shear stress that outputs. As a result, sensitivity analysis should
can be sustained of silica sand. Beyond this be involved at first in order to optimize the nodal
failure point, the soil strength is going to loss density for setting up the modelling.
rapidly until it achieves a critical state (a
constant volume sate). 3.3.1 Sensitivity analysis
225
As can be seen in Figure3.4, by increasing the slip-line by using Discontinuity Layout
nodal number, the numerical outputs become Optimization procedure. Within this feature, the
closer to the physical results but the solving time failure mechanism pattern from GeoPIV program
are required more and more. For example, when also can be validated. The most representative of
the nodal number is 2500, the error is only 0.1% the patterns are shown below.
by taking 2 minutes and 39 seconds. Thus the
node 2500 may be the most suitable number to
determine the optimum solution to validate the
physical results through the whole tests.
Figure3.5 Failure mode in GeoPIV (e/B=0)
Figure3.4 Sensitivity analysis of e/B=0

Figure3.6 Failure mode in limit state GEO
3.4 Validation by Limit State GEO Numerical (e/B=0)
Analysis
For central load, the failure mechanism pattern
3.4.1 Validation on the ultimate bearing which is generated from Limit State GEO is the
capacity same as the experimental one. Moreover, it
All tests numerical analysis with friction angle provides more detailed observations of slip
32.3°are performed using the finer nodal density surfaces and failure zones.
which the number as much as 2500. These
solutions varying with eccentricity are presented
in the Table3.2.
e Physical Results Numerical Outputs (Φ=32.3°)
(cm) (N) (KN/M2) 250Nodes error 2500 Nodes error
0.00 2080 208 304.6 46% 208.3 0%
0.50 2117 211 304.5 44% 208.3 2%
0.80 2098 209 304.5 45% 208.3 1%

Figure3.7 Failure mode in GeoPIV (e/B=0.25)
1.65 1316 132 261.6 99% 142.3 8%
2.50 871 87 179.1 106% 86.99 0%
3.35 483 48 119.7 148% 45.16 6%
4.50 308 31 33.14 8% 7.80 75%
Table3.2 Comparison between physical and

numerical outputs
To conclude, the majority of these comparisons
are within the acceptable error limits. There is no
larger difference between the physical results
and numerical solutions.
3.4.2 Validation on the failure mechanism Figure3.8 Failure mode in limit state GEO
Limit State Geo program is able to find and (e/B=0.25)
animate the optimal failure mechanism within
226
All figures show the same failure pattern and are eccentric load. Larger load eccentricity is lesser
exactly alike and all reveals how the soil moves. bearing capacity is.
In the study of settlement, from the load-

displacement curve, the axial settlement is more
for central load and it decreases for eccentric
load. Particularly, the footing is not subjected to
eccentric load has equal settlement on its both
sides. Moreover, with the footing settles
progressively, the stiffness of soil approaches to
zero. According to the figures which were
generated by GeoPIV, the failure mode
Figure3.9 Failure mode in GeoPIV (e/B=0.335) developments within every eccentricity test were
analysed. The soil movement is domain by the
load position.
The results validations were performed by Limit

State Geo numerical analysis and there is a
reasonable agreement between the results of the
ultimate bearing capacity and failure mechanism
patterns. Furthermore, for parameter studied, it is
found that the ultimate bearing capacity
increases within the shear resistance angle
Figure3.10 Failure mode 6 in limit state GEO increases.
(e/B=0.335)
From three figures above, the same tendency of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
soil movements are shown. For eccentricity is
3.35 cm, these figures apparently show the I do appreciate to my supervisor, Dr. Jonathon
footing tilts caused by the eccentric load and the Black, for his valuable guidance and educational
soil failure occurs on the footing right hand side. encouragement on my thesis. Although he has
taken on a lot of work, he always helps me to
overcome the difficulty either the experimental
By comparing the failure mechanism pattern work or numerical modelling. I am deeply
within slip-lines for different eccentricity, both grateful of his help in the completion of this
solutions either is acquired from GeoPIV or thesis.
Limit State are validated as expected. Moreover,
the GeoPIV figures present more directly on the
soil movement especially the soil dilation on the REFERENCES
sides of the footing. However, the Limit State Dr. Mostafa Mohamed 2009, lecture 1 notes
GEO show more clearly on the failure pattern ENG2001M University of Bradford, UK
and are more focused on the slip surfaces and
failure zones. By viewing these two type figures Meyerhof, G.G. (1982) The bearing capacity
together, more thorough understanding of the and settlement of foundations, Canada, Tech-
failure model development can be obtained and Press
that can bring advantages to the further analysis. Barnes, G., 2000. Soil Mechanics: Principles
and Practice. 2nd ed. London
4 CONCLUSIONS
Refer to the main experiment of the bearing
capacity tests, it is can be found that the ultimate
bearing capacity is more of the central load
(when e/B=0). When the load is applied away
from centre 0.5mm and 0.8mm, there are no
significant impacts on the ultimate bearing
capacity. However, out of this boundary the
ultimate bearing capacity decreases by the
227
Textile Fibre Reinforcement in Mortar

Joseph Marian Richard Prashanth
ABSTRACT This project is based on the concept of fibre reinforcement in concrete and its benefits.
There are different types of high strength fibres, those when added in concrete, tend to increase certain
parameters in concrete, thereby improving the microstructure of concrete and hence there is an increase
in the strength of the concrete. Most of these fibres are generally obtained from automobile tyre
recycling plants. During the construction of an automobile tyre, many types of dynamic high strength
fibres are taken into account as the tyres are subjected to extreme wear and tear conditions. Hence,
when the automobile tyres reach the end of their useful life, they are dumped in yards or used as waste
land filling. However when shredding such tyres, many useful materials like metallic fibres,
polypropylene fibres and synthetic fibres containing nylon and rayon are obtained, but a major
drawback was to separate the fine fibres from the small rubber particles after shredding. Hence complex
machinery had to be implemented to remove the shredded rubber from the micro fibres. These materials
can be put into various uses in various fields but they find one of their best uses in construction field by
adding them in concrete. Hence this experimental study is focussed on removal of rubber from synthetic
fibres and adding the fibres in mortar and to study its various effects and characteristics on plastic
shrinkage cracking.
1 INTRODUCTON 2 LITERATURE BACKGROUND

Since many years the UK government is Concrete is one of the construction materials
considering to reduce the amount of wastes which are made by blending cement, sand,
produced. As this was not practically feasible, coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and water.
many types of different strategies were Sometimes admixtures are added along with
developed to recycle the wastes produced. One them for better performance and easy handling
of the major recycling issues was the waste with concrete. These materials are added in the
automobile tyre management, because of the appropriate ratios with cement being the least of
abundant waste of rubber tyres after their useful all as it binds the other materials together. The
period. These worn out tyres are called post- mix design is such that it is easy for the concrete
consumer tyres. Hence re-cycling and re-usage to be transported, placed, compacted and
of such post-consumer tyres is seen as a valuable finishing is done easily on site from the time of
source and also helps in balancing environment batching of concrete [3, 4].
ecology [1].
Concrete is one of the most important materials
On the other hand, when re-cycling such tyres in the construction industry with an annual
there is another separate breed of synthetic fibres production of over eight billion tones. It
that come out of post-consumer tyres. These possesses the very good nature of setting and
fibres are classified as micro synthetic and macro hardening after being placed. Concrete after
synthetic. Currently, research is being conducted placing, passes through three stages. The first
on Polypropylene fibres (macro synthetic fibres) stage is the technically called plastic state where
to prove their efficiency on concrete. It is by the water in the concrete reacts with the
assumed that both the above mentioned synthetic calcium aluminates and calcium silicates present
fibres have almost the same property with regard in the cement and hydration begins. The second
to their high toughness and elastic properties [2]. stage is called the dormant stage where
This property which the fibres possess has hydration of calcium silicates takes place. During
attracted many concrete industries as it can both the above mentioned stages the reaction
enhance the strength of concrete in many ways. involved is an exothermic reaction and hence
continuous heat is evolved. The third stage
228
involves the formation of Ettringite crystals and synthetic fibres. Steel fibres are used in
which hardens the concrete. It is during this concrete so that it enables a better bonding
stage the setting and hardening of concrete between the cement past and aggregates and
begins. helps in strength and durability characteristics.
Synthetic fibres classified as micro synthetic and
2.1 Automobile Tyre Recycling Strategy Post-
macro synthetic fibres - help in arresting micro
consumer tyres are one of the many wastes
cracks and improve the microstructure of
covered in one of the waste recycling strategies.
concrete. Recent research has proved that such
Most of the fibres used in the construction
synthetic fibres help in fracture toughness and
industry for research and welfare take its source
the structural integrity of the concrete [2].
from post-consumer tyres. Since the late 1990’s,
Hence in the current scenario, it is believed that
large quantities of worn out tyres are put to waste
with the addition of certain discrete and
by the automobile industries which are either
discontinuous fibres in concrete, there is a
recycled or left as such by dumping in yards and
possibility of an increase in the parameters of
fields as shown in figure 2.1.
structural strength of concrete. There are many
types of fibres. The alignment and distribution of
fibres in concrete helps the concrete to resist
against certain forces and deformation loads.
Fibres when added in concrete, enables a perfect
bonding between the cement pastes and
aggregates. During the formation of cracks, the
shear forces along the length of fibres help to
arrest the cracks and resist the concrete against
external strains [1, 2].
2.2.2 Principle Involved in Fibre Reinforced
Concrete
Addition of fibres in concrete is one such method
suggested from the previous research, to help
produce high concrete strength. Discrete fibres
Fig Error! No text of specified style in document..1 Waste
tyres dumped in yards are known for their static and dynamic strengths.
Keeping this fact in mind, fibre reinforcement
was developed under the impression that the
Through consistent research and experiment it
cracks coming from the concrete could be
has been evaluated that these waste tyres can be
transferred to the fibres and thereby the fibres
put into some sort of experimental use in the
could stop spreading of cracks because of their
construction industry. These waste tyres come
high elastic and dynamic strength. Fibres in
from many sources such as automobile
concrete could produce certain punching forces
industries, garages, service centres and fleets.
which act as crack arrestors. Addition of high
Hence the amount of waste tyres seems to be
elastic fibres can alter the mix design in the
increasing every year, owing to much number of
concrete and help the integrity of the concrete
sources from which post-consumer tyres are
system by controlling cracking. Such fibres,
obtained [2].
when added to concrete help to bond the
2.2 Application of post-consumer Tyre in materials in such a way so that the micro and
Construction Industry and Fibres from Tyres macro cracks could be controlled to an extent,
depending on the various types of fibres. It is
Application of post-consumer tyres in
better to keep concrete cracking to its minimal as
construction industry can be classified into three
it vastly affects the concrete through chloride
categories.
attacks, sulphate attacks and by different
i) Whole un-fragmented tyre
weathering actions and thereby causing corrosion
ii) Shredded tyre to reinforcement [5, 6].
ii) Fibres from the tyres.
3 Methodology and Experimental procedure
2.2.1 Fibres from Tyres The following experiment consists of testing

plastic shrinkage cracks on mortar slab with and
Post – consumer tyres when processed and without textile fibres. These fibres are mostly
shredded, different types of fibres can be obtained from post-consumer tyre recycling
obtained. Some of the main fibres that are very plants. Hence the textile fibre used in this
useful in construction industry are the steel fibres experiment is from a local source plant. This
229
textile fibre is commonly called as “fluff”. They
contain Nylon and Rayon fibres [2, 3] as shown
in fig 3.1
Fig 3.2 Fibres Treated with Compressed Air
Fig 3.1 Textile Fibres

As seen from the above figure, a tall cylindrical
The small black particles represent the rubber vertical container was taken and highly
entangled with the fibres and the white fibres are pressurised air was blown from below. This
called as fluff. It is not possible to completely causes the fibres to get agitated whereby the
remove the high stressed rubber from the fibres, heavy rubber particles settle down and the light
when extracting fibres from extracting machines micro synthetic fibres tend to come out through
in tyre recycling plants. Hence there are the top which were collected by a polythene
commercial markets which use complex sack. This method was really efficient in
machines that extract these synthetic fibres from collecting the fibres but a lot of rubber dust was
the rubber dust from which cleaned fibres are collected. The coarse rubbers were almost
sold to concrete and construction industries. removed from the stock material through this
process. Hence this method was used to clean the
3.1 Separating the Rubber particles from fibres as much as possible. The collected fibres
Fibres from this method are subjected to further
In this case the fibres were tried separating from excitation by compressed air in a small polythene
the rubbers manually. Many different methods bag which enabled the fibres to be free from the
were tried like treating the fibres with plain tap rubber dust as shown in figure 3.3
water, detergent water, sand mixing, excitement
with pre-stressed steel strings and also by sieve
analysis. But most of these methods were quite
un-successful as they fibres were pretty much
tangled with the rubber particles. Finally treating
the fibres with compressed air had some
satisfactory results.
3.1.1 Treating the fibres with compressed air
It was now confirmed that the separation process
of fibres from the rubbers could be done by
using only dry separation method. Hence the
fibres were treated with compressed air and it
was expected that the rubber and rubber dust
could be separated from the fibres. This was
based on the assumption that when fibres are Fig 3.3 Compressed Air Treatment with Polythene Bag
excited by high excited force the micro fibres
were found to separate from the coarse rubber This method enabled to remove as much of the
particles and dust. rubbers involved and the final result of fibres
was almost rubber free.
230
3.2 Establishing Trial Mix 3.3 Plastic Shrinkage Test on Mortar Slabs
The trial mix was certain to be done as it was The main aim of the test is to determine the
estimated that that the fibres could sometime acts plastic shrinkage of two slabs – one slab casted
as chunks and clog together not having uniform with plain mortar, and the other slab casted with
mixture in the mortar. Normally for synthetic and reinforced textile fibre, under accelerated drying
micro fibres, 0.7% to 1.2% of cement by weight condition. This is to determine the maximum
is the ratio of fibres added to any mix design. cracking potential of the slabs with plastic
shrinkage cracks developed on its surface during
The trail mix mortar was the prototype of the
its plastic state, due to faster evaporation of
original mix design which is a mortar having 2:4
water – keeping it in mind that cracks should
ratio (2 parts of cement and 4 part of sand)
develop only in the plain cement mortar slab and
considering water-cement ratio of 0.65. The
not in the one casted with textile reinforced
fibres were added manually as small bits after
mortar slab. Fibres about 1% by the weight of
the design mix was cast. But the mix casted was
cement is used in this experiment.
very dry and hence there was not much uniform
distribution of water over the entire volume. So Two slab moulds of length – 60cms, width –
another sample was made, with the same 45cms and height - 2cms were prepared as
parameters, but increasing the water-cement ratio shown in figure below.
to 0.85. With 0.85 water-cement ratio, the
sample was perfect with uniform distribution of
the fibres and water. The figure below shows the
distribution of fibres in the mortar.
Fig 3.6 Slab Moulds
Fig 3.4 Distribution of fibres in the Mortar

The slab moulds were reinforced with an L-
The figure below shows the microscopic view of shaped steel mesh along the sides of the moulds
mortar with the distribution of fibres. such that it restricts the shrinkage of mortar
along the sides of the moulds. On the other hand
10 mm steel reinforcement was reinforced along
with the steel mesh as shown in the figure below
so as to provide an extra support for the steel
mesh.
Fig 3.5 Microscopic view of the Mortar
Fig 3.7 Reinforcement support along the side of mould
231
A mix design of 1:4 mortar designs was cast and
the first slab - the fibres were added and the time
taken for adding the fibres were noted as the
same duration of time has to be maintained for
the second slab involving plain cement mortar.
Both the mixes were cast and the slam moulds
were placed under a fan for accelerated drying as
shown in the figure below.
Fig 3.6 Overview of the plain cement mortar
Fig 3.5 Slab Moulds placed under fan for accelerated

drying
Panel evaluation starts just after the slabs were

cast. The test procedure involves testing the
sample after two and half hours of casting, five
hours of casting and final inspection after 24
hours. On the other hand photos were recorded Fig 3.7 Microscopic view of a crack developed on the
every 20 minutes for the first three hours to plain cement Mortar
notice any considerable change in the physical
surface of the slab. There were many different types of cracks
developed on the plain cement mortar mix. The
major cracks which can be seen in the figure
4. Results and Inference below, was developed after 24 hours from
On the contrary, it was noted that there was not casting. A few random cracks were developed
much development of any plastic shrinkage after 48 hours.
cracks until 5 hours of casting that could be seen
with naked eyes. The setup was left as such and
inspection was done after 24 hours where
physical micro cracks were developed in the
plain cement mortar as shown in figure 4.1 and
no visible cracks on the fibre reinforced mortar.
But after 24 hours it was noted that many micro
cracks were developed in the plain cement
mortar as shown in the figure 3.6 and no physical
cracks on the fibre reinforced mortar.
Such micro cracks were analysed using a
microscope. The width and the length of the
cracks were measured as shown in figure 3.7.
This is noted to obtain the possible cracking
potential of the slab. Fig 3.8 Cracks Marked with Ink
232
4.1 Evaluation Moreover fibre reinforced concrete helps in
critical points in structure which excites more
Shrinkage cracking is evaluated by calculating
during earthquakes. On the other hand Fibre
the potential cracking of the slab. First the
Reinforced Concrete is best suitable for
average length and the width of the cracks are
structures that sustain variable loads like bridges
measured. Now the length of each crack is
and decks etc.
multiplied by the width of the crack. This
represents the average weighted value for each
crack. The sum of the total average weighted
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
value gives the cracking potential of the slab [7].
• Firstly I would like to thank my
Supervisor Dr Kypros Pilakoutas for all
Crack Crack Crack Weighted his support and guidance to prepare this
width length average dissertation.
Designation
value
(mm) (mm) • Secondly I would like to thank my PhD
(Sq.mm) Colleague Harris C Angelakopoulos for
all his concern and courtesy extended to
1 0.18 30 5.4 me with regard to completion of my
2 0.14 130 18.2 experimental work.
3 0.08 80 6.4 • Finally, I would like to thank the lab

technicians - Kieran, Paul and David for
4 0.28 25 7.0 their valuable time and support in the
preparation of all the materials required
5 0.20 30 6.0 in the lab for my experimental work.
6 0.08 10 0.8
7 0.04 20 0.8 REFERENCES
8 0.30 410 123 [1]. Adal Ahmad Shommakhi, “Re-use of tyre
steel Fibres in concrete construction”.
The Total Weighted Average value = 167.6 Department of Civil and Structural
On the other hand, there were no physically Engineering, University of Sheffield,
developed micro cracks that could be noted by September 2000.
naked eyes on the textile fibre reinforced [2] Gheorghe Asachi, “Economical and
concrete. Sustainable Pavement Infrastructure for
Surface Transport” - Classification of fibres
from different mechanical treatments and the
5 Conclusions reasons for fibre balling”, Public works
Synthetic fibres and are known for their high department, October 2006.
dynamic strength properties. In the past it has [3] Charilaos Adamopoulos, “Steel Fibres in
been proved that polypropylene fibres are very Concrete: Characterisation and Design”.
efficient in arresting micro cracks and hence Department of Civil and Structural
there is a drastic reduction in the shrinkage Engineering, University of Sheffield,
cracking of concrete. September 2001.
Textile fibres, commonly called as Fluff, are [4] “Vanguard Concrete coating”
another breed of synthetic fibres which is used in http://www.vanguardconcretecoating.com/c
this experiment. Hence there is a possibility that, oncrete-basics.htm
the concept of arresting micro cracks in concrete
or mortar should work in regard with the results [5] D.J. Hannant,”Fibre Cements and Fibre
obtained from this experiment. Concretes”. John Wiley and Sons, 1978
[6] “Architecture, Civil Engineering Interior
Design” - Using fibres as Concrete
6. Scope of Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) Admixtures. Word Press 2010.
FRC helps in the structural integrity of the [7] Paul P. Kraai, “A proposed test to determine
building by helping the tensile strength of the cracking potential due to drying
concrete. This type of fibre embedded in shrinkage of concrete”. San Jose State
concrete helps in reducing the reinforcement University, PUBLICATIONS #C850775,
while designing earthquake resistant structures. the Aberdeen Group, 1985.
233
Punching shear design in slabs

Babak Khajehvand
Abstract Punching shear in flat slabs dramatically decreases the total resistance of the structure against
gravity load and as a result it may lead to the progressive failure in a building. That is why many theoretical and
experimental methods have been proposed to determine the strength of punching shear in slabs. There are
several approaches for calculating the punching shear in slabs. ACI 318 and EC 2 are two of these common
methods that their equations for calculating the punching shear strength based on semi experimental results. In
this paper in order to determine the best calculation approach for punching shear in slabs without shear
reinforcement, experimental results were collected and compared with the theoretical predictions from codes
and consequently, standard deviation and COV of each codes investigated. In a comparison between the
American Concrete institute and the Euro code 2, it would seem to indicate that ACI318 produces a more
conservative.
1. Introduction
Since 1950’s flat slabs have been used in office theory that defines and considers all the
building, residential and other types of buildings characteristics of punching shear problems.
due to their advantages such as; their ability to
reduce the total height of storeys, economic issues, 2. Failure mechanism of slab
make available free surfaces for ceilings and etc. Due to the increasing the load that applies on the
slab which is connected to the column, inclined
Although flat slabs have many advantages, they shear cracks around half of the depth of slab in
have inherent disadvantages due to the highly tension would appear. This occurs when the force
concentrated load around the supporting zone. In reaches 50-70% of the ultimate load. By increasing
situations where they do not have edge beams or the tension reinforcement load, Dowel action will
drop panels, flat slabs are vulnerable to punching interfere and act against the force which is rising to
shear failure and their vertical deflections are the compression zone. At this step just before
enlarged. Punching Shear as weakness point of flat yielding of the tension reinforcements spread out
slab has been discussed by researchers and has outside the district of the column, Punching occurs
already received much attention. in the compression zone.
Punching shear failure is happens without any When the gradient crack is spreading out in the
visible cracks or warning and in brittle mode. As a slab without shear reinforcement, few factors resist
result of a punching shear failure of even one it. These factors are Va as aggregate interlock, Vc
connection of a slab to the column this might cause vertical component of compression zone and Vd,
a progressive collapse of buildings. North Side Dowel action of flexural reinforcement and
Sampoong Department Store in Seoul is an ultimate shear resistance is a sum of these factors.
example of this kind of failure mode, which led to Regan and Braestup (1985) have defined that
500 deaths. The whole of the building was Dowel action resists 34% of total shear resistance,
destroyed within only 20 seconds. while Jelice proposed that it is difficult to
determine the amount of Dowel action shear
Talbot (1913) was the first researcher who tried to resistance because of lack of detail with which to
provide a method for determination of punching calculate the contribution of dowel action to shear
shear strength of flat slabs, and after him Kinnynen resistance.
and Nylander (1960) and Regan and Braestrup
(1985) studied other procedures in order to solve The failure angle between slab and column for
this problem. Up to now there is no convincing normal concrete strength is between 25 to 30
degrees and for high strength concrete the angle of
234
shear failure is 30-40 degrees. Nevertheless it could critical section assumed to be d/2 from face of the
happen in various steeper angles, without having a column. Shear strength should be smallest value of:
serious effect on the ultimate load.
νn=(2+ )  ,
3. Punching shear treatment by Codes
The building code generally treated the punching
trouble empirically by restricting the nominal shear νn =( ) ,
stress at the critical perimeter. (Kamraldin, 1990)

νn = .
3.1. EC2
In Euro code 2, the critical perimeter basis around Where,
loaded area is defined 2d, as illustrated in the
Figure 1, Punching shear resistance vRd,c can be  ; modification factor reflecting the reduced
calculated with following formula; mechanical properties of lightweight concrete, all
relative normal weight concrete of the same
compressive strength,
αs; 40 for interior column, 30 for edge column and

20 for corner column,
; Ratio of long face to short face of the column

cross section.
Figure 1. critical perimeter area EC2 4. Comparison between ACI 318, EC 2

with experimental data
νRd,c = (0.18/ϒc)k(100 ρl f’c)0.333 In order to compare the estimated results from ACI
Where; ϒc ; Partial factor for concrete, 318 and EC2 design equations, it was necessary to
k; is size effect factor, obtain valid experimental results therefore
literature review was carried out. A lot of
ρl ; flexural reinforcement ratio, experimental data were obtained from articles and
arranged to achieve accurate comparison.
f’k ; is concrete compressive strength (MPa).
4.1. The effect of flexure reinforcement ratio:
And,
k = 1 + (200/d)0.5 ≤2.0 (d in mm) Contribution of Dowel action is related to the ratio

of flexural reinforcement .Dowel Effect is an index
ρl = (ρlyρlz)0.5 ≤ 0.02 which flexural reinforcement is used for. With
increasing the reinforcement ratio shear strength is
Where, expected to be increased but in higher strength
concrete amount of flexural ration`s effect decrease
ρlyρlz ; is mean reinforcement ratios in each
due to the strength of concrete. The range of
direction over a width equal to the column
flexural reinforcement in the data base was
dimension plus 3d on each side,
between 0.25% and 2.68% and yield strength of the
d; mean effective depth. steel is between 294 to 720 (MPa). Although effect
of flexural reinforcement was neglected in ACI318,
Calculated shear resistance should be greater than for Slabs with flexural reinforcement less than
minimum νmin shear resistance stress which is; approximately 0.6% underestimated result will be
gained in calculation of the shear force and
νmin = 0.035k1.5 fck0.5 accurate outcome is almost between 0.6% and 1%.
According to the Figure 2, ACI318 equation to
3.2. ACI318
determinate Punching shear force for slabs with
In the American Concrete Institute in order to
flexural reinforcement above 1% is conservative
calculate Shear strength νn, of nonpre-stressed slab
and overestimated. It is clear that majority of shear
235
force which gained form EC2 equation results are force. This might be because in EC2 control critical
in the conservative and safe side however for perimeter area is twice the effective depth of slab.
flexural ratio below 0.3%, EC2 equation In comparison between two codes it is worth
underestimates the results. For cases where the saying that although results of ACI318 are in a
flexural reinforcement ratio is very small, the wide range in comparison with EC2, both codes
flexural capacity of the slab governs the strength of have 24% results in unsafe areas. Thus EC2
the slab. In total, apart from the extent to which predictions are closer to experimental results.
codes equations are conservative, it is obvious that
for slabs with flexural reinforcement of less than 4.3. The effect of slab thickness
approximately 6% those equations are not fully
accurate and in comparison between the codes it is The influence of effective depth of slab in the shear
clear that EC2 results, because they follow the punching force is inevitable, and means that with
experimental results, are more reliable than the increasing of the slab depth, loaded area
ACI318. increase and slab capacity under loading grows. In
ACI; the three dimensional normal stress and shear
4.2. The effect of column size and slab depth stress developed by biaxial flexural moments and
high rigidity cause punching shear concentration at
For slabs with loaded area more than 0.75d, with an the corners of the slab- column connection. This
increase of the loaded dimensions lead to a rise of leads to the earlier failure of corners in comparison
the shear strength of slabs. That is why a common with other parts of the slab, this means that while
procedure in order to increase the shear capacity of b0/d or c/d rises, punching shear strength of slab-
slabs is the use of the column head or drop panel column connection reduces. This effect proposed
rather than the increasing of column size. Based on by Modification factor λ in ACI318. In ACI318 the
the data base, the ranges of columns vary between effect of the depth of slab is not considered in order
80 to 406 mm and the variety of the slab depth is to predict the shear force punching, it can be
35 to 300 mm. This means that to gain better understood that with increasing of the slab effective
results, the checking of a wide range of depth and depth, ACI equation tend to go to the unsafe zone
dimensions have been applied. According to the and overestimated value for punching shear force.
Figure 3 , it can be understood that effect of a
loaded area in ACI318 is the parameter that had From the punching shear force equation in EC2 it
complex behaviour in dealing with experimental can be understood that influence of effective depth
results. One reason could be that the effect of is considered under the parameter which is called k,
control perimeter in ACI318 which is half of the as mentioned before and from that equation it is
effective depth of slab and it may lead to a variety worth saying that the minimum effective slab depth
of results for various sizes of column and slab in EC2 is 200mm. According to Figure 4,
depth And also EC2 equation is in a wide range increasing the depth of slab prediction punching
.This means that EC2 equation had an shear force tends to move towards to the side of
approximately good prediction of shear punching overestimation and unsafe results.
0.8
0.7
V /(u0 d √fc ) ( √MPa )
0.6
0.5
0.4 V EC2
0.3 V Exp
0.2
V ACI
0.1
0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
ρ%
Figure 2. Normalised Shear force Versus Reinforcement Ratio
236
2000
1800
1600
( √MPa )
1400
1200 V EC2
V/(ρ d √fc)
1000
V Exp
800
600 V Aci
400
200
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
u0 (mm)
Figure 3. Normalised shear force versus control perimeter
4.4. The effect of concert strength in comparison with experimental results it can be
clear that around two thirds of the ACI results are
Punching shear does not rise respectively to the on the safe side even though they are in the wider
concrete strength because high compressive range. In Figure 5 it is shown that the most of
strength of concrete reduces the depth of punching shear force estimation in EC2 are found
compressive area. The Strength of the concrete is in the underestimated zone and EC2 prediction is
the only parameter that is considered either in EC2 not more 20% accurate in comparison with
and ACI318 but the amount of this affect varies experimental data. Examining codes in terms of
between the two codes which mean that in ACI318 concrete strength, and based on experimental
the square root of concrete compressive strength is results, it can be understood that ACI318 has less
considered where as this value in EC2 is the cube accuracy in comparison with EC2 and in the
root. That is why the influence of f’c in ACI318 overall trend of EC2 shear punching force results,
should be more than EC2. The range of based on Figure 39, follow the experimental
experimental concrete strength was between 14.2 to results.
119 MPa, but the majority of the experiments took
4.5. Distribution of V experimental against VACI318 and
place using normal weight concrete. Punching
shear strength in ACI318 is a function of concrete VEC2
strength, which means that the overall shear
strength results should increase with the increasing Figure 6, illustrates the distribution of experimental
of the concrete strength. However ACI318 results
punching shear force outcomes against the results
1.40
1.20
V /(u0ρ √fc ) ( √MPa )
1.00
0.80
VACI318
0.60
V Exp
0.40
VEC2
0.20
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
d (mm)
Figure 4. Normalized shear force versus Slab depth
237
0.09
0.08
0.07
V /(u0 d ρ) ( √MPa )
0.06
0.05
0.04 V ACI318
0.03 V Exp
0.02 V EC2
0.01
0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
fc (MPa)
Figure 5. normalised Shear force versus concrete strength
800 y=x
700 R² = 1
V Experiment (kN)
600
500
400
300 ACI318
200 EC2
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
V ACI And V EC2 (kN)
Figure 6. distribution of experimental shear force versus VACI318 & VEC2
gained from ACI and EC2 equations. The line of In either slender or deep slabs with low
y= x is an index that divides the graph into two reinforcement ACI318 equation has unsafe results.
areas. The part that is over the line is in the safe
zone, in other words is in an overestimated area, Punching shear strength rises with the increasing of
and the part under the line is in the underestimated concrete strength while it is not proportionally.
zone. Where the results lie on the line, this means
When the reinforcement ratio is increased,
that accuracy is 100%, otherwise the answers are
punching shear is raised in EC2 because of the
either on the safe side or unsafe side. From Figure
growth of the compression zone depth, while this
6, it can be understood that the majority of codes
effect has been ignored in ACI318.
predict that the results which calculate the shear
punching strength are overestimated but on the safe Concrete Tensile strength stress and compression
side. When a comparison is made between the zone depth are two main parameters which have an
codes’ overall standard deviation’, that of EC2 to effect on the punching shear strength and this value
determine the punching shear strength force is varies between two codes.
20%, while that of ACI318 is 33%.
In ACI318 the strength of shear punching of the
5. CONCLUSION connection of slab to column is assumed to be
ACI318 has a big amount of COV in compare with twice the one-way slab shear strength of RC
experimental test results (27%).while the COV slender beam, while in EC2 is explained the
answer for EC2 is fairly better (17%).
238
equivalent as the shear strength of RC slender Reference
beam and punching shear strength affected by the ACI318, A. C. (2008). Building code requirements
size of slab. for structural and commentary. Detroit: ACI318-
08/ACI318R-05.
According to the experimental results, ACI318
overestimated the punching shear strength and was Eurocode2. (2004). Design of concrete structures.
affected by the ratio of perimeter of critical section Brussels, Belgium: CEN, EN 1992.
to the effective slab depth: b0/d or the ratio of size
of columns to the effective depth of slab: c1/d. Hawkins, N., & Mitchell, D. (1975). Progressive
collapse of flat plate structure. American Concrete
Each code applies different explanations for the Institute Structural Division, 1837-1853.
strength of materials e.g. fcu, f’c, and various safety
factors. Kamraldin, K. (1990). Punching Shear and
Moment transfer in reinforced concrte flat slabs.
Critical control perimeter areas and upper limits for London: Thesese of The Polytechnic of Central
shear concrete are not the same in each code, also London,.
the critical control shape could be rectangular or
circular and the distance from the face of the Kinnunen, S., & Nylander, H. (1960). Punching of
column may be different as well. Concrete slabs without shear reinforcement.
Meddelander.
ACI takes into account only strength of concrete,
while EC2 considers the strength of the concrete Marzouk, H., & Hussein, A. (1991). Experimental
and reinforcement ratio. All in all, both codes do investigation on the behavior of highstrength. ACI
not consider membrane enhancement, provided by Struct Journal, 701–713.
the surrounding structure.
Marzouk, R. (2009). Punching analysis of
Neglecting the effect of the amount of reinforced concrete two-way slabs. Newfoundland,
reinforcement, as in the ACI Code, is conservative Canada : Faculty of Engineering and Applied
for large reinforcement ratios. For slabs with low Science, Memorial St. John’s.
reinforcement ratios where the punching shear
Regan, E. P., & Braestrup, W. (1985). Punching
strength is governing, however, the ACI design
shear in Reinforced concrete: A State of the Art
equation predicts strengths that are clearly larger
Report. Bulletin dInformation No. 168.
and less conservative than those given by
Eurocode2.
6. Future work
The span-depth ratio effect of slab in not
considered in EC2 and ACI318 equations while it
has effect on punching shear strength and this
aspect need to be studied more.
There are not significant tests in the fairly thin and

thick slabs currently exist.
Finite Element Analysis of slabs subjected to

loading on rectangular areas with different
boundary condition to simulate the edge effect.
Acknowledgement
I would like to acknowledge the generous
contribution of Dr Maurizio Guadagnini as my
supervisor for allowing me the freedom to follow a
path of my own choosing in the completion of this
thesis, and in providing continued intellectual and
moral support along the way.
239
CFD Modelling of a Surcharged Manhole with Different Pipe Directions

Hasti Khazravi
MSc Urban Water Engineering and Management
ABSTRACT Combined sewer overflow (CSO) structures are not only important infrastructures for
conveying effluent from its source to suitable treatment facilities, but also for the treatment of sewage
in sub-structures (such as manholes) using mixing processes (Guymer and Dutton, 2007).
Consequently, a better understanding of these processes such as advection and dispersion would result
in an improvement in models that assess water quality as well as in the process of formulating risk
management agendas. The goal of this study is to investigate the effects that changing outlet angles
have on the mixing characteristics and hydraulic regimes of manholes with different surcharge levels.
For this purpose the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques were applied in order to
generate solute transport data. Moreover, Cumulative Retention Time Distributions (CRTDs) were
utilised to assess the effects of short-circuiting, and secondary circulation, as well as determining mean
travel time due to variations in outlet angle and surcharge depth. The results confirmed the previous
findings about the existence of a surcharge threshold level at which the hydraulic behaviour of flow
alters. At surcharge elevations below this threshold (known as pre-threshold elevations) a large degree
of solute mixing occurs within the stored volume, resulting in chaotic and swirling motions in the flow
field. At post-threshold surcharge advection takes place mainly throughout the manhole and a dead
zone forms in the upper volume of the fluid. However an innovative achievement of this work is the
observation at very low surcharges (approximately 25 to 75 mm) of a third hydraulic regime, which has
a similar behaviour to post-threshold conditions. Finally empirical tracer profiles from previous
laboratory studies carried out by (Saiyudthong, 2003) which were subsequently de-convoluted by
Sonnenwald et al. (2011) were used to validate the CFD models results at some selective surcharges.
water sediment interceptors and sewerage

1 INTRODUCTION
conveyance structures (Jarman et al, 2008).
The mixing characteristics of hydraulic
The shape of CRTD curves can vary
structures can be described by cumulative
significantly depending on the mixing process
residence time distribution (CRTD). Having the
taking place within a hydraulic structure. The
downstream temporal concentration data in
effect of short-circuiting, secondary circulation,
response to an upstream injection of dye in
or well mixing, can affect the overall shape of
laboratory, the histogram for travel time of cloud
the CRTD. Usually there are two parameters can
of tracer yields the corresponding CRTD. There
be directly derived from CRTDs; mean travel
is an engineering techniques referred as
time (t50) (when 50% of the particles had passed
deconvolution technique, used in order to
through the controlling point) and mass fraction
remove all the non-instantaneous and noisy
(where the frequency of particles with the almost
results from an instantaneous dye injection
the same travel time drops down significantly).
upstream (Sonnenwald et al, 2011). However,
temporal upstream and downstream Previously, Saiyudthong (2003) investigated
concentration profiles can be generated using solute mixing behaviour in a manhole by
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models applying Advection- Dispersion Equation (ADE)
without dealing with any practical difficulties and Aggregated Dead Zone (ADZ) methods to
associated with empirical studies. analyse experimental tracer data. The data
collected from this experiment, which was
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a group
measured under different surcharge conditions,
of techniques aimed at solving the Navier-
outlet pipe angle, and flow rates, has been de-
Stokes equations, which aim to fulfil the
convolved by Sonnenwald et al. (2011). The
conservation of mass, momentum and energy
contribution that this paper aims to make is to
necessary to predict the behaviour of hydraulic
examine mixing effects across a manhole with
structures including Combined Sewer Overflows
respect to pipe directions by means of CFD
(CSOs), storage and attenuation systems, storm-
240
modelling techniques to mimic the results from of meshing was poor. However all of the models
the laboratory works and obtain theoretical that were created had more than 500,000
CRTDs for a variety of different cases with computational cells.
range of surcharges (25mm to 500mm) and
The above procedure was repeated for about 70
outlet pipe angles of (0º, 30º, 60º, 90º). De-
models, which can be defined under four
convoluted tracer profiles were used to validate
different categories based on the models outlet
the CFD models results at some selective
angles and surcharge levels (0°, 30°, 60°, and
surcharges. For this purpose, convoluted
90°). The distribution of surcharges with respect
techniques were applied to predict the
to the outlet angle is represented in Figure 1.
downstream concentration profile from a known
experimental upstream profile with CRTDs
derived using CFD models.
2 METHODOLOGY
Generally speaking, the CFD analysis consists of
three main stages: (1) The pre-processor
preparing data for the several simultaneous
iterations that the model will run, (2) the solver,
which is used to calculate the data and send
results to (3) the post-processor which analyses
and presents the results.
Figure 1 – the distribution of surcharges for
2.1 Pre-processing generated models with different outlet angles
Physical geometry definition and Mesh
generation- The basic geometric configuration Geometry boundary definition and Boundary
for manholes with different pipe angles were condition - Finally, the types of boundaries were
derived from Saiyudthong‟s (2003) PhD thesis allocated to all of the faces in the GAMBIT
where an experimental rig was used that software in the following order: the upstream
consisted of a recirculating system with a 388 inlet was allocated as the 'Velocity Inlet' and the
mm internal diameter manhole and 88 mm downstream outlet was allocated as the 'Pressure
internal diameter inlet and outlet pipes. Two Outlet'. The other parts of the model were
fluorometers were installed at a distance of 1350 specified as a „Wall‟, although it was necessary
mm on either side of the manhole's centre line to to define the top of the manhole as a „Wall‟
record the concentration of a injected dye at the separately. This is because the top of the
upstream and downstream ends of the manhole. manhole requires no parameters to be entered
Outlet angles of 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90° were used, that take friction into account , while for the
along with flow rates, in litres per second (L/s), other parts of the manhole's boundaries the
of 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8. roughness was defined as being 4×10-5m (4E-
5). This roughness value was derived from
In this project the surcharge depth varied from laboratory Perspex pipe tests throughout the
25mm to 500mm, which was measured from the manhole (Bennett et al, 2011). This approach for
upper surface of the pipe to the free surface of modelling the free surface is referred to as a non-
the water, usually using 25mm or 50mm slip wall (or rigid lid wall).
intervals between two consecutive surcharge
levels. Also the only discharge that was In terms of the models input parameters, the
investigated was the 1L/s. turbulence intensity was defined as 3%, the
The tri/paved scheme was applied across the hydraulic diameter was defined as 3m, the
inlet face and the interval count was set as 150 discharge was assumed as 1L/s, and
cells using the GAMBIT software. When the consequently a velocity of 0.1644 m/s was
required density was achieved, the 'Tet/Hybrid' evenly distributed over the inlet face.
'Tgrid' mesh scheme was applied throughout the 2.2 Solving
volume. The Tet/Hybrid mesh is primarily
composed up of tetrahedral elements, but can Flow Field Simulation - The K-epsilon RNG
also use hexahedral, pyramidal and wedge model was chosen as the most robust and
elements where it is necessary. It should be economical model for flow field simulation,
noted that if the face mesh elements have a high when used with standard wall functions to solve
aspect ratio, the Tgrid volumetric meshing may the near wall flow field.
fail due to containing highly skewed transition Solute Transport Modelling - Stochastic
pyramidal elements. Unfortunately in some modeling processes were applied to predict the
models the skewness requirement was not met dispersion of particles due to turbulence in the
for a number of faces, and therefore the quality manhole. This model takes into account the
241
effects of instantaneous velocity fluctuations on 3 RESULTS
the particle cloud, using time-averaged turbulent
kinetic energy in conjunction with Gaussian 3.1 Outlet Angle = 0
probability density functions for concentration of The CRTDs generated for manholes with 0
particles within the cloud (Lau et al, 2007 and outlet angles over a range of different surcharges
FLUENT, 2009). (Figure 2a) are mainly similar to prototype post-
It was assumed that 60,000 individual particles threshold curves, with a very steep rise occurring
(where each particle has a diameter of 1mm) that encompasses almost 90% of the particles.
should be sufficient, if the particles have This represents the formation of a submerged jet
identical properties compared to water. that is attributed to short-circuiting effects.
Consequently the effects of sedimentation due to Therefore the flow will be mostly experience
differential densities in the fluid and particle advection straight into and out of the manhole,
phases were taken into account. without having a chance to be dispersed or well-
mixed within the storage volume of the manhole.
2.3 Post-processing However at surcharges of about 200 to 300 mm,
The models were set to be run for a large a very small fraction of particles (5-10%) will
number of iterations (approximately 5,000) in travel into the surcharged volume and
order to give the solution sufficient time to recalculate within there. Consequently, a hump
converge. Ideally the solution would eventually will appear in the CRTD curve and the travel
reach a point where it converged. However in time values will vary slightly at the 16s point,
most cases convergence was not achieved. The but for the 200 to 300 mm interval this hump
residuals were monitored to make sure that they will be observed at the increased time of 19s.
stabilised at an approximately constant value, Then there is a gradual increase in the number of
after a sharp drop in values was seen at the start particles entering the upper zone and which
of the simulation. decreases the volume of the dead zone. Finally at
very high surcharges (325-500mm) the
The particle tracking procedure will result in two advection process again becomes dominant and
*.dpm files, an upstream and downstream file. values for the travel time decline as the
Using the times that were calculated for each submerged jet develops. In summary the
particle to arrive at a given monitoring plane, the threshold level is suggested to be about 200 to
mean travel time across the whole model could 300 mm, at which point the hydraulic regime
be obtained. Eventually residence time alters.
distributions (CRTDs) for each case were carried
out using a histogram process. 3.2 Outlet Angle = 30
For CRTDs representing post-threshold The CRTDs generated for manholes with 30
conditions, the portion of the curve with the outlet angle (Figure 2b), at the 25mm surcharge
steep and almost linear rise corresponds to the almost 60% of the particles formed the
mass fraction of flow that experience advection submerged jet, while the rest were retained in the
due to short-circuiting (Sonnewald et al, 2011). remaining volumes for a longer period. It is
Typically there is a point of inflection after suggested that at surcharges below the 25mm
which the steep decline in the CRTD curves post-threshold conditions occurred.
ceases, and the curves decrease with a gentler At surcharges within the range of 50 to 150 mm
slope. From that point onwards, there is a small the effects of jet flow were gradually eliminated
portion of the particles that will be absorbed in from the manhole, with a larger fraction of
turbulent eddies and reside within the manhole particles entered the storage zone than for the
for longer, until they become well mixed. On the 25mm post-threshold case. As a result the
contrary for pre-threshold surcharge levels, the volume of the dead zone decreased while the
CRTD curves grow exponentially and the rate of surcharge level increased up to 150 mm.
their growth influence mixing levels.
When surcharge levels were calculated between
Additionally, flow fields at the mid-pipe depth 200 to 400 mm, the histograms exhibited a
on the centre vertical and horizontal planes were second spike, with a much lower frequency than
generated using FLUENT. The results were the first spike, which can be attributed to the
observed for each case individually in order to presence of particles absorbed in a submerged
improve the insight gained about how mixing jet. Therefore the presence of secondary
processes occur within a surcharged manhole. circulation is a possibility for this case, an
The above procedure was repeated for about 70 assumption that is also supported by the
models, which can be defined under four observation of the flow field velocity within the
different categories based on the models outlet mid-depth of the pipe. About 20% of particles
angles and surcharge levels. re-circulated in the volume at the left side of the
jet.
242
Eventually, when the surcharge levels increased similar observation of recirculation in the
from 425 to 500 mm, a smaller portion of the manholes with a 30 outlet angle.
particles experienced detention within the upper
volume of the manhole, and therefore the Ultimately at surcharges of around 425mm, the
effective volume available for mixing declined. dead zones at the storage volume start to expand
Consequently, the post-threshold conditions and therefore submerge jet effects start to
were observed again at these levels of surcharge. emerge again. Although in manholes with a 90
outlet angle, the last stage is not as distinctively
3.3 Outlet Angle = 60 obvious as the other cases and the signs of
secondary circulations are explicit from the
The CRTDs were carefully investigated for
CRTD‟s within surcharge values of 325-500mm.
manholes with a 60 outlet angle and three
These circulations might occur in the upper half
distinct behaviours for solute transport were
of the horizontal plane, as after the particles
identified at low, medium, and high surcharges.
enter this part of the storage volume the jet will
(Figure 2c) Apparently at very low surcharges
block them from reaching the outlet. Therefore
(25-75mm), the main body of the flow is
these circulations will form turbulent eddies and
dominated by advection and can be categorized
reside longer within the manhole.
as post-threshold. Moreover dead zone that are
formed in the surcharged volume of the manhole 4 VALIDATION OF CFD MODELLS
can be seen in the mid-pipe depth flow velocity
In order to validate models with existing
fields for the central vertical and horizontal
laboratory solute transport data sets
velocities
(Saiyudthong, 2003), the convolution function in
After this point, when the surcharge levels Matlab was used to calculate the downstream
increase from 100 to 275 mm, the velocity concentration profile based on the RTD and the
contours also express higher values which experimental upstream concentration profiles.
results in a smaller dead zone volume in the (Figure 3) For this purpose both the RTDs and
manholes total storage volume. The CRTDs the laboratory observations were normalised
within this range grow exponentially and look against both the total number of injected
similar to pre-threshold curves. This process will particles and also with the total area under the
ultimately result in a large degree of solute concentration distribution curve respectively.
mixing associated with chaotic and swirling
motions of the fluid in upper volume. For the models with a 30 outlet angle the
measure of the goodness of fit varied between
Interestingly the CRTDs for the 300 to 500 mm approximately 0.7 to 0.9, for the models
surcharge levels look similar to the typical post- investigated in this study. Therefore it was
threshold case, and the volume of manhole with concluded that the CFD models can accurately
stagnant water spreads. estimate the downstream profile from the known
upstream temporal profile derived from
It was finally decided that the threshold value is
empirical investigations. In general, the
placed at about the 300-350 mm surcharge
successful validation of CFD models leads to
levels.
more confidence being able to be placed in their
3.4 Outlet Angle = 90 application and in the reliability of their results,
in terms of CRTDs and flow field velocity
The results for the CRTDs for the 90 outlet profiles.
angles (Figure 2d) were similar to the 60 outlet
angle in terms of the three different groups over However the validation of CFD models for the
which the hydraulic regime is different to the manholes with the other pipe angle failed to
others. Although there are some unique achieve robust results. Although the overall
properties attributed to this 90 pipe shape of the predicted downstream profile
configuration across the manhole. looked reasonably similar to the measured
downstream concentration profiles, there were
At the 25 to 50 mm surcharge levels short- significant differences between the first arrival
circuiting occurred, which can be observed from times and peak concentration for both profiles.
the initial sharp rise in the CRTD curves where
about 60% of particles take the shortest path to The fact that the same procedure was followed
travel across the manhole, and therefore the dead for generating all of the models can help identify
zones with very low velocities appear in vertical the problem with the accuracy of the convolution
and horizontal plan. Interestingly, the second technique applied, rather than questioning the
spike appeared in the travel time histograms with CFD models. It was found that the time intervals
mass fractions of 0.2 to 0.6. It can be concluded for the upstream and downstream concentration
that secondary circulation occurred in a larger profiles were recorded irregularly, while the
volume of the manhole compared with the RTDs derived from CFD particle tracking had
fixed intervals of 0.01 (sec).
243
Time discretisation is an important factor in concentration profile. It is believed that this
convolution analysis because the differential problem did not affect the results of the
operator in the convolution integral should be convolution for models with a 30 outlet angle,
constant for both the RTD and upstream because the time increments were almost fixed.
Figure 2– CRTD‟s for (a) 0 angle (b) 30 angle (c) 60 angle (d) 90 angle
0º 30º 60º 90º

min max min max min max min max
Threshold level (mm) 200 300 225 375 300 350 325 450
Mass fraction 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.4 0.25 0.5 0.2 0.4
Table 1 – Max and min threshold level and mass fraction for different angles
4 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 3– Comparison between observed and measured downstream concentration profiles (a) 30 outlet angle with 25mm
4 CONCLUSIONS
surcharge level, (b) 60 outlet angle with 325mm surcharge level
5 CONCLUSIONS
244
At very low surcharges (approximately 25 to 75 surcharge levels below 25 mm could be studied.
mm), the existence of a third hydraulic regime with More accurate results for discrete phase-stochastic
similar behaviour as post-threshold conditions, was particle tracking can be achieved if setups in terms
detected in all 4 different outlet angle cases (0, 30,of the definition of the injection be made. The
60 and 90). Theoretically it was suggested that a FLUENT package can predict the lifetime of an
submerged will jet form and some particles will eddy formation using a Time Scale Constant (TSC),
absorbed by short-circuiting. This phenomenon will which can be defined for the given case. This
affect the initial steep and almost linear rise in parameter dictates how long a particle remains
CRTDs, Accordingly dead zones with very small within an eddy. The default value of TSC is 0.15 and
velocities in the velocity flow field planes will it varies independently of flow field (FLUENT).
progressively appear. At this stage advection is the However in another study, conducted by Bennett et
dominant transport mechanism and the travel time al (2011), the sensitivity of the discrete modelling
values were usually smaller than those for the post- phase results to the TSC were investigated. It was
threshold cases. concluded that in post-threshold conditions, if the
TSC value was set as 0.1, a better fit with laboratory
The thresholds that were identified in this study for data will be achieved
each manhole with different pipe angles were almost
consistent with the results from Sonnenwald et al‟s
2011 paper. One exception is that the threshold for
the manhole with a straight pipe which was set
between 200 to 300 mm, whereas in Sonnenwald et
al 2011 they suggested a threshold surcharge level
below 100 mm.
The comparative graphs for mean travel time at
different surcharge levels for different outlet angles
are presented in Figure 4. Generally, the travel time
seems to increase as the angle increases for all the
surcharge values. However the identification of a
threshold based solely on this graph was not possible
due to the existence of outliers. Figure 4– mean travel times versus surcharge for
different angles
Consequently, the results from CFD- and CRTD-
based analysis undertaken in this dissertation
supported the results of previous studies
REFERENCES
(Sonnenwald et al , 2011 and Saiyudthong, 2003) for
Guymer and R. Dutton (2007) “Application of
investigating the surcharge level at which the
transient storage modelling to solute transport across
hydraulic regime altered from pre- to post- threshold
a surcharged manhole” Water Science &
conditions. The out-standing findings in this project
Technology Vol. 55 No 4 pp 65–73
were the identification of a second threshold level at
D.S. Jarman, M.G. Faram, D. Butler, G. Tabor,
very low surcharge levels with the same behaviour
V.R. Stovin, D. Burt and E. Throp (2008),
as post-threshold conditions.
“Computational fluid dynamics as a tool for urban
drainage system analysis: A review of applications
5 .1 FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS and best practice”
Fluent (2009) “Gambit user‟s guide”
The CFD models can be improved in the following Lau D., Stovin R., and Guymer I. (2007) “The
ways: (1) a refinement of the meshing scheme in prediction of solute transport in surcharged
order to eliminate or reduce the number of faces manholes using CFD” Water Science & Technology
with highly skewed elements and (2) increasing the Vol. 55 No 4 pp 57–64
number of iterations in order to enhance the level of
P. Bennett, V. Stovin, and I. Guymer (2011)
convergence for solutions. ”Improved CFD Simulation Approaches for
Tracer studies in laboratory could focus on Manhole Mixing Investigations”
investigating the secondary-circulation phenomena, Saiyudthong C. (2003) “Effect of Changes in Pipe
especially in manholes with a 90 outlet angle, in Direction across Surcharged Manholes on
order to support the CFD-based findings discussed Dispersion and Head Loss” PhD Thesis, Department
in this dissertation. of Civil and Structural Engineering, University of
Sheffield
In order to further develop our insight about the Sonnenwald F., Stovin V., Guymer I. (2011) “ The
second threshold at low surcharges, at which point Influence of Outlet Angle on Solute Transport in
the hydraulic characteristics of the flow alters from Surcharged Manholes” 12th international conference
post- to pre- threshold, more CFD models with on urban drainage, Porto Alegre, Brazil
245
Seventeenth Postgraduate Student Conference on MSc Dissertation, 2010-2011
Experimental Determination of the Advective Zone in Open Channel

Flow
Michael kidi-ikediashi
Candidate MSc in Environmental Management of Urban Land and Water
ABSTRACT Models like the Advective diffusion equation are mostly used to predict concentration
distribution downstream of a watercourse in the event of pollution. These models are only applicable
when a pollution/tracer enters the equilibrium zone. This paper compares previously derived theoretical
and experimental estimates with new experimental values of the distance required to reach the
equilibrium zone. A closer agreement was found with Fisher (1973) review of numerical experiments
and Fisher (1967) theoretical estimation.
1 INTRODUCTION most predictions made in the past were limited

to the resolution and computational capability
There is a strong need to be able to predict the enjoyed today.
concentration distribution downstream of a
watercourse in the event of pollution. During
such events, engineers use the one-dimensional
Fickian dispersion models, such as the 2 EQUIPMENTS AND ANALYTICAL
advective diffusion equation, to analysis and TECHNIQUES UTILISED
predict the fate of tracer/pollution.
All experiments were carried out in a 15 m
These models are only valid when the long, 0.6 m wide, rectangular gravel bed
tracer/pollution has entered the equilibrium laboratory channel, with a slope of 0.001.
zone. The equilibrium zone is that zone where Rhodamine WT fluorescent dye was used as a
equilibrium is attained between the effects of soluble tracer, and monitored at four locations;
velocity shear and turbulent diffusion, after the 7.52, 8.74, 9.96 and 11.18 meters.
advective zone, where tracer/pollution has had
The tracer was monitored at different location
the opportunity to sample the entire flow
downstream of the channel using calibrated
(Rutherford 1994).
Cyclops fluorometers.
Knowing precisely where the equilibrium zone
The dye was introduced as a transverse point
starts is paramount has it helps reduce the
source at the channel inlet, using a tipping
overestimation of the length of the advective
system position above the surface of the water.
zone, which in turn reduces the chance of
using models such as the advective diffusion Calibrations were performed on Cyclops 215,
equation improperly. 214, 284 and 285, to ensure they represented
reality to the required degree of accuracy. This
This dissertation investigates the theoretical
were carried out with a bucket of 10 litres of
and experimental estimation of the length of
water, of which all Cyclops fluorometers were
advective zone derived in the past, by carrying
inserted intermittently to measure out their
out experiments to validate their results, as
246
various voltage outputs at different levels of this to be due to the fact that, when the water is
dye concentrations. shallow, the irregularities of the channel
bottom are exposed thereby increasing their
For the longitudinal and transverse tests, five effects. In other words as the discharge
discharges were implemented; 0.01325 m3/s, increases the channel bottom effect reduces,
0.0188 m3/s, 0.0227 m3/s, 0.0259 m3/s and causing the manning’s n to reduce.
0.02905 m3/s.
3.2 Longitudinal Mixing Tests
Evaluation of the variance and skew of each
distribution by moment analysis was carried
out. This evaluation involved plotting the low mid high
development of variance and skew with Discharge range range range
distance. It was with this analysis that the (m3/s) (m) (m) (m)
length of the advective zone was derived. 0.01325 8.13 8.745 9.36
0.0188 8.20 8.9 9.6
From the length of advective zone, transverse
0.0227 8.30 9.15 10
mixing coefficient, length scale (half the
channel width, and the velocity of the channel
0.0259 8.50 9.5 10.50
a new α coefficient was derived. 0.02905 8.74 9.655 10.57
3 RESULTS
Table 2: The Length of the advective zone for
3.1 Open Channel Flow Tests the each discharges, derived after conducting
the longitudinal mixing experiments.
Depth
of
Discharge water manning Velocity
(m3/s) (m) n (m/s)
0.01325 0.086 0.022494 0.2568
0.0188 0.1 0.019906 0.3133
0.0227 0.107 0.018242 0.3536
0.0259 0.113 0.01734 0.382
0.02905 0.118 0.016484 0.4103
Table 1: The Flow depth, Manning’s n and

Velocities at various discharges derived from
the experimental channel.
Figure 2: Variation in the length of advective

zones. These were carried out with 1.22 meters
Cyclops fluorometers spacing. Figure 1 shows
a gradual increase in the lenght of advective
zone with discharge.
Figure 1: Variation of manning’s n with

discharge.
Figure 1 shows a decrease in manning’s n with

increasing discharge. Chow (1959) expained
247
3.3 Tranverse Mixing Tests
α α α
Discharge low mid high
Discharge Transverse mixing Mass (m3/s) range range range
(m3/s) coefficient (ky) balance
0.01325 0.13 0.14 0.15
0.01325 0.000379056 0.99
0.0188 0.08 0.08 0.09
0.0188 0.000276754 0.98
0.0227 0.12 0.14 0.15
0.0227 0.000487857 1.05
0.0259 0.10 0.12 0.13
0.0259 0.000443362 1.11
0.02905 0.13 0.15 0.16
0.02905 0.00057544 1.15
Table 5: α coefficient.
Table 3: Transverse mixing coefficient derived
for each discharge. The α coefficient in table 5, was derived
The transverse mixing coefficient ky, was using;
derived using the equation below;
(3)
(1)
Where Lx, Ky, Lt and Vx are the length of the
Where V, is the velocity of the channel, D2 advective zone, transverse mixing coefficient,
and D1 are the downstream and upstream length scale (half the channel width) and Flow
monitoring positions respectively while σ2 and velocity respectively.
σ1 are the downstream and upstream variance
respectively.The variance was derived using
the equation 2 below; 4 DISCUSSION
According to taylor (1921), the variance of a

(2)
tracer cloud released into turbulent flow, will
increase linearly with time after time Tx (the
Where M1 and M2 are the first and second lagrangian timescale). This was the case, for
moments of concentration time distribution, all the discharge implemented, as they all
and φ the centroid of the distribution. appeard to show a linear relationship between
the variance and distance towards the end of
the profile. However identifying the start of
Discharge (m3/s) ky/hu* hu* this linear increase in variance was not really
obvious. It was for this reason, that the
0.01325 0.13 0.00256421 identification of the advective and equilibrium
zones were best suited using the skew profiles,
0.0188 0.08 0.00309095
where the start of the equilibrium zone was
0.0227 0.13 0.00336206 where the skew began to decay.
0.0259 0.11 0.00359818 The length of the advective zone in table 3,

were split into 3 ranges namely; low range,
0.02905 0.13 0.00379742 mid range and high range. The reason for this
was because the spacing between the sensors
was 1.22 meters, with the skew profiles
identifying the skew max to be occurring
Table 4: ky/hu* and hu* for each discharge. within -0.61 and +0.61 of distance 8.74 and
9.96 meters. When the mid range of length of
Where h and u* is the flow depth and shear
advective zone derived was plotted with
velocity of the channel respectively.
discharge, an increase in the length of the
advective zone with discharge was
experienced. This in turn agreed with
248
Shucksmith (2006), where an increase in possibility of overestimating the parameters
length of the advective zone was also used to perform such calculations.
experienced when plotted with discharge.
An additional comparison with that of
All cut offs, followed a similar trend, except Chatwin (1972), found Chatwin’s value to be
few occasions, where a particular cut off too high. This in turn shows that α coefficients
appeared to be below or above the rest of the derived by Sayre (1968) and Tsai and Holley
cut offs. This was solved by normalising the (1978) and Chatwin (1972), would lead to the
data. In addition, the low percent cut off overestimation of the length of the advective
appeared to be a lot more variable than the zone.
high percent cut off. Shucksmith (2006)
explained the reason to be due to the inclusion Rutherford (1994), identified the range of
of the background noise in the evaluation of kz/HU* to be 0.15< kz/HU*< 0.30 for straight
the second and third moments at low percent channels, after collecting tranverse dispersion
while at high percent, valid data are removed from a number of sources. Comparing this
causing the trends with distance to be less with kz/hu* of table 4, which had kz/hu*
distinct. values between the range of 0.08 to 0.13,
depending on the discharge. It is obvious that
Comparing α derived experimentally (0.08- the kz/HU* values fall on the low side of the
0.17), with other studies undertaken to rutherford’s range. This is believed to be
quantify the length of the advective zone, I.e. acceptable, as the values collected by
Fischer (1967 and 1973), Tsai and Holley rutherford was that of natural channels. Haven
(1978), Sayre (1968) and Chatwin (1972). said this, the kz/HU* values were not far from
the range, as table 4 shows.
A closer agreement was identified between α
coefficient derived from this experiment (i.e.,
α=0.08-0.17) and that of Fisher (1973), where
he derived α=0.2, after his review of various 5 CONCLUSION
numerical experiments, and Fisher (1967),
The experimental results highlights the
where he theoretically derived α=0.069.
importance of experimentally deriving the
Fishers (1967) coefficient α=0.3, which was length of advective zone, as other previous
derived from laboratory channel transverse line studies conducted in the past had
source, was found to be too high. Here it is overestimated the length of the advective zone.
believed that Fisher must have overestimated These experimentally derived results would
the length of the advective zone as he used the help provide a presire, and more acurate
variance plot for his moment analysis. estimate of the length of advective zone, which
Experience from this research have found would aid the prediction of the concentration
using the variance profile could lead to the distribution downstream of contermination
overestimation of the length of advection zone, event in watercourse.
as identifying the start of this linear increase in
The following conclusion were made after
variance is not really obvious. This could be
comparing experimental results with other
the reason Fisher’s (1967) value was higher.
theoretical, numerical and experimental results
Another reason could possible be the
derived from past studies;
resolution limitation of the probes used to
perform his experiments.  Fisher (1973) and (1967), was found
to provide the closest α coefficient to
Tsai and Holley (1978), derived α to be
that derived experimental.
between 0.4 and 0.5, this is believed to be too
high. Sayre (1968), derived value of (α= 0.5)
 An increase in the length of advective
which is also too high when compared to zone as the discharge increases was
(0.08-0.17), which was α derived derived, which agress with
experimentally.
Shucksmith (2006) findings.
The reason for this is due to the fact that these
 The use of Sayre, Tsai and Holley,
values were that of numerical experiment,
and Chatwins’ α coefficients, would
performed under huge uncertainties, with
249
lead to an overestimation of the thesis, colorado state university, Fort
lenght of the advective zone. Collins.
 The use of the variance (Second  Tsai, Y.H., and E.R. Holley, 1978,
moment) plot for the identification of temporal moments for longitudinal
the length of the advective zone, dispersion,Am.Soc.Civ.Engineering.1
could also lead to an overestimation. 04,HY12,1617-1634
As the identification of the start of the
linear increase with distance is not
really obvious. For this the skewness
(third moment) of the concentration
profile when plotted with distance
was found to better suit this purpose.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge the help and

support of the following persons
Dr. James Shucksmith for his excellent

supervision and guidance, and Paul Osborne
for helping me set up the laboratory
equipments and also fault find during times of
equipment malfunction.
7 REFERENCES
 Chatwin, P.C., 1972, the cummulents

of the distribution of concentration of
a solute in a solvent flowing along a
straight tube, J. Fluid Mechanics 51,
1, 63-67.
 Chow, ven te, 1959, Open-channel

hydraulics, Mcgraw-hill civil
engineering series, chapter 5, pages
98-113. Isbn no. 07-010776-9
 Fisher, H.B., 1967, the mechanics of

dispersion in natural
streams,J.hydraulics division 93, HY
6, 187.
 Fisher, H.B., 1973, longitudinal

dispersion and turbulent mixing in
open channel flow, ann.rev. fluid
mech. 5, 59-78.
 Rutherford, J.C., 1994, River mixing,

J. Wiley and Sons Ltd., New york,
347 pp.
 Sayre, W.W., 1968a, dispersion of

mass in open channel flow, PhD
250
Numerical Modelling of Damage

Konstantinos Kokkinakis
ABSTRACT The evolution of computers in recent years has contributed to the further development
of Fracture Mechanics. Research upon computational Fracture Mechanics, which simulate non-
homogenous materials is being presented. Furthermore, for analysis purposes the “2D Crack
Generator”, a non-linear Finite Element Analysis structural software which produces very accurate
results and mainly deals with Mode I failures, has been developed in MATLAB. The results produced
using this software are very important to engineers and to the simulation of the behaviour of structural
members, as they describe crucial parameters (strength, fracture geometry, stress distribution etc.).
Numerical simulations were performed to examine the effect of mesh dependency and crack formation
with varying element strengths and in predetermined regions. Results obtained were found to
accurately represent real-time conditions. The “2D Crack Generator” could be improved to examine
further cases, such as Mode II and III fracture types, and generally be used for academic purposes or
could also simulate structural behaviour of elements in direct engineering applications.
The applications of the software are unlimited and would interest anyone who deals with structural-
related projects or anyone who interacts with the computational field of Fracture Mechanics.
1. INTRODUCTION This project is mainly concerned with the

investigation of mode I crack problems. The “2D
The increasing demand in modelling materials or
Crack Generator” is developed to simulate a
analyzing structures has led to the rapid
member statically. Despite the fact that no time-
development of numerical methods such as the
integration methods have being used, load vs.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The complexity
displacement graphs for a given displacement
of solving several problems in engineering has
step are being produced as well as the creation of
led into the advancement of such studies in order
random strengths of lattice elements, which are
to simulate and approximate real-life problems..
necessary for the static non-linear analysis.
In this project the Stiffness Matrix Method is There are different fracture criteria that could be
being used for the numerical analysis of the adopted, but for the study of mode I crack
lattice, which provides very accurate results. The problems tensile strength is being used.
original beam is being analysed as an equivalent
triangular mesh that behaves in the same
manner. A Displacement Boundary Conditions
2. FRACTURE MECHANICS
method has also been used as a solver, by which
Displacements are given as input and Forces are 2.1 Failure Types
produced by adjusting the element’s stiffness
This project is directly linked with fracture
accordingly. The algorithm (“2D Crack
mechanics, as it focuses in the study of crack
Generator” or “2DCG”) is developed in
growth and failures due to fracture. The
MATLAB and used mainly to predict non-linear
formation of cracks along with the effect of
behaviour of elements examined. The Stiffness
mesh dependency is mainly being examined.
Matrix Method is the simplest form of numerical
technique to show how a member would perform There are two types of strength failures that can
in response to several changes, such as the occur at a structural element:
change in length or stress distribution. It is  Yield-dominant failure
robust, and can have many practical applications  Fracture-dominant failure
in structural engineering.
251
Yield-dominant occurs at members with great It is important to be noted at this point that
ductility (ex. steel members) that can deform cracks in theoretical treatments are often highly
greatly reaching maximum strength capacities idealized and may be quite irregular in shape
without the formation of cracks. when compared with actual cracks.
Fracture-dominant failures occur mainly for The crack-tip stresses and displacements for
brittle materials (ex. concrete members) that Mode I can be written in terms of the
have very low ductility and at failure points they corresponding stress intensity factor “KI” as
can form little cracking or even large pieces follows (Shi, 2009):
could start to detach (Janssen, Zuidema, &
Wanhill, 2002). Mode I
The main characteristics of these two failure Stresses Equations.2.2.1
types can be summed up in the following
Figure.2.1.1 3
= 1−
√2 2 2 2
3
= 1+
√2 2 2 2
=
√
Equations.2.2.2
Displacements
= −1+2
2 2 2 2
= +1−2
2 2 2 2
Figure.2.1.1: Types of Structural Failure
(Janssen, Zuidema, & Wanhill, 2002) where G is the shear modulus; κ = 3 – 4v for
2.2 Modes of Fracture plain strain, and κ = (3 – v) / (1 + v) for plane
stress.
There are three types by which stress systems
may be divided to according to the type of crack 3. STRESS and STRAIN
formation. Related to the different load 3.1 Equations of Equilibrium
configurations these systems may commonly be
referred to as modes I, II and III (Unger, 1995). The way in which stresses vary in a stressed
body can be governed by the equations of
 Mode I is the predominant mode of fracture equilibrium shown below (Bennett, 2010):
and is also called as the “Opening mode”. It
occurs when the two surfaces of the crack Equations.3.1.1
+ + + =0
are separated by tensile forces acting
perpendicularly to the plane of crack.
+ + + =0
 Mode II is an in-plane shear mode and is
also called as the “Sliding mode”. It occurs
when the in-plane shear forces cause the + + + =0
two crack surfaces to slide in opposite
directions. At this point it should be noted that there are
only three equations which express six
 Mode III is an out-of plane shear mode and
unknowns. Therefore the most commonly used
is also called as the “Tearing mode”. It
practice in order to obtain a solution for the
occurs when the out-of plane shear forces
stress components acting at each direction is to
cause the two crack surfaces to tear apart in
obtain additional strain-displacement equations.
the same manner that a person would tear a
piece of paper. 3.2 Strain-Displacement
In general strain is called the ratio of an
element’s change in length over its original
length.
Therefore strain has no units (as it is a ratio) and
may be expressed as (for 3-Dimensions):
Equations.3.2.1
= , = +
Figure.2.2.1: Modes of Deformation at the crack-tip = , = +
(Shi, 2009)
252
Hence the constitutive matrix becomes:
= , = +
1 − 0
where “ ” equals the shear strain. = − 1 0
0 0 (1 − )
3.3 Stress Strain Relations Equation.3.4.1
In this section the six equations which relate Plane strain analysis is used when the element
stress and strain components are going to be investigated is very long in the z-direction
developed in order to be able to determine the compared to the other two dimensions. It is a
stress, strain and displacement unknowns. These state where the strain normal to the x-y plane
additional six, are called “constitutive equations”
and the shear strains are assumed to be zero. In
(Bennett, 2010) and relate stress, strain, stress-
rate and strain rate. They depend upon the general it refers to very long elements
material properties, such as elastic bulk modulus (Figure.3.3.2) (Camp, 2011).
(“K”), elastic moduli (“E”), Poisson’s ratio (“v”)
and the elastic shear modulus (“μ”).
The constitutive equations may be expressed as: y
z
Equations.3.3.1
= + + + + x
+
Figure.3.3.2: Thick element in tension (plane strain)

= + + + +
+ Hence the constitutive matrix becomes:
1− 0
= 1− 0
= + + + + (1 + )(1 − 2 ) 0 0 (1 − 2 )
+
Equation.3.3.2
= + + + +
+ 4. FRACTURES
4.1 Fracture Process Zone
= + + + + As commonly known concrete is a non-
+ homogeneous material that consists of
aggregates and cement pastes that bond together.
= + + + + Its tensile strength varies from 8-15 percent of
+ its compressive strength which makes it quite
weak due to the limited bonding strength of the
where the constants Crs are the stiffnesses and materials and due to the small flaws that preexist
may be solved for the components of strain from the manufacturing process (microcracks,
accordingly, and remain unchanged under any air voids etc.). Under tensile loading, a
transformation of an isotropic material. complicated microfailure mechanism forms at
the tension zone of the crack tip.
3.4 Plane Stress-Plane Strain These inelastic effects which form at the crack
Plane stress analysis is used when the element tip, extensively affect the crack formation and
thus Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics cannot
investigated is very thin in the z-direction
be used to accurately simulate and model such
compared to the x and y dimensions. It is a state cases (Shi, 2009).
where the normal stress and shear stresses which Figure.4.1.1 shows the formation of the inelastic
act perpendicular to the plane are assumed to be zone which is commonly known as the Fracture
zero. In general it refers to very thin elements Process Zone (FPZ).
(Figure.3.3.1) (Camp, 2011).
y
Figure.4.1.1: Fracture Process Zone of an open crack

Figure.3.3.1: Thin plate in tension (plane stress) (Shi, 2009)
253
4.2 Fracture Energy prescribed degrees of freedom matrix in {u},
then subtract {r} from element loads and
In the load-displacement graph shown in
assemble the net loads as before.
Figure.4.2.1, the area between the curve and the
x-axis represents the work done by the load to 0 −
crack the beam. If the crack propagation is stable 0 = −
and if the energy is only spent for the crack, 0 −
according to Griffith’s energy criterion for 0 −
fracture of an elastic body, the energy needed to 0 1 0 =
form a crack of unit area is expressed as (Shi, 0 −
2009):
Equations.5.2.1: Use of the “zero-one” treatment to impose
Equation.4.2.1 displacement on the truss (Robert D. Cook, 1989): (a)
= Intermediate form, (b) Final form
where Gf represents the energy needed, Wf the A disadvantage of the treatment shown above is
external load and Aug the area of the notch. that many useless zeros are stored and
processed.
5.3 Lattice Heterogeneity
In order to produce the fracture of elements such
as concrete we would need to introduce some
similar heterogeneity in the lattice as well,
otherwise all the elements of the lattice would all
break in a totally different manner. Thus there is
a need to assign different material properties in
Figure.4.2.1: Determination of GF based on the RILEM the elements of the lattice, such as different
method (Shi, 2009): load-deformation curve strengths, stiffnesses or lengths.
5. LATTICE The lattice elements that fall within that

“aggregate” region are being assigned with
5.1 Lattice Beam Modelling higher stiffness and strength while those that fall
outside that region belong to the cementitious
Lattices in general may be comprised by beams
paste and have much smaller values
or trusses depending on the degrees of freedom
(Figure.5.3.1).
needed to make the analysis. In general there are
three main lattice types which are used in
computational analysis. These are:
Figure.5.3.1: (a) Computer Generated Particle Structure of

Concrete, (b) Fine lattice overlay, (c) Coarse lattice overlay.
Figure.5.1.1: Lattice Types (B.L.Karihaloo, 2003) (J.G.M. van Mier, 2002)
The regular triangular lattice, as the one used for The algorithm produced for the purposes of this
this project, was found to predict accurately project assigns different strengths randomly to
enough the crack formations in pull out the elements of the lattice; it does not replace a
experiments but the load-displacement curves whole particle area with a smaller finite mesh of
were found to deviate substantially from the different properties, although this method would
actual ones. produce much more realistic results.
5.2 Displacement Control 6. CODE
A slightly different approach of the Stiffness 6.1 “2D Crack Generator” Flow Chart
Matrix Method described above has been made
for this project. In cases where the structure is
unsupported or when the structure stiffness
equations (Ke) is singular we can obtain a
solution by prescribing the displacements in the
Equation.2.8.1 and obtaining the corresponding
forces (Robert D. Cook, 1989).
By using this method each element is assembled,
its loads {f} = [k]{u} are calculated by the
254
6.2 Benchmarking
The “2D Crack Generator” is being compared
with the results of another FEM algorithm which
deals with linear elastic analysis and solves the
mesh with two degrees of freedom. Results were
found to be very close with a difference of 14-
15%, mainly due to the different mesh scaling
and type used.
 “Linear elastic isotropic 2d deformation of
continua”: -19.114mm
Figure.7.4: Force vs. Displacement (1.2/1.2)
 “2D Crack Generator”:
-22.3725mm
7. RESULTS
The 11 cases studied may be divided mainly into
three categories.
 Cases 1-3 examine the effect of mesh
dependency
 Cases 4-8 examine the effect of strength
variation
 Cases 9-11 examine the effect of notches on Figure.7.5: Stress Plot and Broken Elements (1.2/1.2)
the beam
Case 11
Case 3
Figure.7.1: Displaced Shape (32x5) Figure.7.6 Displaced and Fractured Shape with Notches
(8.8/1.3 and 100x21)
Figure.7.2: Force vs. Displacement (32x5) Figure.7.7: Force vs. Displacement with Notches (8.8/1.3
and 100x21)
Case 7
Figure.7.3: Displaced and Fractured Shape (1.2/1.2) Figure.7.8: Stress Plot and Broken Elements with Notches
(8.8/1.3 and 100x21)
255
8. DISCUSSION Nevertheless the whole project was carried out
with great success, as all cases were produced
Case 3 with the denser grid of 32x5 was found
accurately and within the time limit of the
to be the most accurate one with only 3.77%
project. The code was successfully implemented
difference to the theoretically calculated value of
to produce a great variety in mesh resolutions,
force. The simulation has been limited to linear
strength variations and the creation of notches,
elastic, as it can also be seen in Figure.7.2, in
in order to examine Mode I fractures.
order to compare the maximum values of force.
By comparing the results from the cases studied,
In Case 7 both aggregates and cement paste are
it was found that the simulations of the element
being assigned with the same strength values of
followed a reasonable and accurate pattern.
1.2MPa. The only variation this time making the
element non-homogeneous is the 0.9 to 1.1
multiplication factor accounting for the material
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
flaws. The element failed at much lower load
values which was expected due to the lower I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Terry
strengths assigned to the lattice. It also failed in Bennett for supporting me throughout the whole
a much more brittle manner, as observed in project, despite his very tight schedule. Without
Figure.4 the curve is very steep, than any other his valuable help, it is highly likely that this
case examined due to the more homogeneous report wouldn’t have been completed with such
consisntancy of the material. a success.
Case 11 had a much denser grid of 100x21 and
also the maximum values of strength,
8.8/1.3MPa for aggregates and paste REFERENCES
accordingly. It also came with a prefabricated B.L.Karihaloo, R. I. (2003). Lattice modelling of
notch at its mid-point. (Figure.6). size effect in concrete strength.
The notched version of the beam had about half Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2307-
2320.
of the strength compared to an un-notched beam
examined that had the same strengths assigned. Bennett, T. (2010). Dr. CIV6130 -
It also failed at a lower load than a case Computational Structural Analysis.
examined that had the same notches but a grid of
32x5, but this was due to the existence of many Camp, C. V. (2011). Retrieved 2011, from
elements between the lower and upper notches University of Memphis:
that belonged to the lowest strength range This http://www.ce.memphis.edu/7117/notes/pre
can be understood by examining Figure.7.8 sentations/chapter_06.pdf
where there is very little stress distribution J.G.M. van Mier, M. R. (2002). Fracture
between the two notches (beams in shades of mechanisms in particle composites:
cyan), as the lower strength beams failed quite statistical. Mechanics of Materials, 705-
rapidly. 724.
Janssen, M., Zuidema, J., & Wanhill, R. J.
9. CONCLUSIONS (2002). Fracture Mechanics. Spon Press.
The increasing computer technology evolution Jensen, O. (n.d.). Professor. Retrieved August 1,
has enabled Computational Mechanics studies to 2011, from McGill University:
advance by leaps and bounds over the recent http://transsexy.geophys.mcgill.ca/~olivia/
years. The software developed in this project EES/2011-Winter/stress_strain.pdf
could easily be used as a basis for structural Robert D. Cook, D. S. (1989). Concepts and
engineering software that analyses loads on a Applications of Finite Element Analysis.
structure with plastic deformations taken into John Wiley & Sons.
account, or even be used for further research.
Shi, Z. (2009). Crack Analysis on Structural
The code uses the most basic Finite Element Concrete. Butterworth-Heinemann.
method known as the Direct Stiffness Matrix and
it can provide accurate enough results for the Unger, D. J. (1995). Analytical Fracture
average user. Numerical results can be obtained Mechanics. Academic Press.
very quickly for any kind of element studied and
additional modifications such as the creation of
notches can be made. Some slight inaccuracies
could be easily eliminated with some further
programming of the “2D Crack Generator”.
256
The Influence of Steel Connections on the Fire Resistance of Composite

Steel-Framed Buildings
Benjamin Thomas Leathley
ABSTRACT The fire resistance of steel frames is becoming increasingly important due to its
extensive use throughout the industry. Suitable design can lead to a reduction in fire proofing costs and
a more efficient and high performance of frame. In this research a three-dimensional frame analysis
program, Vulcan has been used to carry out parametric tests to determine the effect of connection
robustness on the performance of steel frames in both ISO834 and Eurocode natural fires. Seven sets of
test were carried out in total to compare different connection types including pinned, semi-rigid and
rigid. The results indicated that connections with the ability to resist beam moments were capable of
extensively improved behaviour during fires; this was especially highlighted through studies into the
cooling phase of the natural fire profile. It was concluded that if a frame is designed assumed, there will
be inherent fire resistance due to the semi-rigid nature of most connection types to some degree. The
more robust connection are design the greater the resistance of the frame in fire and the greater chance
of survival and chance of repair.
damages caused by fire according to Leston-

1 INTRODUCTION
Jones (1997), the cost of fire to UK business is
Steel has become an increasingly popular estimated at over £900 million a year, some of
construction material. The materials high this is due to damage to buildings, but an
strength and ductility levels which rival concrete increasingly significant proportion is due to the
offer distinct advantages. The speed of costs of consequent business interruption.
construction achievable through the use of pre-
Historically it was accepted that steel would
fabricated components rapidly installed on site
require fire protection with a thickness based on
leads to savings in site preliminaries, earlier
standard fire tests. This method of adding
return on investment and reduced interest
additional material/coatings is known as
charges. Due to the demands placed on structures
prescriptive. More recent times have seen a great
to be flexible and adaptable steel continues to
deal of advances in the field of structures in fire.
become more sustainable and beneficial to the
This has led to the validity of previous methods
environment. This is mainly achieved through the
to be questioned. The previous prescriptive
use of standardised pre-fabricated connections
methods are also extremely costly amounting to
which can be disassembled and re-assembled on
up to 30% of the cost of a structure (Wang
a new site. Many of these features cannot be
2002). Not only is the additional material
achieved through use of other materials.
required expensive but there are also cost
Steel, however experiences severe vulnerability implications through the extended fabrication
to increases in temperature through the rapid times. Therefore from engineering point of view
increase in temperature due to the high value of much more logical to design the structure to
thermal conductivity. This results in the loss of withstand fire without protection rather than
strength and stiffness leading to large designing the structure for ambient conditions
deformations and often collapses. These effects and then applying protection as an afterthought.
must be mitigated in order to ensure the safety of Obviously the fire engineering approach is far
a structure and its occupants in fire. Not only more difficult in application than the prescriptive
does fire cause casualties but also the resulting methods; however, the benefits of such an
structural damage contributes to many injuries approach can greatly outweigh the costs.
and fatalities. There are also great financial
257
The steel industry identified the cost of fire through the code, modelling all connections as
protection to be one of the main obstacles pinned and then rigid. Semi-rigid connection
limiting its market share and has committed were then modelled by design of flush and
extensive resources to studying this subject in extended end-plate details. This was done in
order to better understand and better design conjunction with the green book for moment
solutions more efficiently. By careful design in connections.
order to sustain strength and stiffness at higher
temperatures not only can collapse be avoided
9m 9m 4.5m
and means of escape kept intact giving the 4m 533 x 210 x 92UB UDL = 20kN/m
occupants the necessary time to vacate the Node 15 Node 38 Node 60
hazard. Connection 5 Connection 5 Connection 5

4m
Through recent studies the importance of the Fire Zone Fire Zone Fire
Zone
robustness of the connections in steel framed 305 x 305 x 97UC Line of symetry
buildings in fire has been identified as a key
factor in improve the stability of such structures. 2: Modelled two-dimensional steel frame in fire.
This is largely due to the higher thermal
resistance within connection due to the amount Each test was modelled using both ISO834 Fire
of material in these areas. and the Eurocode Parametric (natural) fire
conditions.
The purpose of this research was to investigate
this principal through the parametric studies and
the use of the finite element programme Vulcan. 3. Behaviour of steel frame in fire.
3.1 Temperature – Deflection Relationship
2 Methodology The primary relationship that has been studied
A series of parametric studies were undertaken in during this research was between temperature
order to compare results and form reasonable and mid-span deflections. The mid-spans were
conclusion on the effect of robustness of chosen as in this symmetrical structure these
connections to the performance of the frame in would be the critical deflections. By modelling
both ISO 834 and the Eurocode natural fire. these results it also enabled assessments to be
Figure1 shows a basic break down of the made on failure methods, determining whether
procedure and relevant parts. This section will beams were failing gradually or if ‘runaway’
also serve as a useful reference for further work deflections were occurring. The results for each
in the field. bay have been displayed and compared in order
to assess the difference in the effect of the
connections robustness throughout the structure.
1: Flow of procedure.
The model which was used was modified from

Huang 2010 and is shown in Figure 2. Fire was
3: Mid-span deflections in end bay for different
applied to the entire ground floor as this connection properties for ISO834 fire conditions.
modelled the worst case scenario. A Nominal
floor load of 20kN/m was used in order to Figure 3 shows how the deflections are improved
provide the best range of results and complete with rigidity of connections in the end-bay under
data. ISO834 fire conditions. The results show that
there is significant improvement in the resistance
Initially connections were modelled simply of the beam for rigid connections. It is clear in
within the input file by assigning properties each of these that the frames using pinned
258
connections experience deflection runaway much key difference in failure mechanism that can be
sooner reaching the maximum allowable observed through these graphs is that the pinned
deflection at a much lower temperature, around beams begin to fail faster earlier on but this is a
100°C less than that of the rigid connection gradual failure as the beam is able to ‘sink’
performance. The semi-rigid connections perform down, whereas the rigid and semi-rigid
very similarly to the rigid connection in the connected beams resist the deflections initially
initial stages of the fires. As the deflections but suffer more sudden increases in deflection at
increase and the compressive force on the semi- higher temperature, this is most likely attributed
rigid connections decreases, thus providing less to catenary action as the beam deflection causes
stiffness and a less robust connection, the profile decreasing of compression force and pulls the
peels away from the rigid connection and connections away from the columns.
deflects at a faster rate until failure. Showing the
semi-rigid connections performing as rigid
connections when high compressive forces are
present, but as these reduce and the connections
become loaded in tension the profile drops
suddenly and tends towards the behaviour of the
pinned connection.
The performance of steel frames using different
connection types is distinctly altered when a
natural fire is applied. This is because unlike the
ISO834 fire for which the temperature continues 5: Axial forces on end bay connections for different
to increase as a cellulosic curve, the natural fire connection conditions under natural fire
enters a cooling phase and shows a more realistic Figure 5 shows the axial forces of connections at
representation of frame performance through fire the central connections. As expected the
conditions. Similarly to the results for ISO834 compression forces reduces in the pinned
the profiles in figure 3, figure 4 shows how the connections much sooner than the other more
semi-rigid frame behaviours very similar to the rigid types. This is in keeping with the
rigid frame in the initial progression of the fire as deflections shown the deflection rate increases as
thermal expansion of the beam leads to high the compression force is reduced. Due to the
compressive forces effectively making the nature of the pinned connections the
connections more robust and acting more rigid. compression force is not effective in improving
However there is a greater deal of deflection run deflections. It should be noted that in the tension
away observed as the connection compression phase there is negligible difference in the tensile
reduces until the fire begins to cool. The forces for different connections as the profiles all
difference in final deflections after a 2hr period converge during the cooling phase with the semi-
is clearly shown in the following graphs where in rigid connections dropping immediately down
each bay the semi-rigid connections appear to and converging with the profile of the pinned
perform almost half way between rigid and connection. This supports the evidence that
pinned counterparts. under tension semi-rigid connections will behave
similar to pinned connections as they are pulled
from the column and bolts are loaded.
3.2 Details of Failure Modes Observed
It was observed that when pinned connections
were used throughout the structure, yielding
begins to occur in the top flange at the centre
span at around 522°C by which point the beam
has already failed in deflection. Yielding then
propagates from the centre-span at the bottom
flange towards the connections. When a natural
4: Mid-span deflections for different connection conditions fire is modelled the yielding does not reach the
under natural fire.
connections due to the cooling phase. The run-
In each bay the pinned connected beams have away of deflection indicates that the beam
reached a much greater deflection by the time the sagging creates tension earlier and the presence
cooling phase is reached, which is well below the of catenary action on the connection.
maximum allowable deflection by this point. A
259
Fully rigid connected frames perform differently
in that initial yielding happens at the bottom
flanges of the connections due to the hogging
moments. Although this failure occurs at the
lower temperature of 512°C the plastic hinge
failure allows the beam to survive significantly
longer before reaching the maximum allowable
deflection. This then propagates down to the
mid-span and under ISO834 fire conditions
eventual failure occurs as the beam yields
completely at the connections. Under natural fire
6: Comparison between end-plate performance
conditions this failure is not reached and the
beam survives and does not reach the maximum
allowable deflection.
Semi-rigid connections fail in the same manner
3.4 Effect of the Cooling Phase
as rigid connections with yielding occurring
slightly earlier. With connections beginning to Unlike the ISO834 cellulosic curve, the
fail plastically at around 604°C until, under parametric Eurocode representing a natural fire
ISO834 fire conditions they have all failed and provides a cooling stage as the fire burns itself
connections are pulled away from the columns out and the span begins to cool. In this phase a
this effectively makes the connections less rigid slight improvement in final deflections was noted
and the failure then appears similar to that of the across all the tests carried out which reached this
pinned beams. The deflection begins to run away phase. Although in many cases this increase was
as the connections robustness is lost causing the negligible, there were some cases where this
maximum allowable deflection to be reached at property actually restored to the beam to a ‘safe’
throughout the structure at around 640°C. Under deflection within the maximum allowable level.
natural fire conditions the failure appears to be The cooling phase can also be detrimental to the
the same until the cooling phase where performance as the shrinking of the beam due to
deflections are improved and no further yielding contraction after the initial thermal expansion
occurs. leads to further tensile forces on the connections
which pull them into the span and away from the
columns, adding further load to the bolts. The
3.3 Behaviour of End-Plate Connections main benefit of the cooling phase in the initial
stages is that no further yielding of the beam
Both connections perform well when
flanges occurs meaning that the connections are
compression is present as it un-loads the bolts
more able to reduce final deflections.
and enables the maximum transfer of moment
from beam to column. This is reiterated by figure
6 below, showing very little variation in
5 CONCLUSIONS
deflections until the compression force has
decreased and the connection goes into tension The research has shown that the greater the
with the sagging of the beam. Under natural fire robustness of the connection, the greater the
conditions there is a clear improvement in the frames performance under fire conditions. By
final deflection with it almost able to return to creating more rigid connections the chance of
the maximum allowable limit. The differences in collapse being avoided is increased and therefore
axial forces was negligible therefore with a the ability to keep means of escape clear for
greater tension capacity, the extended end-plate longer is also achieved. This is achieved through
performs better in this stage as the beam the moment connections increased capacity to
contracts as it has a greater ability to resist this transfer moment from the beam to the columns
and as a consequence the beam is restrained more creating hogging moments at joints and reduced
and a smaller deflection is experienced. mid-span deflections.
It was also observed that the compression caused
by the thermal expansion of the beam is a
beneficial force in the initial stages causing the
robustness and effectiveness of the connection to
transfer moment to increase providing maximum
restraint at the highest temperature. As the beam
260
deflects the connections compression forces
decrease and eventually become in tension where
they are at risk of failure by being pulled away
from the column and the bolts failing. This effect
is then made slightly worse as during natural
fires the beam enters the cooling stage and
begins to contract again.
Failure modes observed showed that Pinned
frames appear to fail due to catenary action
whereas plastic hinges are formed when more
rigid connections are used.
Improvements in performance between flush and
extended endplates was generally negligible,
especially during the compression period where
the semi-rigid connections behaved as rigid
connections. There was a notable improvement in
performance during the cooling phase during
tension loading. This was due to the improved
tensile capacity of the more rigid connection.
The later tests showed that there was little
improvement in performance by modifying the
detail properties of the joints, such as the
thickness of the end plate and bolt arrangements
and strengths where similarly to the flush and
extended comparison there was no improvement
during the compression phase and only
negligible improvements through the tensile
phase.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to give my thanks to Zhaohui Huang
for his support and guidance through this
research.
REFERENCES
Huang, Z. (2010) ‘A Connection Element for
Modelling End-plate Connections in Fire’.
Department of Civil and Structural
Engineering, the University of Sheffield.
Leston-Jones, L.C. (1997) ‘The Influence of

Semi-Rigid Connections on the Performance of
Steel Framed Structures in Fire’, PhD. Thesis,
Department of Civil and Structural
Engineering, University of Sheffield.
Wang, Y.C. (2002), Steel and Composite
Structures – Behaviour and Design for Steel
Structures. London: Spon Press.
261
The Impact of Organic Content on the Retention and Detention

Properties of a Green Roof Substrate
Angus LEUNG Ho Yau
Candidate MSc in Environmental Engineering of Urban Land and Water
ABSTRACT Green roof technology has become an increasingly popular research field in an effort to
solve the problems of high rainfall runoff in urbanized areas around the world. A lot of effort has gone
into studying the variety of vegetation that can be planted in green roofs, as well as looking at the
suitability of using recycled materials as substrates (Molineux, C.) as engineers try to tackle with
reducing the effect urbanization has on the natural environment. However, not much research has
looked into the mechanics of green roof and how it affects rainfall runoff at a granular level. We look at
the effect the organic content have on the substrates ability to detain water and this is done by
experimenting using the new rainfall simulator. The simulator will measure the rainfall runoff of
different substrate mixtures containing Zincolit Plus and compost bark and results are compared as the
volume of compost bark is increased with each mixture. The results show that the higher organic
content substrates had less water detention since the substrate travel time was on average 5.9 seconds at
20% organic content and 9.9 seconds for no organic content. These results can help engineers
understand what type of substrate to use when designing a green roof and how best to optimize the
system. This report will hopefully also encourage research in green roofs to widen and look at the
responses of substrates under different conditions where the rainfall simulator will be a useful tool.
However, little study has gone into enhancing

1 INTRODUCTION
the efficiency of reducing the rainfall runoff in a
Research in green roof technology has been a green roof, particularly at the substrate level.
response of storm water management in urban
The water retention and detention provided by a
areas. Urban development has greatly affected
green roof system can directly reduce the flow
the rainfall runoff that is produced and these
rate of rainfall runoff collected in a sewer
areas have higher runoff volume since only 25%
system. These properties are defined largely by
of rainfall is absorbed into the ground of an
the substrates in the green roof and this includes
urbanized area as opposed to 95% of a natural
the materials and the compositions used. Organic
forest (Getter and Rowe, 2006). Sometimes
content is an important component since they are
these volumes are larger than the existing
necessary to provide nutrients to the vegetation
sewage systems can handle and the threat of
of a green roof. The research done for this report
floods become more likely. Traditionally, CSOs
primarily concentrates on the effects in water
were added into the sewer system to prevent
detention the organic content has on a green roof
flooding but as the general public become more
but retention will also be discussed to understand
aware of the effect these traditional systems have
the mechanics in a green roof system.
on the natural environment, civil engineering
designs and strategies have changed.
The implementation of Sustainable Drainage 2 BACKGROUND
Systems, or SUDS, is an increasingly popular
2.1 Retention and Detention of Water in
research field and one of the most eye-catching
Green Roofs
is green roof technology. The logic behind the
technology is a system on a rooftop that can Rainwater retention would decrease the total
“mimic natural catchment processes” that would volume of runoff in an urban area. In a green
otherwise be found in a forest (Woods-Ballard et roof it can be done in three ways: infiltration into
al, 2007). A lot of research has discussed the the substrate layer, interception of vegetation,
positive effects green roofs have on an urban and depression from the landscape of green roof.
landscape, such as promoting biodiversity and During a rainfall event, the retention provided by
providing extra thermal insulation to buildings. the substrate depends on the storage capacity,
262
which are determined by the volume of initial have a relatively thin layer of substrate (20 – 200
losses between rainfall events and the transient mm) which is essential for keeping the weight of
storage. The transient storage is a temporary the green roof low. Because of the low weight,
volume in the substrate that eventually becomes this type of green roof is suitable for retrofitting
runoff after the rainfall event and the size of this most rooftops, however, this also means that the
storage is dependent on the type of substrate. vegetation that can grow there is also generally
The volume of the initial losses are larger when quite small with shallow roots, such as grass and
more evaporation of water occurs in between sedum. The biodiversity found in extensive
rainfall events. green roofs would be very limited, since
growing conditions for vegetation in an
extensive green roof will be quite harsh. This is
especially the case since little maintenance is
carried out due to the fact that these green roofs
are inaccessible for most people.
Intensive green roofs have much deeper
substrates (150 – 1500 mm), which makes it
suitable for much larger vegetation to grow such
as trees. The depth of the substrate also allows
large water features such fountains or ponds to
be constructed. This means that the rooftop must
Figure 1 – Conceptual water balance model of a be able to hold considerable amount of load and
green roof system (Kasmin et al, 2010) because of this, it is rare that this will be
considered for retrofitting. Intensive green roofs
Interception of water by plants is the volume of are often used as parks and walkways can be
water captured on the leaves, etc. This retention constructed. This allows visitors to walk about
can vary depending on the size and the amount the green roof and the vast biodiversity these
of vegetation found and the type of green roof green roofs can provide encourages people to
can affect this greatly since different types are visit. However, because of the complexity of the
designed for different sizes of vegetation. landscape and the vegetation growing there,
However, the retention provided by interception regular maintenance such as irrigation and
is generally quite small compared with other adding fertilisers is required.
forms of retention.
Simple intensive green roofs can be likened to a
Depression storage is provided by the landscape middle-ground design between extensive and
features in the green roof, e.g. ponds. Runoff intensive green roofs. These green roofs do not
from the rainfall will temporarily collect in these exert as much load onto a rooftop as intensive
points instead of flowing directly into the green roofs. Substrate depths can be deep (150 –
sewers. The retention volume provided by 500 mm), yet not deep enough to accommodate
depression storage also depends on what type of trees. This allows for some variety in plants like
green roofs as some types cannot accommodate shrubs and larger plants to grow but because of
these features. this, regular maintenance will still be required.
The detention of runoff provided by green roofs Paths and walkways can also be constructed,
is also important for managing runoff in urban inviting visitors to go the green roof.
areas and this depends on the substrate in the 2.3 Types of Green Roof Substrates
green roof system. The substrate provides a
filtering effect that slows the movement of When choosing a suitable substrate for a green
runoff which limits the flow through the system. roof system there are certain factors that must be
This can be seen by reduced peak flow rates, as considered. One is that the substrate should be
well as longer durations before the peak flow able to provide good aeration for the plant roots
rate occurs in a rainfall event. Generally more as well as provide resistance to compaction to
detention can be observed when the particles in a allow for good water drainage. The soil should
substrate are small and when the substrate layer also have a good ability to retain water as well
is deep. Rainwater detention only occurs after contain nutrients, which can be released slowly
the substrates in the green roof is fully saturated into the substrate for the plants to absorb. A soil
and no more rainwater can be retained. material should also be fairly lightweight since it
would help reduce the load on the rooftop
2.2 Types of Green Roofs structure. When considering the type of green
There are three types of green roofs: extensive, roof being constructed it is important to consider
intensive, and simple intensive. Extensive green the size of the substrate particles as it determines
roofs are the most common of the types as it is many of the properties mentioned above.
cheap to construct. These green roofs tend to Generally a green roof with deeper substrate
263
thickness have smaller grain size and because of 3.2 Preliminary Procedure
this the substrate has less pore space. Also
A number of preliminary tests will need to be
because the deeper substrate has more volume,
carried out: converting the pressure data into
more rainwater is detained in those types of
volume, finding the rainfall intensity or flow rate
green roofs.
from the pump at different revolutions per
Many substrate mixtures contain pumice since it minute (RPM), and checking the spatial
can be naturally found and lightweight. To distribution of the rain tank. This will help
provide nutrients for vegetation organic content change the data collected from the rainfall
is also added and this usually comes in the form simulator into something useful for analysis.
of compost bark. Recycled materials have also
The pressure transducer is only accurate when
become more popular and they often make the
fully submerged in water. To ensure this before
bulk of the substrate composition. The most
any testing, including the main test, the
common of these recycled materials are crushed
collection barrel will be filled with 200 ml of
brick and aerated concrete. Other recycled
water. Whatever pressure is detected initially
materials such as sludge from wastewater
will be ignored.
treatment plants have also been tested to see if it
is suitable for being used on green roofs but due To calibrate the pressure and convert it to total
to the fact that this type of research is still in the volume, measured volumes of water is added
early stages, not many other materials are used into the collection barrel and the corresponding
in green roofs commercially. pressure is recorded. The volume and pressure
data can then be plotted to give a linear result
and the equation of that line can then be used to
3 METHODOLOGY convert the pressure data we collect in the main
test into volume runoff.
3.1 The Rainfall Simulator Equipment
Changing the RPM from the pump to the flow
rate is done by measuring the change in volume
over a period of time. The pump is set at a
constant RPM and the change in runoff volume
over a duration of time is recorded. This data is
plot on a graph and the gradient of the line will
show the flow rate of water released from the
rain tank at that particular RPM. This process is
then repeated for different RPM, and the
different flow rates for each RPM is also plotted
on a graph.
Figure 2 – The rainfall simulator with the rain

tank at the top and substrate container in the
middle, funnelling runoff to the bottom
The rainfall simulator is a new apparatus made

in Sheffield University and it consists of a rain
tank held at the top where water is pumped Figure 3 – Spatial distribution test. One beaker to
collect water from one needle
through a configuration of needles and onto the
substrate container with the test substrate at a Checking the spatial distribution of the rain tank
thickness of 5 cm. The water passes through the is important to see if the rain released from the
substrate to the bottom of the container where tank is even. This ensures that all parts of the test
there is a funnel that channels the runoff into a substrate receive the same rainfall intensity. For
collection barrel. The barrel has a pressure this, beakers are arranged so that each beaker
transducer that measures the water pressure as collects water from one needle, as seen in Figure
the total volume of runoff increases over time 3. The pump is then set at a constant RPM and
and this pressure data can then be transferred to allowed to run for 5 minutes. After the test each
a computer so further analysis on the results can needle should contain the same volume of water
be carried out. and the volume in each beaker should be the
expected total runoff volume calculated from the
264
previous calibrations, divided by the number of analysing the data so that the results will be
needles. more accurate.
3.3 Main Test Procedure 3.3 FLL Test Procedure
The purpose of this report is to find the effect Lastly, FLL tests will be conducted to get a
organic content in green roof substrate has on better understanding of the physical properties of
rainwater detention, therefore 4 different the different test substrates. This is important
substrate mixtures will be used. Each mixture because properties such as density of a substrate
will contain Zincolit Plus, which is 35% pumice will change how quickly water can flow through
and 65% crushed brick. The differences between the medium, and therefore how well the
each of the 4 mixtures is the volume of organic substrate can detain water. 3 metal cylinders will
content added. One mixture will have no organic be used for each substrate mixture, and these
content, while the others will have, by volume, cylinders are roughly 16.5 cm high and 15 cm in
an additional 5%, 10% and 20% of compost diameter. Substrate will be filled up to roughly
bark. Every substrate mixture will carry out the 12 cm in depth and the samples will be covered
main test as described below three times. with a small metal mesh on the top and the
bottom to prevent soil from escaping. The
Since it is established that the water detention of
uncompacted and compacted volume of the
substrates are to be tested in this experiment, it is
samples will need to be measured and weighed
essential to make sure that no retention is
to find the density and setting factor for every
occurring in the substrate during the test. The
substrate mixture.
substrates will need to be wetted until they reach
field capacity and this is done by letting the The substrate also needs to be saturated in water
pump run continuously at 60 RPM for 2 hours. to find the saturated density of the sample. The
The apparatus will left alone for 24 hours to water permeability of the substrate can also be
allow the moisture in the substrate to distribute tested at this stage by adding water to the sample
evenly, especially if the spatial distribution of yet letting the water drip out freely at the bottom
the rain tank is not even. After 24 hours, the of the cylinder. When the water surface is 45
pump will be turned on again for 30 minutes to mm above the substrate surface, no more water
compensate for any moisture that may have is added. The time for the water surface to drop
evaporated in the substrate. A test will be needed from 45 mm to 35 mm above the substrate
to check if the substrate has reached field surface is then recorded and this time can be
capacity and this is done by running the pump at used to divide the depth of the sample, giving us
60 RPM for 5 minutes. If the total runoff volume an empirical water permeability coefficient. The
collected is equal to the expected volume coefficients for each substrate mixture can then
calculated from the calibrations then the be compared to see if it matches with the results
substrate is ready for the main test. If the total from the main rainfall simulator test.
runoff volume is less than expected, turn the
After the water permeability test the samples
pump on again for another 30 minutes and check
will need to be dried in an oven at 105 oC until
for field capacity again afterwards.
the water has completely evaporated from the
The substrate will receive two different rainfall substrates. From there the samples will be
intensities, a relatively high intensity (60min weighed again.
M50) and a relatively low intensity (60min 1M).
Lastly the substrate will need to be put in a
The flow rate of those rainfall intensities and
furnace at 550oC, which would help us confirm
their corresponding pump rate can be calculated
the presence of organic content in the substrate
by using the FSR Methodology (using Sheffield
and its volume. This process will essentially
as the location of the rainfall event) and the
burn off and remove the organic content from
calibrated charts (51.7 RPM for high intensity
the mixture and the weight loss recorded will
and 19.1 RPM for low intensity). For each
indicate how much organic content was in each
rainfall intensity the pump will be set at a
of those substrate mixtures.
constant rate for 10 minutes. After the pump is
turned off the substrate will be allowed to drip
for another 15 minutes. For the whole 25 minute
duration the pressure transducer will be reading 4 RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS
the change in water pressure in the collection During a rainfall event the cumulative runoff
barrel against time and the data can then be later volume collected from the main rainfall
plotted on a graph. simulator will have certain features that can be
seen when plotted on a graph. This can be seen
A simulation with no substrate will also need to
in Figure 4.
be done to find the delay in runoff imposed by
the apparatus itself. This will be important when The first phase, lag phase, is the initial time
taken for the first raindrops to travel through the
265
substrate. The runoff volume increases once it substrate mixtures. Substrates with more
reaches phase 1 and during this phase the rate at detention have longer lag phases, longer phase 1,
which runoff flow rate increases. The rate of and generally take longer in phase 3 to reach the
runoff later becomes constant during phase 2 and point at which all the runoff is collected. This is
this rate of flow is equal to the flow rate supported by the data found during the FLL
provided by the pump. The final phase of the tests, where the water permeability coefficients
graph is when the runoff flow rate starts to level decreased as the organic content in the substrate
out. This occurs when the pump is turned off. increased, with a coefficient of 91.75 mm/min at
no organic content mixture, and 70.65 mm/min
at 20% organic content mixture.
Figure 4 – Cumulative volume of rainwater

collected in substrate sample with no organic
content under low rainfall intensity
Figure 6 – Averages of the cumulative water
The changes in runoff flow rates can also be volumes collected from all 5 substrate tests
seen more clearly in Figure 5 where the
cumulative volume data has been discretized to An average substrate travel time is also
display the runoff flow rate recorded in the calculated from the results of each of the
collection barrel. The gradient of the graph substrate mixtures which would be useful to
increases, stays constant and decreases during compare the detention of the different substrate
phase 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Notice that the mixtures. The average is calculating by using
graphs of the results with and without substrates equation (1).
are being compared and when there is no
substrate the length of the lag phase and phase 1 (1)
is much shorter than the results with substrates.
The graphs for substrate test also shows that Where t is the elapsed time of the test, x is the
there is a delay after the pump the turned off flow rate at time t, and is the average travel
before phase 3 begins. This shows that water time.
detention is occurring.
The results, as seen in Figure 7, show that the
average travel time through substrates do indeed
decrease as organic content in the substrate
increases. This again shows that more rainwater
detention is observed in a green roof system
when there is more organic content present in
the substrate. It is interesting to note that the
rainfall intensity does not affect how efficiently
the substrate detains water. This can be seen
where the two curves in Figure 7 overlap each
other, which possibly means there is little to no
correlation to the rainfall intensity and the
Figure 5 – Outflow rate of substrate with no detention in a soil. However, since this was not
organic content under low rainfall intensity the main objective and further testing is
required, a conclusion for this cannot be drawn.
When comparing the results of the cumulative
runoff volume graphs between the different It was initially predicted that the more organic
mixtures of substrates it is found that the more content the more water detention is found in the
organic content found in a substrate, the less substrate, however, the results from the rainfall
rainwater detention is observed. Note that the simulator show it is not the case. Data from the
data taken from 3 repeats (as seen in Figure 4) is FLL tests suggest that the substrates with less
used to calculate an average to produce the data organic content has a higher density, where the
seen in Figure 6, and this is done for all the substrate with no organic content has a dry
266
density of 1.20 g/cm3 and the substrate with 20% mechanics of a green roof system and how it
organic content only has a density of 1.10 g/cm3. retains and detains rainwater. The types of green
roof systems, substrate materials used and the
characteristics or each type were also looked at.
A rainfall simulator was used to replicate a green
roof system during a rainstorm event and the
change in runoff volume was recorded and
analysed. FLL tests were also conducted to look
closer at the physical properties of the substrate
materials, which would help understand the
results found in the rainfall simulator.
The results show that the more organic content
found in the substrate mixture, the less water
Figure 7 – Average travel time of water flowing
detention is observed. This is likely because the
through the substrate
mixtures with more organic content contain
This means that there is less void space in more pore space which allows for more flow
between the substrate particles in which paths for the rainwater to flow through. Another
rainwater can flow through. This would reduce possibility is organic content makes the substrate
the flow rate of the runoff and in turn increase mixture more hydrophobic, causing water to
the water detention from the substrate. An flow faster although further testing is required.
indication of the volume of void space can be All these possible reasons mean that water
seen by comparing the mass of dry sample detention is decreases as organic content in
retained after oven drying a water saturated substrates increases.
sample. The results show that for samples with
no organic content have 76.21% of the mass
retained where only 71.94% of the mass is left in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the substrate with 20% organic content.
Special thanks to Dr Virginia Stovin for her
After more research was carried out in light of supervision and advice over the duration of this
the test results from the rainfall simulator, report. I would also like to thank Jörg Werdin
another possible reason for the decrease in water with the practical aspects of the research. Lastly,
detention in a substrate with increasing organic I would like Marcus Yio for working with me
content is more hydrophobic. Organic materials during the spatial distribution test.
are more hydrophobic by nature, causing water
to flow past the particles faster and for mixtures
with more organic content the more likely water REFERENCES
will be contact with hydrophobic materials.
Getter, K. L. and Rowe, D. B. (2006) The Role
The water interacts with the soil particles as it of Extensive Green Roofs in Sustainable
flows past and a small volume of water is Development. HortScience 41(5):1276-1285.
adsorbed by the soil where it is held for a while 2006.
before being released back into the main flow of
water. This process would slow the overall flow Woods-Ballard, B., Kellagher, P., Martin, P.,
rate, which in turn would increase the detention Jefferies, C., Bray, R., Shaffer, P. (2007) The
effect. Some particles are more water repellent SUDS manual. CIRIA C697.
than others, and this means that the adsorption Kasmin, H., Stovin, V. R., Hathway, E. A.
process is less likely to occur. Studies have (2010) Towards a generic rainfall-runoff model
shown that organic chemical compounds usually for green roofs. Water Science & Technology,
causes this hydrophobic behaviour and many of 62.4, p. 898-905
these are found in the presence of organic matter
in soil as they decompose (Doerr et al, 2000). Doerr, S. H., Shakesby, R. A., Walsh, R. P. D.
Since the organic material used in this test was (2000) Soil water repellency: its causes,
bark compost, the organic material could have characteristics and hydro-geomorphological
been heavily decomposed. significance. Earth-Science Reviews 51 (2000)
33-65
Molineux, C. Waste Ceramic and Cementiteous
5 CONCLUSIONS Materials for Green Roof Substrates.
The purpose of this report was set to find the http://www.greenroofsubstrates.co.uk/Chloe%20
effect of organic content in substrates have on Molineux%20Poster.pdf [Accessed on 25th
the water detention in a green roof system. August, 2011]
Research had gone into understanding the
267
Passive Control of the Seismic Response of Reinforced Frame Building:

Influence of Base Frame Strength and Stiffness on Overall Seismic
Performance of Controlled Structures.
ChunHo Leung
Candidate MSc Structural and Concrete Engineering
ABSTRACT By using additional bracing system with energy dissipation bracing to frame
connections (frictional connection damper) is a highly effective seismic control system. The efficiency
of the connections related to stiffness of the structure is investigated in this paper. Some aspects
related to the Reinforced Concrete frame design and retrofitting for enhancing seismic performance
for RC frame were studied. The performance of the system was analysed by the means of inelastic
seismic response. The analyses shown that a standard design for RC frame with adjusting the Slipping
force in the frictional connection between the bracing member and beam elements, its seismic
behaviour of the structure is improved significantly in term of maximum displacement and the work
done of the structural elements during earthquake. Comparisons between the response of a bare frame
and the braced frame with different friction forces in connection showed that with 70% of initial
lateral stiffness of the structure demand on the control system, displacement can be reduced to
minimal. Hence this type of retrofitting can significantly reduce the damage to the main structural
elements and increased seismic performance of the structure in a major earthquake.
this type of control system while using in

1 INTRODUCTION
reinforced concrete frame.
The aim of this study was to analyse some of
The concept of passive control of seismic aspects on designing optimum frictional force
response of building has been attracted lot of (that apply by the frictional connection damper
attention; numbers of different passive control on structure).A six storey building was chosen
systems have been proposed and studied (such and first design as a bare frame without any
as metallic dampers, viscoelastic dampers, tuned control system , and then equipped with bracing
mass damper and etc.).Most of them have been members and bracing to frame frictional
even applied to a full scale structure. The connections. The seismic performances of bare
advantage of using passive control system is that frame and braced frame with different
it will operate by its own and do not require any magnitude of frictional Slipping force were
external power source. The control force will be investigated in nonlinear response analysis,
developed by utilizing the motion of the using the same seismic excitation (El Centro
structure, and is generated as a function of the record).
seismic response of the structure at the passive
control system location.
2 STRUCTURAL MODELS
The frictional based control system was
proposed by Pall (1982) in 1982, and it is in a 2.1 Description of the building and the
form of a frictional damping bracing device. connections
After that, many of studies proved that the
friction in slip connections can provide a high
efficiency as a control mechanism to enhance The Six storeys, three by five bay reinforced
the seismic performance of structures. However, concrete frame building was chosen for this
most of studies about their performance are study and is shown as in Figure 1. The seismic
analysed and tested mainly on steel frames. As a response of the building in two perpendicular
result, this study is focused on the efficiency on directions was assumed to be independent. As a
268
result, only the shorter direction of the building infinitely rigid in their plane. The permanent
was analysed, considering the frame as a planar and variable loading for the roof of the building
systems. The existing building consist of six are 1kN/m2, and for others floors are 0. 5kN/m2
identical bare frames, and it is design to be and 2.5kN/m2.
seismic resisting structures (Figure 1, a). The
The slipping mechanism for the frictional
lateral restrained is provided by installing
connection is chose as an energy dissipation
bracing members and frictional connections in
system, as shown in Figure 2. It consists a steel
all bare frames (Figure 1, b).All six frames is
plate that connected with the bracing members
design to carry the vertical load and seismic
is bolted at the top and clamped together with
load, and therefore the internal frame was
another slotted steel plate that have anchored in
chosen to be investigated in the study.
the beam in the mid bay of the structure. The
slots in the steel plate ( anchored to the beam)
are designed to allow the slipping happening in
horizontal direction only, and the slipping force
is design to be controlled by the clamping force
that induced by the bolts. For the connection
between the bracing member and the beam
column joint is assumed to be rigid connection.
In the research done by Griorian (1993), it
shown that the force displacement curves
obtained for steel to steel frictional connection
were stable and no significant deterioration after
Plan Bare Frame
a large number reversals tested.
A) Existing building
The purpose of this system is to dissipate
energy and enhance the seismic performance of
the frame. By adjusting the slip force
corresponding to the initial yield force (fy) of the
building from the range of 0.1fy to 1.8 fy, the
energy dissipation system is activated when the
slip force between the connections are reached.
In the case of minor earthquake, the connections
may not be active, as a result the frame is acting
like a fully braced frame and reduce the inter
storey drifts. Due higher level of excitation in
Plan Upgraded Frame major earthquake, the connections in each level
b) Building with energy dissipating system may be activated, energy that induced by the
earthquake on the building could be dissipated
Figure 1 the models in the analyses
energy out and prevent the damage take place is
structural element. Furthermore, the overall
lateral stiffness of building is changing during
in an earthquake due to the activation of the
frictional connections, it also prevent the chance
of resonance states happening in the earthquake.
2.2 Design of frame for existing building
In this study two different types of frames were

analysed, both of them are assumed that frames
in shorter direction were all the same. Due to
the floor slabs are infinitely rigid, the floor mass
Figure 2 Detail a (frictional connection)
and the loading will distributed evenly. As a
result, the internal frames were selected and
design according to the Eurocode2 (1992). The
In both cases in the analyses, floors of the
loading combination is consisting of permanent
models are 200mm thick in situ concrete slab,
load, 0.5 of imposed load and seismic load. The
and it was assumed that the slab was performing
seismic load that applied on the structure is
269
obtained according to the Eurocode8 (1998) The characteristic of the frictional connections
requirement, and using spectral analysis with a were chose is based on the initial lateral
design response spectrum(S= 1.2, Tb=0.15s, strength and stiffness of the bare frame, and
Tc=0.5s, Td=2s) and then reduced by a behaviour with a range from 0.1 fy to 1.8 fy.
factor q=5.8.
3 DESIGN OF THE FRICTIONAL

2.2.1 Bare frame model CONNECTION
3.1 Strength and stiffness of frames and
connection
In the design of the bare frame model, further to

the design requirement specified in Eurocode2, The stiffness and the strength of the bare frame
the capacity design provision for the column in are obtained by static lateral pushover analysis.
Eurocode8,part 1-3,Ch2) also had been take By applying increasing force at the top level, the
account into. It was critical and led to the corresponding lateral displacement of the top
increment of the column section and level is recorded, as shown as Fig 3. The initial
reinforcement percentage in the design. strength of the building was defined as the force
at which the first plastic hinge occurred in any
A T-section with web thickness of 300mm
structural members (columns and beams) as
and overall depth 600mm was chosen for beam
shown in Fig 4.The slip force in the frictional
members in the frame and the maximum
connection would set to proportional to the
bending due to gravity load is 168.9kNm and
initial yielding force and the performance of the
due to spectrum and gravity is 642.1kNm. Two
structure is determined.
squares cross section columns were chosen in
this study, they are 450mm x 450mm and
400mm x 400mm. For the first type of column
is using from ground level to 5th level, the
smaller section is using between 5th level to the
roof of the structure. For 450mm x 450mm
columns the highest axial force and moment
obtained from analysis due to gravity and
spectrum is 1962kN and 297kNm.For 400mm x
400mm, the maximum axial force and moment
is 312kN and 113kNm.The construction
material properties were used in this study is as
below,
• Concrete with fck =30N/mm2 Figure 3 Pushover analysis
• Reinforcement steel with

fyk=460N/mm2
• Steel member S355
2.2.2 Restrained frame model
The different of this model comparing to the

bare frame is that additional bracing members
and the frictional connections are designed and
installed in the mid bay of the frame. From
design of the bracing members, 2 times of initial
yield force (2.0 fy=321.3kN) has to be allowed
in compression with 5.6m buckling length. Figure 4 Initial strength and stiffness
According Corus, the 430x100x64 UKPFC was
chosen as the bracing member in the study, it
provide 348kN compressing capacity when the 3.2 Mathematical model
buckling length is equal to 6m.
270
work done of each elements( beams, column,
bracing and frictional connection) had also be
The computer program that was used in the
investigated. It shown that more than 85% of
designs and seismic excitation simulation is
total static work done was contributed by
Drain2DX(1993). The members of the bare
frictional connections when the slipping force
frame were modelled as inelastic beam element.
were set from the range of 0.4fy to 1.0fy(shown
Additional bracing members were modelled as
in Fig 7) .That means the frictional connections
bar element, and only axial load was taken by
were being activated in most of the time during
them. For the frictional connections, “zero
the seismic excitation. From both of the result,
length” elements were used. Due to the slip
the optimum of the slipping force is concluded
mechanism, the connections is modelled to be
as 0.7 fy.
inelastic and it properties( such as initial
stiffness and slipping force) were varied during Secondly, the optimum slipping force for the
the analyses. connections had been looking into individually
from the result of the first part of study. The
performance (in term of max displacement) of
4 SEISMIC RESPONSES OF THE two different models were compared, the
EXCITATION ANALYSIS slipping force for all connections were set at
0.7fy in the first models, and the optimum
slipping force is set individually for each
The seismic responses of the frame were connections in the second model.it shown that
determined by seismic excitation analysis with the best performance was obtained from the first
first 42 seconds of the El Cento S00E record in model when using the same slipping force 0.7fy
1940, it scaled at 0.35g peak acceleration rather than using individually optimum force.
(shown as in Fig 5.
Figure 6 Ratios of Maximum Displacement

Figure 5 Time history of acceleration input for
seismic analysis
Firstly, several of excitation analyses were
carry with same magnitude of different slipping
force for every connections in whole frame. The
result shown that the best performance in term
of maximum displacement is obtained when the
slipping force was set to 0.8fy and it was about
60% of the bare frame maximum
displacement(shown in Fig 6). And it also had
shown that the maximum displacement was
starting to increase after the slipping force was
set higher than the 0.8 fy. When the slipping Figure 7 Work done by frictional connections
force was set to infinite, that means the frame
became a fully braced frame, the maximum
displacement is 82% of the bare frame. It
provided that the frictional connection between
the bracing system and the frame enhance the
seismic performance effectively. Apart from
only looking at the maximum displacement, the
271
However, the results from seismic excitation
simulation shown that even the model which
computed with different optimum slip force in
corresponding floor, the maximum
displacement may higher than the model which
computed by frictional dampers with a unique
slip force (0.7fy) on each floor
This study is mostly depending on the result of
the inelastic seismic response analyses, even if
the excitation that chosen seemed to be
appropriate for the structures , different types of
Figure 8 max displacement in each floor record are necessary, just only one of seismic
excitation may be insufficient to proof the
optimum slipping force is the same in all
5 CONCLUSIONS seismic area. Moreover, the performance of the
frictional connection was assumed and it is
There are four major conclusions which are based on previous published researches on
drawn the seismic response simulations and slotted bolted connections, but more
design analyses in this study. experimental testes is necessary in order to
1. The control system with bracing understand the behaviour of bracing to frame
members and frictional damper is a very connections and also no vertically slipping in
effective way either for retrofitting the exist the frictional connection is taken into account in
structure or as a control system for new this study in terms of the seismic performance
building, the seismic response is reduced by of the structure.
dissipated the energy out of the structure and REFERENCES
prevent damage major structural elements such
as beam and column. Corus. (2011). The Blue Book. Available:
http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/design
2. By investigating on the total work done _guidance/the_blue_book. Last accessed
of the frictional dampers in structures, it shown 26/08/2011.
that the frictional dampers are achieving about
85% of total work done of the structure during
the seismic excitation, while the slipping force Eurocode 8(1993).Earthquake Resistant Design
is set between 0.5fy to 0.9fy. And when looking of Structures,Part 1:General Rules and Rules for
into the maximum displacement, the best Building,ENV 1998-1-2.
performance of the structure is obtained when
the frictional damper slipping force is set equal
to 0.8fy. Eurocode 2(1991).Design of Concrete
3. From the seismic excitation, the best Strucutres, Part 1:General Rules and Rules for
performance in term of the maximum Building,ENV 1992-1-1.
displacement and the proportion of static work
done is obtained when the slipping force in
frictional dampers is set as 70% of initial lateral Grigorian .C.E etal(1993) "Slotted bolted
stiffness of the building. The inter storey drifts connection energy dissipaters" Earthquake
can be successfully controlled without produced Spectra,Vol. 9,No 3,pp 491-504.
excessive force within the bracing members and
the bracing to frame connections. About one
third of maximum displacement of original bare Pall,A,S. (1982). “Response of Friction Damped
frame is reduced after the control system is Braced Frames”. ASCE Journal of the
equipped. Structural Division. 108 (No. st6), pp .1313-
1323
4. The basic concept of using frictional
damper is to dissipate energy out of the
structure, and prevent excessive damage in the Prakash.V etal(1993) " DRAIN2DX - base
structure element. In this study, the frictional program description and use guide", Report
dampers have been investigated in each floor No:UCB/SEMM-93/17 &18,University of
individually; the individual optimum slip force California ,Berkeley
is dictated by maximum work done that the
damper produced during the excitation.
272
The Effect of Ultrasound Exposure on Bacterial Transformation

Mengjing Li
ABSTRACT The application of genetic techniques in environment has been widely investigated.
Horizontal gene transfer because of its significance is obtaining a growing awareness. For those bacteria
cannot be naturally undergo transformation, artificial methods are needed to induce the
transformation. Ultrasound mediated technique offers the potential advantage compared with the
traditional methods such as electroporation which is adopt as parallel experiment in this study. Three
experiments are designed to investigate the efficiency of ultrasound mediated delivery approach for
different plasmids and recipient bacteria, including: transfer pBBR1MCS2 to P. putida UWC1, transfer
pBBR1MCS2 to P. putida KT2440, and transfer pBAV1K-5T-gfp to P. putida KT2440.
Transformation efficiencies are introduced to quantitatively describe the ultrasound mediated transfer
technique. The results reveal that plasmid pBBR1MCS2 can be transferred successfully to recipient
bacteria with accessible transfer efficiencies. However, the transfer efficiency for transfer pBAV1K-5T-
gfp plasmid is relatively low. This is also analyzed in detail.
organisms to do the pollutant removal in the air,

1 INTRODUCTION
water, and soil, especially in water
Prokaryotes were reported as the first organisms purification.With the purpose of degrade the
on earth, also they are the earliest organisms pollution in environment, genetic engineering is
existed on earth. They can be divided into two also provided but a challenge is facing which
domains which refer to bacteria and Achaea refers to transfer the target genes in plasmids to
(Madigan et al., 2003). The great genetic host bacteria effectively and fast, thus they can
diversity of prokaryotes provides them great degrade the pollution spontaneously without
adaptation which ensures them to survive in a large investment.
variety of environments.
Different from agricultural and clinical gene
In bacteria, the ability to adapt new delivery methods, in environmental
circumstance regularly results from the effects microbiology, only a small proportion of
of horizontal gene transfer where the new gene prokaryotes (less than 1%) exist in any
function is acquired from other species rather environment will grow in colonies by the use of
than modifying gene function sequentially laboratorial media (Amann et al., 1995), which
through point mutations (Syvanen, 1994, indicates the culture-dependent technique is not
Lawrence, 1997). applicable. Although it is possible to culture
prokaryotes in standard laboratory cultivation
Bacteria begin to participate in natural selection
conditions (in vitro) (Nichols et al., 2008), gene
after the delivered genes have been uptaken by
manipulating is often hampered due to the
their genomes. However horizontal gene transfer
invasive operation complicated process and
does not changes the size of the bacterium
slow expression kinetics during the DNA
genome greatly because those genes proved to
delivery (Loeffler et al., 2006).
be without selective advantage to the new host
will be deleted. However, the uncultivated species of
microorganisms is abundant in biodiversity.
A variety of the metabolic capabilities that
With respect to the reality, which indicates the
prokaryotes possess have been discovered by
bulk of phyla just have few or do not possess
scientists and applied into practical use.
representatives (Rappe and Giovannoni, 2003,
Gradually, prokaryotes are provided to settle the
Schloss and Handelsman, 2004). Effective
contamination problems for the improvement of
method to transfer DNA to the microbial
environment. In environmental engineering,
communities in the environment can result an
bioremediation is defined as the utilization of
introduction of novel gene functions, which
273
changes the structure and function of the transfer techniques (Wyber et al., 1997); (3) The
microbial communities. It is worth mentioning ultrasound mediated gene transfer technique has
that these organisms are widely distributed in less dependence on ion-free media so that
natural environment such as soils and creating a wide range of applications in nature-
groundwater. In that way, the pollutants such mediated growing cells and tissues; (4) Direct
as some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) contact between cells is not necessarily required
which may be petroleum hydrocarbons, by using this technique; (5) As a physical
polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic method, this technique can be applied in a range
hydrocarbons, chlorinated solvents, pesticides, of cell types with less limitation;
explosives and other organic pesticides can be
However, there is not a comprehensive research
biodegraded without secondary pollution.
system in bacterial plasmid transfer using
According to Song et al. (2007), there is a series ultrasound technique. According to Song et al.
of techniques for DNA transfer between (2007), pBBR1MCS2 plasmids have been
bacteria, mainly divided in to two broad types. successfully transferred into Gram-negative
They are biological methods and physical bacteria named Pseudomonas putida UWC1
methods. under 40 kHz ultrasound with the optimal
efficiency of 9.8±2.3× 10−6 transformants per
Biological methods include transformation,
cell, which was demonstrated higher of the
transduction, and conjugation. Transformation is
efficiency using electroporation or conjugation.
a limited use in nature as the DNA uptake
systems only identify DNA from closely For the purpose to study the effective ultrasound
connected species groups (Black, 2005) while mediated gene transfer, a range of experiments
transduction and conjugation are restrainedly are designed. Pseudomonas putida UWC1 and
used between a narrow range of hosts coming Pseudomonas putida KT2440 which are
from closely connected species groups, they regarded as recipient bacteria, plasmid
usually require a specific DNA donor or host pBBR1MCS2 and pBAV1k-T5-gfp are involved
strain to achieve bacterial DNA transfer and in this study, to research the plasmids
conjugation requires a direct contact between transformation efficiencies.
donor and recipient. Physical methods such as
electroporation requires a low-ionic strength
medium and high voltage pluses, inappropriate 2 MATERIAL AND MEHODS
exposure duration or pluses strength and the
2.1 Preparation of Growth Media
damage of cell membrane can result a low
efficiency of DNA transfer, while conjugation In order to cultivate the host bacteria, Luria-
requires a cell-to-cell contact between donor and Bertani (LB) broth and Luria-Bertani (LB) agar
recipient through conductive plasmid; heat should be provided. For the purpose to cultivate
shock mediated gene delivery approach requires the vector bacteria which hosted pBBR1MCS2
strictly control of temperature: at higher or pBAV1K-5T-gfp plasmids, LB broth with 50
temperatures above optimal condition µg/ml kanamycin need to be prepared. When it
(approximately 40°C), the ability of bacteria comes to select the transformants carrying
uptaking DNA reduced, while at extreme pBBR1MCS2 or pBAV1K-5T-gfp, LBKn agar
temperatures the bacteria will die. Each should be employed.
technique described above has its limitations
SOC medium was used for the recovery of
and cannot be applied in a wide range.
antibiotic-resistant cells after UDD or
Ultrasound has been regarded as a promising electroporation.
novel technique for inducting transformation in
50 mM CaCl2 solution was applied to promote
bacteria since its versatility in affecting
transformation.
transformation and less dependence on cell type.
The mechanism of ultrasound transformation is 2.2 Bacteria and Plasmids
to increase membrane permeability, which was
Bacteria (Recipient strain):Pseudomonas
thought to be related to the cavitations which
putida UWC1; Pseudomonas putida KT2440.
caused by the effects of ultrasound. There are
Plasmid (Donor strain): pBBR1MCS2 (hosted
many benefits of using ultrasound-mediated
in E. coli JM109); pBAV1K-T5- gfp (hosted in
gene delivery technique (UDD) to delivery
E. coli DH5α).
bacterial plasmids: (1) It is a rapid process for
DNA delivery by the use of ultrasound with Plasmid DNA was extracted and purified from
transient plasmid gene expression; (2) This overnight cultures of E. coli JM109, DH5a using
technique is lower cost compared to some other a QIAprep Spin Miniprep kit (QIAGEN, UK).
274
In our experiments, plasmids as vectors kanamycin resistance. Consequently, once the
extracted from overnight culture plates. donor plasmids transferred successfully to the
bacteria, the trait of kanamycin resistance can be
2.3 Ultrasound Apparatus
expressed by the plasmid gene, and the bacteria
The 40 kHz ultrasound apparatus was a standard can be grow in LBK50 agar plates.
ultrasonic cleaning bath 375H (Langford
Count colonies in each Type 1 LB/ LBK50 agar
Electronics Ltd., Coventry, UK) with a maximal
plates then apply the equation below to obtain
electrical energy output of 75W. The ultrasound
the transfer efficiency:
water bath dimension was 240 × 135 × 100
(mm, L × W × H).
2.4 Ultrasound Mediated Plasmid
Transformation The bacterial colonies can be observed
immediately from overnight agar plates. The
The objective of this experiment is to transfer
results give the amount of transformants per
two kinds of plasmids (pBBR1MCS2 and
cell.
pBAV1K- T5- gfp) effectively into P. putida
UWC1 and P. putida KT2440 through In this experiment, electroporation has been
ultrasound. Obtain the transfer efficiencies, and conducted as positive controls of the ultrasound
conduct the experiment by changing the mediated gene transfer, to compare with the
ultrasound exposure time to define the best ultrasound gene transfer method and determine
ultrasound exposure time for bacterial transfer, whether this novel technique is superior to the
and compared the transfer efficiencies to the traditional approach.
efficiencies using electroporation.
2.5 Results and Discussion
The experiment is mainly divided into three
2.5.1 Tansfer pBBR1MCS2 to P. putida
parts:
UWC1 or P. putida KT2440
(1) Transfer pBBR1MCS2 plasmid into P.
Transfer donor plasmid pBBR1MCS2 to either
putida UWC1 using UDD and electroporation;
P. putida UWC1 or P. putida KT2440, the
(2) Transfer pBBR1MCS2 plasmid into P.
results illustrate that the transfer efficiencies
putida KT2440 using UDD and electroporation;
were highest when ultrasound exposure time is
(3) Transfer pBAV1K- T5- gfp plasmid into P.
10s (Figure 1). Figure 1(A) illustrates that the
putida KT2440 using UDD and electroporation.
transfer efficiency is 9.99 × 10-6 transformants
In this experiment, three sample groups have per cell with the error of 2.58 × 10-6
been designed are required to spread onto transformants per cell under 5 s ultrasound
LBK50 agar plates respectively. They are: exposure time; 9.54 × 10-6 transformants per cell
Sample group1 is required bacteria mixing with with the error of 7.93 × 10-7 transformants per
plasmid and exposed under ultrasound for 5 s, cell for 10 s ultrasound exposure time; the
10 s, and 15s; Sample group2 is required only efficiency is 7.19 × 10-6 transformants per cell
bacteria mixing with distilled water and exposed with the error of 1.19 × 10-6 transformants per
them under ultrasound for 5 s, 10 s, and 15 s; cell when the ultrasound time is 15 s. The
Sample group3 is required bacteria mixing with efficiencies are similar under 5 s and 10 s
plasmid but do not expose under ultrasound. condition. However, the error in 5 s condition is
much higher than 10 s condition, which results
The experimental volumes of bacteria in the
more errors in efficiency determination. As a
three groups have been unified as 20 ml of
result, 10 s ultrasound exposure time is regarded
overnight bacterial LB broth. The experimental
as the best condition for pBBR1MCS2 plasmid
plasmid added quantities has been unified as 30
transfer to P.putida UWC1. According to Figure
µl. The volume of distilled water added in group
1(B), ultrasound exposure time of 10 s is
2 should be same as the quantity added of
optimal for bacteria transfer, with the efficiency
plasmid in group 1 and 3. Group 2 and 3 here
of 1.67 × 10-5. Exposure time of 5 s have a
play an important role as control groups. Pour
better transfer efficiency which is 1.06 × 10-5
100 µl of the bacterial sample solutions from
than 6.64 × 10-6 in 15 s condition. The errors
each set in LB agar plate with the dilution
at 10 s, 5 s, 15 s are 1.86 × 10-6, 2.26 × 10-6,
strength of 1:106. Also spread 100 µl of
4.29 × 10-7 transformants per cell. As a result,
bacterial sample solution from each set in
10 s ultrasound exposure time is regarded as the
LBK50 agar plate. LBK50 agar plate is the
best condition for pBBR1MCS2 plasmid
selective medium because initially the bacteria
transfer to P.putida UWC1. Compare the two
cannot survive in LBK50 condition, but the
means for the bacterial transformation,
plasmids carry the gene which code for
275
electroporation has higher efficiencies than Figure 2 Comparison of the pBBR1MCS2
ultrasound mediated approach (Figure 2). plasmid transformation efficiencies. (A)
Comparison of the pBBR1MCS2 plasmid
A
transformation efficiency with P.putida KT2440
as recipient (P<0.05); (B) Comparison of the
pBBR1MCS2 plasmid transformation efficiency
with P.putida UWC1 as recipient (P<0.05).
2.5.2 Transfer pBAV1K-T5-gfp to P. putida
KT2440
The experiment was conducted applying LBK50
medium as selective agar plates to cultivate the
recombinant bacteria. However, there were no
recipient bacteria including recipient recipient P.
putida KT2440 survive through direct
B observation of the plates. As a result, a series of
LB broth tubes were provided with kanamycin
concentration of 10 μg/ml, 20 μg/ml, 30 μg/ml,
40 μg/ml and 50 μg/ml to cultivate the initial P.
putida KT2440 and bacteria only survive in
LBK10 broth. Therefore, the reason for the
initial experiment failure may due to the
supplement of high concentration kanamycin. In
view of this, apply LBK20, LBK25, LBK30 and
LBK40 medium as selective agar plates instead
of LBK50 medium and found recombinant
bacteria survive on LBK20, LBK25, and LBK30
Figure 1 pBBR1MCS2 plasmid transfer medium. In light if this, LB agar with 30 μg/ml
efficiencies under different ultrasound exposure kanamycin is the utmost limits for recombinant
time. (A) Efficiencies for pBBR1MCS2 plasmid bacteria survive. The colonies possess green
delivered to P.putida UWC1. Ultrasound fluorescence under the UV condition, with the
exposure time is 5 s, 10 s and 15 s respectively UDD efficiency of 1.105 × 10-8 transformnants
(P<0.05). (B) Efficiencies for pBBR1MCS2 per cell, which is lower than the transfer
plasmid delivered to P.putida KT2440. efficiency using electroporation ,which is 3.21 ×
Ultrasound exposure time is 5 s, 10 s and 15 s 10-5 transformmants per cell with the error of
respectively (P<0.05). 6.32 × 10-6. The colonies display green
fluorescence feature in the UV light condition.
A
From the results of the last subsection 2.5.1, it is
proved that both electroporation method and
ultrasound mediated approach can successfully
transfer target plasmid to recipient P. putida
KT2440 with a relative high transfer efficiency.
Accordingly, this kind of bacteria can work
normally in theory. So the problem was not
coming from other aspects.
For the reason of the occurrence of such low
transformation efficiency through ultrasound
B mediated transfer technique, there are four
probable interpretations. The first explanation is
that the added quantity of pBAV1K-T5-gfp
plasmids is not enough. The quantity of the
successful transferred recipients was too small
so that the copy number of the pBAV1K-T5-gfp
plasmids in recipients is not sufficient enough to
make the recipients survived in large bulk in
such selective pressure medium, which results
the transfer efficiency is low. The second
possible reason is that bacterial growth state is
276
not perfect, due to the lack of optimal condition KT2440 five days later with the low efficiency
for bacteria living. In this situation, bacterial of 1.105 × 10-8 transformnants per cell. Because
cells are not well nourished to facilitate the no other further detections were taken, it is hard
cells’ recovery and growth processes. In this to tell whether the colonies were successful
case, the transfer efficiency becomes lower. The transferred recipient P. putida KT2440 or other
third probable explanation is that the low kanamycin resistant bacteria which
ultrasound mediated transfer efficiency may be contaminated in the medium by careless. Several
attributed to ultrasound transfer approach is not possible explanations are made to explain the
an appropriate method to transfer this plasmid phenomenon. The first possible reason is that
for the reason that transfer methods vary with the adding amount of plasmids is not sufficient.
the different plasmids. It is proved in Thus the copy number of the pBAV1K-T5-gfp
subsection 2.5.1 that the pBBR1MCS2 plasmids plasmids in recipients is not competence for
can be delivered into P. putida KT2440 large amount of recipients survive; the second
successfully, which means the bacteria can work possible explanation refers to the bacteria did
normally, and the pBAV1K-T5-gfp plasmids not grow under the optimal condition, thus
can be transferred into P. putida KT2440 affect the transfer efficiency; The third
through electroporation with a relative high reasonable explanation is that the ultrasound
efficiency, which demonstrates the pBAV1K- mediated transfer method is not applicable for
T5-gfp plasmids also work normally. pBAV1K-T5-gfp plasmids delivery; the forth
probable reason assumes that the colonies were
3 CONCLUSIONS
other kanamycin resistant bacteria contaminated
This study mainly focuses on the experimental in the LBK medium.
analysis of ultrasound mediated transfer
As a novel gene transfer technique, ultrasound
technique. Eletroporation was adopted as
mediated transfer approach has great potential in
parallel experiment. In this study three
promoting and applying through its transfer
experiments are designed to investigate the
efficiencies are lower than electroporation.
efficiency of ultrasound mediated delivery
approach for different plasmids and recipient Firstly, unlike electroporation, ultrasound
bacteria, including: transfer pBBR1MCS2 to P. mediated transfer approach is an in-situ
putida UWC1, transfer pBBR1MCS2 to P. operation, which is easy to apply, and do not
putida KT2440, and transfer pBAV1K-5T-gfp have to wash cells. However, 10% glycerol
to P. putida KT2440. Transformation solution should be used in electroporation to
efficiencies are introduced to quantitatively wash and resuspended cells.
describe the ultrasound mediated transfer
Secondly, compared with ultrasound mediated
technique.
transfer method, electroporation is the
Through transfer pBBR1MCS2 to P. putida application of electron beam, which will
UWC1, we can conclude that both ultrasound increase mortality rate of bacterial cells by
operating method and electroporation transfer punching the cell membrane directly.
method can transfer pBBR1MCS2 plasmids to
Therefore, according to the experiment data,
recipient P. putida UWC1 successfully. The
though the efficiencies are lower than the
efficiency of the ultrasound mediated method
efficiencies in electroporation, in the light of the
for transfer pBBR1MCS2 plasmids to recipient
advantages ultrasound mediated transfer method
P. putida UWC1 is lower than electroporation
owned, coupled with the transfer efficiencies for
transfer approach.
pBBR1MCS2 plasmid is acceptable, it may well
In the experiment of transfer pBBR1MCS2 to P. be a good approach.
putida KT2440, either ultrasound mediated or
electroporation transfer method can transfer
pBBR1MCS2 plasmids to recipient P. putida ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
KT2440 successfully. The efficiency of the
I would like to express my heartfelt and worm
ultrasound mediated method here is lower than
gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Wei Huang, who
electroporation transfer method.
has provided me with invaluable guidance in the
In the experiment transfer pBAV1K-5T-gfp to experiment. Without his demonstration in
P. putida KT2440, ultrasound mediated transfer person, enlightening guidance, impressive
technique cannot transfer pBAV1K-5T-gfp patience, I could not have completed my
plasmids to P. putida KT2440 effectively. It is experiment.
observed that only 9 colonies grew in the LBK30
medium after culturing the recipient P. putida
277
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278
The Performance of Concrete Made with Large Amounts of PFA and SF

Zihui Li
Candidate MSc(Eng) Concrete Engineering
ABSTRACT The using of Pozzolan additives as PFA and silica fume to replace OPC in the
concrete has became a major concern for many of the countries worldwide, since their lower
environmental impact and cost. A series of experiments were carried out to investigate the effect of
large amount of PFA replacement level to the performance of concrete. Concrete paste covering a wide
range of PFA replacement level as 30%, 50%, 70% with water cement ratio for 0.45 and 0.35.
Additional to that, two ternary blended mixes as PFA/SF/OPC=70/7/23 with different amount
superplasticizers was also investigated. For all the mixes, compressive strength, porosity and oxygen
permeability were measured at both 7days and 28days along with three different curing conditions as
20 ℃ water, 40℃ water and 60℃ water. Besides, an additional mix for PFA/OPC/SF=80/23/7 along
with superplasticizers was also investigated at the end of the project. All the results was presented and
discussed by figures and statistical approach and to see how these additives affect the performance of
concrete.
could increase the strength but result of a lower

1 INTRODUCTION
workability. So in order to achieve a good
It is known that concrete is one of the most performance concrete, ternary blended materials
widely used materials in the buildings and system may be needed.( Lynsdale ,2000)
construction and it composed of cement,
aggregate (generally mixed by several types of
2 OBEJECTIVES AND AIMS
sand and gravel), water, and chemical
admixtures. The appearance of concrete makes This project is aimed at developing structural
constructions more substantial and easier to be grade and good performance concrete with
built; however it also results of a great deal of minimum Portland cement content. This could
impact to the environment during the process of do by using cement replacing materials as
making practicing and using of concrete. pulverized fuel Ash (PFA), silica fume and so on
Especially Portland cements (OPC) which is the to instead of Portland cement.
main component of concrete and often consist
3 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
20% of concrete. Taking into consideration that
for every tonne of OPC produced a tonne of 3.1 Materials
carbon dioxide is emitted in the environment it is
In this project the CEM I was use throughout the
clear why the cement industry is ranked as one
experiment which is manufactured to comply
of the major contributors to the global warming
effect with carbon dioxide emissions accounting with the requirements of BS EN 197-1: 2000
for 7-10% of the annual worldwide type CEM I Portland cement strength class
52.5N. This is the most widely used cement and
emissions.( Neville,1993)
contain OPC and up to 5% of minor additional
For recent decades, numbers of investigation has
constituents.
been done to investigate the performance of
concrete made with pozzlanic materials. It was PFA is the typical cement replacement material
reported from using of pozzlanic admixtures can which used in this programme. The experiment
result out of good cohesive, lower heat utilised PFA was offered from West Burton
hydration, lower permeability, and higher power station, which has a specific gravity of
resistant to chemical attack. However, it also has 2240kg/m3 and as a fineness of 6.7%passing
some limitations and adverse effect to the through 45μm sieve. It is a kind of PFA as the
properties of concrete for using individual classification of class C with low lime content
pozzlanic material to replace OPC. For instance, and no hydraulic properties. In accordance of
the using of PFA reduce the strength but the British standard BS3892: Part 1:1997.
enhance the workability for a specific water
cement ratio. One the other hand, silica fume
279
The silica fume which used in this investigation compressive strength, porosity and permeability
was offered by Elkem Materials and according of concrete. Three curing conditions as 20 ℃ ,40
to EN 13263 from the European Committee for ℃ and 60 ℃ water were determined to
Standardization. The silica fume was used as a investigate the impact of curing water
suspension which has a solids content of 50% by temperature to the properties of hardened
weight and the bulk density is approximately concrete and all the test was measure at 7days
1400 Kg/m3. and 28days.
The sand what we used throughout the 4 TESTING PROCEDURE
experiment is offered by Derbyshire Aggregates
4.1 Slump test
LTD, England. This fine aggregate consisted
natural sand with a particle size up to 5mm, a Slump test was measured to assess the
specific density (AP) as 2650 kg/m3and 0.5% workability of the fresh concrete paste and the
water absorption. By the grading analysis, it can procedure was in accordance of British standard
be found that 54% could pass though 0.60mm of BS 1881: Part 102: 1983 procedure. The
sieve. Similarly, the coarse aggregate which apparatus which used for the slump test is a
used throughout the programme is offered by frustum of a cone mould (300mm high, base of
Derbyshire Aggregates LTD, England as well. 203mm diameter and a similar opening of
This kind of coarse is made of natural round 102mm diameter at the top) and steel rod of
gravel which the maximum size is 10mm 16mm diameter.
uncrushed coarse aggregate.
4.2 Flow table test
Polycarboxylate superplasticizers were also used
This test is suitable for flowing concrete which
in the experiment. It was offered by BASF
made with superplasticizing admixtures or high
chemical company and in accordance of BS
PFA content concrete. The test procedure in this
5075: part 3.
experiment was according to the British standard
3.2 Blend proportions BS 1881: Part 105: 1984. The equipment utilised
in this test was a special steel board (200mm
In this investigation, 2 mixes which made of
high, 200mm base diameter and a top diameter
pure OPC for water cement ratio is 0.45 and 0.35
of 130mm) and a wooden tamper.
was measured as control set and another 6 mix
was investigated with the PFA replacement level 4.3 Compressive strength test
as 30%, 50% and 70% for the same two water
cement ratio as the control mix. Addition to For all the mixes, 100mm*100mm*100mm
that, another 2 mixes which involved with silica cubes was casted for the compressive test and
two ages compressive strength was measured as
fume and superplasticizers were also
7 days and 28 days. The procedure of the test
investigated. For all of the mixes, experiment
was based on the British standard (BS 1881:
were carried out into the fresh concrete paste test
and the mechanical properties of hardened Parts 108-116:1983). The load is applied as a
concrete samples from three curing conditions constant rate as 0.25Mpa/s which is an
appropriate loading speed for cube compressive
and two test ages as 7days and 28days. The
strength test.
research structure chart was shown as below.
4.4 Porosity test
Vacuum saturation (absorption technique) was
used to measure the porosity of hardened
concrete throughout the experiment and the
procedures of the porosity test were in
accordance of BS 1881: Part 122: 1983.
4.5 Oxygen permeability test
The oxygen permeability test was carried out to
show the level of the permeability for concrete
samples using 150 Ø 50mm cylindrical
specimens. The rate of the oxygen should be
Besides that, an additional mix was also measured after waiting a while for the flow rate
measured with OPC/PFA/SF=13/80/7 and became a constant and the time should be tested
superplasticizers. for at least 3 times and take the average value.
3.3 casting and curing 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
For each of the mix, 100*100*100 and 5.1 Workability for concrete paste
50*50*50 cubes and 150 Ø 50mm
cylindrical specimens was measured to test the
280
separately distributed. It can be seen that adding
160 W/C=0.45 >140 >140
140
of superplasiticizer can increase the workability
120
120 W/C=0.35 of concrete effectively in a very low dosage rate
100 80 and can also used as a water reducer.
80 70
60 50 45 50 5.2 Compressive strength
40
70.00 64.82
20 W/C=0.45
60.00 55.31
0
44.88 W/C=0.35
Control PFA/OPC=30/70 PFA/OPC=50/50 PFA/OPC=70/30 50.00 40.73
40.00 33.56
30.00 25.65
18.16
Fig-1 The relationship between slump test result and PFA 20.00 10.42
replacement level in two different water cement ratio 10.00
0.00
As it can be seen from the figure 1 above, a Control(CMEI) PFA/OPC=30/70 PFA/OPC=50/50 PFA/OPC=70/30
steady increasing trend can be distinguished as

Figure-3 Relationship between compressive strength and
the PFA replacement level went up. And for the PFA percentages in different w/c at 7 days (20 ℃
water)
two different water cement ratio it can be found
Figure 3 demonstrates that for all the PFA
that high water cement ratio result of high slump replacement level mixes the compressive
or workability due to the high water content. strength is also higher while the water cement
ratio is lower. This was due to cement is the
main material to form cohesion strength during
600 551
501 525 hydration. Hence, if the cement content is
499 488
500 450 increased the strength would be increased.
421
385
400
Additional to that, a clear decreasing tendency
300 W/C=0.45 can easily recognised as the PFA replacement
200 W/C=0.35 level went up.
100 64.82
70.00
55.31 56.93
0 60.00 7days
Control PFA/OPC=30/70 PFA/OPC=50/50 PFA/OPC=70/30 50.00 40.73 38.08 28days
40.00
25.65
30.00 19.51
Fig-2 The relationship for flow table test and PFA
replacement levels 20.00 10.42
10.00
From the figure.2 shown above, it is clear to find 0.00
the flow table result got a similar increasing Control(CMEI) PFA/OPC=30/70 PFA/OPC=50/50 PFA/OPC=70/30
tendency as the slump changes.
Generally, it can be indicated from the results as Figure 4 Relationship between compressive strength
and PFA percentages in curing ages for w/c=0.45 (20
the workability of the fresh concrete was ℃ water)
positively affected by blending of PFA in
concrete. Figure 4 above shows the 7 and 28 days
The slump test was also measured for mix 9 compressive strength in different PFA
which water cement ratio 0.35, OPC/PFA/Silica percentages while curing in 20℃ water
fume =23/70/7 and the slump test result is 0 with (w/c=0.45). Similarly, a decreasing trend on
a comparative low workability. From the visual compressive strength was appeared as the PFA
inspection, it can be recognized that the concrete percentage increased. Moreover, it can be seen
paste is very dry and it is very hard to transport that the 28 days strength is also higher than 7
and casting. Comparing with the 70%PFA days strength and higher PFA percentages
concrete without silica fume mix, it can be seen concrete increase degree is higher than the
that silica fume makes a negatively contribute to concrete with low PFA and without PFA.
the workability of concrete. Figure 5 above show that the strength in relation
with PFA percentages in different curing
However, when adding 1% superplasticizer for conditions. It can be seen that when the curing
OPC/PFA/Silica fume =23/70/7 as mix 10, the condition is considered, it can be found that as
situation was different. When measuring the the curing temperature increased, the degree of
flow table test, concrete paste spread all over the effect which made by PFA have been reduced.
table and the aggregate and the matrix are
281
is not quite clear, a general tendency can also be
found by these two figures that the use of PFA in
58.09
60
55.31 55.73 55.85 20℃ water concrete would generally result of a increasing
49.51 of porosity.
50 42.84 40℃ water
40.73
35.48 60℃ water 12.90% 12.98%
40 14.00%
10.97% 11.35% 11.36% 11.25%
25.65 24.41 12.00%
30 9.67% 9.70%
17.63 10.00% 9.26%
8.17%
20 10.42 8.00%
5.90% 5.46%
6.00% 20℃ water
10
4.00% 40℃ water
0
2.00% 60℃ water
Control(CMEI) PFA/OPC=30/70 PFA/OPC=50/50 PFA/OPC=70/30
0.00%
Figure-5Relationship between strength (in Mpa)

and curing conditions in different PFA percentages
at 7 days for w/c= 0.45
Figure-8 Relationship between porosity and PFA
20℃ water replacement level in terms of different curing conditions
70.00 62.25
40℃ water for 28days (w/c=0.45)
60.00 51.99
60℃ water
50.00 37.21 39.45 A general trend can be recognised from the
40.00 34.73 33.55
29.64
30.00 21.66 figure above that as the curing temperature
18.16
20.00 increasing, the porosity of the specimen would
10.00 be decreased for each of the PFA replacement
0.00
levels. This was because of the high curing
PFA/OPC=70/30 PFA/OPC=70/30&7%silica PFA/OPC=70/30 & 7%silica
fume fume & 1% super- temperature would contribute to the degree of
plasticzers
hydration by accelerating the chemical reactions
which occurred during the concrete hardening. It
Figure- 6 Relationship between strength (in Mpa) and curing can also be seen that the porosity for PFA
conditions while adding silica fume and superplasticizers at 7
days for w/c=0.35
replacement level as 30% and 50% was
decreased for curing in the 40℃ and 60℃ water
However, when the superplasticizers were added compare to the OPC concrete but for 20℃
inside it, it can be recognised that a rapid porosity was increased as the PFA percentages
increasing tendency was appeared at all curing goes up. Moreover, for 70% PFA replacement,
conditions compared with the mix 8 and mix 9. none of specimen achieved the porosity of the
The increasing in the compressive strength in the OPC control for all the curing condition and the
early strength was due to while using two ages. From the result above, it can be seen
superplasticizers the cement would be well that concrete which made by 30% of PFA can
dispersed and this will result of an increasing on achieve a better porosity performance than other
the hydration rate. Therefore, by using a low higher PFA percentages concrete at 28 days.
water cement ratio lower than 0.4, it is possible
to obtain a more rapid hydration rate.
18.00%
5.3 Porosity of hardened concrete 15.61% 20℃ water
16.00%
12.65% 40℃ water
14.00% 12.47%
10.89% 60℃ water
12.00% 10.16%
10.00% 8.12%
13.26% 12.90% 7.50% 7.25%
14.00% 12.98% 12.56% 8.00% 6.84%
10.97% 11.35% 11.42% 6.00%

12.00%
9.68% 4.00%
10.00%
W/C=0.45 2.00%
8.00% 0.00%
W/C=0.35
6.00% PFA/OPC=70/30 PFA/OPC=70/23&7%silica PFA/OPC=70/23 &
fume 7%silica fume & 1%
4.00% super-plasticzers
2.00%
0.00% Fig-9 Relationship between porosity and curing
Control(CMEI) PFA/OPC=30/70PFA/OPC=50/50PFA/OPC=70/30 conditions while adding silica fume and superplasticizers
at 28 days (w/c=0.35)
Fig -7 Relationship between porosity and PFA percentages in While adding 1% of superplasticizers as an
different water cement ratio at 28days (20 ℃ water) admixture into the silica fume concrete the
obviously improvement on porosity has been
From the figure 7above, it can be seen that the appeared for all the curing conditions. It can also
porosity is always slightly higher when the water be known from these two figures that for the
cement ratio is higher. Besides, although the PFA/OPC=70/30 mix and PFA/OPC/silica
changes of porosity in terms of PFA percentages
282
fume=70/23/7 mix, the porosity was reduced as temperature. Such as the micro crack of concrete
the curing temperature go up. caused by the interruption heating.
20℃ water 2.19E-16
5.4 Oxygen permeability 40℃ water
It is evident from figure 10 that the concrete 60℃ water

1.45E-16
1.57E-16
oxygen permeability is lower while the water 1.10E-16 1.15E-16

1.21E-16
1.07E-16
cement ratio is lower for all the PFA percentages
7.74E-17
concrete and control OPC concrete. Besides, for 5.92E-17
28 days as shown as figure 4.20 below, the

permeability has a general increasing trend as
0.00E+00
the PFA replacement level increasing. However,
PFA/OPC=70/30 PFA/OPC=70/23&7%silica PFA/OPC=70/23 &
depending on others previous study, the PFA fume 7%silica fume & 1% super-
plasticzers
could make a contribution to reduce the
permeability and achieve a durable concrete in Fig-12 Relationship between oxygen permeability and
later age (tarun R. Naik, 1993). Therefore, the curing conditions while adding silica fume and
high PFA replaced concrete sample should be superplasticizer at 28days (w/c=0.35)
investigated for an older age as 91 days; the It can be seen from the figure-12 that specimens
positive influence of PFA made on the which curing in 20℃ and 40℃ water, it is
permeability may be able to appear. evident that the adding of silica fume in the 70%
PFA concrete result of a slightly decreasing on
the permeability of concrete and the adding of
2.21E-16
W/C=0.45
superplasiticzer also reduce the permeability
W/C=0.35
compared with the other mix. On the contrary,
1.45E-16
for concrete curing in the 60℃ water, the
7.89E-17 9.60E-17 9.40E-17
permeability was increased while silica fume
8.15E-17
and superplasticizers were used.
4.97E-17 4.60E-17
5.5 Compressive strength and porosity

0.00E+00
From figure-13 show above, it can be seen that
although the plots on the figure is a litter bit of
erratic and inconsistent, it can also conducted a
Figure-10 Relationship between oxygen permeability and
PFA percentages for different water cement ratio at 28 general tendency that an decreasing on the
days (20℃ water) porosity would result of an improvement on the
compressive strength.
2.72E-16 20℃ water 16.00%
40℃ water 14.00%
60℃ water 12.00%

1.72E-16 10.00%
1.57E-16 1.61E-16
1.50E-16
8.00%
1.03E-16 1.16E-16 y = -0.0009x + 0.1465
8.15E-17 1.03E-16 9.60E-17 6.00%
R²= 0.2941
7.64E-17
4.00%
4.97E-17
2.00%
0.00%
0.00E+00
Control(CMEI) PFA/OPC=30/70 PFA/OPC=50/50 PFA/OPC=70/30 0 20 40 60 80
Figure 11- Relationship between oxygen permeability and Fig-13The relationship of porosity and compressive for
PFA percentages in terms of the curing condition at 28 days 28 days age
(w/c=0.45)
5.6 Compressive strength and permeability
It can be seen from figure 11 that the results
changed various in terms of the curing A general trend can be seen from the figure-14
temperature. For the control OPC mix and 70% that the permeability of the concrete made an
PFA mix the permeability slightly decreased as adverse effect on the compressive strength,
the curing temperature increased from 20℃ to although the squared value of the line is
40 ℃ , however when the temperature went up to only 0.0406.
60 ℃ , the permeability was increased a lot than
20℃ and 40 ℃ . On the other side, for the mix
with 30% and 50% PFA, the permeability
increased form lower to higher as the
temperature went up as 20℃ , 40 ℃ and 60 ℃.
This was mainly due to the interconnection of
the pores was increased because of the higher
283
achieved a concrete with a good workability and
y = -9E-19x + 2E-16
durability.
R²= 0.0406
7. CONCLUSIONS
1. The using of PFA in the concrete would
result of an increasing tendency for the
workability in different replacement
levels. However, adding of silica fume
made an adverse effect on the
0.00E+00
workability of concrete but it would
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
decrease the bleeding and enhance the
Fig-14 The relationship of permeability and compressive cohesion of the concrete paste. Finally,
for 28 days age
while mixed the concrete with
superplasticizers, the workability would
5.6 Permeability and porosity
increase for a short period of time.
2. Compressive strength was reduced as
From the figure-15, it can be seen that the plots
the PFA replacement level increased for
are erratic and inconsistent and a clear changing
all the curing condition for 7days and
tendency cannot be conducted in terms of the
28days and the high curing conditions
figure.Theoretically, concrete permeability is not
would increase the early strength of the
a simple function of porosity.
all types of the concrete. However, the
adding of silica fume and
superplasticizers would make a
positively contribution to the strength
for both 7 days and 28days.
3. The concrete with higher PFA
percentage was more sensitive to the
curing temperatures than OPC control
mix or lower PFA mix and the higher
curing temperature would influence the
0.00E+00 strength positively.
0.00% 2.00% 4.00% 6.00% 8.00% 10.00% 12.00% 14.00% 16.00% 4. Most of the concrete curing in lower
temperature with a lower PFA
Fig-15 The relationship of permeability and porosity for
percentage as 30% or 50% achieved a
28 days age lower porosity compared to the OPC
control concrete, but 70%of PFA result
5.7 Additional mix performance of a higher porosity than OPC mix. As
well as the strength, the porosity of
concrete with high PFA replacement
Workability level appears more sensitive to the high
curing temperature than lower and no
Slump test >140mm PFA concrete and increase of the curing
temperature can decrease the porosity
Flow table test 595mm
of concrete for 7 days and 28days.
Properties 5. The adding of silica fume and
superplasticizers can slightly decrease
Compressive strength (7 days 50.25Mpa porosity of concrete in all the curing
) conditions.
REFERENCE
Compressive strength (28 52.56Mpa
days ) A.M.Neville and J.J.Brooks . (1993). Concrete
technology. Essex: Longman Scientific.
Porosity 4.35% Lynsdale, (2000). Porosity and strength of
PFA/SF/OPC ternary blended paste. Cement and
Oxygen permeability 2.39E-16
Concrete Research , 1225-1229.
It can be seen that although the PFA replacement
level increased to 80%, being corporate with
silica fume and superplasticizers; it can also be
284
Heat Exchange Geostructure—the Application of Ground Source
Heat Pump system in China
Feng LIN
ABSTRACT The thesis was concerned with the study of the ground source heat pump system,
which is adopted to provide the heating and cooling requirements. In this project, the feasibility and the
adaptability analysis of ground source heat pump system (GSHPs) will be firstly included, which will
consider the factors that affect the performance of GSHPs; based on the analysis talked above, the
factors which will affect the stable operation of GSHPs will be further analyzed, such as the thermal
equilibrium problem and the problem of ground heat exchanger; finally, according to the research
results of the coefficient of performance of GSHPs and combined with the analysis talked above, the
development space of GSHPs in China will be given so as to ensuring the effectively development of
ground source heat pump system in China. However, the application of GSHPs must be designed
strictly proving the important role of those elements in the actual response of a project.
heat pump system is made up of compressor,

1 INTRODUCTION
evaporator, condenser and expansion valve. The
Ground source heat pump is a device which can working principle of ground source heat pump
transfer the heat from the low-temperature end to system is based on the second law of
the high-temperature end and the energy which thermodynamics. Since 1912, the Swiss H.
is used by this device comes from the Zoelly first put forward the concept of making
underground shallow geothermal resources. use of shallow geothermal energy (ground
Ground source heat pump essentially is another source heat pump system) as the
form of high efficiency energy saving air low-temperature heat source of ground source
conditioning system. Ground source heat pump heat pump. Ground source heat pump
can realize the transfer from low temperature technology has been thought as a technology
end to high temperature end through the input of which benefits for the environment protection
a small amount of high-grade energy (such as and can be looked as a sustainable development
electricity). It is adopted to replace the of cold and heat source form, which has been
traditional chiller and boiler heating mode. applied in the United States, Canada, Europe and
The working principle of heat pump is according many other countries for decades.
to the inverse Carnot cycle. The ground source
285
The ground source heat pump system is high
efficiency, energy saving and low cost. The
ground source heat pump system can be applied
widely. The operation of ground source heat
pump system is stable and reliable, and can
provide longer service life. However, the
demand for the design and installation of ground
source heat pump system is high. The initial
investment of ground source heat pump system
is larger than the other air conditioning system.
At the same time, not all areas are suitable for
Fig.1 soil temperature with depth in Peking
the construction of ground source heat pump
system, overall, ground source heat pump The operation of the ground source heat pump
technology mainly depends on the soil system mainly takes advantage of shallow
temperature of the project location, building load geothermal energy, and the development and
conditions, geological conditions of the project utilization of shallow geothermal energy must
location and other factors. In order to keeping base on the geological exploration and
the stable operation of GSHPs, all these must be evaluation. For ground source heat pump
carefully considered. system, it is necessary for us to master the
mainland hot bearing capacity in a certain area,
2 FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS OF GSHPs geothermal characteristics, and the heat
conduction coefficient characteristics of rock
Moderate winter and summer available soil
body and so on. Ground source heat pump
temperature, relatively small but steady cold and
system should be designed according to
heat load, less weathering rocks and rich in
geothermal resources and the related geothermal
liquidity of geologic conditions of groundwater
and geology conditions. Not all types of
are the ideal conditions for ground source heat
buildings are suitable for ground source heat
pump system. Hard to get enough soil heat
pump system. Overall, types of building which is
exchanger area for ground-source heat pump
suitable for ground source heat pump system are
system is the main limiting factor for
as follows, medium size of multilayer residence,
construction. Therefore, the main factors which
club, hotel where the load of the building
will affect the feasibility of ground-source heat
fluctuates slightly and the use of heat or cold are
pump system are as follows: the soil temperature
steady.
(the soil temperature ranging with depth in
Peking is shown in Fig.1), geological conditions, The sun radiation is the main source of shallow
building load characteristics and area for the soil heat energy. The temperature of soil in
appropriate layout of underground heat different regions of the same depth level also has
exchanger equipment. The research in this part is large difference, which is caused by the
based on the theoretical analysis. atmospheric environment temperature and the
nature of soil. The soil temperature distribution
and the general buried depth of the ground
source heat pump system are in the range of
5-400 m, so the surface air temperature can be
used to evaluate the soil temperature is whether
or not suitable for the ground source heat pump
286
system. The image of annual mean surface air Because different climatic conditions will
temperature in China from 1961-2005 is made change the load characteristic of building, so the
which is shown in Fig.2. On the other hand, the application of ground source heat pump system
spatial distribution of soil temperature is in the same kind of building will have different
influenced by many factors, such as latitude, performance in different architectural
longitude, altitude and so on, all these factors environment. Through the analysis of the soil
played together to influence the spatial temperature of four typical cities which apply
distribution of soil temperature. the ground source heat pump system, for the
building easily influenced by the climate
conditions, the ground source heat pump system
is not suitable for the directly application in
severe cold region and hot summer and warm
winter region, it is a better choice to apply
hybrid ground source heat pump system which
have auxiliary heating or auxiliary cooling
equipment, while the ground source heat pump
system can apply directly in cold region and hot
summer and cold winter region; for other types
Fig.2 annual surface air temperature in China of building, because of the change of the load
from 1961-2005 characteristics, severe cold area can apply
ground source heat pump system directly, but
the ground source heat pump system in the other
3 APPLICABILITY ANALYSIS OF
regions area all need to adopt different amounts
GSHPs
of auxiliary cooling equipment to share releasing
Different types of building have different load the heat.
characteristics, and different load characteristics Overall, ground source heat pump system has
will determine the applicability of ground source very big development space in China, such as
heat pump system. Through the analysis of the the northeast, north China, northwest area and
load characteristics of domestic architecture, the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, southeast coastal and
senior office building, shopping centre and hotel, other regions. The temperature of the soil in
it is found that different types of building will these regions are preliminary accord with the
affect the soil temperature to a certain degree; requirements of the ground source heat pump
and the kinds of building which is suitable for system, further analysis of these regions can be
adopting the ground source heat pump system done for the application of GSHPs.
must avoid breaking the balance of the soil
temperature in the long term. In the short term,
the recovery of soil temperature which is caused 4 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM PROBLEM
by the intermittent operation of ground source The thermal equilibrium problem must be
heat pump system in a running season must be avoided in the application of GSHPs. GSHPs
considered. Therefore, we must forecast the rely on ground heat exchanger collecting cold
influence of the soil temperature caused by the and heat sources from shallow ground, although
application of the ground source heat pump the heat source and heat transfer of heat pump
system before the project began to construct. units both depend on the temperature difference
in the diffusion radius. The heat load in winter
287
and summer and the running time of ground seepage is faster than 10−6 m/s, ground source
source heat pump air conditioning system are not heat pump system can be considered; when the
consistent, which result in the heat released to ground source heat pump system run in two-way
the soil in summer and the heat absorbed from continuous operation mode. When the local
the soil in winter through the operation of seepage speed of groundwater is less than
ground heat exchanger system is not normally 10−6 m/s and the imbalance rating is less than
consistent. Finally, the accumulation of the heat 12.5%, the design of ground source heat pump
will destroy the recovery capacity of the soil in system can ignore heat accumulation problem;
the long-term and the soil temperature will when the local seepage speed of groundwater is
deviate from the original soil temperature. The less than 10−6 m/s, while the imbalance rating is
thermal equilibrium problem is shown combined more than 12.5%, the groundwater can take
with the situation of Yangtze River delta and away part of heat, however, it still requires
Northeast region of China; and then the auxiliary facilities to solve the heat accumulation
importance of avoiding thermal equilibrium problem because the heat taken away by the
problem is given combined with the analysis of groundwater is limited; when the local seepage
the performance of an office building in speed of groundwater is bigger than 10−6 m/s,
Shanghai which is located in Yangtze River the heat accumulation problem can be ignored.
delta region.
4.1 The simulation
The simulation assessment of heat accumulation

problem is carried out in two different aspects
(the heat-transferring only considering the soil
itself and the heat-transferring considering the
help of groundwater). The thermal equilibrium
problem is shown through the analysis of the
Fig.3 the soil temperature change trends of
change trend of soil temperature which is carried
four different imbalances rates in 10 years
out in single and two-way operation GSHPs. The
seepage of groundwater will help the recovery of
the soil temperature and the different velocity of
groundwater will affect the soil temperature in
different degree, so three referenced seepage
velocity of groundwater are made to analyze the
change trend of soil temperature and through the
analysis of the soil temperature around the
ground heat exchanger and different
groundwater seepage speed conditions, when the
ground source heat pump system run in single
continuous operation or single intermittent
operation mode, the heat accumulation problem
Fig.4 the characteristic soil temperature
are severe in both conditions. Thereby the
change of operation mode 4 in a year
application of ground source heat pump system
is not favorable. Only when the local speed of
288
The application of GSHPs must ensure its
performance, and the performance of the ground
heat exchanger affects the performance of
GSHPs to a great extent. The basic
characteristics of soil must be firstly analyzed
because it directly affects the heat-transferring;
the different selection of related parameter in the
drilling buried heat exchanger can affect the best
Fig.5 Soil characteristic temperature of four
length and depth for drilling. The analysis of the
different unbalanced rate changes over time
best drilling depth is carried out through the
in 10 years (The seepage velocity is 𝟐. 𝟐 ×
analysis of three different drilling depths; the
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 m/s)
best drilling length will be given through the
analysis of the type and spacing of U-form tube,
the choice of backfilling materials, the choice of
drilling spacing and the choice of circulation
liquid, which can not only ensure the
performance of ground source heat pump system
but also can reduce the initial cost effectively.
The value of COP actually is the ratio between

the refrigerating (heating) capacity of the heat
Fig.6 Soil characteristic temperature of four pump system and the input power. In the same
different unbalanced rate changes over time conditions, the greater is the ratio; the efficiency
in 10 years (The seepage velocity is 𝟐. 𝟐 × of heat pump system is higher. The coefficient of
𝟏𝟎−𝟖 m/s) performance will determine the applicability of
ground source heat pump system. Through the
calculation of the COP of ground source heat
4.2 The solution
pump system in different climate zone in China,
Based on the optimization design of ground the application ground source heat pump system
source heat pump system, the construction can achieve good results in the area such as
quality and the strict training of the management severe cold area (the demand of heating is
personnel should also be ensured. The system greater than the demand of cooling) and cold
design, excellent construction quality and the area (the demand of cooling is greater than the
scientific operation are very important, only demand of heating). In the hot summer and cold
when all these three aspects meet the winter area where the annual demand of cooling
requirements; the soil thermal equilibrium is greatly higher than the annual demand of
problem can be avoided, thus the ground source heating, the single application of ground source
heat pump system can run stably and efficiently, heat pump system cannot receive good
and the suitable method should be chosen economical benefit and the year-round
combined with the analysis of the local coefficient of performance will be quite low.
condition. Thereby the application of ground source heat
pump system in these areas should combine with
auxiliary heat source to get good year-round
5 THE PERFORMANCE OF GSHPs coefficient of performance and economical
benefit.
289
sincere appreciation to Yunlong Gu and
Maomao for their contribution and helpful
comments.
REFERENCES
 Rybach, L., Brunner, M., Gorhan, H.,
Swiss Geothermal Update 1995-2000. In:
Proc. World Geothermal Congress, 2000,
Fig.7 the comparison of the factors that affect
413-426.
the year-round COP
 Cui P., Yang H., and Fang Z.H. Heat
transfer analysis of ground heat
exchangers with inclined boreholes.
6 CONCLUSION Applied Thermal Engineering, 2006.
The stable and high-efficiency operation of the 26(11-12): 1169-1175
ground source heat pump is influenced by many  C.K. Lee, H.N. Lam, Computer
factors, such as geological conditions, original simulation of borehole fround
soil temperature, the function of the architecture exchangers for geothermal heat pump
and the performance of buried tube heat system, Renewable Energy, 2008, 33(6):
exchanger, etc. Not all areas are suitable for the 1286-1296
application of ground source heat pump.  Georgios Florides, Soteris Kalogirou,
Through the related research, this paper hope Ground heat exchangers-A review of
that it can put forward some valuable advices on systems, models and applications,
the application of ground source heat pump Renewable Energy, 2007(32), 2461-2478
system in China, the designers should carry out  Zeng H.Y., Diao N.R., and Fang Z.H., Heat
the sufficient simulating analysis of various transfer analysis of boreholes in vertical
factors involved in the design stage of ground ground heat exchangers. International
source heat pump system and the influence of Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2006.
them on the ground source heat pump system, 46(23): 4467-4481
then the corresponding solution for not  Li X.G., Chen Y, Chen Z.H., Thermal
satisfying the requirement can be put forward. performance of different types of
The engineers should not blindly design; they underground heat exchangers. Energy and
should not only ensure the stable and Business. 2006. 38(5): 543-559
high-efficiency operation of ground source heat
pump system but also make the GSHPs much
more economical, and can optimize the
performance of GSHPs in different function,
different areas conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr.
Abigail Hathway and Dr. Jonathan Black for his
excellent support and inspiration throughout the
preparation of this thesis. I wish to express my
290
Filter-based whole cell biosensor for environmental contaminants

detection
YANJUN LUO
Candidate MSc Environment Management of Urban Land and Water
ABSTRACT Conventional chemical analytical methods suffer from the demand of in situ and
online biodetection for environmental pollution, where a more portable and efficient way has drawn
great attention. The bacteria based biosensor approach is a novel method to achieve this goal, which has
been demonstrated to be suitable for pollutant’s detection in field. In this study, a filter-based biosensor
system was established to address the challenge, and the main point is to optimize the biosensor’s
immobilization and the detection parameters. Firstly, best cell density on the filter is illustrated as
1.5×104 cells per mm2. Subsequently, the optimal induction time for filter-based biosensor system is
evaluated at 60 minutes. As for operation, the appropriate flow rate depends on the inducer
concentration and 10 rpm (0.52 mL/min) shows both the sensitive detection limit and widest response
range, when compared with series rate from 5 rpm to 18 rpm. Meanwhile, bioluminescence response
persists a positive relationship with inducer concentration, though no linear equation is obtained. The
detection limit in such filter-based biosensor system is extremely as low as 5 nM, which is significantly
better than 50 nM when applied directly in traditional method. In summary, the novel filter-based
biosensor is illustrated to sense salicylate successfully online and has great potential for in situ or online
biodetection as a feasible method
genetic modified which would not influence the

1 INTRODUCTION
accuracy of the result.
The environment pollution caused by chemical
compound has been a problem along with the
development of different industries. Generally,
these chemical compounds include organics,
heavy metals and some inorganics which many
of them are toxic or carcinogenic to biota.
Therefore, the quality and quantity detection of
these contaminates become a very important
issue for improving the current situation (Harms
et al., 2006).
Figure 1.1 schematic of whole cell biosensor
Recent years, some biodetction methods for the
target compound appear and their application is The classic design strategy of bioreporter is the
more and more popular due to their fast transcription regulator plus a promoter or
detection capability as well as the good operator (figure 1.1), which uses DNA
efficiency. The biosensor is one excellent recombination technique to fuse promoterless
alternative to traditional chemical analysis. The reporter gene into a specific compound
basic concept of biosensor is composed of two sensitive promoter to form a genetic working
parts: sensing element which could recognize the circuit. This circuit consists of two components:
target compound or the environmental changes, sensing element and a transducer element (van
another part is the transducing element that der Meer and Belkin, 2010). Most researches
produces measurable signal which responses to showed that there existed a dose-dependent
the environment change (Daunert et al., 2000; relationship between the analyte and the
Shrestha et al., 2001). Comparing to molecule- measurable signal.
and tissue- based biosensor, the cell-based
This project will focus on the improvement of
bacteria biosensor has the advantage of high
the application for biosensor otherwise the
stability and specificity. Their function could be
291
genetic modification. This improvement is cell biosensor system, and the bioluminescence
mainly on the operation procedure and the detection.
appropriate conditions for the real online and in
The main parameters are cell density (biosensor
situ application.
cell number immobilized on the filter), optimal
induction time ( the time which is needed for
largest amount of bioluminescence production),
the effect of bioluminescence production under
different inducer concentrations, and the effect
of bioluminescence production under different
flow rates. The major operation procedures are
showed in figure 2.1 and figure 2.2.
Figure 1.2 Schematic of filter-based biosensor.

This filter-based whole cell biosensor (figure
1.2) applied a new support material for
immobilization of biosensor cell which decreases
the fussy operation procedure and draws the
great potential for in situ online monitoring. The
filter will be installed on a filter holder, the
solution flow containing inducer molecule can
get through this filter and the target compound
will be entrapped by the biosensor immobilized Figure 2.1 Schematic of operation procedure
on the filter.
In this project, we expect the biosensor can be
immobilized on the filter with a suitable
capacity, performing as well on the field
detection and can successfully substitute the
fussy sample injection by hand. This may also
shorten the operation and monitoring time
The main task of this project is the construction
of filter-based biosensor reaction system which
Figure 2.2 Schematic of operation procedure
includes the optimization of application
(the black solid arrow indicates the flow
condition when applied in real in situ online
direction)
detection. This detection and monitoring device
should finally meet the goal of portable, rapid
and simple operation procedure for the in situ
online environment monitoring.
3.1 Cell density
The cell density is the total biosensor cell
2 METHODS AND MATERIALS
number which are immobilized on the filter. The
2.1Experiment design figure 3.1 and 3.2 show the results.
The whole experiment in our expectation will be
comprised of two sections. The first part would
be the condition optimization including
determination of cell density, optimal reaction
time and construction of filter-based biosensor
under the definite concentration of inducer. The
second part would be the effect of
bioluminescence response for the biosensor with
different inducer concentration and the effect of
flow rate getting through the filter to
bioluminescence response.
2.2 Methods Figure 3.1 Bioluminescence versus cell density
The major steps here include biosensor culture The bar graph tells us that the bioluminescence
and harvest, construction of filter-based whole production increases with growing cell density
292
on filter which demonstrates that the amount of
biosensor cell immobilized on the filter should
be the more the better. Additionally, the stable
bioluminescence result indicates the stability of
biosensor’s performance is high which is
necessary for in situ and online monitoring.
However, the column diagram could not tell the
saturation amount or exact quantity of biosensor
cell on the filter.
Figure 3.3 Bioluminescence versus time
The peak value in the curve (figure 3.2) is the

target result we want to get which is 60 minutes.
This optimal induction time inside the cell
membrane mainly consist of the time for
molecule binding onto promoter, the time for
transcription of mRNA, the time for translation
of reporter protein and the time for production of
the measurable signal (Li and Xie, 2011). The
Figure 3.2 Bioluminescence ratio between dynamics between these expression steps lead to
negative control and induced sample the fluctuations for every single cell. As for a
population of cell, the key reason for the gene
The curve (figure 3.2) indicates a declining trend expression process is the target molecule bind or
at a lower cell density and a smooth trend at a unbind to the transcription factor (TF). If it can
high cell density. The ratio parameter could tell bind to the TF successfully, the promoter of this
us the stable level and saturation amount of circuit could be activated and the expression
biosensor immobilized on the filter. The process could be succeeded. Furthermore, this
biosensor amount immobilized on the filter gene expression behavior is stochastic in time
would be in the range of 1× 104 ~ 2 × 104 cells making the chemical molecule behaves
per mm2 (2 × 107 ~ 4 × 107 per milliliter). unpredictably (Dong and Wang, 2002). Herein,
One reason for the ratio staying at a stable value his best reaction time is a macro result of
is that the biosensor number immobilized on the thousands of biosensor cell otherwise a micro
filter is saturated due to the limited space on the result.
filter. Another possibility is the diffusion process 3.3 Effect of inducer concentration
performs unevenly due to the uneven pressure on
the filter. Moreover, the saturation of induction The inducer concentration reflects the detection
promoter exists under the condition of limited capacity of the biosensor. This concentration
inducer molecule. Finally, as for the operation effect happened under a condition of determined
we decide the cell density is 1.3 × 104 cells per biosensor amount on the filter. The variable
mm2 (3 × 107 per milliliter). concentration in this experiment is in a range of
5 nM ~ 100 μM. The response of the biosensor
3.2 Optimal reaction time cell to the different inducer concentration could
The optimal reaction time is the time w is needed be existed a relationship between these two
for the highest amount of bioluminescence from variables. This relationship may be used for
the response of biosensor cell to the addition of quantitative detection.
inducer (salicylate).
293
Figure 3.4 Bioluminescence versus inducer The comparison of the response result with
concentration different flow rate (figure 3.4) prefers a lower
flow rate through the filter. One possible
The effect of inducer concentration to
explanation for this result may be that the slower
bioluminescence response has a increasing trend
flow rate is, the better diffusion and contact
within a inducer concentration scale. After a
would be performed. Worthwhile, this trend is
peak value the bioluminescence production
staying at a similar stable level indicating that
decreases which is under a high inducer
influence caused by flow rate performs at a high
concentration. One possibility for this
stability.
appearance is that in the low inducer
concentration range, the inducer molecule is They both have the trend of increasing
depleted quickly which means the promoter is bioluminescence response until it reaches a peak
saturated temporarily. Therefore, the condition, and then this response decreases. With
bioluminescence production increases along with the faster solution flow the physical dynamic
growing inducer concentration. However, under takes a controllable place. Furthermore, the
the high inducer concentration range, the inducer performance of different flow rate interpretated
molecules are over saturated which means the the physical dynamic influence outside of the
high inducer concentration is toxic to biosensor biosensor cell. This mechanical force is more
cell within a certain reaction system. On the controllable comparing to the thermodynamic
other hand, the variation of inducer influence between the chemical molecules.
concentration in the reaction system reflects the Finally, for the purpose of operation, the flow
dynamics behavior inside the biosensor cell. rate of 10 rpm could balance the performance of
bioluminescence response with different
3.4 Effect of flow rate
parameters.
The flow rate refers to the velocity of the
solution flow containing the target compound
gets through the filter with immobilized 4 CONCLUSIONS
biosensor by synergy pump. The preparation
To address the challenge that in situ and online
experiment told us that if the flow rate exceeded
estimation of environmental pollution needs, the
20 rpm, the reaction system with a total volume
bacteria based whole cell biosensor method has
of 50 mL could not get an optimal induction
been demonstrated as an effective alternative to
time, so we set the flow rate of synergy pump
conventional chemical instrument analytic
under 20 rpm. From this parameter, we can get
method in field. In this study, a new filter-based
different situations of bioluminescence
whole cell biosensor system was established. We
production under variable flow rate. The
optimized the parameter of cell density on the
different flow rate made the different pressure on
filter which has an appropriate amount of the cell
the filter and also the different diffusion speed
number is 1.5×104 per mm2 (3×107 per
for the inducer to the filter. Moreover, for the in
milliliter). In addition, the optimal induction
situ online detection, the application of the flow
time is stable at around 60 minutes.
rate for the reaction system would play an
important role for the induction behavior, as well Furthermore, we tested different inducer
as the practical detection capability. concentration serials for the system which has a
detection limit scale between 5 nM and 100 μM.
The bioluminescence response was existed even
though at a very low inducer concentration.
Finally, we tested different flow rate for the
system from 5 rpm to 18 rpm. Within the lower
inducer concentration scale, which is usually
below 1 μM, the higher flow rate would have a
bigger effect on the bioluminescence response.
however, with the high inducer concentration
(above 1 μM) the effect of flow rate for the
bioluminescence response didn’t change
significantly. Therefore, for the purpose of
operation, the flow rate 10 rpm (0.52 mL/min)
has a good performance.
In summary, this constructed new system of the
Figure 3.5 Bioluminescence versus inducer filter-based biosensor performed well at a stable
concentration under different flow rates level. The biosensor ADPWH_lux immobilized
294
on the cellulose filter is still working robustly Daunert, S, Barrett, G, Feliciano, J S, Shetty, R
and has a nice bioluminescence behavior as well. S, Shrestha, S and Smith-Spencer, W (2000)
Genetically engineered whale-cell sensing
systems: Coupling biological recognition with
5 FUTURE PROSPECTIVE reporter genes. Chemical Reviews, Vol. 100, pp.
2705-2738.
One of challenges facing the online monitoring
of biosensors is the necessity to maintain the Dong, S J and Wang, B Q (2002)
activity of biosensors in ambient environment Electrochemical biosensing in extreme
over a long period of time. In the previous work, environment. Electroanalysis, Vol. 14, pp. 7-16.
many solutions have been developed for the
Harms, H, Wells, M C and van der Meer, J R
preservation of biosensor, such as freezing
(2006) Whole-cell living biosensors - are they
drying and vacuum drying (Liu et al., 2010), but
ready for environmental application? Applied
they have the disadvantages of high cost,
Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol. 70, pp.
sensitive to moisture and harsh drying conditions
273-280.
(Bjerketorp et al., 2006). The immobilization
and encapsulation are both used for the Kohlmeier, S, Mancuso, M, Deepthike, U,
preservation of biosensors by using sol-gel Tecon, R, van der Meer, J R, Harms, H and
entrapment (Premkumar et al., 2002), but not Wells, M (2008) Comparison of naphthalene
preserved in ambient environment. bioavailability determined by whole-cell
biosensing and availability determined by
Another limitation which prohibits the widely
extraction with Tenax. Environmental Pollution,
use of biosensors is the gas sample detection.
Vol. 156, pp. 803-808.
The faster transportation of detected compound
in gas phase drives the development of gas Li, G-W and Xie, X S (2011) Central dogma at
sample detection. One obstacle is the inherent the single-molecule level in living cells. Nature,
difficulty of maintaining the viability of Vol. 475, pp. 308-315.
biosensor in the context of complicated
Liu, L, Liu, C, Shang, L, Li, D, Yong, D, Qi, L
environment and the other one is the low
and Dong, S (2010) Viable but nonculturable
concentration of detected compounds comparing
cells used in biosensor fabrication for long-term
to the soil or water sample, which makes the
storage stability. Talanta, Vol. 83, pp. 31-35.
capture for targeted substances from gas sample
difficult. Kohlmeier et al. (Kohlmeier et al., Premkumar, J R, Rosen, R, Belkin, S and Lev, O
2008) used the headspace assay to test the (2002) Sol-gel luminescence biosensors:
volatile sample of naphthalene, but is limited by Encapsulation of recombinant E-coli reporters
the detection method and the system is in thick silicate films. Analytica Chimica Acta,
constrained with the complicated inside Vol. 462, pp. 11-23.
environment which is not quite perfect for the
Shrestha, S, Shetty, R S, Ramanathan, S and
portable rule.
Daunert, S (2001) Simultaneous detection of
In this study, the established filter-based analytes based on genetically engineered whole
biosensor system performed at a good station. As cell sensing systems. Analytica Chimica Acta,
for the commercial application, the further Vol. 444, pp. 251-260.
optimization or improvement of this filter-based
van der Meer, J R and Belkin, S (2010) Where
biosensor is also expected.
microbiology meets microengineering: design
and applications of reporter bacteria. Nature
Reviews Microbiology, Vol. 8, pp. 511-522, in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ruskai, M B, Beylkin, G, Coifman, R,
I truly appreciate Wei Huang and Dayi Zhang for Daubechies, I, Mallat, S, Meyer, S and Rapheal,
helping me in the experiment design and L (Eds.), Wavelets and their Applications, Jones
operation instruction within the whole and Bartlett, Boston, p 427.
experiment.
REFERENCES
Bjerketorp, J, Hakansson, S, Belkin, S and
Jansson, J K (2006) Advances in preservation
methods: keeping biosensor microorganisms
alive and active. Current Opinion in
Biotechnology, Vol. 17, pp. 43-49.
295
IAPPS DESIGN AIDS FOR STEEL FRAMED BUILDING DESIGN

Harish Maledath
MSc (Eng) Structural Engineering (Steel Construction)
ABSTRACT While designing structures in steel, concrete, timber etc, it is mandatory to follow the
instructions and norms given in the respective codes of practices prevailing in each country. The content of
codes of practices varies within countries and it includes the basic concepts of design of structures, the
respective specifications to be followed, safety factors adopted etc. The Eurocodes are a new set of European
structural design codes intended to harmonise design requirements for building and civil engineering works.
According to Steel Construction Institute (SCI), structural design using Eurocode 3 is 6%-8% more cost
effective than its predecessor BS 5950: Part -1:2000. As the design guidelines become more and more
economic, the complexity involved in following the procedures also increases. The relatively simple design
procedures clubbed with ease of arriving results using the former codes inspires most of UK designers towards
using BS codes. Apart of being complex in nature, the programming capability of EC is being utilised over
recent years and very recently smart phone applications also finds its place among the designers. This research
is mainly divided into two phases in which the first phase focuses into the comparative study of Eurocode 3, BS
5950: Part -1:2000 & BS 449 in calculation of buckling resistance of members under compression, bending &
combined axial force and bending and second phase focuses the development of an iPhone application for
calculation of buckling resistance of members subjected to combined axial force and bending.
several factors which contribute to the complexity.

1 INTRODUCTION
Over estimation of strength causing safety issues,
The Eurocodes are a new set of European structural under estimation of strength causing economic issues
design codes intended to harmonise design etc are few of them [Shafii F, 2001]. The relatively
requirements for building and civil engineering simple design procedures clubbed with ease of
works [Boissonnade N, 2006; Shafii F, 2001]. arriving results using the former codes inspires most
According to recent surveys, more than 30% of of UK designers towards using BS codes. Apart of
construction site whole over the world has migrated being complex in nature, the programming capability
to Eurocode guidelines. This makes Eurocode a good of EC is being utilised over recent years. Present
competitor among other codes of practices. British paper aims at comparison of resistances for members
Standard Institute had already withdrawn their subjected to compression, bending & combined
former guideline for concrete (BS 8110) and steel bending and axial compression.
(BS 5950) and are readily equipped with the new
In this paper, for sake of simplicity and lack of space,
guidelines of Eurocodes [Boissonnade N, 2006].
attention will only be devoted to comparative study
Compared to BS 5950, structural steel designs can be
only and historical background review for members
made more economical using EC 1993-1-1 because
subjected to compression, bending & combined
of incorporating some new design formulas
bending and axial compression are excluded.
especially for the stability checks and verification for
members subjected to combined bi axial bending and
axial force normally referred as beam columns
2 COMPARATIVE STUDY – COMPRESSION
[Shafii F, 2001]. Comparing with most national
MEMBERS (COLUMNS / STRUTS)
standards and with the ENV Version of Eurocode 3,
these new specification and design rules not only 2.1 Buckling resistance of compression members –
enlarge the scope of application but also substantially EC3 approach
improve the accuracy of the predicted structural
The EC3 approach to determine buckling resistance
member capacity [Boissonnade N, 2006].
of compression members are described below.
According to Steel construction institute (SCI) Buckling resistance: - A compression member
publication of “Eurocodenews” claimed that [Eurocode 3, 2005] should be verified against
structural design of steel based on EC3 will give 6%- buckling as follows
8% more cost saving as compared to design using BS
5950. Before the introduction of Eurocode, BS 5950 NEd/Nb,Rd ≤ 1.0 (2.1)
and BS 449 (predecessor of BS 5950) were the two NEd is the design value of compression force
main codes of practices for design of steel structures,
prevailed in UK. Although the Eurocode replaces Nb,Rd is the design buckling resistance of the
BS, not many UK designers are using them at the compression member (axial buckling resistance)
present time. In part this is because they appear to be Nb,Rd = (χ A fy)/γM1 for class 1, 2 & 3 sections. A is
more complex than British Standards. There are replaced with Aeff for class 4 sections
296
Where χ is the reduction factor for the relevant multiplying Ag (gross area) or Aeff (effective area in
buckling mode (flexural, torsional or torsional case of slender members) with minimum yield stress
flexural) py. This is calculated against the factored design
compressive force Fg*.
χ = 1/(∅+ ∅ ) ≤ 1.0 (2.2)
According to BS 5950, a compression member has to
2
φ = 0.5[1+α (λ-0.2) +λ ] (2.3) be verified against
Fg* / Pc <= 1 (2.6)
λ= (2.4)
Fg* = Design value of compressive force
Flexural buckling of compression member is Pc = Compression resistance
characterised by excessive lateral deflections in the
plane of the weaker principal axis of member. The For class 1, 2 & 3 sections
non-dimensional slenderness Pc = Ag pc
λ = √ ((A fy)/Ncr) = (2.5) Ag is the gross cross sectional area
pc is the compressive strength according to table 24
Lcr is considered same as LE in BS 5950 because
of BS 5950
comprehensive guidance [SCI Publication P362,
2009] on buckling lengths for compression members BS 5950 gives two approaches for finding out value
is not specifically provided in EC3. For class 1, 2 & of pc.
3 sections, A is replaced with Aeff for class 4
sections. EC3 defines 5 buckling curves, labelled a0, First approach: - Simple approach
a, b, c and d. The shapes of buckling curves are Finding out slenderness ratio λ = LE/r (Effective
altered through imperfection factor α which depends length/ radius of gyration).
on the cross section, buckling plane, member
property etc and 0.2 represents the length of plateau. Finding out value of pc from table 24 based on λ & py
From the shape of buckling curves [Eurocode 3, (design strength)
2005], [Zuang H, 2010] given in Fig 2.1, it can be Second approach: - Using the equations given in
noticed that for λ <= 0.2, the reduction factor is equal Annex C (C1)
to unity. This means that for compression members
having NEd / Ncr <= 0.04, no reduction to basic cross Strut formula
section resistance has to be applied. pc = (pE py)/(∅+ ∅ ) (2.7)
In which φ = (py+(η+1)pe)/2 (2.8)
pE = π2E/λ2 (2.9)
py is design strength & λ is slenderness ratio
2.3 Buckling resistance of compression members –
BS 449 approach
According to BS 449, the average stress calculated
over the gross sectional area of axially loaded struts
shall not exceed the allowable limits proposed in
table 17 of BS 449. Similar to BS 5950, BS 449
utilises l/r to find out the resistance compressive
Fig-2.1 EC3 Buckling curves (Fig 6.4, EC3) stress.
The above method is termed as isolated member According to BS 449, the average compressive stress
approach [NSC Technical report, 2011]. EC3 acting on a compression member shall not exceed the
recommends another method for member stability value of pc
check. It is termed as General method mentioned in
!" % !"
#$ & '( )* +
clause 6.3.4 of EC3.
2.2 Buckling resistance of compression members – (2.10)
BS 5950 approach
pc = permissible average stress, N//sqmm
British Standard BS 5950: 2000 Clause 4.7.4
K2 = Load factor, (taken as 1.7 normally)
Rational frame analysis is used to find out the axial
force of a compression member in BS 5950. Loads Ys = minimum yield stress, N/sqmm
are multiplied with appropriate partial load factor γf. C0 = Euler critical stress
The compression resistance Pc is calculated by
297
η = 0.3 (l/100r)2 buckling strength, and will strengthen the above
statement.
l/r = slenderness ratio
2.4.2 EC3 COMPARISON WITH BS 449
2.4 Discussion on analytical comparison of
compression resistances based on EC3, BS 5950 & INFERENCE - 1
BS 449 The resistance arrived for EC3 & BS 449 varies
Buckling resistances of UC 203x203x60 (S355) & within a range between 52.44% & 62.81%.
UB 305x127x48 (S355) under various lengths are INFERENCE – 2
given are studied and are shown in Figure 2.2
The influence of residual stress and initial geometric
imperfection is not taken into account in BS 449
formulations for arriving the buckling resistances.
INFERENCE – 3
Incorporation of 5 well defined buckling curves in
EC3 makes the design more realistic than BS 449
and subsequently the load calculated for same section
in latter will be less than the former.
3 COMPARATIVE STUDY – BEAM COLUMNS

3.1 Buckling resistance of beam columns – EC3
approach
According to clause 6.3.3 of EC3, beam columns
subjected to combined axial force and biaxial
bending has to satisfy the following stability checks
Figure 2.2: Length Vs Major axis buckling resistance NEd My,Ed Mz,Ed
to compression +kyy +kyz ≤1
χyNRk/γM1 χLTMy,Rk/γM1 Mz,Rk/γM1 (3.1)
2.4.1 EC3 comparison with BS 5950
NEd My,Ed M
INFERENCE - 1 +kzy +kzz z,Ed ≤1 (3.2)
χzNRk/γM1 χLTMy,Rk/γM1 Mz,Rk/γM1
According to SCI Advisory desk notes AD 153, the
new EC3 is calibrated in such a way that the results EC3 recommends two approaches for finding out the
are more or less similar to other codes and more Interaction factors kij and are given as Annex – A
economical level of safety checks is employed. (Method 1) & Annex – B (Method 2) in EC3.
Based on the comparative study, the difference in the
tabulated resistances of BS 5950 varies with EC3 3.1.1 Comparison between Method 1 & Method 2
within a range of 1.52% to 5.61%. Hence we can of EC3 [Trahair N S, 2008; Lindner J, 2003]
conclude that EC3 loads are 5% lower than BS 5950 In general Method 1 is derived based on spatial
loads. flexural buckling modes, especially relating to out of
INFERENCE – 2 plane buckling & uses specific coefficients for each
phenomenon whereas Method 2 is derived based on
For section UC 203x203x60 is having a resistance of theoretical derivations of in plane buckling formula.
1102.92 kN which on scaling to 5% will give Hence it covers in plane effect more and out of plane
1102.92/0.95=1160.97 kN effect is approximated and its factors are more
compact. Lateral torsional buckling effects are
Where BS 5950 calculations gives 1151.03 kN only. derived based on the calibrated results of elastic
Hence EC3 calculation gives a safe and reliable plastic simulations in Method 1 and Lateral torsional
output. buckling effects are derived based on the calibrated
INFERENCE -3 results of elastic plastic simulations in Method 2.
Calculations of large number of factors make Method
According to NSC Journal (June 2008), it has been 1 tougher to do it by hand and hence suitable for
stated that the Eurocode has a slightly shorter plateau computer aided design purposes. Method 2 on the
in strut buckling curve as compared to BS 5950 and other hand is comparatively simple approach and
hence the value of buckling curves will be slightly aimed at use by hand calculations. Method
more as compared to Eurocode. This can be clearly 1application ranges for doubly symmetric cross
noticed in Figure 2.2 showing the length against sections subjected to axial force, end moments and
298
transverse loadings whereas Method 2 pc is allowable compressive stress in axially loaded
application ranges for doubly symmetric cross struts
sections subjected to axial force, end moments and
fbcx & fbcy are compressive strength due to bending
transverse loadings and for members with
about the respective rectangular axis
intermediate lateral restraints also. Flexural buckling
to lateral torsional buckling transition is made pbcx & pbcy are allowable compressive stresses for
smooth and a definite distinction cannot be noticed in members subjected to bending
Method 1 whereas in Method 2 Two standard cases
3.4 Discussion on analytical comparison of beam
of torsionally stiff and torsionally flexible member
are presented. Cm factors of Method 1 accounts for column buckling resistances based on EC3, BS
non-uniform moment distribution and are derived 5950
from elastic buckling theory and depends on critical N+My (Buckling mode y-y): Based on analytical
flexural buckling load. Method 2 on the other hand is study, for 50% of squash load, BS 5950 gives a
based on uniform moments and follows Austin moment capacity of almost 50% of moment of
formulae. resistance of section whereas EC3 gives only 41% of
moment of resistance of section in a rectangular
3.2 Buckling resistance of beam columns – BS
moment distribution and for a triangular moment
5950 approach
distribution, the moment carrying capacity was found
According to BS5950 clause 4.8.3.2, the buckling more for both the approaches
capacity of a beam column subjected to biaxial
The above observation can be justified using a
moment and axial compression is given as
comparison graph between the interaction factors of
, /0 10
.
/ 1 EC3 & BS 5950. Comparison between the
. 3 1, (3.3)
- - 20 - 2 interaction factors kij and mx, my & mLT are shown
, / 5 167 / 1 in Figure 3.1
. . 3 1, (3.4)
- 18 - 2
Fc is the applied axial compressive force
Mb is buckling resistance moment
MLT is maximum major axis moment in segment
length L governing Mb
Mx is maximum major axis moment in segment
length Lx governing Pcx
My is maximum major axis moment in segment
length Ly governing Pcy
Pc is smaller of Pcx and Pcy Figure 3.1: EC3 interaction factors (kyy) Vs BS 5950
Zx is section modulus about major axis moment factors (mx)
Zy is section modulus about minor axis From the above fig it can be inferred that the
interaction factors calculated using both BS 5950 and
mLT is bending moment modification factor over EC3 approach reveals the same results for positive
segment length LLT governing Mb (Table 18) values of ψ (0 to 1) and the factors are in a linearly
mx is bending moment modification factor over increasing trend and this explains the reason for
segment length Lx governing Pcx (Table 26) having a higher moment of resistance for negative
values of ψ.
my is bending moment modification factor over
segment length Ly governing Pcy (Table 26) N+Mz (Buckling mode z-z): For 50% of squash load,
BS 5950 gives a moment capacity of almost 60% of
3.3 Buckling resistance of beam columns – BS 449 moment of resistance of section whereas EC3 gives
approach only 66% of moment of resistance of section in
buckling mode y-y in rectangular moment
According to clause 14 of BS 449, members
distribution. For a triangular moment distribution, the
subjected to combined axial force and bending has to
moment carrying capacity was found more for both
be checked against the following equation
the approaches.
8 0 8
. -8 . -8 3 1, (3.5)
- 0
fc is the calculated average compressive stress
299
4 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EC 1993-1-1 Annex-B. Besides calculating
EUROCODES interaction factors, the proposed application finds its
use in the following fields of EC 1993-1-1
Compared to BS 5950, structural steel designs can be
calculations
made more economical using EC 1993-1-1 because
of incorporating some new design formulas 1. Buckling Resistance of members in
especially for the stability checks and verification for
a) Bending (Calculation of Mb,Rd)
members subjected to combined bi axial bending and
axial force normally referred as beam columns b) Compression (Calculation of Nb,y,RD ,
[Shafii F, 2001]. Comparing with most national Nb,z,RD)
standards and with the ENV Version of Eurocode 3,
these new specification and design rules not only c) Combined Bending and Axial
Compression (Calculation of kyy, kyz, kzy,
enlarge the scope of application but also substantially
kzz and Interaction formula)
improve the accuracy of the predicted structural
member capacity. Although Eurocodes are published, 6.1 Initial considerations & assumptions
not many designers are following it. The foremost
reason is because of its complexity in the The following are the initial considerations and
formulations associated with the calculation of assumptions made prior to writing Xcode
resistances of members. It can be very well 1. Cross section is classified by assuming that the
understood from section 3, regarding the calculation whole section will be subjected to compression.
of buckling resistance of a beam column subjected to
combined biaxial bending and axial compression. BS 2. Buckling resistance of member due to bending is
5950 utilises a set of tabulated outputs presented in calculated according to clause 6.3.2.3 of EC 1993-1-
tables in order to find out the interaction factors 1:2005
whereas EC implements a set of complex 3. Calculation of Mcr is based on Method 1 of SCI
formulations for the calculation of interaction factors. publication P362 – Steel building design Concise
The relatively simple design procedures clubbed with Eurocode (Page 52).
ease of arriving results using the former codes
inspires most of UK designers towards using BS 4. Considered only end moment loadings (Transverse
codes. Apart of being complex in nature, the loadings are not taken into account)
programming capability of EC is being utilised and 5. C1 values (for calculation of Mcr) are taken from
over recent years designers have become more and table 6.4 of SCI publication P362.
more reliant on design aids (handbooks, load tables,
spread sheets, programs) and very recently 6. Buckling resistance of member due to bending is
applications for smart phones have started to appear. calculated according to clause 6.3.1.2 of EC 1993-1-
1:2005
7. Buckling resistance of member due to combined
5 INTRODUCTION TO IPHONE bending & axial compression is calculated according
APPLICATION to clause 6.3.3 of EC 1993-1-1:2005.
IPhone has a tremendous impact in the day to day 8.Interaction factors (kij) for the interaction
life of a person. Sleek touch screen interface, equations are calculated based on Annex B (Table
completely devoid of physical buttons, changed the B1, Table B2 & Table B3) of EC3 1993-1-1:2005.
interaction with a mobile device completely
[Trebitowski B, 2011]. Apple products due to its 6.2 Validation of IApp
remarkable features, captures the heart of almost It is in the validation stage that the iApp is checked
every one. It took the mobile applications to such a in order to meet the specifications and to check the
level which is comparable to the use of a personal accuracy of the results. Results for UKB & UKC
computer in pocket. sections are cross checked against the following
Currently there are no iapps available, in apple store, resources. The parameters given in square brackets
for calculating the buckling resistance of beam are checked using that particular resource.
columns and hence a suitable iPhone application 1. Blue book (P363) [Nb,y,Rd, Nb,z,Rd & Mb,Rd]
intended to reduce the human effort in calculating the
buckling resistance of beam columns will be 2. MS Excel [Nb,y,Rd, Nb,z,Rd & Mb,Rd]
beneficial for students and practicing engineers in the
present scenario.
7 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATION’S
6 DEVELOPING IPHONE APPLICATION
7.1 Phase - 1
The main objective of the proposed IPhone
application is to reduce the complexity and effort in Theoretical & comparative study of behaviour of
calculation of Interaction factors (kij) according to members subjected to compression revealed the
300
improvement in buckling curves and increase in Goldsworthty (Tedds Product development
buckling plateau for BS 5950 compared to EC3 was manager,CSC World, UK), Mr. Richard Dobson
also noted. (Technical Director, CSC World, UK)
Theoretical study of behaviour of beam columns Reference
carrying axial load and compression was found to be
Boissonnade, N , Greiner, R , Jaspart, J P , Lindner, J
more complicated. The incorporation of second order
Rules for Member Stability in EN 1993-1-1.
theory and consequent improvement in plane and out
Background documentation and design guidelines.
of plane checks for beam columns especially in the
ECCS Technical Committee 8 – Stability, No 119,
elastic plastic behaviour with lateral torsional
2006.
buckling, were also shown the related context.
BS 5950: Structural use of steel work in buildings.
Comparative study of beam column resistance under
Part 1 Code of practice for design – rolled and
combined axial force and bending under BS 5950
welded sections, BS 5950-1:2000
approach, BS 449 & EC3 approaches were also
discussed. The improvement in the interaction BS 449: The use of Structural steel in building, BS
equation for beam column stability check in EC3 449:Part2:1969
compared to BS code makes the former more
reliable, accurate and economic than the latter. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part1-1,
General rules for buildings, EN1993-1-1, 2005.
Comparative study between Method 1 & Method 2
approaches for finding out the interaction factors, Greiner,R, Lindner,J, Interaction formulae for
explains the conservative behaviour of Method 2 members subjected to bending and axial compression
over Method 1. The effect of shape of bending in EUROCODE 3—the Method 2 approach, Journal
moment diagram (considered only the end moment of Constructional steel research, Vol 62, p757-770,
loadings) shows the relative increase in moment 2006
carrying capacity of section when subjected to equal
and opposite moments at ends than with having same Huang, Z Structural design Lecture notes of CIV
end moments at ends. The comparative study also 6215. Part-1, 2010
shows how Method 1 can be well utilised for arriving Lindner, J, Design of beam and beam columns,
the out of plane buckling resistance of section. Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials, 5,
7.2 Phase - 2 38-47, 2003
An iPhone application for reducing the human effort SCI Publication P362: Steel building design: Concise
in arriving complex interaction factors based on Eurocodes in accordance with Eurocodes and
Method 2 was developed and the main steps behind National Annexes, 2009
the development process were discussed. The initial Shafii, F, Omar, W, Mohammed, S, Makthar, A, M,
design considerations assumes the classification of Standardisation of structural design : A shift from
section entirely based on assuming that the web and British standards to Eurocodes, Jurnal Teknologi,
flange will be subjected to compression and 34(B),p21–30, Jun 2001
accordingly conservative results are generated in
iApp compared to Blue book values. The average Trahair, N S , Bradford, M A , Nethercot, D A ,
discrepancy was found less than 1.00% for class 1 & Gardner, L The behaviour and design of steel
Class 2 sections. For class 3 sections iApp will give structures to EC3. Taylor & Francis group, 2008
more conservative results than blue book data as web The General Method of EN 1993-1-1: NSC Technical
and flange are assumed to take compression. The report, Vol 19, No 4, 2011
current iApp (kij calculator) doesn’t take into
account the following Trebitowski, B, Allen, C, Appelcline, S, iPhone and
iPad in action, Manning, 2011.
• Intermediate restraints
• Transverse loading
• SHS, CHS, RHS, T sections
Hence it is suggested that if the program can be
modified in order to incorporate the above two
parameters, the iApp can be made more realistic than
present case.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge the following people for
help and support throughout this project: Dr. Buick
Davison (University of Sheffield), Mr. Ben
301
Embodied versus Operational Energy in Buildings

Michail Markogiannakis
ABSTRACT Great part of the total energy consumption required globally per year comes from
buildings and the construction industry. The energy efficiency of building operation has been increased
significantly over the recent past and therefore the percentage of embodied energy in a building’s life
cycle is increased. This is why this study is focusing in embodied energy. In order to deepen the
knowledge in energy efficiency design, some key points that would help in comprehending the
importance of finding environmentally friendly solutions in the construction of a building, are
presented. This study estimates, presents and compares the results, regarding the embodied energy of a
structure using two schemes, reinforced concrete and steel. To do this, a spreadsheet tool is created
(using two reliable sources), that estimates the embodied energy of a building from extraction of raw
materials to assembling the structure. The boundaries of the study are clearly stated in order to
encourage future attempts to compare the results of other studies with the present. Useful conclusions
are made for each scheme separately and by the comparison made between them. It is proven by this
study, that for the examined building, even if steel is a material that requires more energy consumption
to manufacture, steel construction is a more environmentally friendly (in terms of embodied energy)
solution in the UK, where 59% of the steel used in structures is recycled. The opposite is true though, if
virgin steel is used in both schemes. The impact of building construction to the environment can be
significantly reduced if steel with major possible recycled material is used in all types of constructions.
Finally, if the whole procedure, from extraction of raw materials to assembling a structure is monitored,
a realistic plan on reducing the embodied energy required in construction could be made to work.
1. INTRODUCTION not be taken less seriously into account. By

taking into account only one of the two,
“Green” building and sustainability are terms significant opportunities to increase the energy
that are widely used currently, as people begin to efficiency of a building can be missed.
take the protection of the environment more The percentages of EE and OE of a building will
seriously than they used to in the past. In this depend on climate, local infrastructure and
scope, Embodied Energy (EE) and Operational building characteristics (1). Therefore, for
Energy (OE) in buildings have been examined in choosing a building type and building materials,
many studies, conducted so far. several variables must be taken into account and
First of all, EE refers to the energy that is different combinations of different variables can
necessary for a building material at the stages of give an inexhaustible source of results.
raw material collection and extraction,
transportation and manufacture of these raw 2. BACKGROUND TO ENERGY
materials into building materials, assembly, EFFICIENT DESIGN
installation and finally disassembly. OE refers to
the energy consumed during the operation of the Energy efficiency is the key feature to an
building (electricity, Heating etc.). In most environmentally friendly material. To reduce the
cases, OE is larger and EE follows (1). amount of generated energy that must be brought
The expected climate change, and the energy on to a building site, energy efficient materials
demand and energy supply concerns that are must be used. Materials have a great affection in
generally increased, lead to an increase in energy energy costs throughout a building’s life.
efficiency of building operation. This means that
the percentage of EE in a building’s life cycle is 2.1 Green Building
more than it used to be. Thus, focus should also
be given in EE of a building, and this is why this Green building refers to creating structures by
study will focus mostly in EE. Still, to assess using friendly to the environment and energy
construction materials of a building, OE should efficient processes (3).
302
The classical building design concerns of To calculate the EE or embodied carbon
economy, utility, durability, and comfort are emissions of a material with accuracy, all the
expanded by the practice of green building, stages requiring energy have to be accounted for.
which is also known as “sustainable” or “high These stages are (6):
performance building” (3).
 Raw material extraction.
2.2 Sustainability  Transportation to factory.
 Energy that was used in the factory.
Sustainability refers to the ability of a system to  Transport from factory to site and installation
survive. It means that things can keep going,
sustain themselves, continue into the future and Understanding the factors that affect the amount
carry on without stopping. (4). of EE or embodied CO2 required for a material,
Construction, energy production and other is a very significant factor when material
industries have a huge responsibility, in finding selection is considered. Therefore the boundaries
ways of using resources in a sustainable manner. in calculating the required EE are very important
This is not a simple task, but it is the major to be known.
engineering projects that will make the most
significant difference to the environment. 3. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
The structural engineer, participates in the
creation and management of sustainable 3.1 Embodied Energy or Carbon Emissions?
developments by doing the following (5):
Many studies prefer to include or focus mostly
 Understand the effects of his decisions during on Carbon Emissions in their results. However,
the construction of a development, on the CO2 measures will be a more uncertain
environment. measurement in many situations where material
 Decide which is the appropriate location for processes are based on estimates when sources
this development. are not known. The measurement of EE will
 Choose the form and orientation of the already contain some inaccuracy. So, adding
development that will contribute to future another source of inaccuracy by converting
adaptability, flexibility of use and reuse Energy to Carbon Emissions, will not be a
 Select a construction method that minimizes positive factor in the reliability of the results.
the effects of construction and deconstruction For the results of this study only EE will be
concerning pollution, land take and waste calculated using the ICE (6) and IStructE
caused by the development. databases (4).
 Select materials with low EE and reusable.
3.2 Five Storey Office Building – Reinforced
The choice of materials should be made not only Concrete and Steel
on the cost basis but also on the effects in the
environment, caused by their extraction, The examined building in this study, is a five
manufacture and use, and their sustainability. storey office building (figure 3.1). This
A key factor is to use renewable resources. Non building’s main frame was designed using two
renewable materials damage the environment, design schemes: Reinforced Concrete (RC) and
considering the following (5): Steel. These design schemes were made at the
University of Sheffield as a Design Project (7).
 The amount of fossil fuel required to be
consumed to make the product
 Pollution caused by production, use and
disposal.
 Non-renewable resources consumption
2.3 Embodied Energy and Carbon Emissions
Whenever fuel is burnt, CO2 is released into the

atmosphere. So there is a correlation between EE Figure 3.1: Five storey office building (7)
and CO2 emissions, but it depends on the way
the energy is being generated. If, for example, a The existing retaining wall (distinguished in fig.
process involves large amounts of electricity 3.1) is to be supported using sheet piles during
large quantities of carbon dioxide will be excavations. Piled foundations were selected as
generated, while materials with low EE will the optimum solution for the lack of strong type
generate less CO2 (5). of soil beneath the structure.
303
For the RC substructure, the pile caps that are After that, the construction machinery that is
installed on top of the friction steel pipe piles required for the construction of both schemes, in
support the, foundation system consisting of terms of hours of work was estimated by
ground slab and beams. The dimensions of interviewing the experienced RC and steel
ground slab and beams were estimated after construction contractors, Mr. Nikos Vrentzos
analysis was made for the whole structure using and Mr. Giorgos Theodorakis respectively. The
the software “Stereostatika” by “π-systems” results from these interviews are summarized
which specializes in RC structure analysis. and used, to estimate the EE required for the
The RC scheme for superstructure, consists of construction procedure of both schemes.
RC up to the 5th floor and a steel frame structure
for the roof (the roof stays the same for both 3.3 Boundaries of Study
schemes). In this design, the preliminary
analysis estimated the necessity of 700mm deep The boundaries of the study must be clearly
by 250mm wide beams between the perimeter stated, so that future attempts to compare the
columns and the open area. For the support of results of another study with the present would
this structure, columns of 500mm by 500mm be encouraged.
were required (7). Two sources are used in the results for EE of
In the steel substructure, the same solution as materials. The first is the Inventory of Carbon &
before is given for the lack of strong type of soil Energy (ICE) database. The analytical
beneath the site area (steel pipe piles) to support boundaries of this, mostly, cradle-to-gate
the structure this time. A 200mm ground slab database are given by Hammond and Jones (8).
concludes the foundation system (7). Cradle-to-gate means that the EE required for
The steel scheme superstructure was comprised the material to arrive from factory to site is not
of a steel framed structure with the same roof included.
concept. For the construction of this structure the The second database is the IStructE, extracted
preliminary analysis estimated for (7): from the study made by the Institution of
Structural Engineers (5) and it is also a cradle-
o Columns, UC356x406x340 to-gate assessment.
o Beams Finishes of the examined building are not
 UB610x305x238 included in the study. They would be common
for both types of structures, and therefore,
 UB356x171x57
estimating the EE of finishes, by following a
 UB254x146x43 particular route when choosing type of glazing,
o Slabs, precast hollow core concrete, 150mm ceiling partitions etc. would be out of the scope
depth of comparing RC and Steel construction. Also,
the reliability of the results would be reduced.
Some common parts of the construction that Transport from factory to site is estimated
have a significant role in the formation of the separately from the cradle to gate databases. For
structure are examined. Those are the the imported material of plywood, it is assumed
excavations, the shaft cores and the roof. that all the distance is covered by road and sea.
It is already mentioned for the excavation that For the construction procedure, it is assumed
steel sheet piles to avoid overturning of the that all the required machinery are using 75% of
existing retaining wall are going to be used. The their kiloWatts (kW) or HorsePower (HP) for the
two shaft cores are made of reinforced concrete total time they are required to operate. It is also
and cast in-situ along with the stair in both assumed that no obstructions will occur during
design schemes and the shear walls have a construction. Also, EE that occurs from wastage
thickness of 300mm. And finally the roof is during onsite construction, and from the
formed through the use of steel portal frames. demolition in the end of building’s life, are not
The column and rafter sections chosen are UB included.
254x102x25 (7). Finally, virgin material is used for steel in ICE
For the transportation of materials from factory database in the results, except in the parts where
to site, after examination of the origins of the it is clearly stated otherwise.
materials used in the study, the distances that
need to be covered were estimated as: 4. SPREADSHEET TOOL FOR THE
CALCULATION OF EE IN BUILDINGS
 8.4km for each steel material used
 5km for each concrete material To estimate the EE, required for the two
schemes that are being examined in this study, a
 2460km by road and 240km by sea for the
spreadsheet tool is developed. This Spreadsheet
imported material of plywood (formwork) Tool is able to calculate the EE required to build
 64.8km for any insulation material. a structure, by using two different sources of EE
304
of materials (the ICE and IStructE sources that compare the different parts of the structure and
were mentioned before). The EE use for the percentages of EE required for each.
transport of materials from factory to site (that is
not included in the values given from these 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
sources), and finally the construction machinery
used are also taken into account. 5.1 Benchmarking
If all the above are known by the user (amount
of materials, distance of transport of these To check the results that the spreadsheet extracts
materials from factory to site, and hours of and make sure it works appropriately, it is
construction machinery used), a full and checked against the “LCA in Sustainable
accurately estimated range of values can be Architecture (LISA)” software, using the case
given, for the EE use in a building between the study made by KJ Eaton and A Amato (8). The
two sources used, in this tool. same bill of quantities is used and then the
The spreadsheet tool breaks down a structure results extracted by the spreadsheet tool, in
into the categories of “Main Structure” and gigajoules (GJ) are examined next to the results
“Finishes” and subcategories of “substructure”, from the case study by Eaton and Amato
“superstructure” or “walls”, “finishes” etc. in (fig.5.1).
order to simplify, for the user, the input of the
pre-calculated quantity of materials in m3 or kg, 5,000
and even in m2 or items in some cases.
Embodied Energy (GJ)
4,000 Spreadsheet
The transportation of materials, from factory to - ICE
site is estimated by using the values given by 3,000
Eaton and Amato (8) for transport of materials in Spreadsheet
GJ/(tonne x km): 2,000 - IStructE
1,000 "LISA"
 For transport by rail: 0.0005 GJ/t.km Software
0
 For transport by road: 0.001 GJ/t.km
Substructure Superstructure
 For transport by sea: 0.0000213 GJ/t.km
Figure 5.1: Comparison of results given by spreadsheet
The required, from the spreadsheet tool, values tool with results given by “LISA” software
in order to estimate EE from machinery used in The results given by both sources (ICE and
construction, are the kilowatts (kW) or IStructE) of the spreadsheet tool, can be
horsepower (HP) of each type of machinery used described as satisfactory as there are no great
and the hours it was used . If these values are differences comparing to “LISA” software.
input, an estimation of the EE required for the The slight differences occur, as each source that
construction procedure of a structure will be has been and will be created in the future will
estimated. have different boundaries and will assume
different technology is used to manufacture a
product. Therefore the results given by the
spreadsheet tool can be considered accurate.
5.2 EE of Five Storey Office Building
The EE of materials (cradle to gate) for the

various parts of the construction of both RC and
Steel scheme, the EE required for transport of
materials from factory to site, the construction
machinery EE and finally the total EE of the
structures are illustrated in figure 5.3. The values
for the various materials were estimated using
Figure 5.2: Screenshot of part of an indicative summary both sources available from the spreadsheet tool
table (before summary is shown – zeros included) (ICE and IStructE).
In fig. 5.3, where RC substructure EE is
Finally, the results are given in three different illustrated, it is shown that slab and ground
worksheets. One worksheet gives a summary of beams and friction steel pipe piles require most
all materials (including transport to site) and of the material EE of the RC substructure. The
construction machineries (fig. 5.2), the second deviation that is shown in slab and ground
gives a table only with totals from the main beams between ICE and IStructE occurs because
categories and subcategories of the spreadsheet in the ICE database, where reinforcement was
and the third gives some figures and pie charts to required, the virgin material that is chosen gives
305
(a) RC Substructure Materials, EE (b) Steel Substructure Materials, EE

2,000 2,000
ICE ICE
1,500 1,500
IStructE IStructE
1,000 1,000
500 500
0 0
Pile Caps Slab and Steel Friction Damp Steel Friction Pile Caps Ground Damp
Ground Sheet Steel Pipe proofing Sheet Steel Pipe Slab proofing
beams Piles Piles Floor Piles Piles Floor
Slab Slab
(c) RC Superstructure Materials, EE (d) Steel Superstructure Materials, EE

6,000 6,000
ICE ICE
4,000 IStructE 4,000
IStructE
2,000 2,000
0 0
Columns Beams Slabs Shafts Insulation Columns Beams Precast Shafts Insulation
Slabs
(e) Transport from Factory to Site,
Total EE (f) Construction Machinery , Total EE

300 150
Superstructure Superstructure
200 Substructure 100 Substructure
73 GJ
252 GJ
100 50 11 GJ
15 GJ 55 GJ 6 GJ 51 GJ 47 GJ
0 0
RC Steel RC Steel
(g) Total Structure EE ("virgin" steel) (h) Total Structure EE (recycled steel)
20,000 20,000
Super - structure Super - structure
Sub - structure Sub - structure
15,000 15,000
10,000 14,008 GJ 12,914 GJ 10,000

12,914 GJ
7,675 GJ 7,877 GJ 7,877 GJ
5,000 5,000 5,750 GJ 5,617 GJ
3,717 GJ 3,471 GJ 2,457 GJ 2,376 GJ 2,640 GJ 3,471 GJ 2,376 GJ
1,878 GJ
0 0
RC ICE RC IStructE Steel ICE Steel IStructE RC ICE RC IStructE Steel ICE Steel IStructE
Figure 5.3: Comparison of materials EE for parts of substructure and superstructure of both schemes (a,b,c and d). EE required
for transport of materials and construction machinery of substructure and superstructure of both schemes (e and f). Total structure
EE for both schemes substructure and superstructure, for non-recycled content in steel (g) and for recycled content in steel (h)
comparing to ICE in almost all parts, except the

a higher value of EE per kg, than the one given
columns. There, the percentage of reinforcement
by the IStructE.
is higher than it is in slabs and beams and the
For the steel substructure, the friction steel pipe
difference in EE of concrete is covered and
piles materials require much more EE comparing
outreached by the reinforcement EE.
to the rest parts. This is not unreasonable, since
In the steel superstructure, the beam and column
the foundations of the steel structure are less
sections require the most EE by far. The precast
extensive and only the steel pipe piles would be
slabs have a clearly lower value of EE than the
expected to have high EE requirement.
in situ concrete slabs that are used in the RC
Slabs require the higher amount of EE, between
scheme, because of the lack of formwork
the parts of the RC scheme superstructure.
requirement in the case of precast concrete.
Comparing the two databases for the RC
Therefore, precast concrete could be described
superstructure, the higher values the IStructE
as a more environmentally friendly material in
database gives in concrete leads to higher EE
this manner.
306
The total transport from factory to site EE, is  The construction procedure did not change the
much more for the RC structure than it is for the total EE drastically in the examined building.
steel structure because of the more formwork The manufacture of the used materials was the
that is used in RC construction (plywood) which most important aspect in the current study.
is imported to the UK and thus needs to cover  Recycled content in steel should be used as
much more distance to arrive on site. much as possible in construction. Also, the
For the construction machineries, huge nature of the construction should provide an
difference in EE between the two schemes, easy way of collecting the recyclable material
relatively, is observed. Almost seven times more after demolition.
EE is required for the RC superstructure. The  Finally, since the examined building is
substructures have closer values, since the assumed to be in the UK, where 59% of steel
machineries used in steel sheet and friction pipe used in structures is recycled, steel scheme is a
piling and require many hours of heavy work, more environmentally friendly solution than
are common for the two structures. RC scheme.
Finally, the difference in total EE, between the Monitoring the whole procedure from collection
two schemes, according to both sources when of raw materials to assembling a structure,
“virgin” materials are used is obvious. would be the only way to start a realistic plan on
If 59% recycled content steel is used, an reducing the embodied energy required in
interesting figure is extracted. The differences construction and make it work.
for total EE between the new ICE values and the
results for “virgin” steel, are 3TJ and 9TJ less ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
EE for RC and Steel structures respectively. This study was successfully completed, thanks to
Comparing the two structures, for the ICE values the help, guidance and feedback provided by Dr.
again, both the steel substructure and Abigail Hathway. I am greatful for that, and for
superstructure require less EE than the RC the knowledge she helped me obtain around the
equivalent. The IStructE does not give any area of this study.
values for recycled steel and thus, there are no I would also like to thank, the experienced
differences in this case. concrete and steel construction contractors, Mr.
This shows why, at current time, steel Nikos Vrentzos and Mr. Giorgos Theodorakis
construction requires steel to be made with for their help, with the estimations of required
significant recycled content. In the UK, the construction machineries.
average recycled content, used in steel, is 60%
according to WRAP (10) and 59% according to REFERENCES
Hammond and Jones (8). The ICE database,
1. "Inadequate documentation in published life cycle
uses the values given by Hammond and Jones.
energy reports in buildings". Optis, Michael and
The building is assumed to be in the UK, where Wild, Peter. 2010, Life Cycle Assess, pp. 644-651.
59% of the steel used in construction is recycled.
2. US - EPA. Green Building. United States
Also, thinking out of the boundaries of this
Environmental Protection Agency. [Online] 2011.
study, steel construction is expected to require http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/about.htm.
less EE from wastage and from demolition and
collection of recyclable materials in the end of 3. Maczulak, Anne. Environmental Engineering -
Designing a Sustainable Future. New York, USA :
the structure’s life (11). Therefore, steel
Facts on File, Inc., 2010.
construction would be a more environmentally
friendly solution, for the examined building, 4. The Institution of Structural Engineers.
"Building for a Sustainable Future: Construction
than RC construction in terms of EE.
Without Depletion". November 1999.
6. CONCLUSIONS 5. Roaf, Sue, Fuentes, Manuel and Thomas,
Stephanie. Ecohouse: A Design Guide. London :
Architectural Press, 2001.
Growing interest in sustainable construction is
observed, as the building industry is consuming 6. Group 13, University of Sheffield. Design Project
huge amounts of energy each year. By - Five Storey Office Development. June 2011.
comparing different types of construction before 7. Hammond, Prof. Geoff and Jones, Craig.
deciding which is the most environmentally INVENTORY OF CARBON & ENERGY (ICE)
friendly, in terms of EE, useful conclusions and Version 2.0. University of Bath, UK : Department of
Mechanical Engineering, January 2011.
finally the right choice can be made:
 Providing comprehensible and reliable results, 8. Eaton, KJ and Amato, A. Life Cycle Assesment
gives the opportunity to future researchers to of Multistorey Office Building. Case Study. 2003.
compare them with their results. 9. Waste Resource Action Programme. WRAP.
 If two sources of results are used the results [Online] 2011. http://www.wrap.org.uk/.
can always be checked against each other and 10. Corus. Sustainability in Steel Construction. s.l. :
some possible errors can be avoided. Corus Steel ltd, 2008.
307
Seismic Resistance of RC Flat Slabs

Pantelis Matis
ABSTRACT The paper investigates the behaviour of flat slab-column connections (structural
resistance and ductility of the system) under seismic loading conditions. It presents a review of well
established Design Codes, regarding to punching shear and unbalanced moments in flat slabs and aims
to determine the effect of different key parameters on the above issues and assess the performance of
available analysis and design methods. Parameters such as compressive concrete strength, the ratio of
flexural reinforcement and the effective depth have been investigated and their effects on punching
shear capacity of concrete have been shown. Also the various provisions of the Codes of Practice have
been compared with existing experimental test data and with the results obtained by the N-FEM
implemented by various authors. The Codes of Practice considered are ACI 318-2005 and EC 2: 1992-
1-1:2004. At the end, discussion and conclusions are drawn based on the above study.
1 INTRODUCTION intermediate seismic zones and as gravity

systems in high seismic zones with the presence
A flat slab is a two-way reinforced concrete slab
of shear walls (ACI 2005). Even with the
without any beams thus all loads transfer directly
presence of such stiffening elements to reduce
to the supporting columns. Although, these slab
the inter-storey drifts, substantial unbalanced
systems are very popular and have a lot of
bending moments may need to be transferred, so
benefits, such as: Reducing the storey height due
the connections need to have adequate ductility.
to the shallow floor system, providing smooth
surface and plane ceiling, minimizing overall In order to make these connections ductile, shear
costs and formwork and speeding up the reinforcement can be used. It can be provided in
construction process, however the issue of one of the following forms: a) stirrups, b)
sudden punching shear failure was always structural steel shearheads, c) bent bars, d) shear-
critical for this structural element. studs.
The possibility of punching shear failure of slab 2 DESIGN OF PUNCHING SHEAR
can be increased when horizontal loading is
The punching shear resistance of a section is
applied due to wind or earthquake causing
calculated on a control-critical perimeter u which
significant unbalanced moments to be transferred
is located 0.5 and 2d from the face of the column
between the slab and the column. This transfer
according to ACI 318 and EC 2 Code
makes the distribution of shear stresses in the
respectively. The following figure illustrates the
slab around the column to become non-uniform
location of the critical perimeter for an internal
producing substantial shear stresses and reducing
rectangular column for the two design codes of
the shear strength of the connection. If the shear
practice.
strength of the slab is reached, slab failure in
diagonal tension will occur on the side of the
column where the vertical shear stress is
highest . This will result in the column
punching through the slab and the top bars of
reinforcement splitting off the cover concrete.
In seismic design the ductility of the structure in
the post-elastic range is also an important
consideration except of the structural resistance.
It is suggested that flat slab floor systems can be
used as lateral-force resisting systems only in Fig 1.1: Critical perimeters specified by Codes
of Practice (Albrecht 2002)
308
2.1 ACI 318
2.1.1 Nominal shear strength provided by
concrete (Vc) σcy = and σcz =
The nominal shear strength provided by concrete NEd,y, NEd,z are the longitudinal forces across the
Vc for slabs without shear reinforcement is stated full bay for internal columns and the longitudinal
in clause 11.11.2.1 of the Code. According to force across the control section for edge
that, for non-prestressed slabs Vc shall be the columns.
smallest of : Ac is the cross-sectional area of the concrete,
U is the perimeter of the critical area.
(a) Vc = (1 + ) (2.1)
If VRd,c > VEd, punching shear reinforcement is
not required. VEd is the design value of the
where βc is the ratio of long side to short applied shear force.
side of the column, concentrated load or
reaction area; 2.2.2 Shear Strength provided by shear
reinforcement (VRd,cs)
(b) Vc = ( +2) (2.2)
Where shear reinforcement is required for slab
where as is 40 for interior columns, 30 for its shear strength can be determined by:
edge columns, 20 for corner columns; and
VRd,cs = 0.75 VRd,c + 1.5(d/ sr) Aswfywd,ef sinα
(c) Vc = b od (2.3) ……………………………………………..(2.6)
where fc’ is the cylinder compressive strength of
Where
concrete in MPa.
Asw is the area of one perimeter of shear
2.1.2 Nominal shear strength provided by reinforcement around the column [mm2],
shear reinforcement (Vs)
sr is the radial spacing of perimeters of shear
reinforcement [mm],
Vs= Avfy(sina+cosa)/s ≤ b wd (2.4)
fywd,ef is the effective design strength of the
Av is the area of shear reinforcement
punching shear reinforcement, according to
fy is the design yield strength of shear
reinforcement which is limited to 414 MPa, fywd,ef = 250 + 0.25 d fywd [MPa]
s is the spacing ≤ d/2
d is the mean of the effective depths in the
a is the angle between inclined stirrups and
orthogonal directions [mm]
longitudinal axis.
α is the angle between the shear reinforcement
2.2 Eurocode 2 and the plane of the slab.
2.2.1 Shear Strength provided by concrete

(VRd,c) 3 UNBALANCED MOMENTS
The design shear strength of the slab in the In slab-column connections, sometimes except of
critical perimeter without shear reinforcement the shear from the slab, an unbalanced moment is
(VRd,c) can be calculated by: transferred to the column which results in non-
uniform shear distribution around the critical
VRd,c=0.12k (100ρ x fck)1/3Ud ≥ section to be developed (Park and Gamble
Vmin +k1σcpUd …………………..(2.5) 2000).
In order to calculate the shear stresses produced
by moment transfer, empirical equations have
k= 1+ 2.0 , d in mm, ρ= As1/(bwd) been developed and specified by different Codes
fck is the characteristic compressive strength of of Practice.
concrete in MPa,
d is the effective depth of the slab, 3.1 ACI 318
σcp = (σcy + σcz) / 2 The analysis is based on a linear distribution of
shear stress. It assumes that shear stresses on a
where σcy , σcz are the normal concrete stresses in critical perimeter vary linearly with distance
the critical section in y- and z-directions (MPa, from the centroidal axis of the perimeter. The
positive if compression) shear stresses are induced by the shear force and
309
part of the unbalanced moment transferred. The 3.2 Eurocode 2
remaining part of the unbalanced moment is
According to EC 2, where the support reaction is
carried by flexure in the slab. This approach
eccentric with regard to the control perimeter,
method is semi-empirical, but usually results in a
the maximum shear stress should be taken as:
conservative estimate of the measured strength
(Park and Gamble 2000).
vEd= (3.3)
with β= 1+ k . (3.4)
vEd is the maximum shear stress

u1 is the length of the basic control perimeter
d is the effective depth of the slab
k is a coefficient which depends on the ratio
between the column dimensions c1 and c2 and
can be obtained by the following table:
Fig 3.1: Assumed linear distribution of shear
Table 6.1: Values of k for rectangular loaded
stresses (ACI 318, 2005)
areas (EC 2, 2004)
If vu>φvc then shear reinforcement will be
required. As it is stated by clause R11.12.6.2 of
the Code the factored shear force Vu and
unbalanced moment Mu are determined at the
centroidal axis c-c of the critical section. The β is a factor which is a function of geometry of
factored shear stresses for an internal column the control perimeter and transferred moment.
connection at the faces AB and CD of the critical
The distribution of shear stresses which is
section are given by:
assumed due to the moment transferred can be
seen in the following figure:
vu(AB)= + (3.1) or
vu(CD)= - (3.2)
Ac is the area of concrete of assumed critical

section,
Jc is property of assumed critical section
analogous to polar moment of inertia
J c= + + Fig 3.2: Assumed shear stress distribution due to

an unbalanced moment (EC 2, 2004)
c1 is the size of the rectangular column in the
moment direction and For an internal rectangular column as shown
above:
c2 the size of the column perpendicular to the
moment.
W1 = + c1c2 + 4c2d + 16d2 + 2πdc1
γv = 1- γf = 1- , where
W1 depends on distribution of shear as illustrated
in Figure 3.2 for an internal rectangular column.
γv is the fraction of the unbalanced moment For calculating the value of β -factor the figure
transferred by shear, below can also be used.
γf is the fraction of the unbalanced moment
transferred by flexure
b1 is the width of the critical section in the
direction of the span for which moments are
determined
b2 is the width of the critical section which is
perpendicular to b1.
Fig 3.3: Recommended values for β (EC2,2004)
310
4 PARAMETRIC STUDIES them is very similar for the two codes of practice
(ACI 318 and EC 2).
In order to conduct parametric studies and
compare ACI 318 and EC 2 codes of practice, an
internal column slab connection is assumed with
the following properties:
Longitudinal span of slab lx= 7m
Transverse span ly= 8m
Internal column size, c1=c2=250mm
4.1 Punching Shear Capacity without Shear
Reinforcement
Parameters
Fig 4.3
a) Compressive strength of concrete fc
4.2 Factored Shear Force and Unbalanced

Moment
For the comparison between the two Design
Codes (ACI 318 and EC 2) an internal column-
slab connection is assumed for the calculation of
the Factored Shear Force and Unbalanced
Moment.
Fig 4.1
Using higher values of the concrete compressive
strength, the difference of concrete shear
strengths increases and thus ACI 318 gives
higher shear strengths than EC 2.
b) Ratio of flexural Reinforcement, ρ
Fig 4.4: Graph of Shear Force versus Applied

Moment (from zero to maximum) for ACI 318
and EC 2
The variation of shear force with moment
applied is linear for both Codes of Practice but
the rate of change is higher (steeper slope) for
ACI 318 than for EC 2.
Fig 4.2
The graph below shows the variation of
As the reinforcement ratio is increased the shear punching shear reinforcement area Asw versus
strength of concrete increases with a diminishing the applied moment according to the two Design
rate according to EC 2. However, for the ACI Codes for a different parametric study.
318 the relationship between the flexural
reinforcement ratio and the concrete shear stress
is a straight horizontal line.
c) Effective depth of slab, d
The influence-effect of the effective depth of the
member on the concrete shear strength is actually
major and can be seen in the following graph.
From this graph it can be noticed that although,
the values of concrete shear strengths calculated
by the two Design Codes are not the same, the Fig 4.5: Graph of Area of Shear Reinforcement
influence of the increasing effective depth on versus Applied Moment
311
It can be noticed from the graph that the area From these set of tests performed the following
(amount) of punching shear reinforcement graph was obtained
required is different between the two Design
Codes (higher in ACI 318) and this is because
the concrete shear strength Vc is reduced to 50%
in ACI whereas in EC 2 is reduced to 75%.
4.3 Comparisons between Ratio Jc/c and

Product W1.d
The general formula of the actual polar moment
of inertia was determined Jactual and was found
higher than the analogous property, Jc that ACI
318 uses. Because different properties are used
between the two Codes to be able to make Fig 5.1: Graph of unfactored values Vtest/Vc
comparisons, the ratio Jc/c of ACI 318 is against ratio cmax/d.
compared with the product W1d determined by
EC 2 for an internal column-slab connection. From the above graph the following observations
were made:
Both ACI 318 and EC 2 give safe design results.
EC 2 is more conservative and might lead to
overdesign. The variation in values Vt/Vc is
higher in ACI 318. The results from N-FEM
implemented by the authors predicted better
experimental results and had the smallest
variation.
5.2 Test 2: Improved Strength Model for
Internal Slab-Column Connection subjected
to Unbalanced Moment (Park and Choi 2006)
In this study, the existing experimental results for
Fig 4.5: Graph of Similar Properties Jc/c, Jactual/c internal column-slab connections under shear
and W.d in mm3 versus effective depth d. and unbalanced moment are compared with the
It can be noticed from the graph that the similar provisions of ACI 318-2005 and EC 2: Part 1-1,
property W.d determined by EC 2 is much 2004. Also, comparisons are made with the
higher than Jc/c determined by ACI 318 and the results obtained by the authors from the
difference between the two similar properties of Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis.
the two Design Codes increases as effective
depth increases. For this purpose, the ratio of is plotted
This high difference between the two Codes of
Practice can be explained by the fact that EC 2 against as illustrated in the following
assumes fully plastic stress distribution along the interaction diagram.
critical section, whereas ACI 318 assumes linear
elastic.
5 COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL

DATA
Analysis of experimental test data that already
exist from previous tests conducted and
comparison with the provisions of the codes
were made. It was assessed whether the
predicted values by the Design Codes (ACI 318
and EC 2) are safe or they might require further
revision.
5.1 Test 1:Punching Resistance without Shear Fig 5.2: Interaction diagram between Shear and
Unbalanced Moment Ratios.
Reinforcement (Oliveira, Regan 2004)
312
From the previous graph the following better the concrete shear capacity of the slabs
observations can be made: and more consistently than the two Design
Codes. This means that if the Nonlinear Finite
Both Codes of Practice give safe results. ACI
Element Analysis is used appropriately and the
318 predicts better the experimental results than
difficulties involved are overcome, can yield
EC 2. EC 2 presents higher variation of
better design results than the two current Codes
Mu(test)/Mu values. N-FEM implemented by
of Practice (ACI 318 and EC 2).
authors gives better results which are also more
consistent.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
5 CONCLUSIONS I would like to express my sincere appreciation
to my supervisor Dr. M.Guadagnini for his
- In ACI 318, the punching shear resistance is
committed guidance, encouragement and
calculated on a critical perimeter located at a
constructive comments throughout the
distance 0.5d from the face of the column
preparation of this dissertation. Also, I would
(d=effective slab depth) whereas in EC 2 at a
like to thank Professor K. Pilakoutas for his
distance 2.0d from the face of the column. Since
helpful ideas and advices during this work.
the shear approach is semi-empirical, the same
shear force can be taken by using a higher shear
stress combination with a smaller perimeter or a
REFERENCES
lower shear strength combination with a bigger
perimeter. ACI 318-2005, Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete and Commentary (ACI
- The shear stress distribution along the critical
318R-05).
perimeter due to unbalanced moment is assumed
linear elastic in ACI 318 while in EC 2 is American Concrete Institute (1974), Shear in
assumed uniform plastic. In reality the Reinforced Concrete, PublicationSP-42, Volume
distribution of shear stresses differs from the two 2.
Codes of Practice and cannot be directly
Bond, A.J., Brooker, O., Fraser, A. S. (2009),
obtained from the experimental test results as
How to design concrete Structures using
most Codes trying to do. Therefore, rigorous
Eurocode 2, Published by The Concrete Centre,
numerical study with Nonlinear Finite Element
pp. 54-58.
Method is required to examine the internal forces
near the column. However, this method presents Eurocode 2: 1999-1-1:2004, Design of Concrete
difficulties and does not lead always to better Structures- Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules
design results since it depends on appropriate for Buildings, 2004, pp 97-107.
modelling of the connection and suitable failure
Park, R and Gamble, W L, (2000), Reinforced
criteria for the concrete which is in a complex
Concrete Slabs, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
state of stress.
New York, pp. 150-200.
- When shear reinforcement is provided, the
concrete shear strength vc contribution is reduced
for both Design Codes. In ACI 318 only 50% of
the punching shear strength of concrete is taken
into account while in EC 2 the percentage of
concrete strength is higher, 75%. These
equations were obtained based on experimental
test results (empirical).
- In ACI 318 the concrete shear resistance of the
slab depends on rather than as specified
in EC 2. Thus, ACI 318 gives higher concrete
shear resistance than EC 2.
- According, to the experimental data of Section
5 ACI 318 gives better design results for
unbalanced moment capacity and is less
conservative than EC 2 which underestimates the
real moment carrying capacity of internal
column-flat slab section.Also, the Nonlinear
Finite Element Method (N-FEM) used predicted
313
Semi-Active Control for Mitigation of Vibrations in Structures

Mahsa Mirmomeni
Candidate MSc(Eng) Earthquake and Civil Engineering Dynamics
ABSTRACT Rhythmic body motions of humans in music concerts and sports events impose
undesirable vibrations to slender grandstand structures. Depending on the level of vibration, they may
cause discomfort or in extreme cases cause panic. Vibration mitigation is achieved through techniques
involving changing stiffness and/or damping properties. One of these mitigation techniques is the semi-
active control method. This study investigates the effectiveness of applying a semi-active tuned mass
damper for reducing the response of a grandstand due to human induced loading. A 4 DOF model has
been presented with DOFs assigned to the empty structure, active people, passive people, and a tuned
mass The modal characteristics of the empty Four groundhook control laws are employed in different
loading condition and the response reduction is evaluated. Results demonstrate the efficiency of this
approach for mitigating structural vibrations. Levels of vibration were reduced up to 30% compared to
that of their percent of the passive counterpart.
In addition during live music concerts the

1 INTRODUCTION
rhythm of the performed song creates
Sport is one of the major industries all around
coordinated synchronized motion with the beat
the world creating significant economic impact.
of the song, and thus inducing a more rhythmic
Popular games such as football events are
type loading on the structure, sometimes
followed by many people all around the world
maintained for a significant duration, leading to
with the number of fans rising constantly. With
the development of resonant conditions on the
the increasing tendency towards watching these
structure (Ellis et al., 2000). These vibration
games, the trend in the design of modern sports
levels can be potentially harmful to the structure
stadia has leaned towards large cantilevered
by reaching high deformation levels and can also
upper tiers, which provides increased seating
lead to disturbing or even uncontrollable
capacities whilst retaining clear sightlines for all
phenomena such as panic in the crowd.
of the seats (Reynolds et al., 2004). To further
account for the entertainment of the viewers,
Moreover, improvements for light and rapid
football clubs are creating lively atmosphere
constructions has led to flexible, slender
during matches by playing music when goals are
structures with reduced natural frequencies
scored and during breaks in a match.
which sometimes fall into the range where
concerted human actions can excite them
There is also pressure on owners to use stadiums
significantly resulting in a resonant or near-
originally designed to hold sport events for
resonant response.
music concerts to increase revenue and improve
the rent-ability of the structures in otherwise
The combination of lightweight and flexible
quiet periods, such as the football season
cantilever stands with increasingly lively crowds
summer break.
has raised concerns about human-induced
vibrations in many modern stadia, since it has
In the event of football matches, crowds’
the potential of becoming a dangerous situation.
movements can mostly be characterized as
random unsynchronized excitation, with
The presence of crowd on a structure changes
occasional high intensity, short duration, peaks
the characteristics of the empty structure and
corresponding to goals or noticeable events.
many models have been proposed to model the
These peaks do not impose risk to the structure
human-structure interaction. One model
or its occupants.
presented in (IStructE, 2008) is to consider the
crowd as additional degrees of freedom to the
structure where those participating in motion and
314
generating human induced loading are modeled adjustment of the mechanical properties
as a single DOF and those solely present and not (variable stiffness or damping) based on a pre-
taking part in dynamic excitation are another determined control algorithm. Hence they are
DOF. not able to directly inject mechanical energy to
the primary system and thus cannot generate
One of the approaches used for mitigating arbitrary control forces, which is their key
human induced vibrations is to apply a semi- difference from active control systems.
active tuned mass damper to the structure. The Furthermore, the control forces mostly act
semi-active TMD is modeled as a opposed to the motion of the structural system
mass/spring/damper set and is attached to the and therefore encourage the structural global
structure. Various control methods have been stability.
provided in the literature for defining the
characteristics of the passive and semi-active
TMD. Groundhook control laws are among
3 GROUNDHOOK CONTROL STRATEGY
those widely implemented for this purpose. In
this study a four degree of system has been The concept of the ground hook algorithm is to
adopted to model the structure/damper/human add a virtual damper between the primary
and obtain the structural response. structure and the ground with infinite damping
ratio, thus completely attenuating the vibration.
2 SEMI-ACTIVE VIBRATION CONTROL However, since a non-moving, fully fixed base
TECHNIQUES configuration is impractical a controllable MR
damper is employed and placed between the
structure and the tuned mass
Semi-active is a controlled passive vibration The on-off groundhook control, is control
mitigation technique in a way that although it is strategy is characterized by two damping values
a passive technique in nature and does not identified as on-state and off-state damping. The
impose external load to the structure, its criteria for adjusted the damper to either state
characteristics are controlled to make them depends on the relative velocity of the primary
adaptable to different vibration scenarios. The structure and the damper and also the absolute
method combines the best features of passive value of structure velocity. The basic
and active control and has the advantageous groundhook strategies are (Koo et al., 2004):
characteristics of both techniques. In the way Velocity based on-off (on-off VBG); Velocity
that while retaining the reliability and simplicity based continuous (continuous VBG);
of passive control systems, it utilizes the benefits Displacement based on-off (on-off DBG);
of adjustable parameter characteristics and Displacement based continuous (continuous
higher-performance of active control systems. DBG) (Setareh, 2001).
The main characteristic of semi-active control is Hence the on-off velocity based groundhook
the use of passive energy dissipation devices strategy can be formulated as follows:
whose damping or stiffness characteristics can
be varied according to the feedback control law 0→ (1)
of the active control approach and adjusted in
real time. The controller commands are based on 0→ (2)
feedback information from measured excitations
or responses (Symans & Constantinou, 1999). where and are the structure and damper
velocities, respectively and c is the damping
Another benefit of semi-active control systems is value. In continuous groundhook control, the
that, they offer the adaptability of active control damping constant can vary within the minimum
devices without requiring large power sources. and maximum and is not limited to the two
In fact their external energy requirements are upper and lower damping states.
orders of magnitude smaller of a fully active
control system (on the order of tens of watts) 0→ | |, (3)
which can be provided by battery power. Hence
in the case of a power failure, the passive 0→ (4)
components of the control ensure continued
functionality, offering some degree of where G represents a constant gain factor which
protection. should be experimentally pre-adjusted according
to overall damping control to achieve an
Instead of the application of actuator forces, optimum value for it. (Koo & Ahmadian, 2002)
semi-active control relies on the reactive forces proposed an alternate value for the gain which
that are developed through appropriate
315
uses the relative velocities for determining the view for spectators sitting on the beneath tier,
intermediate damping value as follows: causing the stand to be potentially lively under
crowd-induced loading. Hence, this cantilever
(5) and the spans behind it, which also have
components in the vertical modes engaging the
cantilever, are the particular interest of this study
Again, G is the gradient of the line connecting for investigating human-induced vibrations. A
the upper and lower boundaries as shown in typical cross section of the east stand is shown in
Figure 1. Figure 2.
5 Four Degrees of Freedom Structural Model

In this study, in order to investigate the
vibration issues of the grandstand structure and
the effectiveness of applying a semi-active TMD
to reduced the vibration levels, a 4 degrees of
freedom crowd–structure-TMD model has been
proposed. The structure is considered as one
degree of freedom which is coupled with three
other degrees of freedom including passive
Figure 1 - Continuous VBG groundhook people, active people and the TMD. The latter
damping range three DOFs are uncoupled relative to one
another.
4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDIED

STRUCTURE
Elland Road stadium is home to Leeds United
A.F.C football team. The stand is comprised of
16 steel frames with thirteen 7.01 m middle
spans along the length of the stand and two
9.495 m end spans, with the overall length of
110.12 m. The roof is a truss system supported
by the main frame. The stadium is the 12th
largest football stadium in England. East Stand
which is the main concern of this study has a
total capacity of 17,000. On completion it was
the largest cantilever stand in the world, holding
10,000 spectators in the lower tier and a further Figure 3-Four degrees of freedom interaction
7,000 in the upper tier. model
To solve the problem it is necessary to first find

the mass, stiffness, and damping parameters of
each DOF. Characteristics of the empty structure
are found using finite element modelling of the
stand and calculating its modal parameters by
performed a modal analysis. Information
regarding the properties used in modelling active
and passive crowd has been presented in
(IStructE, 2008). For calculating the
characteristics of the passive TMD the well
known (Den Hartog, 1940) formulas for
optimum values have been employed and the
ground-hook control policies have been
employed for modelling a semi-active TMD.
Figure 2 - Typical cross section of the east stand
5.1 Finite element model
The upper tier has a fairly long, slender
In order to calculate the dynamic characteristics
cantilever at its front, spanning 7.075 meters
of the Elland road grandstand - east stand, and
over the back of the lower tier, to increase the
determine the modal properties of the empty
capacity of the stadia while preserving a clear
316
stadium a finite-element model is developed. 6 Results
The model is built from the available technical
A parametric analysis has been conducted to
drawings of Elland stadium. The main structural
assess the dynamic performance of semi-active
system of the grandstand including the main
TMDs. Different groundhook control laws in
steel frames, and the roof trusses have been
various loading conditions have been considered
included in this FE model.
and their effectiveness in reducing the vibration
response of the structure has been compared to
one another as well as to that of the passive
TMD. The comparison criteria employed in this
study is the RMS acceleration response in the
frequency domain. The harmonic excitation
force considered is for worst case scenario of
loading, meaning that the load considered with
the assumption of scenario 4 loading, full
capacity of stadia and all the crowd participating
in motion.
6.1 Performance analysis of the passive TMD

Figure 4 - Mode properties extracted from the A time history analysis is conducted to
2D ANSYS model investigate the response of the structure subject
to harmonic loading. The analysis outputs the
For the purpose of the present study, a 2D model displacement and acceleration responses of the
had been decided sufficient for driving the uncontrolled system together with the responses
dynamic characteristics. The 2D model is a of the system provided with a passive TMD. The
simple representation of a typical grandstand acceleration time history of the uncontrolled
frame. The movement of the stand in sway system, the RMS of the uncontrolled harmonic
direction is constrained. The beams and columns signal, and the system response when a passive
are modeled using ANSYS BEAM189 elements. TMD is provided has been presented in Figure 6.
To represent the seating deck units spanned The plots have been produced for the worst
between the main frames over the entire length loading case (full capacity, 100% active crowd)
of the upper tier, reasonable assumptions have under the resonant frequency of the forcing
been made. function.
5.2 Solution of equations of motion 2.5

Uncontrolled
Due to the nonlinear nature of the SATMD 2 RMS of Uncontrolled
system, instead of using direct procedures to find 1.5
Passive TMD
the solutions for these equations of motion, the

1
analyses is done by employing numerical
Acceleration (m/s2)
0.5
models. The present 4DOF system is simulated
in MATLAB using SIMULINK blocks to 0
express mathematical relationships. For -0.5

comparison purposes the following SIMULINK -1
models are developed.
-1.5
-2
-2.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure 6 - Acceleration time history with and

Figure 5 - Damping block model for the variable without passive TMD controlled structure
VBG control law
6.2 Performance analysis of the semi-active
After defining the mathematical relationships TMD
using Simulink models, a MATLAB code has
The challenge in developing an effective semi-
been developed to calculate the system outputs
active TMD is to choose the parameters
both in time and frequency domains.
associated with the control laws in a way to
achieve the best possible performance. In order
to make a comparison ground for the passive and
semi-active dampers, the damping parameters of
the semi-active TMD are presented as a ratio of
317
passive TMD damping constant. The on-off 6.3 Comparison of different groundhook
VBG and DBG groundhook control laws have 2 control laws
parameters known as the off-state (Cmin) and on-
For each of the four considered groundhook
state (Cmax) damping constant.
control laws, the optimum parameters of on-
state, off-state (for on-off VBG and DBG) and
6.2.1 Frequency Response
gain (for variable VBG and DBG) have been
Due to the nonlinear nature of the present obtained using the described optimization
structural system with semi-active TMD and procedure. The system RMS acceleration
people acting as load generators, the equations responses due to these control laws with the
cannot be directly presented as frequency obtained optimum values are plotted in Figure 8.
response function. Hence, for presenting the As it can be seen, the performance of variable
results in frequency domain the following and on-off DBG control algorithms have a very
procedure is performed. Frequencies are varied slight difference and both show higher levels of
between 0 and 10 Hz in specified intervals of response. Although they show an extent of
0.1Hz and the time response is calculated for acceleration mitigation compared to passive,
each frequency of this domain. For each they fail to show as good a performance as the
frequency measure, the RMS of the calculated VBG controls. On the other hand, the two VBG
time response is calculated and these RMSs are algorithms have a noticeable difference in their
plotted for the whole range of frequency domain performances and both show lower levels of
considered. This is somewhat comparable to the response compared to DBGs.
FRF plots produced for frequency response
functions. The reason results are have been Another observation is that the difference
presented in RMS accelerations is to enable the between the first and second peaks and the depth
comparison of the responses with the vibration of the in-between valley for the DBGs are more
serviceability criteria recommended by than that of the VBGs which indicated that the
(IStructE, 2008). DBG control laws keep the TMD and structure
more decoupled against each other.
Figure 0 illustrates the effect of using passive
5
and semi-active TMDs on the acceleration No damper
response of the structure. 4.5 Passive TMD
On-off VBG
4
Variable VBG
5 On-off DBG
3.5
RMS Acceleration (m/s2)
Without Damper Variable DBG

4.5 Passive TMD
3
Semi-active TMD
4
2.5
3.5
RMS Acceleration (m/s2)
2
3
1.5
2.5
1
2
0.5
1.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
Frequency (Hz)
0.5
Figure 8 - Optimally tuned RMS acceleration
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 response results for different control laws
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 0 - RMS acceleration response for (1)

without TMD (2) with passive SATMD, and (3) As it is clearly shown, while variable VBG has a
with semi-active SATMD 20% decrease in RMS acceleration the, on-off
VBG has the best performance among all other
The semi-active control law used to plot these semi-active control laws considered here, with
figures is the on-off VBG. As described in the approximately 30% response reduction against
previous sub-section, the on-state and off-state its passive counterpart. A summary of the
damping values have been chosen according to optimum off-state, on-state and gain values
the described optimization procedure. The found for worst case scenario steady state
values obtained in this case are: Cmax =3.0 Ctmd loading are presented in table. Subsequently, the
and Cmin=1.2 Ctmd. frequency based RMS accelerations have been
calculated using these optimum values.
The peak RMS acceleration with the tuned semi-
active damper has a 29% reduction compared to
passive TMD and a total of 62% response
mitigation.
318
30 acceptable levels of response mitigation for
loading conditions.
% Peak RMS reduction

25
20 The on-off VBG demonstrated the best
performance among the control policies with up
15 to approximately 29% reduction in the peak
10 RMS acceleration compared to its passive
counterpart and 62% mitigation of the overall
5
uncontrolled system.
0
On-off VBG Variable On-off DBG Variable
VBG DBG
Control Law ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr.
Paul Reynolds, for his valuable guidance during
Figure 9 - Peak RMS acceleration reduction for
the process of this study.
on-off VBG, variable VBG, on-off DBG and
variable DBG
REFERENCES
7 CONCLUSIONS
Den Hartog, J.P., 1940. Mechanical Vibrations.
Vibration serviceability issues of the east stand New York: McGraw-Hill.
of Elland Road grandstand located in Leeds has
Ellis, B.R., Ji, T. & Littler, J.D., 2000. The
been addressed in this study. A response
Response of Grandstands to Dynamic Crowd
mitigation strategy has been implemented to
Loads. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
reduce these problematic vibrations to comply
Engineers: Structures and Buildings, 140(4),
with the limiting criteria of IStructE 2008
pp.355-65.
recommendation.
IStructE, /.J.W.G., 2008. Dynamic Performance
A four degrees of freedom model has been
Requirements for Permanent Grandstands:
adopted to define the motion of the structural
Recommendations for Management Design and
system. The DOFs comprise of the empty
Assessment. London: Institution of Structural
structure, an adoptable vibration reduction
Engineers.
device, active crowd and passive crowd.
Koo, J.-H. & Ahmadian, M., 2002. A qualitative
Modal parameters of the empty structure have
analysis of groundhook tuned vibration
been calculated using ANSYS finite element
absorbers for controlling structural vibrations.
software. The equations of motion have been
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
simulated in Matlab Simulink. Human induced
Engineers, Part K: Journal of Multi-body
loadings, their interaction model with the
Dynamics, 216(4), pp.351-59.
structure, together with their stiffness and
damping parameters are taken from IstructE Koo, J., Ahmadian, M., Setareh, M. & Murray,
2008 recommendations for permanent T.M., 2004. In Search of Suitable Control
grandstands. Methods for Semi-Active Tuned Vibration
Absorbers. Journal of Vibration and Control, 10,
The mitigating method consist of a tunable mass
pp.163-74.
damper with a semi-active control policy to
obtain high damping performance. Reynolds, P., Pavic, A. & Ibrahim, Z., 2004. A
Remote Monitoring System for Stadia
Initial parameters of the semi-active TMD are
Dynamics. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
set equal to a passive TMD and four different
Engineers. Structures and Buildings, 157,
groundhook control laws namely on-off VBG,
pp.385-93.
variable VBG, on-off DBG, and variable DBG
are applied to the structural system. Setareh, M., 2001. Application of semi-active
tuned mass dampers to base-excited systems.
A numerical analysis is carried out to find the
Earthquake engineering and structural
optimal damping values for the semi-active
dynamics, 30, pp.449-62.
TMD and assess the reduced level of vibrations
using these optimum parameters. Structural Symans, M. & Constantinou, M., 1999. Semi-
response has been investigated for various crowd active control systems for seismic protection of
loading cases, differing in the fullness capacity structures: a state-of-the-art review. Engineering
of the stand, the percentages of active people Structures, 21, p.469–487.
generating harmonic loading and different
activity participation scenarios. Results showed
319
Lighting Adjustment to Define Preferred Illuminances and User

Satisfaction
Khashayar Mohammadian
Candidate MSc Architectural Engineering Design
ABSTRACT
Lighting is one of the most energy consuming elements in every building. In the European offices
about 50% of the total electricity consumption is through lighting, This report presets a
background study on how to make lighting in buildings more efficient and what measures can be
taken to achieve this aim without causing any discomfort to occupants. In a laboratory study
occupant satisfaction using dimming control for illuminance ranges lower than conventional
amount has been investigated. The results in this study confirm the existence of stimulus range
and its effect on participants’ preferred illuminance as well as anchor effect. This report suggests
that massive energy savings in the lighting sector can be made if occupants are given control over
their environment with stimulus ranges lower than conventional.
1) Higher than 500 lux; design standards are

should be reduced or
1 INTRODUCTION
2) Below 500 lux; design standards should
As the first service provided by electricity,
be reduced.
lighting facilities were and continue to be a
major consumer of electricity. Every year about
20% of the worldwide electricity generated is Working Plane
Country illuminance(lux)
consumed by the lighting sector. Buildings
account for about 40% of the total energy
consumption worldwide (Halonen et al. 2010). Europe 500
Within all types of buildings, offices have the USA 100-500
highest energy consumption of lighting in fact in
European offices, lighting is accountable for Brazil 500
almost half of the overall energy consumption Russia 300
(Halonen et al. 2010). Lighting is a very
important issue for workplace environments as in China 300-500
these locations occupants frequently perform Australia 320
tasks, which require precision and good
performance for long hours. South Africa 500
There are several organisations in each country
providing recommendations about the quantity of Table 1 – Minimum working Plane
illuminance, in the UK CIBSE & SLL provide recommendations for offices according to Mills
these data. As can be seen in Table 1 design et al.
codes in the UK and many other countries
suggest 500 lux as the minimum work plane
illuminance. However in many other countries
1.1 Dynamic Lighting
recommendations for lighting are higher or lower
than 500 lux as shown in Table 1. This Dynamic lighting is currently a popular topic in
discrepancy suggests that the current standards the field of lighting. There are different notions
cannot be a good estimate of the preferred of dynamic lighting and one of them is the ability
illuminance and therefore the mean preferred to change the illumination colour and intensity of
level of illuminance is either the light. Dynamic lighting can achieved by
320
means of an automatic control or by giving In another study by Moore in 2000 which
control to the occupants. In this study dynamic involved 4 different buildings it was revealed
lighting has been examined by means of an that many companies had avoided installing
occupant controlled dimmer. dimming devices in their offices as they had the
impression that when adjusting the illuminance
According to Boyce et al. 2000 as opposed
by an occupant reaching a general agreement in a
to having a fixed lighting level, by giving
group can be difficult and considering
occupants control of lighting in their
adjustments few times a day this can be a
environment the following advantages can
problematic issue in their workplace.
be achieved.
Boyce et al. in 2006 found out that occupants
1) Occupants can choose their preferred
chose a wide range of illuminances ranging from
illuminance for different tasks, and therefore
252- 1176 lux. 1176 lux was the maximum
potential for lower illuminances and less
amount of the available illuminance but no data
energy consumption
about the minimum available illuminance was
2) The user involvement in choosing the presented. It was also mentioned that more than
amount of light will maintain satisfaction 50% of participants in his study chose
and therefore their mood and motivation for illuminances between 200-400 lux. In general it
work can be improved can be said that although people have a very
wide range of preferences. According to Boyce
In previous studies test participants have been et al. (2006) “people can tolerate deviations from
asked to choose an illuminance that they feel their preferences within a limited range of their
comfortable with while working. The results desired illuminance, how large this range can be
from these tests show considerable is yet to be determined. “
discrepancies. One of the reasons for these
Nearly all laboratory studies regarding individual
differences has been suggested (Fotios et al.
dimming control agree that incorporating these
2010) to be the effect of the starting illuminance
control devices reduce lighting energy
(anchor) on the preferred illuminance. As not
consumption compared to a fixed lighting
enough data is present about occupant
system.
satisfaction when light control devices are used
the current work investigates the satisfaction 2.2 Daylight
rating associated with the anchor and
It is obvious that using daylight in different
illuminance range when participants have control
spaces can be a great way of saving energy. In
to choose the illuminance in their environment as
this way artificial lighting can be only turned on
opposed with when the lighting is imposed.
when the daylight is insufficient to meet the
lighting targets. However when designing daylit
spaces attention should be given to the following
2 PREVIOUS WORK findings:
Sometimes presence of daylight can have an
2.1 Is saving energy with control devices
adverse effect in terms of energy. Begemann et
possible?
al. (1995) reported that unexpectedly in some
Moore et al. in 2002 reported on a study of 14 cases when the daylight illuminance is high
open plan offices with dimming control occupants set the dimmer to higher illuminance
installations. They found out that significant levels compared with when no or low daylight is
number of occupants choose illuminances below present. This can be under the influence of high
500 lux. In average energy consumption was illuminance level that can be seen at the windows
about 50% lower than a typical office with fixed and occupants may be willing to adjust the office
illuminance. Moore et al. stated that highest illuminance with that of the windows.
energy savings were found in offices where
Moore et al.’s research (2003) in this regard
dimming pre-set level was at a low level and
found that regardless of the natural light levels
lowest energy reductions were in offices with
occupants want to have electric light on as a
high dimming starting illuminance and large
form of habit when occupants are at work
control groups. They also mentioned that in
environment.
some cases occupants did not use the dimming
controls other than upon arrival at work. The 2.3 Available (Stimulus) range and preferred
main reason was that the position of the lighting illuminance
control was not convenient. It is therefore
Fotios et al. (2010) in their study of stimulus
suggested to have the control device close the
range bias suggested that there is a relation
workstation. [10]
between the stimulus range of the control device
321
and the occupants preferred illuminance. After a of higher illuminance leads to a higher setting of
broad investigation of the previous literature they preferred illuminance.”
mentioned that it is very likely that occupants
Based on the previously available litterateur it
choose values close to the middle of the
was decided to set the focus of this project on
available illuminance range. This issue indicated
occupant satisfaction ratings when the stimulus
the existence of a trend that the occupants’
range is lower than what has been studied before
preferred illuminance increases as the available
and whether using this stimulus range occupant
illuminance range increases. Therefore to
satisfaction can be achieved if they are given
investigate this effect they performed a series of
control choose their own preference. Also the
experiments with three different dimming ranges.
anchor effect as a major factor affecting the
This was carried out in the lighting laboratory in
preferred amount of illuminance was
the School of Architecture, University of
investigated as mentioned below.
Sheffield. The lower range covered light levels
in the range of 48-1037 lux, the middle range
varied between 83-1950 lux and higher range
3 METHODOLOGY
covered illuminances between 165-2550 lux.
Test participants were introduced to adjustment
They found out that as the upper limit of the
of the light to their preferred level in a cubicle
stimulus range increases, occupants estimate of
representing an office environment. This cubicle
their preferred illuminance increases and
was used to gather information about several
therefore significant differences were found
issues regarding dynamic lighting amongst all
between the chosen illuminances for each
test participants. The cubicle had dimensions of
illuminance range. This major finding can be a
1.1 m * 1.1 m * 1.1 m in width, length and height
good way to keep occupant satisfaction high by
respectively and is shown in Figure 1.
giving them control of their working illuminance
but providing them with stimulus ranges that will
result in choosing illuminances lower than those
conventionally used and hence, saving energy
without causing discomfort.
Logadóttir et al. (2011) examined this in further
detail in two full size rooms both furnished to
replicate an office exactly the same and for one
occupant. They used three different stimulus
ranges and their results confirmed the previous
findings by Fotios et al. (2010).
2.4 Initial illuminance and preferred
illuminance
Fotios et al. (2010) also investigated another
influencing factor as a part of their previously Figure 1 - Cubicle representing a desktop in an
mentioned research. This was the initial office environment as taken from Fotios et al.
illuminance setting also known as anchor before 2010
any adjustment was made in each trial of the Participants were asked to fill in the
experiment. They found out that the higher the applicant consent forms which included
anchor the higher the mean user preferred information about their age, gender and eye
illuminance. sight. The test consisted of 21 people in
total out of which 13 were female and 8
were male. Each person adjusted the light
When a new illuminance level is set human eye level to their preference for two different
adjusts itself to the new settings with time. stimulus ranges. The two stimulus ranges
Logadóttir et al. (2011) also examined anchor covered the following:
and adaptation effects in their study of
investigating preferred illuminance by  Session 1: From 0 to 500 lux
adjustment. Three anchor points were studied in
this experiment. Once participants were asked to  Session 2: From 0 to 700 lux
adjust their preferred illuminance immediately
after the new anchor was set and once with a The dimmer used in this study was an analogue
delay of five minutes. Their results confirmed rotary dial control device with physical limits at
the previous findings by Fotios et al. about the each in order for test participants to understand
anchor effect. “within a given range, an anchor they have reached the maximum or minimum
322
light available. Each session took about 15 Since the three anchors lead to different
minutes to complete. All participants took part in estimates of preferred illuminance, the next
both sessions on two different days when it was question is which data to use. Logadóttir et al.
possible. Otherwise, the second experiment was (2011) examined this and concluded that the
performed a few hours after the first one while mean of the high and low anchors gives the best
the participant was in a different environment. overall estimate of mean preferred illuminance.
The time in between the two sessions was As shown in Table 2, this leads to mean
considered in order for the participants not to estimates of preferred illuminance of 330 lux and
remember the illuminance range in the first 408 lux for the 0-500 lux and the 0-700 lux
session and so their judgement in the second ranges respectively.
session is not based their answers on the
previous range of light.
Mean
Std. dev.
Three different anchor points were presented to Range Anchor illum.
the test participant in random order to avoid (lux)
(lux)
sequence effects meaning that previous exposure
affects the current judgement. These three 1)Low (50 lux) 253 150
Session 1: 0 – 500 lux

anchors are specified below according to each
session. 2)Med. (250 lux) 354 113
Session 1 (0-500 lux):
3)High (500 lux) 403 103
Anchor points included a low anchor of 50 lux ,a
middle anchor 250 lux and a high anchor 500 Mean of Low
330 119
lux. Each of these trials was carried out twice to and High Anchor
account for internal consistency. A one minute
adaptation time was measured between each two 1)Low (50 lux) 273 167
Session 2: 0- 700 lux
trials using a chronometer. During this time

participants performed a typical reading task 2)Med. (350 lux) 432 153
which was on the same paper for all tests.
The mean preferred illuminance for this range 3)High (700 lux) 544 136
for each participant was calculated after
completion of all trials and participants are asked Mean of Low
408 141
about their satisfaction level. and High Anchor
Session 2 (0-700 lux):

Table 2 - Mean preferred illuminances for three
Anchor points included a low anchor of 50 lux ,a anchor points for 0-500 lux and 0-700 lux
middle anchor 350 lux and a high anchor 700 illuminance ranges
lux. Again this time all trials were carried out
twice to account for internal consistency. Figure 2 represents the mean preferred
illuminance values for both ranges and for three
During both sessions no daylight was present in different anchor points in each range. A trend
the laboratory in order to keep all tests can be easily noticed implying that that within
consistent. This is because the amount of each range, higher anchors lead to higher mean
daylight is variable during each session and if preferred illuminances. For example in the 0-700
participants were subjected to this it would not lux range when the anchor was set at 50 lux, on
be possible to create a uniform condition during average participants were completely satisfied by
all tests. This was achieved by using thick choosing 273 lux, whereas when the anchor was
cardboard sections covering the full height of the set at 350 lux the participants on average chose
window. 432 lux to achieve the same amount of
satisfaction. The 50 lux anchor point was the
common value tested for both ranges. As can be
4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS seen in Figure 3. participants have very similar
4.1 Was the preferred amount of light preferred illuminance choices for this anchor
affected by the range available and by the regardless of the available range but the
anchor? preferred illuminance for the 0-700 range was
slightly higher. The preferences were 253lux and
The data presented in Table 1 shows the mean 273lux for the 0-500 lux range and 0-700 lux
preferred illuminances for three anchor points range respectively.
during each illuminance range.
323
Figure 2 –Left: Mean preferred illuminance in test session 1based on anchor at the start of each
trial. Right: Mean preferred illuminance in test session 2 - ‘X’ on each bar represents the anchor
and the arrow corresponds to the direction in which dimmer was moved
highlighted in a black dashed box and

correspond to the same mean participant
preferred illuminance from session 1.
Satisfaction ratings for A2 and B1 were recorded
during two different sessions to enable a
comparison between the two. It can be seen in
Figure 4 that there is an apparent difference
between the results from trials A2 and B1. In
trial A2, 62% participants found the illuminance
to be enough. However in trial B1 the number of
satisfied people was reduced to less than 30%.
Having more dissatisfied people in trial B1 can
be due to the fact that they did not have control
Figure 3 – Anchor Effect on Selected over the light level prior to this trial in session 2.
Illuminance for at 50 lux starting point- Left:
0-500 lux and Right: 0-700 lux
4.3 Were people satisfied with the amount of

light in the two sessions?
Satisfaction ratings for the 21 test participants in
the 5 trials during which they were asked to rate
their satisfaction with the amount of light as
presented in Figure 4. The procedure for each of
these trials as follows. Trial A1: The last test in
session 1 during which participants were allowed
to adjust the light. Trial A2: The participants’
mean choice of session 1. Trial B1: The
participants’ mean choice of session 1. Trial B2:
The last test in session 2 during which
participants were allowed to adjust the light.
Trial B3: The participants’ mean choice of
session 2.
Figure 4 - Participants’ satisfaction with the
In these trials satisfaction ratings were obtained
light level during 5 trials. The dashed box
using a five-point scale where each number
indicate that Trials A2 & B1 were carried out
corresponded to a certain level of light in the
for the same mean illuminance
following format. 1 corresponded to not enough,
2 represented less than enough, 3 corresponded
It is worth mentioning that during these trials all
to enough light, 4 stood for more than enough
test participants chose to use only rating points 2,
and 5 represented too much light.
3 or 4 from the available 5 point satisfaction
For trial A1 all people except for one though the rating scale, i.e. points 1 and 5 were not used.
light level was about right. This is shown in
Figure 4. Trial A2 and B1, shown in Figure 4 are
324
5 CONCLUSIONS encouragement and support enabled me to
develop an understanding of the subject.
Following a review of the previous literature
I am also grateful to Chris Cheal, lighting
with regards to the differences in recommended
research associate for preparing the
illuminance levels in many countries it was
laboratory and his great advice.
decided to put the focus of this dissertation on
whether lower than conventional amounts of
light can satisfy the users in working conditions.
6 REFERENCES
Laboratory studies were conducted in a scale
model decorated to represent an office
Begemann S. (1995), Van Den Beld G. and
environment with major attention to test
Tenner A., Daylight, artificial light, and people,
participants’ satisfaction when they were given
part 2: visual and biological processes by, Proc.
control over the light level.
22nd CIE session. New Delhi
The first objective of this project was to examine
Boyce P., Veitch J., Newsham G., Jones C.,
the effects of available stimulus range on
Heerwagen J., Myer M. and Hunter C.M.,
participants’ preferred illuminance. It was found
Occupant use of Switching and Dimming
that the higher stimulus range the higher the
Controls in Offices, Lighting Research &
occupants’ preferred illuminance.
Technology, 38(4), 2006, 358-378
The second objective of this project was to
Fotios S. (2010), and Cheal C., Stimulus range
investigate the effect of different anchor points
bias explains the outcome of preferred-
on participants’ preferred illuminance. It was
illuminance adjustments, Lighting Research and
found out that when the anchor was set at a low
Technology, 42-433
amount, participants had lower light preference
compared to when the anchor was set at a high Gardener C. and Hannaford B. (1993), Lighting
level. design an introductory guide for professionals,
Design Council,
The third objective of this project was to
examine the effects of available dimming range Halonen L., Tetri E. and Bhusal P. (2010).
on participants’ satisfaction rating. The results Guidebook on Energy Efficient Electric Lighting
showed almost the same satisfaction ratings of for Buildings
3(enough amount of light) for both ranges when
Logadóttir Á., Fotios S., Cheal C. and
participants were given control over the
Christoffersen J. (2011), Investigating the use of
illuminance.
an adjustment task to set preferred illuminance in
The final objective was to determine whether a workplace environment, Lighting Research and
satisfaction can be achieved without the making Technology
use of a control device when illuminance was set
Mills E. and Borg N. (1988), IAEEL News
at participants’ previously chosen illuminance. It
Letter, 1, 4
was found that awareness is not a key parameter
when it comes to satisfaction. Boyce P., Eklund N. and Simpson S. (2000),
Individual Lighting Control: Task Performance,
Comparison between the results from Trials A1
Mood, and Illuminance, Journal of the
and B2 in Figure 4 indicates that almost all
Illuminating Engineering Society, 131-142
people were satisfied with the 0-500 lux range
when they were given control to select their Moore T. (2000), User controlled lighting:
preferred illuminance. Furthermore, many test strategic advice for designers, Proceedings of
participants have even chosen illuminances CIBSE/ILE Conference, University of York, 98-
below 500 lux. This indicates that most people 111
can work with lower illuminances than the
Moore T., Carter D. and Slater A. (2002), A
current minimum UK regulations specify if they
field study of occupant controlled lighting in
have selected this illuminance themselves. Hence
offices, Lighting Research Technology, 34, 191-
using occupant control devices has a
205
considerable potential to achieve great energy
savings. Moore T., Carter D. and Slater A. (2003), Long-
term patterns of use of occupant controlled office
lighting, Lighting Research and Technology, 35-
6 ACKNOLEDGEMENTS 43
I would like to thank my project supervisor,

Prof. Steve Fotios, whose supervision,
325
Walking Excitation of Floors Housing Vibration Sensitive Equipment

Ahmed Mohammed
ABSTRACT Highly sensitive floors require low levels of vibration limits. These types of floors are
usually designed to behave as “high frequency floors”, and this could be achieved if the fundamental
frequency of the floor is relatively high, typically higher than 10 Hz. However, it was found that a
resonance effect could occur even for floors having a fundamental frequency higher than 10 Hz.
Besides that, walking forces of people were found to be random in nature. These issues have not been
addressed adequately in the current design guides, resulting in an increasing number of vibration
serviceability problems for sensitive floors. In order to address these issues, continuously measured
walking forces from many people were investigated when applied to a single degree of freedom
oscillator. It was shown that a resonance effect can also occur for floors having natural frequencies
between 10 Hz and 20 Hz, and therefore, damping can be more important if the resonance effect is
present. On that basis, a mathematical model to predict the vibration response of high frequency floors
was derived, this model can be considered as a modification on the model that presented by the
Concrete Society for vibration serviceability assessment of high frequency floors. The different
parameters of walking forces were investigated and a probabilistic framework was presented to predict
them. This framework showed its ability to produce suitable predictions of these parameters. The
results of this framework can be used to model walking excitation on different types of floors.
assumptions and the lack of fundamental data

1 INTRODUCTION
are the basis of the shortcomings of the current
The tendency in construction nowadays is to design guides for assessing vibration in these
build slender and light weight structures with types of floors (Racic, 2009).
long spans to reduce cost and fulfil architectural
In the design process of floors, it is necessary to
and other requirements. This trend results in
predict, as accurately as possible, the response of
more problems regarding vibration
the floor when people walk on it; therefore, it is
serviceability. Vibration serviceability is usually
important to know the characteristics of the
checked with respect to the perceptible levels of
walking forces that cause the vibration of the
humans according to the nature of the activities
floor. Human walking forces can be considered
in the building. The vibration serviceability
as the most severe source of vibration of floors
criteria become more stringent for buildings with
(Smith et al., 2007). These forces were found to
sensitive activities, such as hospitals and
be near periodic and could be treated as a
fabrication plants (fabs) (Pavic and Willford,
narrow-band random process in nature
2005; Smith et al., 2007). Floors in these
(Brownjohn et al., 2004), as well as being
buildings are usually designed to behave as high
sensitive to the method of measurement (Racic
frequency floors.
et al., 2009). These features have not been
However, there is an increasing number of adequately addressed in the current design
reported problems regarding vibration guides. The reason for that is the lack of a
serviceability for sensitive floors, such as those comprehensive database of continuously
in operating theatres and scientific laboratories. recorded time-histories of walking forces (Racic
These floors might then not used for their & Brownjohn, 2011).
primary use because of failure to fulfil the
This research focused on the study of the
vibration requirements.
characteristics and variability of 215 time-
These problems could lead to a conclusion that histories of walking forces collected by Racic
the current design guides for vibration (2009). These forces were then used to modify
serviceability did not manage to predict the the model that presented by the Concrete Society
vibration response accurately. The many in the Technical Report 43 (CSTR43) (Pavic &
326
Willford, 2005) of walking excitation on high
frequency floors.
2 WALKING FORCES
Walking forces comprise of successive forces,
each one of which represents one footfall. They
are usually different in magnitude and in the
interval between them. These variations can be
categorized as spatial parameters (related to the Figure 3: Step lengths at different walking
velocities.
space) and temporal parameters (related to the
time). That means every footfall produces a
different pattern and magnitude of force from the
others, making it as a narrow-band random
signal rather than periodic signal. Figure 1
shows this variability between different footfalls.
Figure 4: Maximum amplitudes of walking

forces at different walking velocities.
Figure 1: Typical continuous walking forces. 2.2 Probabilistic Framework for Walking
However, the current design guides assume Forces Parameters
walking forces as a periodic signal and can be Walking forces parameters were found to have a
represented as the following formula: trend to be normally distributed around the mean
value. Figure 5 shows this trend for step times at
(1) walking velocity 1.3 m/s. Based on that, a
( ) ( ∑ ( ))
probabilistic framework was suggested to predict
these parameters for different types of floors
where F is the force, t is the time, W is the static using the experimental measurements from the
weight of the pedestrian, n is the number of the treadmill and a previous study of people walking
harmonic, N is the total number of the harmonics on real floors (Pachi and Ji, 2005). Firstly, the
that considered, α is the Fourier component at mean and standard deviation of each parameter
each harmonic, fp is the pacing rate and is the at each walking velocity were found from the
phase of each harmonic. measurements of the treadmill. After that, the
2.1 Parameters of Walking Forces probability of occurrence of that parameter was
found at each walking velocity. After that, the
The different parameters of walking forces probability of occurrence of walking velocity
(pacing rate, step length and the amplitude of was multiplied by the probability of occurrence
walking forces) were investigated and presented of that parameter at each walking velocity
in figure 2, figure 3 and figure 4 respectively. separately. Then, by taking the summation of
All of them showed an increase by increasing this multiplication, the probability of occurrence
walking velocity. of that parameter was obtained. This framework
was used for different parameters as shown in
figure 6, figure 7 and figure 8.
Figure 2: Pacing rates at different walking

velocities.
327
Figure 9: Observations of pacing rates of people
walking on a shopping centre (after Pachi and Ji,
Figure 5: Experimental (blue bars) and
2005).
theoretical (red curve) values of step times at
walking velocity 1.3 m/s. The mean step length from the framework was
found to be 0.72 m comparing with observed
value of 0.74m and 0.68m for male and female
subjects respectively.
2.3 Frequency Content of Real and
Synthesized Walking Forces
The frequency content of walking forces was
investigated for both real forces (measured from
the treadmill) and synthesized walking forces.
To do that, two walking forces were taken, one
Figure 6: Probability of occurrence of pacing of them was measured continuously from the
rates. treadmill, the other one was synthesized from
one footfall taken from the same walking forces.
It was found that using synthesized walking
forces can overestimates the response due to
higher Fourier amplitudes than that of the real
walking forces (figure 10).
It is obvious also that the energy in the
synthesized walking forces is more concentrated
and has less dispersion than the energy of the
real walking forces (figure 10).
Figure 7: Probability of occurrence of step
lengths. a)
b)
Figure 8: Probability of occurrence of the

amplitudes of walking forces.
The validity of these probabilities was checked
by comparing them with their counterparts in the
study of Pachi and Ji (2005). Pacing rates have
similar trend of the probabilities between the Figure 10: Fourier amplitudes of walking forces
framework and the observed data (figure 9). (a) measured continuously from the treadmill (b)
synthesized from one footfall force.
328
3 MODELLING OF WALKING √ (4)
EXCITATION ON HIGH FREQUENCY
FLOORS
(5)
3.1 Low and High Frequency Floors
where is the velocity impulse (N.s), is the
Modelling of walking excitation usually based
pacing rate (Hz), is the natural frequency
on the way that the floor would respond to this
(Hz), is the velocity response (m/s), is time
excitation. This response basically depends on
(s), are mode shapes at the node of
the frequency of the floor and the pacing rate
(Pavic & Willford, 2005). When the pacing rate application of the force and the node of interest,
or one of the integer multiples of it matches the is the damping and is the modal mass
natural frequency of the floor, a build-up (kg).
response known as resonance response will However, the effective impulse formula was
occur and that floor called low frequency floor derived using walking forces synthesized from
(LFF). On the other hand, if the frequency of the single footfall forces collected recently by Kerr
floor is relatively high, then an impulsive (1998).
response will occur and an impulse associated
with each footfall will appear followed by a 3.3 Resonance Effect for Natural Frequencies
transient decay due to damping (Racic et al., Higher than 10 Hz
2009) and this floor is called high frequency Brownjohn & Middleton (2008) showed that
floor (HFF). Figure 11 shows the difference resonance effect can occur even for floors
between these two types of responses. The cut- having natural frequency higher than 10 Hz. In
off frequency between low and high frequency order to investigate this issue, several walking
floors is widely assumed to be 10 Hz. forces time histories were applied on a single
degree of freedom (SDOF) oscillator. Figure 12
a) shows the maximum velocity by applying a
continuous force with a pacing rate of 2.4 Hz on
SDOF oscillator. The values of mass and
stiffness were chosen to make the natural
frequency between 10 Hz and 35 Hz.
Considerable rises were obvious at different
combinations of mass and stiffness (figure 12),
b) these rises were sharper for lower natural
frequencies and vanished as the natural
frequency became higher. This observation
indicates the possibility of resonance effect of
walking excitation on floors having natural
frequencies higher than 10 Hz.
Figure 11: Typical response of (a) low frequency
floor and (b) high frequency floor.
3.2 Current Methods
More than one approach were suggested to
predict the response of high frequency floors.
Arup presented an approach based on the first
principles and validated over 10 years for many
structures. This approach is based on finding the
maximum velocity impulse and then find the
velocity response time history (equation 2,
equation 3, equation 4 and equation 5). The total
response of the floor can be found by taking the
summation of the velocity time history for all Figure 12: Maximum response of SDOF
modes that have natural frequency up to twice oscillator to continuous walking forces with a
the fundamental frequency. pacing rate of 2.4 Hz.
3.4 Modifying Arup’s Model
(2)
Due to the resonance effect, in case of natural
frequencies higher than but close to 10 Hz and
( ) ( ) (3) high pacing rates, the model of the CSTR43
(Pavic & Willford, 2005) was found to
where:
underestimate the response in this region, so
329
that, a modification was done to this model. First
of all, the 215 walking forces time histories were
applied on SDOF oscillator with different a)
natural frequencies (from 10 Hz to 40 Hz) with
an increment of 0.5 Hz to address the resonance
effect. The maximum velocities were extracted,
and then the maximum velocities for certain
pacing rates from 1.4 Hz to 2.5 Hz for an
increment of 0.1 Hz were found by interpolation.
After that, the impulses that have 25% chance of
being exceeded were found. These analysis were
done by normalizing the walking forces by the
mean weight of people which is 746 N (Smith et
al., 2007). The modal mass was assumed to be 1
kg in all simulations, so that the impulse is equal
b)
to the maximum velocity. The damping was
considered in this analysis, since it could affect
the response significantly when a resonance
effect is present.
The fit of these simulations was done by taking
Arup’s formula for the effective impulse and
multiplying it by a factor that increase the
impulse by increasing the pacing rate and
decreasing the natural frequency. This is
consistent with what was found about resonance
effect in this region. The fit of these simulations
can be presented in equation 6, equation 7,
equation 8 and equation 9. c)
( ) (6)
For 1% damping:
( )
For 2% damping: (7)
( )
For 3% damping: (8)
( )
For 4% damping: (9)
Figure 13: RMS velocity responses from (a)
3.5 Comparison simulations of real continuous walking forces
The new model showed more accurate results applied on SDOF oscillator (b) the new proposed
then the model of the CSTR43 (Pavic & model (c) the CSTR43 model (Pavic & Willford,
Willford, 2005) when compared with the 2005).
maximum velocity impulses from simulations.
However, this comparison was done also for the
root-mean-square (RMS) of the velocity 4 CONCLUSIONS
response (figure 13) which is usually used for
• Simulations of real walking forces showed the
assessment for high frequency floors. This
possibility of the resonance effect for floors
comparison was based on assuming a modal having natural frequency above 10 Hz due to
mass of 50000 kg and a damping ratio of 2%. It walking excitation. It was found that this effect
is obvious also that the new model produce
reduces for higher natural frequencies due to
better estimation of the RMS velocity than the
lower Fourier amplitudes of the walking forces.
model of the CSTR43 (Pavic & Willford, 2005).
In other words, this effect is unlikely to occur for
However, there are obvious rippling in the
floors having fundamental frequency higher than
surface (figure 13 a) due to the resonance effect. 20 Hz.
In this region, even the new model
underestimates the response in some areas of the • A mathematical model of walking excitation
surface but it is closer to the simulations than the on high frequency floors was presented. This
model of the CSTR43 (Pavic & Willford, 2005). model can be considered as a modification of the
model of the CSTR43 (Pavic & Willford, 2005)
330
to find the effective impulse. This modification would like to thank my sponsor in Iraq (the
was based on 215 walking forces time histories Higher Committee for Education Development)
measured continuously using treadmill, these who provided me a fully funded scholarship.
forces were used to derive the new model. An
exponential part was added to the formula of the
effective impulse to account for the resonance REFERENCES
effect of floors having a frequency higher than
10 Hz. Besides that, damping ratio was also Brownjohn, J. M. W. and Middleton, C. J.
considered in this model, since it could reduce (2008) Procedures for vibration serviceability
assessment of high-frequency floors,
the response significantly in case of the
Engineering Structures, Vol. 30 , No. 6 , p 1548-
resonance effect is present; therefore, damping
1559 .
ratio was assumed to have higher effect on the
response in the range between 10 Hz and 20 Hz Brownjohn, J. M. W. , Pavic, A. and Omenzetter
where the resonance effect is likely to occur. P. (2004) A spectral density approach for
modelling continuous vertical forces on
• Comparing with simulations of real walking
pedestrian structures due to walking, Canadian
forces on SDOF oscillator, it was shown that the
Journal of Civil Engineering , Vol. 31 , No. 1 , p
new model could predict the response better than
65-77 .
both the model of the CSTR43 (Pavic &
Willford, 2005) and the model of the SCI (Smith Kerr, S. C. (1998) Human Induced Loading on
et al., 2007) in terms of the maximum impulse Staircases. Ph.D. Thesis, University College
and the RMS velocity, especially in case of high London, Mechanical Engineering Department.
pacing rates and low natural frequencies.
Pachi, A. and Ji, T. (2005) Frequency and
• The Fourier harmonics of walking forces were velocity of people walking. The Structural
found to have considerable energy above 10 Hz, Engineer, Vol. 83, p 36-40 .
especially for high pacing rates, and this is the
reason for the resonance effect in this region of Pavic, A. and Willford, M. R. (2005) Appendix
frequencies. However, synthesized walking G: Vibration serviceability of post-tensioned
forces have higher but more concentrated concrete floors. In: Post-tensioned concrete
amplitudes than the continuously measured floors design handbook. Slough (UK): Concrete
walking forces and this could overestimate the Society , p. 99 - 107.
response if the synthesized walking forces were Racic, V. (2009) Experimental measurement and
used. mathematical modelling of near-periodic
• A probabilistic framework was presented to human-induced dynamic force signals. Ph.D.
predict walking forces parameters depending on Thesis, University Sheffield , Department of
the measured walking forces from the treadmill Civil and Structural Engineering .
and suitable data about the walking velocity of Racic, V. and Brownjohn, J. M. W. (2011)
people in any area. It was based on assuming a Stochastic model of near-periodic vertical loads
normal distribution of walking forces parameters due to humans walking, advanced engineering
(pacing rate, step length and maximum informatics , Vol. 25 , No. 2 , p 259-275 .
amplitude of the force) around each walking
velocity. Racic, V., Pavic, A. and Brownjohn, J. M. W.
(2009) Experimental identification and
This framework was compared with the results analytical modelling of human walking forces :
of a previous experimental study of people Literature review. Journal of Sound and
walking in shopping centres. It was found that Vibration , Vol. 326 , No. 1-2 , p 1-49 .
this framework is able to predict similar walking
parameters to the experimentally observed Smith, A. L., Hicks, S. J. and Devine, P. J.
counterparts. However, there are some (2007) Design of floors for vibration: A new
differences between them, which could be due to approach. SCI, Ascot, Berkshire .
the inter-subject variability between different
people and the limited number of subjects who
experienced the test on the treadmill. Finally,
these parameters can be used to model more
reliable walking excitation on different types of
floors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Vitomir
Racic for his support and guidance. In addition, I
331
Seismic Design and Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Kamran Munir
ABSTRACT The RC structures of the developing countries are highly vulnerable to earthquakes.
Various studies have been conducted to determine the vulnerability of the structures. The aim of this
research is the seismic design and analysis of RC structures and for this purpose the study area is
selected as Islamabad, Pakistan. Studies have been conducted recently for the vulnerability assessment
of LR and MR buildings for same study area which have not been designed considering the modern
design provisions. In this research a modern design building is selected for the determination of
vulnerability. Existing studies for hazard assessment for the region have been used to determine the
demand of the structures. The structure was analysed using FE analysis tool considering degradation
behaviours after its verification with experimental results. The vulnerability curves were developed by
using the frame work developed by Ahmed in 2011. The vulnerability curves showed that the new
designed structure is damaged gradually and is not having an abrupt failure and also reaching the limit
of PGA for which it was designed.
curves of low-rise and mid-rise RC structures

1. INTRODUCTION
not fulfilling the modern design requirements
Earthquakes have always been a natural hazard from the same study area Islamabad were
for humans from the beginning of the time. The prepared by (Ahmad, 2011) who extended the
modern studies helped people to develop framework developed for Cyprus by
techniques of building which can survive (Kyriakides, 2007) to develop probabilistic
earthquakes and reduce the loss of human life analytical vulnerability curves using nonlinear
and property. The losses due to earthquakes are static methods, improved modelling assumptions
mainly due to the substandard construction and time periods based damage index. The
practices being followed in developing framework was verified for the region using the
countries. This develops the need to develop an damage data from Kashmir earthquake in 2005.
assessment plan known as Earthquake Risk
Assessment (ERA) for the countries having risk
of earthquakes. ERA will give the damage which 2. METHODOLOGY FOR GENERATION
can happen as a result of an earthquake. OF ANALYTICAL VULNERABILITY
CURVES
Vulnerability assessment is an important element
of ERA which tells us how much the structure is The framework used for derivation of
prone to the damage. The vulnerability of vulnerability curves was developed by (Ahmad,
structures differs from each other due to 2011). The framework was developed to produce
different construction practices and materials. analytical vulnerability curves as a function of
The developing countries mostly have non- PGA. This framework is only for developing
engineered structured which either do not follow countries. This frame work is able to predict the
design consideration or the codes being followed response of the structure at varying PGA levels
are out dated. These structures are built with low for a typical structural class. The framework
quality construction materials. As these calculates the damage using a damage index and
structures are designed only for gravity loads so to ascertain statistical allotment of damage over
they are highly vulnerable to earthquake loads. various values of PGA.
The vulnerability assessment of the modern The structure selected is a four storey RC
designed mid-rise RC structure i.e. a structure structure which is designed according to modern
designed following the modern design codes design. The structure is designed to resist 0.24g
from Islamabad (Pakistan) as a case study will earthquake as Islamabad comes in zone 2B for
be done using the framework developed by which (BCP, 2007) suggests this value.
Ahmad in 2011. The vulnerability and fragility
332
2.1 Structural Description
A four storey modern designed RC frame having
four bays equal in size selected as the class of
structures. Figure1 show the partial elevation of
the frame where exterior column is col.1 and
interior column col.2. The section details of the
columns and beams are shown in figure 2. The
building is an office building for which the LL is
taken 2.4kN/m2 (BCP, 2007). The strength of (c) col.1 (ext)
concrete used was 4000psi (27.58 MPa) and the
reinforcement of grade 60 according to ASTM –
615A having a yield strength of 420MPa and
tensile strength of 620MPa was used.
(d) col.2 (int)

Figure 2. Section Details
Time history analysis done by acceleration data
of 2005 Kashmir earthquake at Nilore station
and Inter Storey Drift (ISD) was calculated as
shown in the figure 3. The Immediate
Occupancy (IO), Life Safety (LS) and Collapse
Point (CP) at 1%, 2% and 4% respectively were
determined using (FEMA-356, 2000).
Figure 1. Part elevation of frame
Figure 3. ISD of the structure

Capacity Demand Evaluation
Equation1 from EC-8 was used to determine the
maximum base shear structure can resist at 0.24g
was 685kN. Base shear versus top storey
displacement show that structure will not
(a) beam end collapse at 0.24g as collapse point is at 795kN.
W
Fb  Sd (T ) 
g (1)
Base shear (Fb) is obtained as a product of soil
factor (S) for (T) period of vibration with the
mass (W/g) of the structure and correction factor
(λ).
At base shear of 795kN the plastic hinges were
generated in the 1st floor columns which
developed a failure mechanism of soft storey.
The yield and ultimate moments of the exterior
(b) beam mid and interior columns were found using section
analysis procedure is shown in table 1.
333
Table 1. Yield and Ultimate moments of columns
Columns My (kNm) Mu (kNm) Fy (kN) Fu (kN)
Exterior Columns (1,5) 546 679 286 356
Interior Columns (2,3,4) 798 936 418 491
Where fb , mj, UN, ϕ i, is base shear, lumped

2.2 Analytical Tool
mass, displacement and ϕ th floor fundamental
DRAIN 3DX is used as an analytical tool. It was
mode.
selected because DRAIN 3DX has elements to
model fibres, for selected structure element 15 of
drain library is used. For this particular case after
discussion with researchers in this field it was
Response Spectrum to Demand Spectrum
decided that only Gap fibres are to be considered
and pull-out fibres are not required as the The response spectrum is developed using
structure is modern designed and proper models in the codes as the response spectrum
anchorage is provided in the joints so it can be model of EC-8 is used in the current study which
ignored. Joints are modelled with rigid zones. is then converted to demand spectrum in SA and
SD format using the following equation 4.
The capability of DRAIN 3DX was validated by
2
comparing the analytical and experimental  T 
results from a full scale two storey single bay SD    SA
 2  (4)
bare RC frame. The significance of various
fibres to be included in the analysis was also FEMA-440 improved (CSM)
determined during the comparison.
The CSM by ATC-40 is improved by FEMA-
2.3 Seismic Demand Evaluation 440 by giving alternate methods for finding
performance point (PP). The methodology uses
In this research Improved Capacity Spectrum
iterations for the determination of PP (maximum
method(CSM) by FEMA-440 (2005) is used for
displacement) in which effective period (Teff)
the demand characterization. The selection is
and effective damping (βeff) is the function of
based upon the comparison of other methods
ductility demand. The following steps are
done in the research conducted by (Ahmad,
adopted from (FEMA-440, 2005).
2011) who also had the same study area.
1. Selection of an elastic response spectrum
In all the Non-Linear Static Methods (NSM)s
represented by Acceleration Displacement
maximum displacement of non-linear MDOF is
Response Spectrum (ADRS) (βo)
idealized into equivalent SDOF. Elastic or
inelastic response spectrum is used to define a 2. Iterations similar to CSM method are required
demand curve. for initial assumption of PP.
Pushover to Capacity Envelope 3. Ductility (μ) and post-elastic stiffness (α) is
calculated from the bilineraization of the
The pushover curve obtained by analysis is a
capacity curve of equivalent SDOF system.
force displacement curve representing MDOF
system which is to be converted to equivalent 4. Teff and βeff are determined using the
SDOF. The conversion requires modal equations 6.2.2 and 6.2.1 respectively after the
participation factor (Г) and effective modal mass calculation of ductility and post-elastic stiffness.
(m*) by equations 2 and 3. Obtained capacity
5. To get the highly damped spectrum βeff is
curve will be in the form of spectral acceleration
adjusted in the equations to get ADRS (βeff)
(SA) and spectral displacement (SD).
fb UN Procedure B of FEMA-440: In this method
SA  SD  Modified Acceleration Displacement Response
m1* , 1N 1 (2) Spectrum (MADRS) is first determined by
N 2 multiplication of modification factor with SA
 N 
m  j j1   m j j1 
ordinates of ADRS (βeff). PP is assumed first at
m1*   N 
j 1 the point where MADRS intersects with the
1  N
j 1
m 
j 1
j
2
j1  m j j 1
j 1
2 capacity curve, if this point corresponds with the
acceptable tolerance of demand then it is PP else
, (3)
iterations are done till convergence is achieved.
334
2.5 PGA Evaluation
The procedure adopted for the calculation of
PGA is by reverse calculation technique which
was used by (Ahmad, 2011) for the
implementation of FEMA-440 in the framework
adopted for the evaluation of vulnerability. T eff
and βeff of each performance level are calculated
by several PP (SAi, SDi) on the capacity curve.
In this procedure Teff and βeff is already known
for PP which is then used to calculate reduction
factor (η) and modification factor (M) for the
response spectrum which is highly damped. The
reduction factors η and M is referred to βeff of
ADRS and βeff of MADRS which have been
Figure 4. Procedure B of FEMA-440 discussed in previous sections. EC-8 equations
2.4 Damage Quantification for the elastic response spectrum are reversely
used for the calculation of PGA at each PP,
Damage Index (DI) should be capable of which uses the above defined parameters in
evaluating global damage and residual strength combination with other parameters initial period
should also be considered. DI should consider of equivalent system (Tini) and SA.
various thresholds of damage along with the
acceptance of limit state variability. Corner period Tc and α are also considered for
the calculation of PGA. Uncertainty of demand
The DI by Kyriakides (2008) is used in this parameters lead to the association of each PP
research for the evaluation of damage. This DI with various PGA levels. This leads to the use of
stretches the periods for the structures with probabilistic corner periods and amplification
amplified demands of displacement and for the coefficients (Ahmad, 2011). The equation 5
structures with less inelastic deformation, where S is soil factor is used for the evaluation
fundamental mode is predominant. The DI will of PGA for each PP.
be used for the derivation of vulnerability curves
in the form of mean damage ratio (MDR). SAT. ini
PGA  (5)
 .S .M ..Tc
This DI is also useful in derivation of
vulnerability curves for different limit states as 2.5 Uncertainty Consideration
intermediate failure planes are also a part besides
the collapse failure plane (T collapse) for the The variability of various parameters should be
calibration of POE. taken into consideration for the determination of
probabilistic nature of analytical vulnerability
curves. This is related to the uncertainty linked
to the capacity which can effects the results of
vulnerability curves.
Capacity Uncertainty
This includes the parameters of capacity models
used for the determination of stress-strain
curves, bond strength, shear capacity, etc. The
main categories of parameters of this type of
uncertainty are key, geometrical and design as
Figure 5. Failure plane by (Kyriakides, 2007)
shown in table 2. These parameters are
determined by expert judgement, codes or
available data.
Table 2. Calibration parameters for capacity models

Deterministic
Capacity Model Key parameters Design Parameters
Parameters
Flexure f’c, fy b,d,k= , εsu ρ
Shear f’c, s b, d, fyw Asw, s

Bond fcb, s, l,c t, lw, hw S, l, db
335
Modern seismic design codes like ACI, UBC
Where (f’c) compressive strength of concrete,
IBC are used for the design in Islamabad which
(fy) compressive strength of steel, (s) shear link
was declared as high seismic zone after Kashmir
spacing, (fct) tensile strength of concrete, (l)
earthquake in 2005 for the design of engineered
development length, (c) concrete cover, (d b)
buildings.
longitudinal bar diameter, (fyw) yield strength of
shear link, (b, d) section dimensions, (ρ) 3. VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
longitudinal reinforcement ratio, (εsu) strain in CURVES
steel at ultimate steel stress, (fult) ultimate stress
Vulnerability curves of modern design building
capacity of reinforcement
are shown in figure 6 for selected MR structure.
2.6 Latin Hypercube Sampling 95%, mean and 5% vulnerability curves are
presented as a function of PGA. Curves are then
Derivation of probabilistic analytical
compared with damage levels of FEMA-356.
vulnerability curves require simulation values of
capacity, demand and limit state generated from 3.1 Vulnerability Curve for MR (modern
simulation procedures. Using the sampling designed) RC Structure
technique samples are produced for the structure.
The vulnerability curve for modern design
Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) technique is
building is shown in figure 6. EC-8, type-1
used for the generation of simulations LHS was
spectrum for stiff soil is used for the corner
proposed by (McKay et al., 1979) and requires
periods. The PDF key capacity parameters
less number of samples by use of stratified
mentioned above were used in the development.
techniques for developing simulations from
Probability Distribution Function (PDF).
Initially the assumption is that the key
parameters are uniformly distributed between 0
and 1 then the uniform distribution is further
divided into non-overlapping subintervals
depending on number of simulations. Ui is the
uniform value selected from each sub-interval
randomly and converted to values related to
cumulative distribution function (CDF) for each
key parameter, the method of inversion is used
for this transformation.
(  1)  ui
Ui 
N (6)
Where, N is number of simulations, ui is Figure 6. Vulnerability curve for MR modern
independently generated uniform random designed RC structure
numbers on [0,1] form πi and πi is random
permutation of in tegers. The curves do not show rapid increase in mean
damage ratio (MDR), it fails at 0.24g for POE
In the current study 50 simulations will be (95%) which is the PGA for which the structures
conducted for the buildings which were found are usually designed.
suitable for the frame work being used currently.
3.2 Fragility Curve
2.7 Uncertainty Parameters
The framework developed by (Ahmad, 2011)
PDF for key capacity parameters are used following procedure to develop the fragility
compressive strength of concrete (fc), curves. It has been mentioned already that
compressive strength of steel (fy), development capacity curves can be used for the derivation of
length (L), shear link spacing (s) and concrete fragility curves. In this study FEMA-356 has
cover (c). The parameters for modern seismic been used to establish three damage states. POE
design period will only be considered as the for a damage state at a specific ground motion
selected structure is modern designed. are calculated using the secant period planes (IO,
These values have been taken from (Ahmad, LS, CP) . The PGA values are calculated using
2011), in the research he determined fc and fy by the back analysis discussed in section 2.5. Tsec is
experiments and other parameters are considered selected to be seismic demand parameter for
according to recommendations of design codes statistical distribution over PGA. The equations
used in the study area especially ACI-318, the 7 and 8 are used for calculating functions for
experience and post-earthquake observation of POE of damage planes at PGA levels.
the author. Fi(PGA) = P(D > di /GM = PGA) (7)
336
Fi(PGA) = P(D > dn/GM = PGA) = 1-F(dit) = 1- REFERENCES
(di)d(di) (8)
Ahmad, S., (2011). Seismic Vulnerability of
Where: POE of damage D from damage state di Non-Ductile Reinforced Concrete Structures in
for ground motion GM is Fi (PGA). Threshold Developing Countries. PhD Thesis. Sheffield:
value of damage state is dit. For every PGA,
CDF is F(dit) and for Tsec PDF is fim (di). University of Sheffield.
The framework further used the equation 9 from BCP, (2007). Building Code of Pakistan. Islamic
(Rossetto & Elnashai, 2003) to fit the curve on Republic of Pakistan.
data of POE by method of non-linear regression. FEMA-356, (2000). Prestandard And
P(d ≥ DIHRC /GM) = 1 – exp (-αGMβ) (9) Commentary For The Seismic Rehabilitation Of
Buildings. Washington DC: Federal Emergency
Management Agency.
FEMA-440, (2005). Improvement Of Nonlinear
Static Seismic Analysis Procedures. Redwood
City, California: Applied Technology Council
(ATC-55 Project).
Kyriakides, N., (2007). Vulnerability of RC
Buildings. PhD Thesis. Sheffield: University of
Sheffield.
McKay, M., Conover, W. & Beckman, R.,
(1979). A comparison of three methods for
selecting values of input variables in the analysis
of output from a computer code. Technometrics,
21, pp.239-245.
Rossetto, T. & Elnashai, A.S., (2003).
Figure 7. Fragility curves Derivation Of Vulnerability Functions For
4. CONCLUSIONS European-Type RC Structures Based On
Observational Data. Engineering Structures,
In this research a real structure of Islamabad pp.1241-63.
designed according to modern design codes was
selected and analysed using Drain 3DX which
showed that the structure can resist the seismic
forces for which it is designed as the structure
was designed to resist the base shear of 685kN
and it was collapsing at 795kN. The ISD of the
selected structure are also within the acceptable
limits. The framework developed by (Ahmad,
2011) was used for the analytical vulnerability
and fragility assessment. The NSM FEMA 440
was used since Ahmad (2011) found it to
evaluate the seismic demand with least error.
PGA was evaluated using the reverse technique
for NSM. The vulnerability curves showed the
gradual increase in damage. The vulnerability
curves showed that the structure is failing after
the PGA for which it was designed to resist.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research for the vulnerability curves for
mid-rise (MR) RC structure designed following
the provisions of modern design codes is carried
out using the framework developed by Ahmad in
2011 using which he derived the vulnerability
curves for low-rise (LR) and mid-rise (MR) RC
structures which were not designed according to
modern codes.
337
High Temperature Performance of Reverse Channel Connections to Open

Section Columns.
Tomás Ó Loingsigh
Candidate MSc (Eng) Structural
ABSTRACT The implementation of reverse channel connections in steel or composite buildings is a relatively
new idea. At present, research is ongoing in a number of different institutions including the University of
Sheffield on the robustness of this type of connection when subjected to elevated temperatures. From the initial
analysis carried out by the COMPFIRE Department at the University of Sheffield, the failure mode experienced
at elevated temperatures of this connection, was controlled by the connection itself, where the bolts punched
through the connection. This paper investigates the effects of a reverse channel connection to open section
columns in terms of it ductility, strength and stiffness through experimental testing. In addition, it compares the
experimental results with existing literature and a component-based model. The joint specimens were constructed
in the Structures Laboratory at the University of Sheffield. Three tests were performed with the same universal
column, beam and bolts dimensions. The reverse channel connections utilized, varied in width and thickness
from 250mm x 8mm, 200mm x 6.3mm to 180 mm x 6.3mm. Specimens were assembled and tested within an
electronically heated oven, where they were subjected to a combination of load and temperature for a number of
hours until failure occurred. The data processed from the computer software allowed the effects of displacement,
the load increments and the resulting magnitude of rotations to be studied. Additionally the use of digital cameras
and image processing software provided conformation of the results. The results of this experiment indicated that
reverse channel connections provide a suitable alternative to the standard connections adapted in the steel
construction industry in term of their ductility when compared with existing data and the component-based
model.
1 INTRODUCTION The European design codes, currently consider that

steel connections, will heat up slower than beams and
Unforeseen fire in buildings causes thousands of
columns in fire situations. Therefore, connections are
deaths and structural damage to buildings each year.
less likely to be the critical components in fire
The severity of this constant threat has increased due
resistance, due to additional materials such as bolts,
to the demands of modern society for larger and taller
plates and angles. However, recent evidence from the
structures to accommodate people. For this reason,
collapse of the World Trade Centre (FEMA, 2002)
although it is a relatively new field of study, the
suggests that connections may often be the weakest
research and development of fire engineering is
component of a steel structure in fire conditions.
increasing at a rapid rate. There exists no such
method to completely eliminate the risk of fire from Recently the University of Sheffield has been in
occurrence but through efficient design and the collaboration with other institutions investigating the
investigation and development of material properties behaviour of steel joints at ambient and elevated
and structural component‟s behaviour, the impact of a temperatures. Dr. Shan-Shan Huang has investigated
fire on a structure can be reduced. the performance of a reverse channel connection to
composite columns in the paper titled „Elevated
Despite numerous clear advantages of steel frame
temperature tests on steel joints to composite
construction, structural steels have always suffered
columns‟ (Huang et al., 2011). From this it was
from an inherent susceptibility to high temperatures.
found, that the reverse channel connection provides
All metals are susceptible to loss of strength and
more ductility than the standard simple connections
stiffness when heated, although due to the different
adapted within the UK construction industry.
mechanical properties of each metal, the rate of
degradation varies from metal to metal.
338
2 TESTING ARRANGEMNETS digital cameras. This process was adapted for this
experiment. To ensure that the digital images were of
2.1 Furnace and Specimen Setup
the best quality possible, extra lighting was provided.
The experiments were performed in an To minimise the risk of overheating the digital
electronically heated oven with an internal volume of cameras, fans were used to keep the equipment cool.
1.0m3 at the University of Sheffield. Steady state Strain gauges located on the bars placed outside of
temperature testing was undertaken within this the furnace determined the loading applied. At
furnace. The temperatures for the specimen were elevated temperatures, the loading was determined by
recorded using thermocouples. The specimen was equilibrium of forces of the bars, by an inclinometer
then loaded (under displacement control) at constant and double-checked by a digital camera. Figure 2
temperature of 550⁰ until fracture occurred. The load illustrates this process.
is applied through three Macalloy bars with a
diameter of 25.5 mm and grade 1030. One bar
referred to as the oven bar is pin connected to the 2.3 Details of Specimen
beam section. The second bar referred to as the link
Figure 3 illustrate the geometry of the test
bar, is pin connected to the reaction frame whereas
specimen.
the third bar referred to as the jack bar, is connected
to the displacement controlled loading jack which
provides the angle of inclination for the loading.
The angle of inclination α between the oven bar
and the axis of the beam determines the ratio of the
shear and tensile forces applied to the connection.
The angle chosen for the set of experiments was 55⁰
due to the
fact that
this angle
gives the
lowest
failure
load and
thus Figure 3 – Specimen Detail
minimises
the risk of All column sections utilized during the experiments
damaging are 254x254x89 universal column section in S355
the grade steel. The beams sections utilized, consist of
loading 305x165x40 universal beam sections from S275
system. grade steel. The reverse channel connections varied
(Hu et al., in width, from 250mm, to 200mm and 180 mm. All
2009). Figure 1 – Experimental Layout sections were designed in accordance with the Euro
Code.
2.2 Instrumentation
3. COMPONENT BASED MODEL
Due to the difficulties determining the
deformations of the specimens at high temperatures in 3.1 Introduction
previous experiments, recognition software which The component method consists of modelling the
processes joint as an extension of springs and rigid links
images from a whereby the components of the joint are expressed as
digital camera springs and represent the structural properties of the
and measures components. The component method may be utilized
deformations to predict the joint‟s behaviour at both ambient and
was developed elevated temperatures. The University of Sheffield
by Spyrou and and the University of Cumbria are in collaboration to
Davison (2001) develop a component-based model of the reverse
refer to figure 1. channel connection at elevated temperatures. From
Each specimen their initial investigations and according to the Euro
was marked and Code CEN (2005b), figure 4 represents the active
the movement of Figure 2 – Measurement of Load components identified and figure 5 represents the
these marks was Bar Alignment active components as a formation of springs and
observed by the links.
339
Figure 4 – Active Components of Joint
Figure 5 – Spring Model of Joint
The Euro Code CEN (2005b) provides detailed where [ E s ] , [t c ] , [ ] , [C ] , and [L] are the
calculations for basic active components of a joint at
Young‟s Modulus (N/mm), thickness of the reverse
ambient temperature. It also includes reduction
channel connection (mm), Poisson‟s Ratio, a
factors for these basic components at elevated
calibrated coefficient assumed as 0.18 and the width
temperatures. This method was adapted for the
of the reverse channel (mm) respectively.
component based modelling of the joint and therefore
only the reverse channel component itself will be
discussed within the scope of this paper.
3.3 Reverse Channel in Transverse Bending
The method adapted to determine the reverse
3.2 Initial Stiffness of Reverse Channel channel in transverse bending, is based on the
determination of the tying capacity of the tubular
A.Y Elghazouli et al. (2009) developed an
columns in accordance with the Green Book on
equation for the stiffness of the face of a square
Simple Connections (SCI/BCSA, 1995). The reverse
hollow section column. This equation can be adapted
channel connections utilised in the experiments, are
to determine the stiffness of a reverse channel
fabricated from SHS column sections, thus this
connection, which is produced from tubular columns.
approach for determination of a linear elastic
representation of the tension and compression
components, was deemed suitable.
(1)
(2)
340
(3)
(4)
(5)
where [T .C.] , [ M u ] , [B] , [n] , [ Dh ] , [t w ] , [g ] and

[ p] are the tying capacity (N), moment capacity of
Figure 7 – 200mm Reverse Channel Failure Mode
reverse channel (Nmm), is the width of the reverse
channel (mm), number of bolts, bolt hole diameter
(mm), thickness of reverse channel (mm), vertical
depth between bolt holes (mm) and horizontal depth
between bolt holes (mm) respectively.
4 RESULTS AND DISSCUSSIONS

4.1 Experimental Results
The failure mode experienced within the reverse
channel connections was as expected controlled by
the reverse channel connection and the bolts, where
the bolts punched through the connection. The
reverse channel was identified as the weakest
component of the joint based on design calculation
from the Green Book with tying resistance of 76kN,
58kN and 67kN respectively. This failure mode Figure 8 – 180mm Reverse Channel Failure Mode
occurred at very large rotations with noticeable
deformations of the boltholes in the connection. In all It should be noted here that the maximum capacity
three cases, the web of the reverse channel was pulled in terms of its ductility, of the 250 mm reverse
outwards on top and compressed at the bottom. The channel could not be reached in this testing, due to
flanges of the reverse channel remained relatively the risk of failure to the instrumentation.
straight; however, they were subjected to inward
movement due to the deformation of the web. Refer The test results are summarised in table 1 for each
to figures 6-8. connection tested.
Test R.C Temp Initial Final Force Rot

No. (mm) (⁰C) α (⁰) α (⁰) (kN) (⁰)
1 250 550 52.01 29.44 132.6 20.0
2 200 550 49.53 21.79 168.8 20.6
3 180 550 49.2 22.69 131. 19.7
Table 1 – Results of Reverse Channel Connections
Figure 9 illustrates the force-rotation capacity of the

reverse channel connections tested.
Figure 6 – 250mm Reverse Channel Failure Mode
341
Figure 9– Force- Rotation of Reverse Channel Figure 10(c) – Component-Based Model Results
The geometry of the reverse channel connections, The figures illustrate an over estimation of the
clearly has an effect on the behaviour of the linear elastic region of the component based model.
connection at elevated temperatures. Initial the 180 This is observed in all plots due to the simplification
mm reverse channel connection has a greater applied when modelling at elevated temperatures to
retention of stiffness and strength that the other tested the Euro Code. The Euro-Code applies reduction
specimens before failure. factor for component modelling at elevated
temperature, which in turn does not reflect the true
The rotation capacity of the 250mm and 200mm
performance of the connection beyond it elastic zone.
reverse channels is greater than the 180 mm reverse
channel due to the fact that the column is allowed to
deform more hence increasing the ductility of the
4.3 Comparative Studies
overall joint.
In addition, the experimental results achieved, are
compared with similar testing performed on the
4.2 Component-Based Model Results commonly used simple connections at elevated
temperatures. Figure 11 illustrates the force-rotation
The models were developed on elastic- plastic
relationship of various connections tested at 550⁰C
analysis in accordance with the Euro Code. Figure 10
(a)-(c) illustrate the component based models and at a loading angle of 55⁰.
developed compared with the experiment results
achieved for a temperature of 550⁰C and a loading
angle of 55⁰.
Figure 10(a) – Component-Based Model Results
Figure 11 – Comparative Studies
The reverse channel connection provides more

ductility, strength and stiffness to a joint when
compared with other forms of simple connections
tested at 550⁰C and under a loading angle of 55⁰. The
reverse channel connection allows greater
deformations to occur within the joint at elevated
temperatures.
The robustness of the connection depends on the
tying resistance of the connection. In comparison
Figure 10(b) – Component-Based Model Results with the flush end plate connection, the ductility
342
induced by the reverse channel connections gave this fire, Part 1: Test and Finite Element Simulation.”
connection type 2.5 times more rotational capacity. In Engineering Structures 31(3): 651-663.
comparison with the web cleat connection, the
Spyrou, S. and Davison, J. B, (2001) “Displacement
ductility induced by the reverse channel connection
measurement in studies of steel T-stub connections”,
gave this connection type 1.5 times more rotational
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 57, pp.
capacity.
647-659.
CEN (2005b), “BS EN 1993-1-8-2005. Eurocode 3 :
5 CONCLUSIONS Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-8: Design of
Joints.” European Committee for Standardisation,
The main conclusions from this study are
Brussels.
summarized below:
Elghazouli, A.Y., Málaga-Chuquitaype, C., Castro,
J.M., and Orton, A.H. (2009), "Experimental
1. The reverse channel connection provides a very monotonic and cyclic behaviour of blind-bolted
high rotational capacity when compared with angle connections." Engineering Structures 31(11):
other simple connections at elevated 2540-2553.
temperatures. Additionally, the connection
SCI/BCSA, (1995), “Joints in Steel Construction,
achieves these large rotations without
Simple Connections.” The Steel Construction
compromising the ultimate strength of the
Institute / The British Constructional Steelwork
connection.
Association Limited. UK.
2. The ductility of the reverse channel connection
can be controlled by it geometry, in regards to
the positioning of the bolts and the width to
thickness ratio. By varying these dimensions, a
more ductile connection can be achieved.
3. The failure mode experience for the joint was
controlled by the reverse channel connection
itself, which underwent large deformations. To
ensure the achievement of this level of ductility,
the design of the bolts and welds should comply
with the Euro Code specifications for elevated
temperatures.
4. The component-based model gives an initial
prediction of the performance of the linear elastic
region of the connections but requires further
development to give a good prediction of the true
performance of the connection.
The study concludes that reverse channel

connections provide a greater retention of strength,
stiffness and ductility than that of other simple
connections when tested at elevated temperatures.
REFERENCES
FEMA (2002), “World Trade Centre, Building
Performance Study: Data Collection, Preliminary
Observations, and Recommendations.” Federal
Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC
and New York, USA.
Huang, S.S., Davison, J.B and Burgess, I. (2011),
“Elevated Temperature Tests on Joints to Composite
Columns.” EUROSTEEL, Budapest, Hungary.
Yu, H., Burgess, I.W., Davison, J.B. and Plank, R.J.
(2009), “Tying capacity of web cleat connections in
343
Finite Element Modelling of Full-height Nonstructural Partitions

when Accessing the Vibration Serviceability of Building Floors
Wilson Okaka
ABSTRACT Nonstructural components (such as raised access flooring, nonstructural partitions, fittings and furniture) are
known to significantly affect the dynamic characteristics of structural floors. However, current methods and guidelines on vibration
serviceability of floors do not take account of the contribution of these components as there are presently no standardised
procedures for their efficient mathematical modelling. This paper presents a finite-element investigation of the effects of full
height nonstructural partitions on vibration serviceability of a real life hospital floor using ANSYS computer software so as to
propose suitable techniques for modelling full-height partitions. Four FE models A, B, C and D of the tested area of a real life
hospital floor were developed using four different techniques for modelling the brick wall partitions. The results of modal analysis
on each FE model shows that the inclusion of full height partition significantly improved the correlation of predicted mode shapes
with actual test result, but the extent of correlation of modes varied with the techniques employed for modelling partitions.
Following the results of response analysis performed according to Arup‟s methodology and transient analysis performed using
Matlab, it was concluded that modelling partitions with ANSYS SHELL63 elements and grillage of BEAM4 elements provides a
better prediction of the actual floor response to human excitation. Overall, the investigation reveals that the best methods of
modelling partitions are those which introduce both bending and axial stiffness to the floor which is the true effect of full-height
partition.
1 INTRODUCTION mechanism, however the relative contribution of each of

Nonstructural partitions are integral component of these structural parameters to the overall response is yet
modern residential and commercial buildings, especially to be fully understood. The modal mass controls the
framed buildings. They are employed in optimizing the magnitude of the acceleration contributed by that mode.
available floor space in buildings and also to solve noise Low modal mass results in huge response of building
problems that may exist during the usage of the building. floors. Stiffness on the other hand directly affects the
Interestingly, it has been reported that nonstructural floor‟s natural frequency. Damping is the least understood
components such as partition walls, external walls, raised parameter and design guidelines only provide
access flooring, finishes, and suspended ceiling do affect recommended values based on experience and the type of
the dynamic properties of a structural floors, although floor finishing. Several recent studies point to the fact that
how much they alter the dynamic properties and how to the only main option for a designer to effectively
effectively include them in FE models is still being minimize objectionable vibrations in building floors is by
researched [2]. Current methods and guidelines on increasing stiffness and damping. Interestingly, these
vibration serviceability of floors do not take account of effects may be introduced into the floor system by full-
the contribution of nonstructural components as there is height non-structural partitions, and therefore adequate
presently insufficient knowledge and skill about their knowledge of how to account for them in FE model of
efficient mathematical modelling. Moreover, the most building floor is invaluable.
recent design guideline on vibration serviceability of post- Most often, real life building floor are complex in
tensioned concrete floor (CSTR43, 2005), regarding FE terms of their structural layout, geometry, and
modelling stated that “Nonstructural elements, such as construction materials, as such simplified hand
facade walls and partitions can contribute significantly to calculations becomes inadequate for predicting their
the stiffness of a floor, and can be modelled if sufficient dynamic behaviour under human excitation. The most
information about them exist”[3]. recent approach for dealing with such complex structural
It is an established fact that the response of structural floors is based on finite element modelling and analysis
systems to any form of excitation is governed by its mass, coupled with modal testing of the as-built structural
stiffness, and damping as well as the excitation system [4]. Finite Element (FE) modelling is a computer
344
based approach which demands the use of best divided into a number of partitioned offices, corridor, and
engineering judgment in modelling boundary conditions theatre by nonstructural partitions. The nonstructural
and anticipation of the interaction between the elements were of two types; brick wall partitions and
components of the floor system during excitation. It plaster boards. There were four void areas on the floor,
allows for use of sensitivity analysis to investigate the accommodating the stair cases and lifts (Figure 1).
contributions of the various structural parameters and
elements on the floor dynamic response. Following the
enormous benefits of computer based FE analysis, it is the
most employed technique in vibration engineering
research and will be used in this investigation [1].
There are a few literatures regarding FE modelling of
partitions. In many researches on the effects of non-
structural components, results of experimental modal
analysis (EMA) of real-life floors are used in updating the
FE model in order to establish a level of accuracy of the
FE methods. Experimental results on post-tensioned
concrete floor by Falati (1999) reveals that partitions
could add stiffness and damping, the degree of which
depends on how the partition is oriented with the mode
shapes. In 2009, Z. Miskovic, A. Pavic and P. Reynolds
in their in-depth investigation of the “effects of full-height
non structural partitions on modal properties of two Figure 1: Full scaled FE Model showing tested area of
nominally identical building floors” modelled brick wall the floor
partitions using ANSYS SHELL63 elements since they Table 1: Section properties of Structural Elements of the
anticipated additional bending and axial stiffness from floor
partitions and modelled glass and plasterboard partitions Element
using vertically arranged BEAM4 elements because they Section Ixx Iyy Area D
ID 4 4 2
anticipated that these types of partition introduces only cm cm cm
cm
axial stiffness [3]. They concluded that the inclusion of
full-height partitions improved the results of the initial Beam- 300x100x8RHS 6305 1078 60.8 300
bare floor FE model. However, Mehdi Setareh (2010) in B1

his study on vibration serviceability of building floor
Beam- 300 ASB 185 3570 8750 235 320
structure modelled partitions using spring elements in
B2 0
SAP2000 computer software and concluded that there
was no significant increase in stiffness and damping with Column- 254x254x107 1751 5928 136 266.
partitions [1]. It is the writer‟s opinion that the variation C 0 7
in these results could be traced to the methods employed
in modelling the partitions. Therefore, the need for further
investigation on the best modelling technique for non- 2. METHODOLOGY
structural partitions cannot be overemphasized. This paper explains the results of using four different FE
techniques (corresponding to four FE models A, B, C and
1.1 Description of the Structure: D) for modelling full-height partitions in the tested area of
A FE model of a real life hospital floor was developed a real life hospital floor. Each of these models was
using commercially available software ANSYS 12.1. subjected to modal analysis, response analysis and time
The floor of interest is located on the third level (level C) domain analysis in order to access the accuracy of the
of the hospital building which is an extension of an methods in predicting the actual behaviour (in terms
existing structure. The building floor is composed of natural frequencies, mode shapes, response factors and
precast concrete-steel composite slab, supported by steel damping) of the building floor. Following manual model
columns in rectangular grids of different dimensions. The updating of the four FE models their results of modal,
layout of the floor has overall dimensions of 45.49m x response and transient analysis were compared with the
30.25m. The floor beams around the perimeter of the bare floor model in order to investigate the effect of
building were type-B2 (Table 1) while the interior beams including partitions in the accuracy of predicting the
were of type-B1 (Table 1). The average depth of the slab vibration serviceability of floors.
above the secondary beams is 150mm. The floor is
345
Due to complexity of geometry of the floor, a simplified Appendix G of CSTR43, the base level acceleration is
equivalent FE model of the tested area of the floor was taken as 0.005m/s2.
used in the investigation. However, importantly, the
simplified FE model was first matched with a full scale
FE model and actual tested results. The simplified model
proved equivalent and reliable.
............................................................................................................(3)
2.1 CRITERIA FOR FE CORRELATION OF THE
FE MODELS
It was important to establish a basis for comparing the 2.2 MODELLING TECHNIQUES FOR FULL-
predicted natural frequencies and mode shapes, vibration HEIGHT PARTITION WALLS:
response and damping of each FE model with the test
results. The following criteria were employed for this (i) FE Model A : In this model, brick wall partitions
purpose; were modelled using ANSYS BEAM4 elements spaced at
(i) Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC): MAC is a 0.5m intervals along the path of the partitions (Figure 2).
useful parameter for computing the extent of deviation This concept is based on the ideology that non-structural
between any two dynamic systems. It is normally used to partitions add only axial stiffness to the floor together
compare mode shapes obtained from FE models with with their additional mass. The stiffness per 0.5m width of
those derived experimentally. The MAC between an FE partition wall was computed to be 83.5x106N/m.
derived mode, øfj and a measured mode, ømk is defined
as;
..................(1)
Due to non availability of the measured modes shape Figure 2: Schematic of modelling brick wall partitions
values, the FE correlation between predicted and using ANSYS BEAM4 elements (Model A).
measured mode shapes was based on visual estimation of
(ii) FE Model B: This model utilized ANSYS
the MAC values of the matching modes. MAC value of 1
COMBIN14 elements for modelling the brick partitions.
means that the mode shapes are exactly identical while a
COMBIN14 is a massless spring element which has a
MAC value of 0 signifies non-correlated mode shapes.
damping characteristics. Since brick partitions are able to
The total MAC values for the first five matching mode
increase the floor natural damping the use of COMBIN14
were compared for each FE Model.
provides the means of specifying the estimated damping
(ii) Method of Least Square Residuals: This and the right axial stiffness. The COMBIN14 elements
mathematical concept requires that the sum of the squared were connected to the nodes with 0.5m spacing along the
differences between known points and predicted points be path of the walls (Figure 3). As in the case of Model A,
minimised for best correlation. This method was used in the same computed stiffness per 0.5m width of partitions
estimating the level of accuracy of the models in was specified in the model
predicting the natural frequency of the floors. The lower
the calculated residual the better the level of correlation
of the data with test result.
Equation 1
`Residual, ………………………..2
Where, = the difference between

corresponding values in the set. Figure 3: Schematic of modelling brick wall partitions
(iii) Response Factor (R): This is a measure of the using ANSYS COMBIN14 elements (Model B).
level of discomfort that will be perceived by a human (iii) FE Model C: In this model, using engineering
during vibration of a floor they are in contact with It is a judgement, ANSYS SHELL63 elements were used to
multiplier on the level of vibration at the average model the full-height brick wall partitions. The elements
threshold of human perception [5]. According to were restrained from vertical movements and as such they
346
are expected to exert additional bending and axial  Layout floor geometry using keypoints in
stiffness on the bare floor. Following the approach of a accordance with structural drawings
recent research by A. Pavic, et al (2009), in order not to  Create “Lines” and “Areas” by joining the
introduce non existing (excessive) stiffness on the floor, keypoints.
the actual dimensions of the brick wall partitions were not
 Define material properties and real constants for
used in the model, and also the young‟s modulus was each element type to be used.
reduced to 10Gpa, starting value. It is important to note
that the capability of the SHELL63 elements to translate  Assign element types and real constants the
created Lines and Areas and mesh of all
in the direction perpendicular to their plane was
elements into specific size or number
suppressed. This was necessary to avoid false modes that
results from deformation of the partitions horizontally  Apply constraints in nodes at boundaries and
rather than the engaging the floor. supports
 Specify analysis type and execute solve
(iv) FE Model D: In the models A and B, the action of
command
the partitions was limited to specific nodes of the floor
along the partition paths. This seems not to be the true  Extract results of natural frequencies and mode
action of partitions as they are continuous along their shapes.
paths except in doors locations. Also, in real structures 3. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
there is usually a small gap between the ends of full height RESULTS
partitions and the floor above. This gap allows for vertical This section presents the results of modal analysis,
movement of wall partitions during vibration of floors. In response analysis (using Arup‟s methodology) and
an attempt to account of continuous nature of partitions transient analysis of each FE model.
along their path and the possibility of their vertical 3.1 Modal Analysis Results: The purpose of modal
movement, the grillage concept was employed. analysis is to extract natural frequencies and mode shapes
In this model, BEAM4 elements were used as floor beams of the floor. A comparison of the predicted mode shapes
which are linked to vertical beams (also BEAM4) located and the measured in terms of their total estimated MAC
at the ends of the partition walls (Figure 4). It was values for the first five matching modes is provided in
anticipated that the floor beams are likely to increase the figure 6. In general, there was considerable improvement
bending stiffness of the slab, so the bending stiffness was in correlation of mode shapes with test results when
tuned to be the exact value of the earlier calculated axial partitions was included. However, the extent of
stiffness. All nodes at the top beam were restrained in correlation varied across the FE models. It was noticed
both horizontal and vertical directions to replicate the that model C (SHELL63 partitions) did show the least
connection of real partitions to the floor above. This also correlation in terms of mode shapes. A possible reason for
enhanced the frame action of the grillage. The mass of the this is the fact that the vertical movement of the partitions
wall was included in the density of the slab. were suppressed completely which is not the true
behaviour of real life partitions. There is always some
minute space between partitions and the floor above them
that permits vertical movement during vibration of floors.
Figure 4: Schematic of modelling brick wall partitions

using grillage of BEAM4 elements (Model D).
(v) Initial bare Floor FE Model: An initial FE
model of the tested area without partitions was developed
according to the structural layout of the floor. This model Figure 5: Comparison of Least Square Residual values of
did not feature non structural partitions and according to the natural frequencies of the first five matching modes of
usual engineering practice the unit weight of the floor the FE models
included the mass of non-structural elements. The points From the list of natural frequencies shown in table 2, it is
below summarises the steps in creating the initial FE observed that the Model D overestimated the natural
model using ANSYS computer software;
347
frequencies in all modes listed, which is the consequence
of excessive stiffness introduced by the frame action of 3.2 Response Analysis Result: Modal analysis is not
the grillage beams used in modelling the partitions. It was sufficient for investigating the effect of non-structural
recalled that there was a high level of complexity in the elements [5]; the dynamic response of the floor to human
manual model updating process for Model D. The activities still needs to be investigated for the floor with
modelling parameters relating to the vertical members, and without partitions. The test result on the hospital floor
ground beams and top beams of the frame influenced the recorded a maximum response factor of 1.16 in one of the
level of stiffness introduced by the grillage which in turn corridors during a pacing frequency of 2.4Hz. This will
affects the predicted natural frequency. More serve as the bench mark for comparison of all the FE
investigation needs to be carried out in this aspect. models. In order to eliminate procedural variances, the
widely used Arup‟s methodology was employed in
computing the response factor at every node of the floor.
Following the plot of the maximum response factors at
different pacing frequency (Figure 7), it is seen that up to
2.2Hz pacing frequency, models C and D predicted a
maximum response factor of less than 1.16Hz which is in
similitude with the test result. However there was up to
12.9% and 200% overestimation of the response at 2.4Hz
pacing frequency in model C and model D respectively. It
is however obvious that this was resonant response due to
the fourth harmonic of the walking force in both models.
Models A and B as well as the bare floor model
overestimated the floor response in almost all frequencies
considered (Figure 7). The possible reason for this is the
Figure 6: Comparison of total MAC values of the first absence of additional bending stiffness from the partition
five matching modes of the FE models elements. This result further buttresses the fact that
From figure 5, it is observed that model C gave the best modelling partitions using ANSYS elements that
correlation in terms of natural frequency for the first five introduce both bending and axial stiffness better predicts
matching modes. This suggests that ANSYS SHELL63 of the actual floor behaviour.
element is suitable for modelling brick wall partitions.
The next most correlated result in figure 5 is Model D in
which partitions were modelled with grillage of BEAM4
elements.. From this trend, it can be concluded that the
best methods for modelling partitions are those that
introduces both bending and axial stiffness as this
reflects the continuous nature of real partitions across
their path. However the challenge is to balance these two
types of stiffness during the model updating process.
From figure 5 it is very clear that the bare floor model
least correlated in terms of predicting natural frequency.
Table 2: List of measured and predicted natural
frequencies of the first five matching modes in the various Figure 7: A plot of maximum response factors versus
FE models pacing frequecy for the FE models
In general, from figure 8 below, it appears that up to 80%
floor area exhibited response factors below 0.5 and less
than 3% area had response factor greater than 2 in all the
floor models. This indicates that relying on the maximum
recorded response factor on a floor may sometimes be
misleading to the designer. Further attempt should be
made to investigate the critical areas that are of interest.
For Models A and B, up to 3% of the floor area exceeded
„‟R‟‟ value of 2. In fact there is so much resemblance in
348
the distribution of “R” values in these two FE models. 4 CONCLUSIONS
This shows that modelling partitions using vertically In this paper, four FE modelling techniques have been
arranged BEAM4 elements or COMBIN 14 elements explored in the investigation of the effect of full-height
results in about the same effect on floor response non structural partitions on vibration serviceability of the
prediction as long as the same axial stiffness is used in tested area of a real life floor. The investigation reveals
both methods. The bare floor model had up to 8% area that the method employed for modelling partition is a
exceeding “R” value of 2.0 . In all, it is convincing that critical factor in the accuracy of prediction of the modal
the inclusion of partitions reduces the response of floors properties and response factors of building floors. In
to human induced vibrations while improving the general, it be concluded that the inclusion of full height
accuracy of prediction of floor response to human partitions in the FE model of a building floor results in a
induced excitation. better prediction of the floor dynamic properties as well
as their level of vibration serviceability.
A grillage of BEAM4 ANSYS elements could be used for
modelling partitions if the additional stiffness from the
frame action can be accurately predicted. The use of
SHELL63 elements gives a good prediction of the floor
natural frequency but may not accurately predict the mode
shapes. Further research on the grillage concept technique
is recommended. It is likely that there be a correlation
between the mode shapes and the distribution of response
factors across the floor, this area may be researched in
Figure 8: A chart comparing the distribution of ranges of
due course. Finally, it can be inferred from the results of
response factors versus percentage area of the floor.
this work that the best methods of modelling partitions are
those that introduces additional bending and axial
3.3 Transient Analysis Results: The purpose of
stiffness on the floor; however the actual section
performing transient analysis was to generate a time
properties of the partition elements needs to be accurately
history response of a point on the floor from which
known.
damping could be estimated. In this light, a 250N
sinusoidal forcing function at 2Hz which is representative ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of walking human force was applied at a particular node The author wish to express his sincere gratitude to
in the FE models. This analysis was performed in Matlab. Professor Aleksandar Pavic of the Vibration Engineering
The transient acceleration response for 20 seconds was section of the University of Sheffield, UK, whose advice
plotted for the first two modes of vibration from which and guidance made this paper a reality.
modal damping ratio was estimated for each of the FE
models. Comparison of the calculated damping ratios REFERENCES
(Figure 9) reveals that the inclusion of partitions 1. Mehdi Setarah, (2010). Vibration Serviceability of
increased the floor damping by up to 6% in mode 1 and Building Floor Structure 1: Dynamic Testing and
19% in mode 2 compared with the bare floor FE model . Computer Modeling, Journal of Performance of
An average damping of 6% was recorded in the FE Constructed Facilities, Vol. 24, No. 6.
models with partitions. 2. Middleton C.J., Brownjohn J.M.W., 2009.
Response of high frequency floors: A literature
review.
3. Pavic, A., and Willford M.R. (2005). Appendix G:
Vibration serviceability of post-tensioned concrete
floors. In: Post-tensioned concrete floors design
handbook. Slough (UK): Concrete Society, p.
99_107.
4. Z. Miskovic, A. Pavic, and P. Reynolds, (2009).
Effects of full-height nonstructural partitions on
modal Properties of two nominally identical
building floors, NRC research Press.
5. Wilford M. and Young P., 2006, A Design Guide
for Footfall induced Vibration of Structures. The
Figure 9: A chart comparing the modal damping ratios of
concrete centre.
modes 1 and 2 in the various FE models
349
Mechanisms of Progressive Collapse of Buildings Attacked by Fire

Emre OZYURT
Candidate MSc (Eng) Steel Construction
ABSTRACT The purpose of this project is to investigate the behaviour of progressive collapse of
steel framed structure subject to fire. In order to examine the mechanisms of steel structures at elevated
temperatures, a 2D model was used with two different bracing systems (X and inverted-V) in two
different locations (side and hat) under fire conditions. The braced frames, which were analysed under
gravity loads according to Eurocode 3 (seismic and impact loads were ignored in this research), are
regular, pinned connections, five spanned and four storied. Testing full-scale is not reasonable because
of the high implicit cost and complexness of calculations. As a consequence of that, the software
Vulcan has been used during thermal analysis. From the results, it is clear that the progressive collapse
resistance of X braced frames can be quite higher compared to inverted-V case studies in terms of fire
resistance and load redistributions. Moreover, the analysis results have shown that the progressive
collapse resistance of a gravity load resisting frame in fire can be significantly enhanced by using brace
members, which can possibly prevent progressive collapse by providing to redistribute loads from the
failed column to adjacent supporters.
critical members of structure are lost their ability

1 INTRODUCTION
to withstand under dynamic loads, is still need to
Structural engineers have an important be investigated and this research is focused on
responsibility to face fire safety into their the predicting the behaviour of steel braced
building design so as to reduce the risk of global frames in such events.
collapse. After the catastrophic collapse of two
Testing full-scale is not reasonable because
World Trade Center in New York City, the
of the high implicit cost and complexness of
understanding the reasons of progressive
calculations. As a consequence of that, the
collapse has been become more important due to
software Vulcan, which is a powerful tool to
the devastating failure and loss of life, especially
investigate the mechanism of both local and
for high-rise buildings under fire conditions or
global progressive collapse of the structures in
explosion. Because of that it is important to
fire, has been used during the analysis.
understand the behaviour of buildings in such
events.
2 MODELLING OF STEEL BRACED
Progressive collapse takes place when the
STRUCTURES
key members of the structure are damaged due to
fire or impact loads, such as explosion, 2.1 Design Parameters
earthquake or terrorist attacks. In such events,
The model has been created for a four-storey
the residual structural elements are subject to
(the height of columns=3.6m) building that
carry further loads from damaged part of the
consists of five bays (each span is 6m). The
structure. Consequently, an entire structure or a
analysed frames are regular, pinned connections.
disproportionately large part of it may fail when
Applied loads are assumed to be determined
residual elements cannot be able to withstand
according to Eurocode 3[2]. Load intensity is
these unexpected loads when those loads are
vertically w= 40 kN/m on floor and roof
greater than the capacities of supporters[1].
members. There is no seismic load or blast
According to the preliminary research the impact loads. The material properties of steel
understanding of behaviour of high-rise steel frames were chosen as shown below in Table
buildings in fire has studied with more detailed 2.1.
during the last three decades. However, the
mechanisms of progressive collapse, when
350
Yield strength of
structural steel at 275 N/m2
20oC
Young's modul of
210 000
structural steel at
N/m2
20°C
Poisson's ratio of
structural steel at 0.3
20°C
Table 2.1: Material Properties (a) Hat Inverted V Braces
Design of the building is based on Eurocode

3 and the chosen sections are listed in Table 2.2.
Universal Beam, Universal Column and Hollow
sections of S235 steel grade were used for steel
frames.
Frames Sections
(b) Hat X Braces
Beams UB 356×171×57
External First Floor UC 203×203×60

Columns
External Second and UC 203×203×46
Third Floor Columns
External Fourth Floor UC 152×152×37
Columns
Internal First Floor UC 254×254×73 (c) Side Inverted V Braces
Columns
Internal Second and UC 203×203×71
Third Floor Columns
Internal Fourth Floor UC 203×203×52
Columns
Braces For Case 1 H80×120×10

(d) Side X Braces
Figure 2.1 Configurations of various braced
Table 2.2: Material List frames
2.3 Computer Modelling
2.2 Configurations of Various Braced Frames A number of assumptions were made so as to
develop the model structure. These idealisations
Four different types of locally heated steel
concern the geometry of the frames and the line
braced frames were studied in order to
loads on the beams. A 2D model of the frame
investigate the failure mechanisms of such
performed with the aim of SAP2000 under static
structures. The first floors of the structures were
loads.
heated with different fire scenarios according to
parametric fire curves. Symmetrical frames were As for thermal analyse, all tests have been
chosen so as to reduce time of analyses and to carried out with the aid of software Vulcan,
ease complexness of computational calculations . which is based on non-linear dynamic procedure.
Vulcan provides both static and dynamic
analyses during the fire test. In other words,
351
static analysis can be used until the structure 2.5 Fire Scenarios
loses its stability due to buckled columns or
Two different fire scenarios were applied so
degrade the steel properties at elevated
as to understand the mechanisms of progressive
temperatures. Vulcan automatically switches
collapse of steel frames attacked by fire as
static analysis to dynamic analysis when the
shown in Figure 2.3. In this study, fire
instability happened. If the residual structural
compartments were integrated in the middle and
elements compensate of distributed loads after
both sides of the frame for different fire
local collapsed occurred, the construction will
scenarios. Only columns and beams at first floor
re-stabilize and Vulcan will automatically
were heated while the residual structural
change static analysis again. That combined
elements were at ambient temperature. The
procedure will continue until the end of fire
locations of fire were the same for each of
analysis[3].
different frame system (X brace and inverted V
The criterion for switching on dynamic brace) in order to compare analyse results to
analysis depends on the kinetic energy of the understand how the bracing systems affect on
structure. If the kinetic energy significantly progressive collapse.
increases, the velocity of the structural
movement will become huge, as a result of that
dynamic analysis will be automatically activated
by Vulcan. That helps us to investigate the
robustness of structure with more accuracy after
local damaged takes place.
2.4 Thermal Analysis
There are two type of fire curves which are
known as standard and parametric fire curves.
This study focused on parametric fire curves
which give closer approach to a real fire more
than standard fire. A parametric fire curve
changes with the compartment size, fuel load,
ventilation conditions, as a consequence of that
predictions have more accuracy compared the
standard fire. Standard fire tests have some
disadvantages such as the physical limitations of
standard furnace, independent on ventilation and
boundary conditions [4].
Figure 2.2 illustrates the temperature curves Axis of symmetry
of compartment fires which was used in thermal
analysis. The steel temperatures change Figure 2.3 Locations of different fire
according to the section properties and structural compartments on half of the symmetrical steel
systems. As for hat braced steel frame, the frame
temperature of beam and column are slightly
higher when the compartment fire was assumed
to be placed in the middle of structure, rather 3 ANALYSIS OF STEEL BRACED
FRAMES
than both side of the structure.
The objective of this study is to analyse and
to summarise in order to investigate the
behaviour of the progressive collapse of side and
hat braced frames under fire conditions. Edge
(case1) and middle(case2) fire scenarios were
applied for both types of braces so that the
analysis results can be effectively compared in
terms of the load paths, failure modes and the
ultimate steel temperature. The other objectives
of this study are displacement of the heated
columns against rising temperature, axial loads
for beam, column and brace members, critical
temperatures and buckling failure modes for
each case. Finally, the analysis results have been
Figure 2.2 Time - Temperature curves of
compared to each other for a better
compartment fire
352
understanding the progressive collapse of temperature than inverted-V braced frame and
structures. there were only local failure. The heated
columns of inverted-V frame were more
3.1 Influence of Bracing Sections
vulnerable than X brace frame in this case study.
The lateral support plays a significant role in
50
order to prevent progressive collapse. The
progressive collapse resistance of inverted-V hat
Displacement (mm)
0
braced frames using different bracing sizes have
been studied under fire conditions. Three bracing
-50
sections of H80×120×10, H100×150×10 and
H100×200×10 were employed. The most critical Inverted-V Brace
issue for vertical supporters is buckling in fire. -100
X Brace
And another important point is the load
redistribution so as to prevent from progressive -150
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
collapse after some key members of the structure
Temperature ( oC)
fail.
Figure 3.1: Comparison of the vertical
It is clear from the analysis results that the displacements at the top of the exterior column
bigger bracing sections can provide the frame to for case1
stand up longer time at high temperature and to
considerably rise buckling temperature of the Figure 3.2 illustrates the distribution of loads
heated columns which is the reason of the failure for vertical supporting members in the case of X
of entire models. For example, the critical braced system. It is clear from the graph below
temperature of the heated columns in the case of that the loads redistributed to surrounding
middle fire increased from 648 oC to 716 oC members for each floor, but the bracing sections
when the bracing sections of H80×120×10 and were buckled and behave non-ductile under large
H100×200×10 were used respectively. axial forces, as a result of that the bracing system
was not able to suspend the columns in the
In the case of edge fire, hat truss members
middle span.
were buckled under compression forces when the
local failure occurred as a result of that, load
redistribution was not successful. Hence, the
frame fell into instability in the end of fire
analysis. However, the ultimate temperature of
the frame was enhanced by using bigger bracing
sections.
Consequently, the analysis results have
shown that the progressive collapse resistance of
a gravity load resisting frame in fire can be
significantly enhanced by using brace members,
which can possibly prevent progressive collapse
by providing to redistribute loads from the failed Figure 3.2: Comparison of the axial forces in the
column to adjacent supporters. first floor columns versus temperature for case 2
3.2 Analysis of Hat Braced Frames
For each of the four cases, the buckling mode
X and inverted-V hat braced frames have
shapes of the specified columns were carried out.
been analysed under fire conditions. The
According to those failure shapes, X braced
displacement at the top of specified columns for
system was less vulnerable on the progressive
X and inverted-V brace under edge fire case are
collapse in fire. For example, there was a large
shown in Figure 3.1.
deflection on the only heated beam in the edge
In the thermal analysis, the higher critical fire scenario, while other members were able to
temperatures of heated columns belong to X successfully resist abnormal loads from the
brace system. The maximum steel temperature of heated members. On the other hand, the local
column 1 and 2 were found 596 oC and593 oC failure propagated up the frame in the case of V
respectively, while they were 637 oC and 639 oC braced frames, the structure, therefore, deform
for X brace. Not only had the columns for largely and globally.
inverted-V brace case the lower temperature, but
The analysis results have shown that the
also they were buckled and failure took place. It
progressive collapse resistance of a gravity load
is interesting to note that the ultimate
resisting frame in fire can be significantly
temperature for X braced frame reached higher
enhanced by using hat X braced frame, which
353
can possibly prevents progressive collapse by
providing to redistribute loads from the failed
column to adjacent supporters.
3.3 Analysis of Side Braced Frames
X and inverted-V side braced frames have
been analysed under fire conditions. The
displacement at the top of specified columns for
X and inverted-V brace under middle fire case
are shown in Figure 3.3.
It can be seen from the graph that there were
ignorable displacements for two different frames
and all parametric fire curve was completed Figure 3.4 Failure Shapes of Braced Frames for
which shows that the frames did not lose case 1
stability. Therefore, the structures were capable
to resist fire and to prevent from global collapse. In the case of inverted-V braced frame, the
failure took place due to the exterior column.
10
The heated beam pulled inward edge column
quite largely with tension forces. Consequently,
0
upper edge column progressively fell down after
Displacement (mm)
the failure of the edge column. However, there

-10
was no serious damage except the heated beam
and column1 for X braced frame. X brace
-20
members reduce the magnitude of tensile force in
the heated beam. Even though column 1
Inverted-V Brace horizontally deformed, which was considerably
-30
X Brace less than inverted-V case, it was still able to
carry loads. Therefore, upper edge columns were
-40
0 200 400 600 800 1000 not affected as much as inverted V braced frame.
Temperature ( oC)
Figure 3.3 The vertical displacements at the top 4 CONCLUSIONS

of the column C3 versus temperature for case2
4.1 Conclusions
In this research, the mechanisms of
After the expansion of the column, the progressive collapse of steel frames using
column reached the maximum temperature 890 different bracing types examined with the aid of
o
C and then slightly deformed downward. In the Finite Element software Vulcan. 2D steel braced
middle of the specified column, the horizontal frames analysed under two fire scenarios.
displacement reached to 64 mm in the end of the Different bracing systems were applied in order
fire text due to the degrading steel properties. to understand their behaviours under vertical
However, the heated beam failed because of the loads and fire compartments at different
large vertical displacement of 870 mm caused locations. Generally, structural failure involves
bending losing strength in fire. Hence, there was progressive stiffness degradation and strength
no seriously damaged for two case studies except deterioration under fire conditions. Structural
the beam at first floor in the middle span. materials display elastic and plastic behaviour
Failure stages for symmetrical half of the during the failure process. Also, external loads
frames were examined at different times of the change from static to dynamic when the structure
fire test. Figure 3.4 illustrates the last stage for falls into instability or vice versa.
each brace system at the end of edge fire test. In the case of using different bracing
Even though those frames were modelled and sections, frames can stand up longer time and
analysed by using the same material properties considerably rise buckling temperature as the
under a parametric fire, they have different section size increases. Even though the failure
failure mechanisms. One of them was able to stages at different times of fire exposure did not
stand up without falling into instability, while change, using bigger section provides stiffer
another frame seriously damaged throughout to lateral restraint which can help load
each floor in the edge span. redistribution. According to the results,
increasing the section size can efficiently transfer
354
loads from damaged part of the structure to shearing and axial force degradations in joints
adjacent member. can be carried out in the thermal analysis.
In order to understand the mechanisms of In order to verify the analyses results, which
progressive collapse, side and hat braced frames have been done by using software Vulcan, the
using X and inverted-V members were analysed experimental research for the purposed
under a parametric fire test. For each case study, progressive collapse can be done under real fire.
the critical temperature where the column Further research for design should take into
buckled due to the degradation of steel account interactions between abnormal loads and
properties and the axial force redistributions at other loadings, such as seismic loadings.
the end of fire analysis were examined. The
buckling temperature of hat braced frames was
quite higher when X brace was employed rather ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
than inverted-V brace system. Even though the
With grateful thanks all the lecturers of the
column buckled for X brace case, the frame did
University of Sheffield, especially to my
not lose stability and stand up at the end of the
supervisor Dr Zhaohui Huang for his invaluable
fire test. Moreover, the axial forces in vertical
feedback, support and guidance throughout the
supporters changed during the failure process
writing of this report.
due to stiffness degradation and strength
deterioration.
As for side braced case studies, the maximum REFERENCES
steel temperature did not change for X and V
brace systems, although the load redistributions
[1] Gilmour, J.R. & Virdi, K.S., “ Numerical
were different. Interestingly, there was no serious
Modelling of the Progressive Collapse of
damage on the X braced frame at the end of the
Framed Structures as a Result of Impact or
test, while the failure at first floor propagate up
Explosion”, 2nd Int. PhD symposium in Civil
the frame and eventually, the structure with V
Engineering, Budapest,1998.
brace system progressively collapsed. On the
other hand, side inverted V braced system under
[2] BSI (2005c), BS EN 1993-1-2:2005,
middle fire was able to resist fire and to prevent
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-
progressive collapse the same as X braced frame.
2: General Rules – Structural Fire Design,
The simulation results have shown that the 2005: European Committee for Standardization.
progressive collapse resistance of a gravity load
resisting frame in fire can be significantly [3] Sun, R., Huang, Z. and Burgess, I.,
enhanced by using X braced frame, which can “Progressive collapse analysis of steel structure
possibly prevents progressive collapse by under fire conditions”, Research Paper, 24
providing to redistribute loads from the failed January 2011.
column to adjacent supporters. Considering the
all case studies, side braced frames were [4] Collette, K.A.,”Comparisons of Structural
successfully absorb abnormal loads, while hat Design in Fire”,A Thesis, Fire Protection
braced frames fell into instability under middle Engineering, Worcester Polytechnıc
fire scenario. In the case of edge fire, X braced Institute,May 2007
frames redundant enough to carry vertical loads
after the heated columns buckled.
4.2 Recommendations
In this research, the symmetrical two-
dimensional steel frames were analysed due to
the limitation of the time. However, the
behaviour of unsymmetrical structures can be
carried out in order to investigate their behaviour
in fire.
Moreover, the influence of the connections
was not taken into account in this paper.
Therefore, rigid, semi-rigid and pin connections
can be investigated and analyses results can be
compared in order to see different behaviours
and contributions on the load redistributions in
fire after local failure takes place. Also, bending,
355
OPTIMUM DUCTILITY ASSESSMENT OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURES

Alexandros Papamichalopoulos
ABSTRACT Providing ductility into the structures according to the modern design codes, result into
more economic constructions, while safety is being ensured at higher rates. The philosophy is based into
allowing some damage to occur in predetermined elements where enough ductility has been provided in
order to ensure the member’s capacity during an earthquake. This research focuses on investigating
optimum ductility provisions for buildings to achieve the desired performance. The aim is to assess the
parameters which affect ductility demands and overall present a comprehensive methodology for
evaluating the structural performance. Analytical work was based on the comparison of two 4-storey
reinforced concrete buildings designed with high (DCH) and medium ductility (DCM) upon a strong rock
(soil type A). The main criteria for the comparison were: (i) the interstorey drifts, (ii) the energy
distribution among the floors, (iii) the structural damage in terms of plastic hinges initiation and ductility
demand rates, (iv) total energy dissipation and (v) top floor displacements.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 SEISMIC DESIGN PROCEDURES

The modern design approach allows some local The deterministic design philosophy for anti-
failure in pre-determined structural members to seismic design of buildings requires that the
occur during an earthquake event, where extra plastic hinges will develop in ductile reinforced
ductility has been provided. The formation of concrete structures and only in specific desirable
plastic hinges at these places enables the locations selected by the designer. In order to
dissipation of energy and re-distribution of ensure that the designed resistance of the structure
moments and forces. Contrary to the Classic will be maintained with negligible decay, it is of
design the energy released from the earthquake is high importance to perform correct detailing and
not totally transformed to kinetic energy of the provide appropriate confinement in the plastic
building and the structural response in terms of hinge regions [1].
lateral acceleration and shear forces is not as high. According to the modern design codes, the strong
Whilst the modern earthquake resistant column-weak beam system is preventing the
construction techniques through the correct creation of soft-storey mechanisms as it is shown
detailing, the design checks and limits is being in Figure 2.1, [1].
provided by the codes, there is not any clear
guidance for obtaining the optimum structural
performance. A high (DCH) and a medium
ductility class (DCM) multi-storey building has
been designed according to Eurocode8 in this
study, for assessing the importance of ductility
towards the structural optimization.
Fig. 2.1 Sway mechanisms in laterally loaded multistorey

frames,[1]
356
2.1 Philosophy of the capacity design ductility provided are small. Their responses are
rather stiff due to the small yield excursion under
For preventing the soft-storey mechanism depicted
the designed earthquakes. Main concerns are the
in Figure 2.1b the codes have introduced the
structural vulnerability to fragility which may arise
capacity design checks (Sum of column
in excessive ground motions. The low ductility
resistances > 1.3 sum of beam resistances for each
frames depict a worse performance, due to the
node), (Eurocode 8) [2].
crushing of concrete and buckling of the
2.2 Equivalent damping and hysteretic longitudinal bars at the bottom regions of the
energy columns from insufficient confining. The
hysteretic response of DCL is not usually
A stable manner of energy dissipation should be satisfactory, as pinching in the plastic hinges
ensured for seismic resistant structures. The occurs.
chosen mechanisms during the inelastic dynamic Medium ductility class structures usually behave
response should maintain reasonable high levels of in an intermediate manner. The medium ductility
load resistance in several large reversed cycles of class frames usually experience less damage with
inelastic displacements with minimum loss of no obvious signs of material failure. Although
stiffness after each cycle [1]. their satisfactory performance due to their reduced
One of the leading parameters optimizing the overall damage and good hysteretic behaviour,
seismic performance of ductile structures is the efforts to gain enhanced ductility for the same cost
hysteretic energy dissipation [3]. The equivalent should be encouraged [3].
damping coefficient and the hysteretic energy are Increasing the amount of confinement in the
important parameters steering to the strength critical regions of columns, improves the local
requirement for a target displacement under a performance and the overall ductility through the
specific earthquake. hysteretic behaviour and increased hysteretic
damping.
2.3 Detailing and confinement
Confinement increases the load carrying capacity
and strength of concrete in the confined core under 2.5 Performance-based design
compression. As the achieved strains exceed 3% in
confined axially loaded specimens, larger The main objectives in the anti-seismic design are
curvature ductility can be developed in the immediate occupancy (IO), life safety (LS),
compression under both earthquake and dynamic collapse prevention (CP) in moderate and minor
loading, [1]. The correct bonding is also of high earthquakes and avoid collapse in a major
importance in the design of interior beam-column earthquake [4].
joints of multistorey frames, as plastic hinges are The main concern of engineers is to validate the
expected in interior columns, [1]. suitability of the selected performance levels as
well as the parameters leading to the desired
2.4 Ductility in the modern earthquake- performance and the earthquake hazard [4]. The
resistant building design performance levels are governed respectively by
The structures designed for different ductility three corresponding structural characteristics
classes have different performance characteristics: (stiffness, strength and deformation capacity), as
The structures designed for high ductility class are depicted in the Fig. 2.2.
the most economically effective due to the largest
reduction of the design seismic force (high q
factor). Under an earthquake the structural system
experiences large inelastic excursions and the
overall damage is extensive. High ductility class
(DCH) structures have lower base-shear
resistance, higher damage rates, an increased
displacement response and ductility demand
comparing to the other two. In terms of the
performance based design the difficulty for DCH
to meet the displacement based design criteria is
higher.
The low ductility (DCL) structures require
relatively high resistance as the q factor and the
Fig. 2.2 Typical performance curve for the structure [4]
357
In the performance based design, the hazard levels behaviour of the structure but requires excessive
correspond to a given probability of being computational time comparing to the pushover
exceeded during the life-time of the structure. It is method, as it produces results for each time step.
usually assumed that the immediate occupancy
corresponds to a 50% probability of exceedance,
the life safety to 10%, while the collapse 3 MODELING OF DCH AND DCM
prevention only to 2%, [5]. STRUCTURES
2.6 Inter-storey drift profiles The modelling concerns two identical fourstorey
buildings designed according to Eurocode 8, with
Being a principal design consideration in the high (reduction factor q=5.85) and medium
performance of multistorey buildings, the ductility (reduction factor q=3.9). For ensuring the
interstorey drifts account for the structural and same energy dissipation mechanisms and a fair
non-structural damage of structures excited to comparison, the capacity design for the considered
earthquake motions [6]. The performance of nodes has been identical.
multistorey buildings is assessed on the basis of
inter-storey drift values along the height of the
building and can also be considered as a mean for 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
providing uniform ductility demand over all
stories. Chopra (1995) stated the importance of The earthquake spectral amplitudes (expressing
controlling large storey drifts which may result in the energy release) and ground accelerations are
a soft storey mechanism with catastrophic building considered in this analysis, as the two basic
collapse in a seismic event [7]. parameters affecting the structural performance.
2.7 Seismic design procedures and 4.1 DCH AND DCM PERFORMANCE IN
optimization VARIOUS EARTHQUAKES
Fragiadakis et al [8] stated that the most suitable A comparison has been made in terms of the
methods for evaluating the structural response maximum drift as a percentage of the limit in the
against strong ground motions are the pushover primary axis for both buildings under various
and inelastic time-history analysis. The responses earthquakes.
in both analysis are checked against acceptability The black and red dashed lines corresponding to
limits for system elements e.g. load stability and the secondary axis express the ratio of the spectral
inter-storey drift as well as in local element levels amplitudes for DCM/DCH buildings.
e.g. the plastic rotation of a section and the
element strength [9]. The time-history analysis
employed in this study through the Drain-2DX
programme, is capable of capturing the true
DCM and DCH maximum drift comparison
70
DCM, Dmax/Dlimit (%)
26
Dmax as a % of Dultimate
60 DCH, Dmax/Dlimit (%)

DCM/DCH Spectral amplitude ratio
50 21
Same spectral Amplitude
40 16
30 11
20 6
10 1
0 -4
0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency corresponding to max spectral amplitude in (Hz)
Fig. 4.1 Maximum drift as a percentage of the limit/secondary axis: Spectral amplitude ratio vs frequency
358
As expected through the whole frequency range,
the DCH building appears to have a better drift 4.2 PARKFIELD EARTHQUAKE
performance comparing to DCM’s, no Despite the fact that Parkfield releases 2.67
conclusions can be made however, as the times more energy into the DCH building from
spectral amplitudes1 are considerably higher for DCM and corresponds to small return periods
DCM. (where the design accelerations are higher for
It is clearly shown, for those values closely DCM), it is proved through this comparison that
spaced and underneath the red-dashed line, that even though DCH performs better.
the DCM performs slightly better (Dmax has a
smaller percentage of its limit), as a result of 4.2.1 Parkfield - Interstorey Drifts
DCM being affected less from that specific
earthquake. The inter-storey drifts as a percentage of their
The variance of the drift percentage in the limitation has been plotted below for a
primary axis depends on the peak ground comparison among the DCH and DCM in the
accelerations of each earthquake (as the values original Parkfield earthquake record
used for plotting the above graph correspond to (PGA=0.43g).
different seismic events), which is the other
Storey drifts comparison for Parkfield
important parameter except the spectral
amplitude affecting the structural performance. (PGA=0.43g)
That explains the rapid slope among the second 4
point (corresponding to Mexico earthquake of DCM Floor
Drifts
Floors
PGA=0.16g) and the third point corresponding 3
to EL-Centro (PGA=0.34g).
The employed earthquakes, proved the 2 DCH Floor
importance of the corresponding earthquake’s Drifts
frequency range, releasing most of its energy, to 1
the corresponding design acceleration value in
the elastic response spectrum (ERS) used for the 0 20 40
design. In smaller return periods seismic events Floor drifts, (%) of Dult
the buildings performed better, as their Figure 4.2 – Drift performance comparison of DCH-DCM
corresponding design accelerations were a lot for Parkfield
bigger from longer periods. For longer return
periods, the DCH distributes better the energy The DCH’s interstorey drifts as a percentage of
among its floors, as a result of the same the allowed are slightly smaller, indicating
corresponding design accelerations of the ERS, better structural performance for the DCH
and the higher energy releases into the DCM. building in terms of floor drifts through the
The importance of the energy release to the whole GAA range.
building’s fundamental frequency has been
accounted by this study analytically, expressed 4.2.2 Parkfield - Energy distribution
in energy ratios, which proves the influence of The maximum drift among the floors over the
the energy release rates in the structural minimum through the whole GAA has been
performance. For higher energy releases into the plotted in the y-axis for both buildings.
DCM, the DCH building performed better (in Energy distribution for DCM and DCH
terms of drifts), while depending on the 4
magnitude of the higher energy release into the DCM
DCH, the DCM performed occasionally better. building
3
Dmax/Dmin
For the purpose of the comparison, both of the DCH

buildings will be exposed to the Parkfield 2 building
earthquake providing 2.67 more energy to the
DCH building. The analysis will be done in this 1
case, by modifying the ground acceleration
amplitude (GAA) of this earthquake in order to 0
assess whether that variable influences the
comparison. 0 0.5 1
Peak ground Acceleration in (g)
Figure 4.3 – Energy distribution comparison in Parkfield
The DCM building appeared to have higher drift
1
Expressing the earthquakes energy releases ratios from DCH, through the most of the GAA
359
range, meaning that the earthquake’s energy is elastically, while the DCH is more vulnerable,
distributed better in the DCH’s floors. deforming more and forming plastic hinges
For smaller GAA the DCM is distributing quicker and for smaller GAA. According to
slightly better the energy among its floors, due Figure 4.4, the DCM dissipates slightly higher
to its increased stiffness and thus increased energy rates from DCH.
ability to resist bigger earthquake loadings
4.2.3 Parkfield - Energy dissipation

In the following figure the total energy
dissipated by each building for various GAA of
Parkfield has been plotted in Figure 4.4.
DCM-DCH total energy dissipated
Total Energy dissipated in
3.50E+08
3.00E+08
2.50E+08
(KNcm)
2.00E+08
1.50E+08 DCM
1.00E+08 Building
5.00E+07 DCH
0.00E+00 Building
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Peak ground Acceleration in (g)
Figure 4.4 – Total Energy dissipated comparison – Parkfield
It becomes apparent that the energy dissipation most energy dissipative floor (second) are
is directly correlated to the damage rate, where expressed as a percentage of the capacity for
the DCH buildings have been designed to be DCH and DCM in the Figure 4.5.
more efficient. Ductility demands as a percentage of
The Figure 4.4 above proved that, in addition to capacity for DCM and DCH
the high importance of the earthquake’s energy 100
Ddemand/Dcapacity,(%)
release, the GAA of the seismic event has a

primary role as well. For GAA up to 0.34g, 80
where damage has not occurred to any of the
60
buildings, the seismic loadings are resisted
within the linear elastic range (stiffness governs 40
the responses, Figure 2.2). In this range the
DCM dissipated more energy due to its higher DCM-3010i
20
stiffness. For increased GAA, with the DCH-(3010i)
formation of plastic hinges and structural 0
damage, the DCH starts being more efficient 0 0.5 1
due to the activation of its plastic hinges, which Peak ground Accelerations in (g)
are dissipating more energy comparing to Figure 4.5 – Ductility demands as a percentage of
DCM’s. capacities
As a result, it can be concluded, that depending
The increased curvature ductility capacity of
on the performance objective, as described in
the literature by Ahmed Ghobarah [4], the DCH, resulted into the DCH’s superiority in
terms of the experiencing structural damage,
DCH’s efficiency varies, with higher GAAs
although none of the buildings collapsed.
causing non-linear structural responses, and
Although Parkfield hits the DCH more, the
especially for the collapse prevention
DCH’s curvature ductility demands as a
performance target, ductility governs the
percentage of their capacities appeared to be
performance leading to the DCH’s superiority.
considerably smaller from DCM’s, proving the
4.2.4 Parkfield-Structural Damage better performance of DCH under the examined
conditions, Figure 4.5.
The ductility demands of the most critical
element, beam 3010-3020 corresponding to the
360
5 CONCLUSIONS optimization frameworks, 2011.
Computers and structures 89 (2011), pages
Through the performance comparison of the
1155-1165.
DCM and DCH buildings, it was found that the
[6] Moehle JP, Mahin SA. Observations on
damage rates are directly correlated to the
the behaviour of reinforced concrete
earthquake’s frequency range. Low frequency
buildings during earthquakes, 1991.
seismic events corresponding to high periods in
[7] Chopra AK. Dynamics of structures:
the elastic response spectrum used for the design
theory and applications to earthquake
of the buildings, were found to be more
engineering. New Jersey: Englewood
catastrophic.
Cliffs, 1995.
Independently to the frequency and the
[8] Nikos D.Lagaros, Michalis Fragiadakis,
earthquake’s energy release, it was proved that
Manolis Papadrakakis, Yiannis
higher ground acceleration amplitudes worsen
Tsompanakis. Structural optimization: A
the structural performance. That was proved
tool for evaluating seismic design
through series of figures, indicating that the
procedures, Engineering Structures 28,
floor drifts, the variance of the energy
pages 1623-1633, 2006.
dissipation among the floors, the ductility
[9] X.-K. Zou, C.-M. Chan. Optimal seismic
demands and the structural damage are being
performance-based design of reinforced
increased for higher ground acceleration rates.
concrete buildings using nonlinear
Although Parkfield released 2.67 times more
pushover analysis, Engineering Structures,
energy into the DCH building the DCM building
pages 1289-1302, 2005.
performed generally worse, even though its
higher (by 1.46 times) designed peak ground
accelerations for this frequency range in the
elastic response spectrum. For smaller GAA, the
DCM appeared to perform slightly better, as a
result of its higher stiffness, which governs the
responses for smaller GAA, Figure 2.2.
It can generally be concluded that higher
ductility provisions are beneficial for the
structural performance, especially for higher
ductility demands caused by higher intensity
earthquakes with increased return periods and
ground acceleration amplitudes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to acknowledge the extensive support and

guidance provided by my project supervisor Dr.
Mihail Petkovski during this project.
REFERENCES
[1] Thomas Paulay, Deterministic seismic
design procedures for reinforced concrete
buildings, Engineering Structures, Volume
5, 1982.
[2] Eurocode 8 Design Guidelines.
[3] Yong Lu, Hong Hao, P.G.Carydis,
H.Mouzakis, Seismic performance of
reinforced concrete frames designed for
three different ductility levels, Engineering
Structures 23, pages 537-547, 2001.
[4] Ahmed Ghobarah. Performance-based
design in earthquake engineering: state of
development, 2001. Engineering
Structures 23, pg 878-884.
[5] Michalis Fragiadakis, Nikos D.Lagaros.
An overview to structural seismic design
361
Concrete Confinement with FRP Systems

Georgios Patsalides
ABSTRACT In our days, the use of Fiber Reinforced Polymer composites (FRP) in civil engineering
area is very popular. One of the most important applications of FRP materials is their use as confining
devices for the strengthening of Reinforced Concrete (RC) elements such as columns. Using available
design codes and experimental data, the compressive behaviour of concrete elements reinforced with
FRP systems was examined extensively. Concrete columns with different cross sections varying
between square with sharp edges to circular were examined in order to determine the effectiveness of
FRP confinement in different cases. A number of existing theoretical models were analysed and
compared to experimental data collected from compressive tests performed at the University of
Sheffield. The experimental confined strength and strain of the tested concrete cylinders was compared
to the predictions of the theoretical models for the same properties in order to find the most accurate
model for the prediction of the strength and strain of the specific concrete cylinders. Future work can
be performed using large scale specimens with internal steel reinforcement as the available theoretical
equations are developed for small scale specimens without any internal steel reinforcement.
Keywords: Fibre Reinforced Polymers, theoretical stress-strain, confinement model, confinement
1 INTRODUCTION Due to their many advantages in construction

area they have almost replaced the most of the
In the recent years, engineers and researchers in
traditional repairing and strengthening materials.
the Civil Engineering area have shown a special
FRP plates replaced the steel plates while the
interest in the development of new methods of
concrete jackets for the strengthening and
repairing, retrofitting and strengthening existing
repairing of columns replaced by FRP sheets
reinforced concrete structures such as bridges
externally bonded to the surface of the column
and buildings. A number of techniques have
element. FRP systems are widely used in cases
been used for the repairing and the strengthening
where axial, shear, torsional and flexural
of deteriorated structures. Techniques such as
strengthening of a reinforced concrete element is
the use of steel plates bonded to the surface of
necessary.
deteriorated elements, shotcrete and the use of
concrete or steel jackets for reinforced concrete
columns were developed and used in every
2 KEY ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE
developed country all over the world. Even if the
REINFORCED PPOLYMERS
effectiveness of those techniques is widely
accepted, they have a number of disadvantages During a wide research on the area of composite
which were encouraged the engineers to study materials, the engineers found that the
and develop new materials. advantages of FRPs are too many and they can
easily replace the basic conventional structural
During many years of research and
materials in the future.
experimental work the engineers developed a
new technique using a new material in civil 2.1 High resistance to corrosion
engineering area, the Fibre Reinforced Polymers
FRP composites can be used in corrosive
(FRP). Fibre Reinforced Polymers or Fibre
environments without any significant level of
Reinforced Plastics (FRP) are composite
materials made of fibres introduced to the maintenance. Thus, they can be used as
construction industries in the mid-20th century structural material in ports, ships, marines or any
other structure which may locate near the sea
and they are now widely used in civil
replacing steel or reinforced concrete elements
engineering area.
which can be affected by the corrosive
environment.
362
2.2 High specific strength
This is the ratio between the strength and the
density of the material. The density of the
composites is several times smaller compared to
the density of steel, therefore, FRP materials are
much lighter than other structural materials. This
fact leads to the design of high strength
structures with much less weight and improved
performance.
Fig. 1. Confinement action mechanism
2.3 High Fatigue Resistance (fib 14, 2001)
This is because the four basic mechanisms The confinement lateral pressure (f1) for circular
(delamination, fibre fracture, matrix cracking cross sections with continuous and discontinuous
and interface debonding) which are responsible wrapping can be evaluated from Equations (1)
for the failure of composite materials under and (2) respectively.
cyclic loading are working almost perfect in the
case of FRP materials. Comparing FRP to steel * * (1)
material, the latter fails in a sudden manner due
to rapid crack propagation while the FRP (2)
* *
composites show progressive degradation until
failure of fibres and matrix take place. (3)
2.4 Electromagnetic Transparency and
Electrical non-conductivity (4)
The first, allows the designers to use FRP 3.2 Rectangular cross sections
composites where applications involving radio The effectiveness of the confinement with FRP
waves or microwaves are taking place such as systems of square or rectangular cross sections is
radar equipment shelters and electronic testing much less than the one of circular cross sections.
facilities. The characteristic of electrical non- In square and rectangular cross sections the
conductivity allows the designers the use of FRP phenomenon of high concentrations of stresses
composites instead of steel in structures where in the corners of the element appears. Due to the
high voltage is the number one danger, aiming to sharp edges of the member, high levels of
diminish any possibilities for electrocution stresses are concentrating at the corners which
which may result into human losses. cause an early tensile failure of the FRP system
with catastrophic consequences to the structural
behaviour of the concrete column.
3 INFLUENCE OF CROSS SECTION
SHAPE While the concrete core expands producing
compression forces the FRP system is under
The effectiveness of the confinement of concrete tension. As those forces develop, they are stored
column sections using FRP is highly affected by at the edges of the cross section and their high
the shape of the cross section. concentration cause premature failure of the FRP
3.1 Circular columns system at the corners. The concentration of
stresses can be reduced if the sharp edges are
In circular cross sections the coefficient of rounded resulting into a smooth curve. The
efficiency in the horizontal direction, kH , is stresses can be further reduced as the curvature
equal to the unit (kH = 1) which is the maximum of the corner increases. There is a general
value that this coefficient can takes. This means restriction which must be satisfied for this
that the confinement of a circular concrete curvature to be effective. The limitation is that
column is particularly effective. the corner radius must be equal or greater than
The concrete core of circular element which is 20 mm.
under compression tends to expand. An FRP In the confinement of a square or a rectangular
system with the fibres aligned in the transverse cross section there is an effect which develops in
direction with respect to the longitudinal axis of practice known as “arch effect”. The arch effect
the element provides a uniform confining is highly affected from the corner radius. This
pressure to the concrete core during its phenomenon reduces as the value of corner
expansion increasing significantly the radius is getting higher i.e. as the section gets
compressive strength of the element. closer to a circular shape and increases as the
corner radius decreases. The arch effect arises
through parabolas which enclose the effective
363
confined concrete core leaving out a large (8)
amount of concrete material as unconfined.
Thus, a large part of the whole concrete material
behaves as unconfined even after the installation (9)
of the FRP system. The effectively confined core
of a rectangular cross section is shown in the
(10)
figure below.
5 REVIEW OF THEORETICAL FRP-

CONFINEMENT MODELS
A number of theoretical models have been
developed in the recent years from different
researchers in order to predict the stress-strain
behaviour of FRP-confined concrete columns. In
these models, different types of FRP
confinement were taken into account such as the
type of fibres and the configuration of the FRP
system in order to calculate the effective lateral
confining pressure.
5.1 Saadatmanesh et al. Model
Saadatmanesh et al., (2004) had as starting point
Fig. 2. Effectively confined concrete core in for his theoretical model for the confinement of
non-circular columns (fib 14, 2001) concrete using FRP systems the model which
developed by Mander (1988) for steel-confined
The confinement lateral pressure for rectangular concrete in 1988. The steel-confined model of
cross sections with continuous and discontinuous Mander demonstrated different aspects which
wrapping can be evaluated from Equations (1) affect the strength of a confined element and
and (2) respectively using equation (5) and (6). what found was that for circular columns which
subjected to triaxial compression the lateral
(continuous wrapping) (5) confinement pressure from the steel hoops is
equal to all directions of the cross section.
Saadatmanesh et al. developed this model and
(discontinuous wraping) (6) tried to convert it into a FRP-confined model.
Therefore, the lateral confinement pressure of
the FRP material used in the equation and can be
4 AXIAL CAPACITY AND STRENGTH OF calculated using the provided properties of the
FRP-CONFINED RC COLUMNS FRP jacket.
When a concrete column, circular or non- (11)

circular, is subjected to axial loads larger than its
initial design axial capacity is necessary to be
strengthened. The strengthening of an axially (12)
loaded column can be achieved by its
confinement using a FRP system. When a FRP
system is installed in a concrete column provides
(13)
a passive confinement until the core of the
element starts to expand due to the increased
5.2 Fardis and Khalili Model (1981)
load. Then, the FRP system activates providing
lateral confinement pressure which increases as Similar to the model which proposed by
the concrete core expands. A design equation for Saadatmanesh et al. this model replaces the
the prediction of the axial capacity (NRcc,d) of a constant triaxial pressure which exerted from the
FRP-confined steel reinforced concrete column steel hoops with the confinement pressure which
developed (CNR, 2004). The equation can be exerted from the FRP jacket. Two equations are
used in cases where the cross section is circular developed for the prediction of confined
as well as in cases where the cross section is strength.
rectangular, using the appropriate design (14)
parameters.
(7)
(15)
364
5.6 Toutanji Model
(16)
The model developed by Toutanji (1999),
5.3 Miyauchi Model resulted into a stress-strain curve formed by two
Miyauchi et al., (1997) developed the Richard’s different zones. The first zone represents the
equation for the steel-confined concrete strength behaviour of the confined concrete which is very
by adding the factor ke which is the effectiveness similar to the behaviour of the unconfined
coefficient and equals to 0.85. This value material due to the fact that the model neglects
resulted from a number of experimental tests the lateral dilatation. The second region of the
performed in order to predict the behaviour of curve, where the FRP jacket is fully activated, is
the FRP-confined concrete. For the prediction of influenced by the stiffness of the system as a
the ultimate strain of a FRP-confined element result the change in its slope.
two empirical equations (18-19) suggested for The theoretical model developed by Toutanji
concrete cylinders with 30 MPa and 50 MPa was compared to experimental results and what
unconfined strength respectively. was found is that it overestimates the strength of
the concrete cylinders.
(17)
(18) (24)
(19) (25)
5.4 Kono et al. Model 5.7 Seible et al. Model

Kono et al., (1998) also developed equations for A formula for the prediction of the ultimate
the estimation of the peak stress of FRP- strain of a confined concrete element has been
confined concrete elements as well as the developed by Seible et al., (1995).The confined
ultimate strain level of such elements. Concrete strength of concrete can be calculated using
specimens with unconfined strength between 32 Equation (11) from the Saadatmanesh model.
MPa and 35 MPa tested under compression and
found that at the failure only a small amount of (26)
the FRP ultimate strain developed. This is
because of the phenomenon of the premature 5.8 Spoelstra and Monti Model
failure which appears to incorporate into the
Spoelstra and Monti (1999) developed a model
Kono’s developed equations.
which was mainly based on an iterative
) (20) procedure using a number of parameters. Due to
the fact that the developed model is complicated
) (21) and difficult to be understood by many
researchers, a new analysis based on this model
5.5 Saaman et al. Model was carried out by authors and two easier and
more applicable equations for the prediction of
The Saaman et al., (1998) model is basically the confined strength and strain of concrete were
based on a four parameter stress-strain established.
relationship which result into an almost bilinear
curvature. This model does not only depend on (27)
the confinement pressure as the most of the
others do but it also depends on the stiffness of
the provided FRP jacket. Further, during the (28)
experimental tests for the verification of this
model, the phenomenon of the premature failure 5.9 Saafi et al. Model
of the FRP jacket was not observed as the strain The model proposed by Saafi et al., (1999) is
of the FRP hoops at the failure found to be very almost identical to the one proposed by Toutanji.
close to the ultimate tensile strain of the FRP The difference between these two models is that
tube. Saafi performed his tests using FRP-encased
(22) cylinders instead of wrapped concrete cylinders.
(29)
(23)
(30)
365
6 COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL and for all types of FRP material and levels of
RESULTS reinforcement, especially when specimens with
1 layer of FRP reinforcement tested. For the
Experimental tests took place at the laboratories
estimation of the theoretical axial strain the
of the University of Sheffield in order to
value of 0.002 used as the axial strain at peak
investigate the behaviour of FRP-confined
stress of unconfined concrete specimens. The
concrete cylinders. Three different types of FRP
model of Kono et al. appears to estimate a level
reinforcement were used, Aramid, Basalt and
of strain very close to the one of the experiment
Carbon, in order to confine concrete circular
but this is probably due to the format of the
specimens of 100 mm in diameter and 300 mm
proposed formula where the confined strength of
in height. Using the stress-strain equations and
the concrete is not taken into account. For more
comparing the results to the experimental data it
layers of FRP reinforcement the results obtained
was found that there were many differences
from the theoretical analysis appear to get closer
between the theoretical and the experimental
to the experimental results but still they
results. For the theoretical confined stress of the
overestimate the values from the test. The
cylinders wrapped with 1 layer of Aramid and 1
overestimation of the strain at the peak stress
layer of Carbon FRP reinforcement it can be said
level has as a consequence the overestimation of
that all the models except the one of Kono et al.
the ductility levels of the FRP-confined elements
can estimate properly the ultimate stress of the
and this can be proved disastrous in industry
specimens as the differences from the
applications.
experimental results are not major.
Using two layers of FRP reinforcement for the
confinement of the cylinders it was observed that 7 CONCLUSIONS
most of the models can predict the confined
Using Fibre Reinforced Polymers for repairing
stress of the concrete specimens. On the other
and strengthening reinforced concrete structures
hand, the models proposed by Toutanji and
can be proved a very effective and successful
Fardis and Khalili, tend to largely overestimate
solution. Fibre Reinforced Polymers can easily
the strength of the concrete cylinders. This is
replace the traditional techniques which are in
maybe due to the fact that the ratio between the
use in the area of civil engineering. The
confinement pressure and the unconfined
effectiveness of the confinement using FRP
strength of concrete is very high due to the
systems to increase the axial load capacity of a
increase of the layers of FRP material. The rest
concrete column depends on many factors. The
of the models, except the one of Kono’s et al.
most important factor is the cross section shape
which continues to underestimate the confined
of the element. Investigating the effectiveness of
strength of concrete, are able to estimate the
the confinement action in circular and
values from the experiment without significant
rectangular columns it was found that in circular
errors. It can be said that the most accurate
columns the effects from confinement are much
model for the prediction of confined strength is
higher comparing to those in rectangular
the one provided by Saaman et al. as the value
elements. The levels of the confinement pressure
obtained for the estimation of theoretical
in rectangular cross sections can be significantly
confined strength is very close to the
increased when the corners of the element are
experimental value.
rounded. From experimental results it was
For 3 layers of FRP reinforcement larger errors obtained that the gain strength of rectangular
resulted from the theoretical models for the concrete columns when are confined with FRP
prediction of the ultimate strength of cylinders. systems are proportional to the corner radius
For 3 layers of Aramid the model of Saaman et ratio. This is because the phenomenon of stress
al. is the most accurate while the others concentration at the corners of the element
underestimate the value of ultimate strength. reduces as the corners are changing from sharp
Toutanji’s model as well as Fardis and Khalili’s to soft and additional effective confinement area
models are overestimating to a great extend the develops. Thus, the area of the effective
ultimate strength level for Aramid fibres. For 3 confined concrete core increases and therefore,
layers of Carbon the Toutanji’s model predicts the effectiveness of the FRP system increases.
almost exactly the ultimate strength of the
Comparing the theoretical equations with the
confined cylinder.
experimental results it was found that the most
For the prediction of the axial strain at maximum accurate model for the prediction of the ultimate
stress the results obtained from the theoretical confined stress of the tested cylinders is the one
models are much different compared to the proposed by Saaman et al. and can be used in the
results of the experimental test. More or less, all future for similar experimental tests. The values
the models are largely overestimating the axial obtained from the calculation of the ultimate
strain at maximum stress for all the specimens strain level from each theoretical model were
366
also compared to the experimental results and
found that the models are not able to predict the Saadatmanesh, H., Ehsani, M. R. And Li, M. W.,
ultimate strain of the confined specimens. (1994) Strength and ductility of concrete
columns externally reinforced with fiber
composite straps, ACI Struct. J., 91(4),434-447.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely thank Dr. Maurizio Guadagnini for Saafi, M., Toutanji, H. A., and Li, Z., (1999)
his commited guidance, advices and supervision Behaviour of concrete columns confined with
for the completion of the project. fiber reinforced polymer tubes, ACI Materials,
96(4), 500-509.
NOTATION Saaman, M., Mirmiram, A., and Shahawy, M.,

Ag: area of concrete cross section (1998) Model of concrete confined by fiber
composites, J.Struct.Eng, 124(9), 1025-1031.
E2: slope of bilinear curve in model
Eco: Young’s modulus of concrete Seible F.,Burgueno, R.,Abdallah, Nuismer, R.,
(1995) Advanced composite carbon shell
El: FRP modulus of elasticity systems for bridge columns under seismic loads.
f’cc , fccd: confined strength of concrete USA
f’co: unconfined strength of concrete
Spoelstra, M. R. and Monti, G, (1999) FRP-
f1: confinement pressure confined concrete model, Journal of composites
ffu: ultimate strength of FRP material for construction,ASCE,3(3).
fyd: design yield strength of steel Toutanji H. A., (1999) Stress-strain

keff: effectiveness factor of confinement characteristics of concrete columns externally
confined with Advanced Fiber Composite
εcc: confined strain of concrete sheets, ACI Materials Journal
εco: unconfined strain of concrete
εfu: ultimate strain of FRP material
REFERENCES
Bulletin No 14, (2001) Externally Bonded FRP
reinforcement for RC structures, International
Federation for Structural Concrete (fib 14).
Fardis, M. N., and Khalili, H., (1981) Concrete

encased in fibreglass reinforced-plastic,440-446.
Guide for the Design and Construction of

Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
strengthening Existing Structures, CNR (2004)
Kono, S., Inazumi, M., and Kaku, T., (1998)

Evaluation of confining effects of CFRP sheets
on reinforced concrete members, Proc.,ICCI’98,
Tuscon, Ariz, 343-355.
Mander J.B., Priestley M.J.N., and Park R.,

(1988) Theoretical stress-strain model for
confined concrete Journal of Structural
Engineering.
Miyauchi, K., Nishibayashi, S., Inouem S., (1997)

Estimation of strengthening effects with carbon
fiber sheet for concrete columns, Japan
367
Steel fibre Reinforced – Roller Compacted Concrete (SFR – RCC) Road

Pavement Design and Analysis for the Improvement of the “ Tomb of the
Kings” Avenue in Paphos
Pavlos Pavlaras
ABSTRACT The main purpose of this paper is to provide the Public Works Department of Cyprus
government with significant information about new methods in the construction industry for the
construction of road pavements. The study concentrates to the use of a new innovative material (SFR
– RCC) for road pavement application. For the examination of SFR-RCC pavements 5 different
methods were used. Also a flexible pavement was used for the conduction of comparisons.
In addition a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted by using Eco Serve indicator programme
(ECO serve, 2003) in order to compare the CO2 emission produced from SFR-RCC pavement and
Asphalt pavement. Also a cost analysis report was conducted. The results from the above analyses
concluded that the SFR –RCC pavements are more ecologically friendly and cost less.
Moreover parametric studies carried out in order to check how the modification of some parameters
such as cement type , fibre type, fibre dosage, aggregates type influence the thickness of the pavement.
The results from these studies showed that the thickness of the pavement based on Romanian standard
was affected by Flexural strength and the thickness of the pavement based on AASHTO 93 was
affected by flexural and compressive strength. Finally the parametric studies for the production of CO2
emissions resulted that the mix of SFR-RCC which contains LECr (low energy cement) produces the
less CO2 emissions.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is obvious that without the transportation the reduces the required slab thickness and may
economical and social development of the people eliminate the use of conventional reinforcement.
it would not be exist. An example of the socio-
Finally Roller compacted concrete (RCC)
economy integration is the island of Cyprus.
construction method can be used as it provides a
Public Works Department (PWD) of the rapid and cost –effective technique for the
government of Cyprus plays a key role for the construction of road networks.(Angelakopoulos et
maintenance of development and modernization of all,D2.1 b,2007). Consequently combinations of
the island‟s road network. the above methods may lead to a more innovative
and high performance pavement.
Two types of pavements can be used for road
construction rigid pavement or flexible pavement.
Flexible pavement is constructed of Hot-Mix
2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Asphalt (HMA) and Rigid pavements constructed
of Portland Cement Concrete (PCC). It is well known that Plain Concrete itself is
weak in tension and as a result may lead to
Due to the infliction of the economical crisis
brittle types of failures. Also concrete has
which is responsible for many problems occurred
limited ductility, and low cracking resistance.
in European countries such as increasing oil
prices, PWD tries to find more cost-effective Therefore what it has to be done in order to
solutions for the new pavement constructions by improve all these weak properties of the concrete
using sustainable techniques. and achieve better performance is to
strengthening the concrete by introducing steel
An innovative technique is the use of steel fibres
fibres (Neocleous, CIV6235, 2011). Furthermore
in the concrete mix as it enhances the concrete
the addition of more fibres will direct to
toughness and improves the tensile and flexural
increased amounts of Flexural strength in
strength. (Pilakoutas,CIV6235, 2011)
concrete (Tlemat, 2004).
Also the use of Fibre- reinforced concrete (FRC)
On the other hand increase in fibres ratios may
for the pavement construction is cost effective as it
lead to lower compressive strength (Shommakhi,
2000).
368
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) is a new and content, and shrinkage or swelling (Neofytou,
innovative option in the section of pavement 2009).
construction. Basically the ingredients used for
RCC pavements are the same with the 3.1.2 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
conventional concrete such as: water, cement, estimation
aggregates and admixtures. The thing that makes CBR can be evaluated by a penetration test in
the difference is the different mixing proportions the investigation area. This test it contributes to
of the material. For example the water contents are the efforts of the investigation team to evaluate
less in RCC in order to produce a dry mix which the strength of the sub-grate. The CBR value
will sustain the load of the rolling machine during for this project was provided by the PWD
the procedure of compaction department in Cyprus and for the specific area
(D2.1b,Angelakopoulos et al 2007) . Therefore under investigation the CBR is 6% (Neofytou,
this leads to the creation of a new material with 2009).
special properties and performance characteristics.
Generally Roller Compacted Concrete technique is 3.1.3 Sub – grade strenght (K –value)
cost effective as it can reduce the depths of the Sub – grade strength which is based on
layers, provides durability and strength, and uses Westergaard's modulus of sub grade reaction (K-
rapid construction techniques like roller value) is the stress over a stressed area divided
compaction ( Neocleous et al,2011). Also the by the deflection (MPa/m or MN/m3). Plate
introduction of steel fibres in the matrix may lead bearing test can be carried out in order to obtain
to further improvement. the K - value (Neofytou, 2009). The Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) volume
7 in UK uses the following formula which links
3 PAVEMENT DESIGN the CBR with the modulus of subgrade reaction,
K (Neofytou, 2009).
The purpose of this project was to try different
K762 = (CBR/6.1x10-8)0,577 x 10-3 MPa/m Eqn.1
design methodologies mainly for SFR-RCC
pavements in order to give suggestions
according to the proper design methodology that 3.2 Different design methodologies for
will be followed by PWD in Cyprus about a pavements
major project (The improvement of the “Tomb
of the Kings Avenue”) that will be carried The different design methodologies that were
between 2011- 2012 in Paphos town. examined for this study are the following:
The area under investigation located in the 3.2.1 Cypriot method of design
coastal zone of Kato Paphos which is the tourist
part of Paphos town. The data about the traffic The Cypriot method of design is based on the
,CBR % value, morphology of the area, soil type PWD pavement design manual (Manual for the
design of the new pavements and strengthening
were provided by the PWD in Paphos.
overlays,1989) and applies only for Asphalt
Also the properties that were required for the (flexible) Pavement. The design requirements
pavement design such as compressive and for the Cypriot method are:
flexural strength were taken from previous tests
a) Traffic load
which were carried from PDW department for a
previous project in a village of Paphos town. b) Sub – grate support (CBR%)
3.1 Physical and mechanical parameters for The Different tables that provided in the manual
the Avenue design were used in order to predict deflections under a
31kN load (PWD design approach) at effective
The key input parameters for concrete pavement speed 3 kph and according to the CBR % value
design are the following: and the traffic load (12.67 msa) the road-base
3.1.1Evaluation of Sub-grade thickness (H2) and the surfacing thickness (H1)
were selected.
The layer which the pavement structure lies on it
is the sub-grate . Basically Sub-grade is the soil 3.2.2 Romanian Standard NP 081 – 2002
material that already exists in the location where Romanian Standard NP 081-2002 requires for the
the pavement structure was selected to construct. pavement design the following
The importance of the Sub-grade is very data(Andreou,2009):
essential as it helps to the support of the wheel a) Flexural strength of concrete which is the
loads. Therefore before the pavement bending characteristic strength of the
construction the sub grade performance and concrete at 28 days
characteristics must be checked. The sub – grade b) Sub-grate & sub-base support value
performance considers the following
characteristics: load bearing capacity, moisture
369
c) Traffic load for the investigated area storage supplies and machines. This
which for the specific design code the methodology can be applied also for paving
axle load is converted to 115kN purposes and therefore it will be one of the
equivalent standard axles according to designs that this report will reassess.
their legal European Standard.
The Slabs –on grade design uses elastic methods
For the evaluation of the pavement thickness such as those formed by Westergaard (1925,
from the provided graphs the allowable tensile 1926). These methods do not take into account
strength and value of Sub –grate reaction must any checks for serviceability limit states because
be considered. they have produced relatively thick slabs
(especially when unreinforced). Thus new
3.2.3 AASHTO (1993) design
innovative methods (plastic analysis) were used
For calculating the pavement thickness (DR) in order to achieve the reduction of the thickness
according to American Association of Highway and serviceability limit states checks were
and Transportation Officials the following data established. Also for better ductility performance
needed (Florida department of transportation, the introduction of steel fibres was decided
2006) (Bekaert,1999) . The design of Slabs- on –grade
a) Traffic load (in 80kN ESAL) is briefly explained in Concrete Society‟s Report
b) Sub-grade strength (KG ) No.34 (2003,2010) and is in line with modern
c) Concrete modulus of Elasticity , EC codes of practise.
d) Concrete modulus of rupture , SC
3.2.6 Highway Agency design (HD/25)
e) Pavement performance
f) Reliability (%R) The design parameters which affect the HD/25
design are:
Assuming the specific data then the required
a) Concrete properties
depth DR can be calculated from an equation or
b) Equivalent Foundation Modulus (EFM)
by a given figure.
c) Traffic load (80kN ESAL)
3.2.4 Portland Cement Association design
Concrete Pavements can be classified into 4
(PCA)
categories:
Portland Cement Association design procedure a) Jointed plain concrete pavement
includes two methods the first one is the one (JPCP) or Un-reinforced Jointed
which is explained in PCA‟s manual (1984) for Concrete (URC).
conventional concrete pavements (PCA,1984). b) Jointed reinforced concrete
pavement (JRCP)
The PCA 1984 considers two modes of distress
c) Continuous reinforced concrete
failure which are the fatigue cracking of the
pavement (CRCP)
concrete slabs and erosion and faulting at joints.
d) Pre stressed concrete pavement
The second and most innovative PCA design (PCP)
procedure is the one which is based on Delatte‟s For each type of pavement the equation for
report (Dellate,2004).Delatte‟s report presents a
calculating the pavement thickness is different.
complete example for RCC pavement and
provides simplified design tables for RCC design From the above types of pavements the types
based on test results. This method considers only that were examined in this report are UCR and
fatigue cracking because form studies that have JRCP. The JRCP uses steel fibres for
been carried out RCC have show very minor reinforcement, therefore due to the R factor
tendency for joint or crack faulting (Dellate,2004). which considers the amount of reinforcement in
the equation the results may deviate. The reason
Finite – element programme analysis was used
for this inaccuracy is because of the difficulty of
for the production of tables which containing
assessing the total amount of the fibres that the
data for different axle loads combinations both
mix will contain in mm2/m.
for single and tandem
Those tables were used from both PCA methods
and finally the required thickness was calculated 4 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
based on the criterion which states that the sum ACCOMPANING PAVEMENT DESIGN
for all axle loads to fatigue damage should be
4.1 Life Cycle Assessment – Eco Serve
less than 100%.
Indicator tool
3.2.5 Slab – on – Grade Design
LCA comprises one of the most important tools
Slab – grade – method has been usually used for for the estimation of the environmental impact
the design of industrial concrete ground floors and the energy consumption that SFR-RCC
which carry high concentrated loads from pavement and Asphalt pavement producing.
370
LCA is a cradle to grave analysis (Achilleos, Technology in Cyprus which is a valid source of
2011) which includes the following life cycle information.
stages: a) raw material and transport, b)
production, c) maintenance, and d) recycling.
The amount of the CO2 emissions that were 5 PARAMETRIC STUDY
calculated in this report demonstrates the
The scope for the parametric study in this report
emissions per 1km² for a two lane, and 7 m
width pavement. was to assess the differences on design
methodologies that would be arise from changes
The University doesn‟t provide a complete LCA on the parameters based on the mix design. Due
software tool for the calculation of CO2 to lack of time only 2 design methodologies
emissions to the environment for that reason Dr. were selected for parametric study. Romanian
Neocleous suggested the use of the ECOserve‟s standard was selected because the traffic and the
indicator tool which provides the relevant data value of sub grade reaction were calculated in all
and parameters for the calculation of CO2 the designs based on the Romanian standard.
emissions only for Asphalt pavement. Therefore Also AASHTO method was selected because
in order to compare SFR-RCC with Asphalt resulted with almost the same thickness as the
pavement (this is the main concern of this Romanian one. Furthermore parametric study
procedure) many parameters were change, other was carried out about the CO2 emissions
parameters were added and various assumptions produced from SFR-RCC pavement.
were made in order to satisfy and the
The parameters that were examined are the
requirements of the SFR-RCC pavement.
different cement type (low energy cement –
Also the data for the quantity of raw materials LECr) based on the amount of the fibres (2-3%),
per layer were taken from the Life Cycle based on the type of aggregates (recycled), and
Inventory (LCI) report conducted from the finally based on the type of steel fibres (2%
Cyprus University of Technology in order to industrial) .
perform an LCA using Gabi 4 software.
Parametric study used specimens taken form
The design life of the Asphalt pavement is 20 Angelakopoulos (2008 a ,2008 b).
years and the design life of the SFR-RCC is 30
years therefore for a fairer comparison between
the two types of pavement another run of Eco 6 CONCLUSIONS
serve tool has been carried out but excluding the
recycling phase. Furthermore the application After a serious examination of all the design
phase was not included in the calculation for methodologies this thesis concluded that:
both designs due to lack of data because the “SFR-RCC pavements can worthy replace the
pavement for the investigated avenue it hasn‟t conventional method of Asphalt pavement”
been constructed yet. However what it needs to
be said here is the fact that the paving machines Evidences about the previous statement are the
are the same therefore the energy consumption it cost effectiveness of SFR-RCC pavements and
would be equal for both designs. their high performance.
Finally after putting in the relevant data for each However in order to consider the improved
phase the Eco- serve tool estimates the total characteristics of the SFR-RCC many
amount of CO2 emissions and t.km. assumptions were established in the structure of
the existing guidelines. Therefore the results that
4.2 Life Cycle Cost Analysis have been carried out may contain some level of
In this part what has been calculated it is the life inexactness.
cycle costing results for SFR-RCC pavement For example HD/25 procedure takes into
and asphalt pavement. The cost estimation account the concrete compressive strength of the
analysis included basically the construction costs cube while AASHTO 1993 and slab on Grade
and maintenance cost for both designs. methodology the concrete compressive strength
The role of the Cost analysis is very important of the cylinder through the formula of EC:
because through this procedure the clients they Concrete modulus of elasticity. One thing that
will develop a better view about the total cost of needs to be mentioned here is that from the
each design and they will proceed to their parametric study it is obvious that the
decision. Therefore the quality of the cost data incorporation of fibres caused the reduction of
provided by the agencies must be good. compressive strength.
In this report the cost data were based on Romanian standard, PCA, AASHTO 1993 and
information given from the University of Slab on grade take into account the flexural
strength of the concrete. Also the PCA
procedures consider the fatigue cracking (thicker
371
pavement) whilst the Slab on grade doesn‟t
consider fatigue cracking (less thick pavement).
Construction Cost /1km
Consequently in order to achieve high levels of 600000
accuracy in the different methodology
500000
calculations for pavement thickness, all the SFR-RCC
cost (euros)
existing guidelines must be renovate in order to 400000
pavement
consider the improved characteristics of SFR- 300000
RCC. 200000 Asphalt
pavement
Now about the LCA analysis that was carried 100000
out in this project the main problem it was the 0
fact that the University of Sheffield doesn‟t
provide a complete LCA software tool for the 1
calculation of CO2 emissions to the environment
and this has as a result the use of the ECOserve‟s
indicator tool which provides the relevant data Figure 2: SFR_RCC & Asphalt pavement
and parameters for the calculation of CO2 construction cost
emissions only for Asphalt pavement.
Therefore ECOserve‟s indicator tool subjected to
various modifications in order to apply also and
for SFR-RCC pavement. In addition the Optimized design
conversion of the ECOserve‟s indicator tool in
order to satisfy and the requirements of the SFR-
RCC pavement it was time consuming. 4000000
The results from the LCA concluded that the
SFR-RCC pavement design is more ecological
3500000
friendly than the Asphalt pavement design as it
produces 42.3% less emissions.
Also the maintenance percentage of the Asphalt 3000000
pavement was proved to be higher than that of
the SFR_RCC pavement and this is due to the
fact that the surfacing layer for the Asphalt 2500000
CO2 emission (kg)
pavement must be replaced every 5 years instead

that of SFR_RCC pavement which needs
replacement every 12 years. 2000000
Furthermore about the Cost Analysis the

construction cost of the Asphalt pavement was 1500000
proved to be 37% higher than the SFR_RCC .
More over the parametric study that was carried
1000000
out about the LCA of this thesis concluded that
the mix design which contains LECr(low energy
cement) achieved to produce the lesser CO2
500000
emissions (2448838 kg CO2 ) from the other all
designs and as a result has been suggested as the
most ecological friendly. 0
kg CO2 over the whole life cycle

7000000
6000000
5000000 Asphalt
4000000 pavement
3000000
SFR_RCC
2000000
pavement Figure 3: CO2 emissions of the optimized mix
1000000
0 designs
1
CO2
Figure 1: Total Kg CO2 emissions
372
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF RIGID ROAD
PAVEMENTS.
At this point I would like to express my gratitude
to Professor Kypros Pilakoutas and Dr. Kyriacos -Highways Agency (2006) Design Manual for
Neocleous for their significant help and Roads and Bridges. Volume 7, Section 2, Part 3
guidance during the preparation of this –Pavement Design. HD26/06. Highways
Dissertation. Also I would like to thank Mr. Agency.
Pavlos Neofytou from PWD in Cyprus and
-Florida Department of Transportation ,
Harris Angelakopoulos for the helpful
Pavement Management Office (2006), Rigid
information that they have provided me.
Pavement Design Manual.
-PCA (1984) Thickness Design of Concrete
REFERENCES Pavements , Portland Cement Association,
Chicago.
-Achilleos C, Hadjimitsis D, Neocleous K,
Pilakoutas K, Neofutou P, Kallis S, 2011, -Angelakopoulos H, Neocleous K , Pilakoutas
Proportioning of Steel Reinforced Concrete K(2007) , „State-of-the-art on roller-compacted
Mixes for Pavement Construction and their concrete‟ , Economical and Sustainable
impact on Enviroment and Cost. Pavement Infrastructure for Surface Transport,
EcoLanes STREP Project (2006-2009)
-Angelakopoulos, H. et al (2008a), “Flexural
testing of SFRC for all different types of fibres -Bekeart (1999) Steel Fibre Reinforced
supplied”, WP2 (Fibre Reinforced Concrete) Industrial Floors: Design in accordance with the
Deliverable Report 2.5, FP6 EU STREP Project Concrete Society TR34. Bakeart, Zwevegem,
EcoLanes (031530). Belgium, 44pp.
-Angelakopoulos, H. et al (2008b), “Concrete -Concrete Society‟s Technical Report No. 34
Mix Optimisation for Roller Compacted (2003,2010), Concrete industrial ground floors:
Concrete”, WP2 (Fibre Reinforced Concrete) A guide to design and construction.
Deliverable Report 2.4, FP6 EU STREP Project
-PWD, Manual for the design of the new
EcoLanes (031530).
pavements and strengthening overlays,(1989)
-Dellate N. (2004) Transportation Research
- Pilakoutas K, Neocleous K, CIV6235, Lecture
Record : Journal of the Transportation Board
series.
No.1896. Simplified Design of Roller-
Compacted Concrete Composite Pavement.
-Neophytou P. (March 2009),Puplic Work
Department , Design of the road using new
techniques to solve the defined problems
(Section of the old road to Galataria village –
F624, Pafos, Cyprus) ,Deliverable 7.2b
-Shommakhi A.A. (2000), Re-use of tyre steel
fibres in concrete construction. MSc (Eng)
Dissertation, Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering, The University of Sheffield, UK.
-Tlemat H. (2004), Steel fibres from waste tyres
to concrete: testing, modelling and design. PhD
thesis, Dept. of Civil and Structural Engineering,
The University of Sheffield, Sheffield UK .
-Neocleous K, Angelakopoulos H, Pilakoutas K,
Guaagnini M, „Fibre –reinforced roller-
compacted concrete transport pavements‟2011.
-Andreou Chr., (2009), Design and Analysis of
the Pavement Constructed by the Public Works
Department in Paphos, Cyprus, The University
of Sheffield Department Of Civil and Structural
Engineering Final Report.
-Romanian Standard NP 081- 2002:
TECHNICAL RECOMMENDATION FOR
373
Seismic Design and Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Yuanqing Qiu
ABSTRACT The aim of the present paper is to investigate aspects of seismic design and analysis
of reinforced concrete (RC) buildings in China in accordance with Wenchuan Earthquake, focusing on
the cast-in-situ slabs. The first part of the project is a literature survey and theoretical analysis. This part
aims to identify and appraise the state-of-the-art in the field. The second part of the project is analytical,
investigating the effect of key parameters using computer-modelling. As part of the research, the
general situation of Wenchuan earthquake was presented and the main type of damage to reinforced
concrete buildings was summarised. Moreover, the main reasons, particularly the effect of cast-in-situ
slabs, for the strong beam weak column mechanism were discussed. In addition, the differences
between the provisions of some modern seismic design codes regarding the slabs and strong column
weak beam design were highlighted. For the analytical part of the project, the seismic performance of a
reinforced concrete building damaged in Wenchuan earthquake was investigated through non-linear
static analysis by using SAP2000 software. The effect of slabs on the overall behaviour of the structure
was inspected and compared by using two different model groups, and results obtained from the
analyses were discussed in details.
1 INTRODUCTION formation of plastic hinges at the beam ends

while preventing brittle failure of the columns
Earthquakes, natural disasters of a generally
and the connections (Zhao et al., 2009).
unpredictable nature, are considered as one of
the most devastating events for human beings. In There are many reasons to lead to this kind of
spite of enormous efforts made towards destructive mechanism, the influence of cast-in-
improving the understanding of these natural situ slab on the expected failure mode strong
disasters and protecting built environment from column weak beam is one of the most important
their effects, the hazards generated by factors. Cast-in-situ slabs often have a good
earthquake, such as tsunamis, rock-falls and combined action with frame beams, which can
landslides, still cause huge fatalities and strengthen the flexural stiffness and capacity of
economic losses, which is the reality both for beams. The requirement that the reinforcement in
highly developed and less developed countries. It slabs paralleled with bars in beams may affect
is apparent that most of the losses in these the flexural capacity of beam ends was not given
earthquakes were due to the collapse of buildings clearly in Chinese seismic code (Ye et al., 2010).
and infrastructure, which attaches importance to
These issues were considered in order to produce
the study of seismic design for buildings.
this paper, which includes the following subjects:
The Wenchuan earthquake, which was measured the differences of the provisions of international
Magnitude 8, occured at 14:28:01 on Monday, seismic codes, the reasons for the mechanism
May 12, 2008 in Sichuan province of China, and the effect of slabs, the influence of slabs
killing an estimated 68,000 people. In this modelling to the global behaviour of a frame
earthquake, the typical damage of RC structures, under earthquake action.
strong beam weak column mechanism was very
common. According to the current Chinese
codes for the seismic design of buildings and 2 CHINESE AND WENCHUAN
concrete structures, capacity and ductile design EARTHQUAKE
is the basis for the earthquake design of
China, a country that has been historically
reinforced concrete moment resisting frames,
exposed to destructive earthquakes, is located in
consisting of weak-beam strong-column systems
one of the most active seismic regions of the
with beam-column joints capable of ensuring the
world: the world's largest orogenic belt, the
374
Himalayas, and the associated Tibetan plateau. capacity of beam ends in the joint (GB50011-
(Zhao et al., 2009). Moreover, there is a famous 2001, 2001).
south-north seismic belt, which the fault of
3.2 Reasons and Analysis
Wenchuan earthquake is located in the southern
part. The main reasons and factors for such a failure
mechanism can be summarized as follow: the
2.1 General information of Wenchuan
influence of slab on the bearing capacity and
Earthquake
stiffness of frame beam, the influence of non-
The general information, such as intensity structural elements, over-reinforced beams and
distribution, ground motion records, can be over strength of bars, the smaller ratio of axial
obtained, which can help us to know the basic compressive force to axial compressive ultimate
properties of this earthquake. capacity of column section in Chinese seismic
code, etc.
The regions seriously affected by the Wenchuan
earthquake were classified as zones of Intensity 7 The reasons above for the failure mode were
for seismic fortification in accordance with the discussed, as well as the most vital factor-the
seismic zoning map of the current seismic design effect of slab. Slab, as the flange of beam,
code (GB50011-2001, 2001), and corresponding improve the stiffness of the beam, which is
basic design peak ground acceleration is 0.10g or considered in the case of internal force
0.15g (He et al., 2010). It is notable that the calculation of structure under the vertical and
vertical component of the peak acceleration is horizontal load in Chinese concrete code. But,
nearly 632.9 cm/s2, which is the highest one , the problem that the bars in slab parallel the
followed by NS and EW component of the peak beam affect the negative moment of beam end
acceleration are 585.7 cm/s2 and 548.9 cm/s2, has not made specific provision (GB50011-2001,
respectively (Wang, 2008). 2001).
2.2 Damage Situation 3.3 Strong Column Weak Beam Design and
Codes Provisions
As previously mentioned, most of RC structures
displayed that most plastic hinges occurred at the Before the comparison of the codes, a
columns, especially the columns of the ground comparison between the old seismic codes and
floo (Zhao et al., 2009). In this earthquake, the the current one in China was shown that the
main earthquake damage of RC structures can be seismic code is improved gradually and the
summarized as follows: Infill walls damage, the contents considered in seismic design is more
collision damage in the deformation joints, floor and more comprehensive (TJll-78, 78; GBJ11-
slab and staircase destroyed, damage of primary 89, 89; GB50011-2001, 2001).
members, structural partial and full collapse.
And then, the design of strong column weak
beam between Chinese code and Eurocode 8,
was discussed, there was considerable difference
3 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
in analysis of structure, demand of strong column
3.1 Current Design Philosophy in China weak beam design, bearing capacity of structural
members and construction requirements
The current provisions about design philosophy
(Eurocode 8, 2004).
of strong column and weak beam in Chinese
seismic code can be expressed by the following
equations:
4 CAST-IN-SITU SLAB
For Grade 1, 2 and 3 frame, in the beam-column
4.1 Effective Width of Slab and Codes
joint,
Provisions
ΣMc=ηcΣMb (1)
In Chinese seismic code, there is no provision
For structure of seismic fortification intensity 9 about the effective width of slab which affected
and Grade 1 frame, frame beams. From the ACI318 and Eurocode 8,
it is notable that the effective of slab should be
ΣMc=1.2ΣMbua (2)
taken into account in seismic design of structure
Where ΣMc, ΣMb, ηc and ΣMbua are the sum of (ACI318-05, 2005; Eurocode 8, 2004).
design value of bending moment of column ends
4.2 Researches into Effect of Slab
in the joint, the sum of design value of bending
moment of beam ends in the joint, the increase Many studies demonstrate that the cast-in-situ
factor of bending moment of column, which slab will improve flexural capacity of frame
corresponding to Grade 1, 2 and 3 frame are 1.4, beams. And the effective width of slab, as a part
1.2 and 1.1 respectively, the actual flexural of beam, is taken into account in the process of
375
calculating the moment of resistance of beam 5.2 Modelling of the Comparison Structures
end, which is an accuracy method used widely.
In order to assess the influence of slab including
the reinforcement in slab parallel the frame beam,
five models with different effective width of slab
5 REDESIGN AND MODELLING OF A RC
as flange of beam were discussed through
STRUCTURE
pushover analysis in accordance with the
A two-storey RC building with the typical advanced seismic codes and suggestions of
damage strong beam weak column in Wenchuan professors. Therefore, the contribution from slab
earthquake was chosen as an original model, for is taken into account indirectly.
the building can provide the actual damage to
compare with the results of simulated models Model 1 was the selected building with the
and can reflect the defects of Chinese seismic original beam section. For model 2, 6 times of
code. slab thickness on each side of the beam was
5.1 Redesign of the RC Frame taken as the effective width of flange of beam.
Taking 3 times of beam width on each side of
Due to the lack of specific design data of the beam as the flange of beam for model 3. In
building, PK-PM software was used to redesign model 4, the width of beam flange is 8 times of
the building on the basis of the basic design data, the slab thickness on each side of the beam. As
in strict accordance with Chinese seismic code to model 5, the width of column increased by 3
firstly. The stair was not taken into account, and times of slab thickness on each side of the beam
the infill walls were not design but convert them was adopted.
to dead load on beams in the process of redesign.
Pushover analysis was applied to estimate the
The plan of the frame was arranged as shown in
expected plastic mechanisms and the distribution
Figure 5.1.
of damage. Lateral loads, which represent the
inertia forces, were applied and analysis was
performed in each load increment. A value of
target displacement, which is the maximum
displacement that the structure is expected to
experience during the design earthquake, was
considered. A pushover curve (base shear vs
control displacement) was produced from the
analysis.
The geometry was modelled as shown in Figure
5.2. The foundation was defined as fixed
supports. The different effective width of beams
can be achieved by the Section Designer
Figure 5.1: The plan of the frame (mm)
function of SAP2000. And the columns of the
All the slabs, beams and columns are cast-in-situ, frames are simulated by the default function of
the corresponding concrete strength are C30, Frame Section command, and then the details of
which the characteristic axial compressive columns sections were imported. The uniform
strength of concrete is 20.1MPa. The and triangular distribution is applied to the
longitudinal reinforcement and stirrups used are structure through the major direction, that is, X-
HRB335 and HRB235, which the characteristic direction in the models to perform analysis.
yield strength of reinforcement are 335MPa and
The built-in default hinge properties in SAP2000
235MPa separately.
from FEMA 356 were used to define the plastic
The total height of the structure was 7.2m. The hinges at beams and columns, which are M3 and
columns were 0.6m×0.6m section, consisting of P-M2-M3 respectively.
2Ф16, 2Ф20+2Ф16+2Ф16+2Ф16, 2Ф20 and
10mm stirrups. The beams were 0.25m×0.5m
section, consisting of 3Ф16+ 3Ф16 and 8mm
stirrups. And the slabs were 0.1m thickness,
consisting of longitudinal reinforcement
Ф10@180mm+Ф8@150mm, and transverse
reinforcementФ8@150mm+Ф8@150mm. The
concrete cover for beams and column are 30mm,
for slab is 15mm.
Figure 5.2: Geometry of the frame 3D model
376
According to the nonlinear procedures of
FEMA365, definition of the nonlinear load-
deformation relation is required, which can be
seen from Figure 5.3
Figure 5.3 Typical plastic hinge curve

(FEMA365, 2000) Figure 6.2 The details of Plastic hinge (Model 1,
Uniform distribution)
6.2 Discussion
6 ANALYSIS RESULTS
It is manifest that the base shear to the first
6.1 Pushover analysis yielding of model with original section beam was
Based on the pushover analysis, the relation much higher than that of other models with T
between roof displacement and base shear force section beam, which meant the capacity of model
was produced, as well as the location and 1 was stronger than that of models with T section
sequence of plastic hinges in the models and the beam.
failure mechanism. Notably, only the most Furthermore, during the models with T section
critical bay of the frame was taken for clear view beam, the base shear of first yielding increased
purpose, which was illustrated at the example in gradually while the width of beam declined.
Figure 6.1 and 6.2. Therefore, the slab and the reinforcement of slab
had no effect on the improvement of flexural
capacity of beams and whole structure.
In addition, due to the effective width of beam,
the stiffness of beams grew, however, had no
contribution to the entire frames. The base shear
under triangular case was smaller than the one
under uniform case.
It is worth mentioning that all of the comparison
models had one thing in common, which was that
all failure mechanisms of the frames were strong
column weak beam mechanism. The beam ends
failed whereas the plastic hinges at bottom of
Figure 6.1: Capacity curve (kN,m) (Model 1, columns remained stable at Life Safety state
Uniform distribution)
7 NEW MODELLING
7.1 Modelling of the new models
The new comparison group consisted of three
models, and was constructed depending on the
previous model 1 with original rectangular
section beams, and then the details of model I
were the same as it.
As to the model II, there was one thing should be
mentioned that the stiffness of interior beams and
edge beams was amplified by 1.5 and 2.0
respectively. This was done by SAP200 through
modifying the moment of inertia of edge and
interior beam section in vertical axis.
377
With respect to model III, the slabs were
modelled by a shell element in SAP2000, which
can simulated the in-plane and out-of-plane
behavior of the slab in order to obtain the real
response of frame under seismic load, and the
non-linear behavior of the materials were also
considered. The geometry was shown in Figure
7.1.
Figure 7.2 The details of Plastic hinge (Model

Figure 7.1 The geometry of model III III, Uniform distribution)
7.2 Analysis Results 7.3 Discussion
The non-linear pushover analysis was still The amplified stiffness of beam increase the
performed to the new models. The response and stiffness of whole structure, and then the
behavior of models were obtained, as well as the corresponding seismic response for the structure
details of plastic hinges, as demonstrated at the became stronger under earthquake, namely, the
example in Figure 7.2. frame was subjected to higher seismic load.
Therefore, the elements of building began to
yield in a relative smaller base shear.
The slab including the reinforcement in model
III increased the global stiffness and bearing
capacity of structure, and then resulted in the
structure could resist strong seismic loads and
limit the drift of structure. In addition, the effect
of slab and its reinforcement also affected the
failure mechanism.
Although the provision about the amplified
stiffness to beams had positive impact on
structure for some degree, there is still a big gap
Figure 7.1: Capacity curve (kN,m) (Model III, between the design model and the real model.
Uniform distribution) The model I and II, which were models without
slabs, failed with a beam failure mode, in sharp
contrast, the model III with slabs collapse in a
soft storey mechanism, which was the typical
strong column weak beam. Due to the impact of
slabs on beams, the flexural capacity of beams
may improve, and even exceed the bearing
capacity of columns at the corresponding joints.
Thus, the failure mechanism of building was
similar to the real damage situation, which the
plastic hinges occurred at column ends,
especially on first level of the building, whereas
the beams rarely failed.
However, in the process of modelling the slab,
the bars at both top and bottom of slab were
assumed to be continuous, while the top bars of
slab in the real frame were arranged at the
supports of beams with a certain length.
Therefore, the response and behavior of the
378
structure might experience a substantial change for the real response of the structure.
when it comes to the seismic load, which might
trigger a completely different failure mechanism
of the building. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere appreciation
to my supervisor Pr Kypros Pilakoutas for his
8 CONCLUSIONS
guidance, encouragement and constructive
The most favourable failure mechanism is criticism throughout the preparation of this
defined by the capacity design method in which dissertation.
the allowed development of plastic hinges is only
in beams and not in columns, which was adopted
by many countries, such as China. However, REFERENCES
based on the field investigates reviewed from the
ACI 318-05 (2005) Building Code Requirements
Wenchuan earthquake, the most common type of
for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-05) and
failure mechanism relating to RC structure was
Commentary (ACI 318R-05). The American
strong beam weak column mechanism, in sharp
Concrete Institute.
contrast with the expected mechanism provided
in Chinese seismic code. Eurocode 8. (2004). Design of structures for
earthquake resistance-Part1: General rules,
According to the results of the pushover analysis
seismic actions and rules for buildings.
in first model group, the most common feature is
that all failure mechanisms of the frames were FEMA 365 (2000) NEHRP Commentary on the
strong column weak beam mechanism. Guidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation of
Moreover, the maximum displacement of five Buildings. Federal Emergency Management
models was almost the same. Therefore, the part Agency, Washington, D.C.
of slabs, as the flange of beam, had no effect on
GB50011-2001 (2001) Code for seismic design
the capacity of beam and the type of failure
of buildings. Beijing: China Architecture &
mechanism of frames. In addition, the
Building Press.
reinforcement in slabs and the bars in beam,
might cause the total amount of rebar in T- GBJ11-89 (1989) Code for seismic design of
section beams was over reinforced, and then, the buildings. Beijing: China Architecture &
height of compression zone increased, which Building Press.
decreased the ductility of beams, and then the
He, C.R, et al. (2010) Earthquake
yielding strength of beams declined.
characteristics and building damage in high-
According to the results of the new model group, intensity areas of Wenchuan earthquake I:
the model III with slabs collapse in a soft storey Yingxiu town. Natural Hazards, Vol.57, p 435-
mechanism, which was the same typical strong 451.
column weak beam as the real damage situation.
TJ11-78 (1978) Seismic design code for
It is manifest that the slab including the
industrial and civil buildings. Beijing: China
reinforcement in model III increased the global
Architecture & Building Press.
stiffness and bearing strength of structure, and
then resulted in the structure could resist strong Wang, Y (2008) Lessons learned from the 5.12
seismic loads and limit the drift of structure, or Wenchuan Earthquake: evaluation of
even exceed the bearing capacity of columns at earthquake performance objectives and the
the corresponding joints in the real situation. importance of seismic conceptual design
principles. Earthquake Engineering and
However, although the shell element in SAP2000
Engineering Vibration, Vol.7, No.3, p 255-262.
can simulate the real behavior of slab, it took all
the bars as continuous, which was different from Ye, L, Lu, X and Li, Y (2010) Design objectives
the real case. In addition, the provisions about and collapse prevention for building structures
slab in Chinese seismic code, could postpone the in mega-earthquake. Earthquake Engineering
formation of plastic hinge at columns to some and Engineering Vibration, Vol. 9, No. 2, p 189-
extent. But there was still a big gap between the 199.
design model and the real model.
Zhao, B, Taucer, F and Rossetto, T (2009) Field
In addition, the base shear under triangular case investigation on the performance of building
was smaller than the one under uniform case, in structures during the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan
terms of base shear of first yielding occurred. It earthquake in China. Engineering Structures,
is evident that a number of different force Vol.31, No. 8, p 1707-1723.
distributions should be applied to frame in the
analysis, in order to obtain the best load pattern
379
SIMPLE MODELLING OF PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE OF COLUMN

SYSTEMS IN FIRE
Melissa Richards
ABSTRACT An understanding of progressive collapse in buildings has always been important. The
collapse of the World Trade Centre Buildings in September 2001 highlighted the gap in understanding
the mechanics of progressive collapse of multi-storey steel framed buildings in fire. To study steel
column behaviour in localised fires a simplified mathematical model consisting of a pinned column
with axial restraint is used. The axial restraint represents the cold structure above and the model is
extended to demonstrate the yielding of beams and adjacent columns and finally the collapse of the
frame. The model is validated using the non-linear research code Vulcan, developed in the University
of Sheffield. Localised fires in buildings results in the failure of the steel column; leaving it hanging off
the rest of the structure. This failure initiates the progressive collapse of the steel building. In frames
that lack alternate loads paths, the beams would yield and cause global failure of the frame. In another
scenario, the double spanning steel beams and composite slab will develop tensile catenary action. This
behaviour creates a more robust steel frame and enables the re-distribution of loads from the lost
column to the surrounding frame. The high catenary forces would however pull the adjacent columns
inwards and initiate another stage of progressive collapse. The progressive collapse of the frame from
the column failure in fire could be halted if the steel frame was braced and could re-stabilise the pull in
force.
1 FIRE AND PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE 2 OUTLNE

Understanding the behaviour of columns in fires
In September 2001 the World Trade Centre is very important when considering the
(WTC) 7 collapsed from fires. The collapse robustness of steel frames at elevated
started with the buckling of a critical interior temperatures. Research in the past concentrated
column. This column failure left over nine mainly on the behaviour of isolated columns.
storeys of the 47storey building unsupported and Determining progressive collapse mechanisms
started the vertical collapse of the building. however requires the consideration of column
Adjacent columns also failed after losing their behaviour in a complete building frame. The
lateral restraint or when they could not support critical buckling temperature and the ability of
the additional loads from the failed columns. the frame to re-stabilise are also very important.
This lead to the ultimate collapse of a steel
framed multi-storey building as a result of fire. In this paper a simplified method is used to
Knowledge of this incremental type of collapse determine if column failures caused by fires
has existed since 1968 with the partial collapse have the potential to spread, thereby causing
of the Ronan Point Tower. However the WTC7 progressive collapse of a building. The planar
was the first multi-storey steel framed building frame shown in figure 1 is tested in localised
that totally collapsed as a result of fire. fires that affect the central ground floor internal
column.
The American Society of Civil Engineers (2010)
defined this incremental type of collapse as
progressive and defines it as the spread of local 3 SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL
damage, from an initiating event from element to MODELLING OF COLUMNS
element resulting, eventually in the collapse of It is assumed that failure of the frame occurs in
an entire structure or disproportionately a large the three stages described below.
part of it.
380
UDL=35kN/m
3 X 3.6m
UKB 533x210x122
Heated UKC 254x254x89
column
4 X 9.0m
Figure 1 showing a 3 storey 4 bay planar model

3.1 Stage 1 At this elastic equilibrium the compressive force
In stage 1, the buckling or failure of a heated in the column at temperature is given by
column is considered. A simple model consisting
of a pinned column having an elastic spring is ̅
[ ]
proposed. The spring is placed at the top of the ̅
column and represents the axial restraint, K
provided by the upper-storey beams to this Where and the internal and
heated column. An externally applied axial external load ratio respectively (normalised with
force, P is applied at the same end as the respect to the axial stiffness of the column)
restraint. The axial displacement of the top of the
column is measured from its initial datum When the compressive force reaches the level at
position as shown in the figure 2. which the capacity of the column has degraded
to; the column will buckle. This capacity or
At ambient temperature of 20oC the compressive buckling load is derived from Euler as the
force, F in the column is given as critical force.
The column is heated progressively, uniformly When the column buckles it length starts
across its cross-section the rest of the frame is decreasing and its sheds its axial loads onto the
kept at an ambient temperature of 20oC. As the axial restraint springs. By the time the column
temperature increases in the column it expands reaches its original length “ ” the force in the
against its restraints (figure 3). These restraints column has reduced to 0. This temperature is
are provided by the cold structure and the known as the collapse temperature of the frame.
compressive force, F of the column increases. As
the steel is heated, its temperature increases δ
and its stiffness decreases with a modulus δ δ
degradation factor, Steel has a constant
coefficient of thermal expansion α, such that as Δ Δ
temperatures increase from 20oC to θoC the
natural length “ ” increases to ( (1+ α θ)).
In the elastic equilibrium stage the induced axial
force F carried by the column is proportional to
the vertical displacement such that
̅ ̅ Figure 2 showing stages of column failure

̅ [ ]
̅
l
Where ρ is the restraint factor is ,̅ and
̅
Figure 3 showing heated column expanding
381
3.2 Stage 2 ̅ ̅ ̅ )
(
After the column buckles, the lateral ̅ [ ]
displacement at the mid-point of the column is ( )
considered. It is observed that the column
destabilises immediately following its elastic 3.2.1 Beams yielding
buckling. After which the column then re-
stabilises at a higher buckling amplitude. The This sub-section considers the stable equilibrium
cubic stabilising equation for the lateral mid- state of large lateral deflections. In this state the
point deflection is shown in equation 5. column transfers its loads onto the more stable
̅ ̅ parts of the structure via the beams. In the planer
̅ [ ̅ ( )] frame, beams are attached to the top of the
̅
heated column. The ends of these beams will
move downwards as the column buckles as
Where, ̅ the lateral deflection at mid span shown in figure 4.
of column normalised with the column length,
̅ the applied load ratio, is given
as =Young’s elastic modulus
A=cross-sectional area of the column and
I=second moment of area of the column, Kyθ is
the yield strength reduction factor is
the plastic moment of the column normalised
with respect to Euler buckling formula Figure 4 plastic hinge development in beams
multiplied by length and ̅ is the restraint ratio As the beam sections above the heated column
normalised with respect to the Euler buckling are all of the same cross section and size, they
force ( ). will all develop moments, at their ends. This
moment increases as the deformation of the
This equation 5 either gives one or three real column increases. When the beam section has
roots for ̅ at any temperature . These roots fully yielded the plastic moment is equivalent to;
depend on the values of the coefficients of
equation 5 above. The single root is invalid,
since it is negative and as such the plastic
moments are in the wrong direction. The other Af= the area of an idealised beam section, =
pair of roots, when they exist are valid and can depth of the section and =yield stress.
be used to represent respectively (P.G. Shepherd, When the moments developed at the beam ends
2009):- exceed the plastic moment capacity of the
beams; plastic hinges will be generated at their
 Very small lateral deflection where the ends. A purely elastic spring cannot represent
column force is increased by its the beam yielding behaviour realistically. As a
restrained negative deflection it is result the restraint condition of the column
equilibrated to its plastic moment and changes. The beam yielding stage of this
becomes unstable at any increment in investigation is modelled using a pinned column
positive displacement. with an axial inelastic spring at the top end.
When the plastic hinges are formed at the ends
 Large lateral deflection where the of a beam, the vertical shear force carried by the
column force is decreased by the beam can be calculated as strength.
restrained positive deflection such that
the plastic moment can create
equilibrium and is known as the stable
equilibrium state.
Where is the resisting force of the beam that
The vertical displacement at the top of the supports the redistributed load from the column
heated column is seen to have a very cuspid and and is the plastic moment capacity of the
similar behaviour to the lateral displacement. considered beam and is the span of the beam.
The normalised plastic vertical displacement is As the deformation continues to increases, the
derived from Equation 6. force in the beam ends equals the resisting force
of the beam the beams will become plastic
and cannot sustain any more of the increasing
force. This conditions occurs when the
382
deformation is equated to the plastic vertical
deflection of the beam, . The plastic
deformation normalised with respect to the beam
span gives
* + * +
As such, the strength of the restraints becomes Figure 5 plastic hinge development in adjacent
the determining factor in whether or not the columns
beam yields. If the restraints are strong enough As columns are normally not designed to resist
the deformation of these beams will continue to these large axial forces, they are susceptible to
increase and catenary action is gradually failure. The European Cooperation in Science
activated. Large tension axial forces develop in and Technology (COST) in 2007 suggest that to
the deformed beams. avoid progressive collapse bracing systems and
3.3 Stage 3 alternate load paths that would promote catenary
action of the floor members should be provided.
The axial force in the beams is very high; this is The lateral restraint in the frame is now stiff and
especially true in the beams directly above the progressive collapse of the frame is halted. This
failed column. To consider this catenary action is shown in figure 6.
the beams connected to the heated column are
included in the extended simplified model. In
addition lateral restraints provided by the
surrounding bays are also included using
horizontal springs attached to the beam ends.
The spring at the top of the column is inelastic
whilst the lateral restraints are represented by
elastic springs. The displacement at the beam
ends associated with the axial force is shown Figure 6 braced frame resisting collapse
below.
4 NUMERICAL VALIDATION OF
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
, Using the above mathematical model equations a
discrepancy is observed between the buckling
temperatures observed in the mathematical
model and the Vulcan model. The mathematical
model fails at a much higher temperature than
The catenary tensile forces when resolved
the Vulcan model.
horizontally pulls the adjacent columns inwards.
The pull in force of the column is expressed as The 3.6m long 254x254x89UKC column has a
the relationship between the stiffness of the minor axis slenderness ratio of 55 and is
lateral restraint. This stiffness is provided by the essentially a stocky column. The Euler buckling
neighbouring columns or bracing systems and load increases resulting in the higher column
the horizontal displacement buckling temperature. However these stocky
columns essentially fail by localised squashing
as is observed in the Vulcan model. The stocky
The columns on the upper storeys will remain column failed when the cross section reached its
vertical if these beams on upper floors have critical temperature at which the strength in the
lower axial forces. If these upper floors possess a column has reduced. At this temperature, the
weak lateral restraint which is insufficient in applied load is greater than the axial
providing stability to the steel frame plastic compression resistance of the column. This
hinges will also be generated in the adjacent resistance is much lower than the Euler buckling
columns and the total progressive collapse of the load for this stocky 3.6m long column.
frame occurs. This is failure stage 3 as shown in
As was noted by Wang (2002) several modes of
figure 5 below.
failure exist for different columns in elevated
temperature conditions. The Vulcan model
considers a failure situation when the analysis
fails to obtain a convergent solution and attain
equilibrium. Therefore when the column reached
its squashing temperature, the column fails as
the software traces instability in the frame. On
383
the other hand the simplified mathematical from the remaining frame whilst carrying very
model gave the applied column load as a little axial force. The frame stability depends on
function of its Euler buckling load and as such the strength of the lateral restraints otherwise the
failure is attained when the load in the structure collapse of the column could mean progressive
becomes higher than the Euler buckling load not collapse of the frame.
observing that in a typical situation the column
would have failed earlier from localised
squashing.
Pre-buckling
In stocky columns the plastic bending moment
of the frame changes with the axial load and this
relationship between the bending moments in an Plastic Buckling
axially restrained column causes the unloading
process in the post buckling phase to be more
gradual. The bending moment and the axial load
accounts for the lower failure temperature.
5 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Figure 7 vertical displacement-temperature
From the typical steel framed structure studied a relationship of heated column
given level of restraint is analysed to assess the
performance of a steel column under localised
fire, up to and beyond buckling. This study
Plastic Buckling
considers the unstable process affecting the
frame as a process of snap through from a stable
condition of static balance into another Pre-buckling
condition.
5.1 General analysis
This analysis defines the buckling temperature
of the column as that temperature at which the
applied load in the column is equal to the Euler Figure 8 force-temperature relationship for
buckling load of that section. Total collapse of heated column
the frame occurs when the applied force in the
column has reduced back to its original value
and the column length becomes shorter than its
original length.
The ground floor column was heated uniformly
in a localised fire and expands linearly against it
restraints as shown in figure 7. These restraints Pre-buckling Plastic Buckling
are provided by steel beams framing into the
column. The column buckles at a very high
temperature at its Euler buckling load ratio. At
this relatively high temperature, the material Figure 9 horizontal displacement -temperature
properties of stiffness and yield stress of the relationship for heated column
column have degraded sufficiently such that the
buckling load ratio shown in figure 8 is quite It is noticed that the steel beams yield before the
small compared to what would be expected if the column and this is because the column had a low
column buckles earlier. This is the initiating load ratio. Shepherd (1999) noted that for a steel
event to the progressive collapse of the steel beam to yield during the initial column heating
frame in fire as the column has no buckling considerable deflection should occur. Strain
resistance and cannot support the floor above it. reversals takes place at the remote ends of the
beams increasing the moments at the ends that
After buckling, the column re-stabilises itself in are attached to the heated column.
a state where its shortening in buckling is greater
than its increase in length as a result of thermal The model compared the effect of providing
expansion. As such the column becomes shorter lateral restraints to the beams via columns and a
than its original length shown by the increase in bracing system. The results show that the weaker
the lateral displacement in figure 9. The column lateral restraints provided by the adjacent
sheds back some of its loads to the restraining columns was not sufficient in stabilising the
beams which are now double spanning (18m frame as the axial force in the beam was far
long) to redistribute to the stiffer surrounding greater than that provided by the column
frame. The column is now seen to be hanging restraint. Progressive collapse therefore occurs.
384
Provision of the bracing system in the outer 5.3 Important considerations
frame meant that stiffer lateral restraint is
1) While the steel column is being heated so
provided and as the beam deforms, the lateral
would the surrounding beams, slabs and
restraining force resist this pull in force until the
columns. These structural elements would have
frame is stable; as such the frame collapse is
lost some degree of their strength and stiffness
stabilised. (figure 10)
such that redistribution of the loads to them;
would lead to their failure and another sequence
of progressive collapses. Although, this paper
considers the failure of a steel column in
localised fires, the possibility of this occurring in
a real fire situation is unlikely.
2) If the fire location was some storeys up from
the ground floor the failure of the column and
the pull in failure of adjacent columns would
result in the floors underneath the fire location
being subjected to extra design loads and this
could lead to the failure of the lower section of
Figure 10 horizontal stabilising force of column the frame also.
(blue) and braced frame (red) 3) This paper assumes that rigidly fixed
connections exist between the elements and as
5.2 Mitigating collapse using inherent such does not consider that a failure sequence
robustness could also take place at a position of critical
cross section such as a connection.
Past research shows that the ultimate survival of
composite framed buildings in fire depends on
the ability of the concrete slabs to sustain their 6 CONCLUSIONS
loading whilst they are acting as tensile If the steel frame lacks robustness and the ability
membranes at very high deflections. At high to redistribute loads the failure of a single
deflections, the free edges of the slab try to column in fire either by buckling or squashing at
move inwards thereby forming a compression high temperature will make the steel frame
ring which equilibrates the frame. The unstable. Failure will spread to the steel beams
compression around the boundary balances the which then deform to a great extent and pull in
tension across the middle region thereby adjacent columns leading to the global collapse
compensating the absence of the column in the of the frame. The presence of stiff lateral
system. The tension forces that develop at these restraints in the steel bracing will re-stabilise the
high deflections will help in re-distributing the frame and halt the progressive collapse of the
load from the buckled column. It is the building.
development of these tensile membrane forces
across the middle region of the slab that plays a 7 REFERENCES
key role in collapse resistance of composite
slabs. This resistance of the floor is shown by American Society of Civil Engineers 2010
the increasing load capacity of the slab as the
vertical displacement of the model increases. M.P. Byfield and G. De Matteis , 2007. Robust
Shown in figure 11. Design of Steel Framed Buildings against
Extreme Loading. COST(European
Cooperation in Science and Technology) C26:
Urban Habitat Constructions under Catastrophic
Events Praha
P. G. Shepherd, I. W. Burgess, 2009. On The
Buckling of Axially Restrained Steel Columns
in Fire.
P. Shepherd, 1999. The Performance in Fire of
Restrained Columns in Steel Framed
Construction. Phd. Thesis. The University of
Sheffield
Figure 11 Load capacity of composite slab at
increasing displacement
Y. C. Wang. (2002) Steel and Composite
Structures Behaviour and Design for Fire
Safety. Spon Press
385
Thermal Mass: Fact or Fiction?

Mary E. Rodgers
Candidate MSc(Eng) Architectural Engineering Design
ABSTRACT Sustainability and in particular reduction of energy consumption are key issues in
building design. Thermal mass has been suggested as a means to achieve these by regulation of internal
temperatures. However, industry guidance on the subject tends to be contradictory. This paper
describes research into the principles of thermal mass and how it can be exploited in building design.
The results of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of four floor construction types
exposed to a diurnal heating and cooling cycle are presented. These indicated that heavier floor
constructions are more effective at storing heat than lighter floor constructions. The heat absorption
was found to be inversely proportional to floor depth. The results of thermal simulations of office
buildings featuring concrete floor slabs of varying depths are also presented. These showed that
shallow slabs result in higher internal temperatures. However, there was no significant temperature
difference for depths above 150mm. The results of thermal simulations featuring the four floor
constructions are also presented. These indicated that construction type has a negligible effect on
temperature. However, the heavier models exhibited lower heating loads than the lighter models,
suggesting that thermal mass may be more effective as a heating mechanism in temperate climates.
Overall, the CFD and thermal simulation phases of the project yielded contradictory results. Therefore
software development is required to provide a combination of these methods.
conductivity. Thermally massive materials must

1 INTRODUCTION
have high thermal conductivity to ensure that
Thermal mass is a measure of the capacity of a excess heat can be transferred into the material
material to store and release heat. This property and released when the building cools down.
can be utilised as a sustainable design concept to
Variations in the length of the heating and
regulate internal temperatures. Excess heat is
cooling cycle are significant. Physically massive
absorbed by the building fabric so the internal
materials can absorb heat for long periods of
temperature is reduced. The heat is released into
time without becoming “saturated”. This is
the spaces when the building cools down, for
necessary for buildings with high occupancy or
example overnight. The release of heat can be
during warm weather. Less physically massive
optimised by ventilation of the fabric. This
materials cannot absorb heat for long periods
absorption and release of heat provides
and are suited to buildings with a short cycle, or
regulation by smoothing the temperature profile
low occupancy.
of the spaces and reduces the heating and
cooling loads of the building. Admittance has been defined as “the ability of a
material or construction element to exchange
However, the subject is not as simple as
heat with a space when it is subject to cyclic
suggested. It is often implied that physical mass
variations in temperature.” (De Saulles, 2009)
is equivalent to thermal mass and that heavy
This provides an indication of the thermal
constructions provide better regulation of
properties of a material when exposed to a
temperature than light constructions. However,
diurnal cycle. However, admittance values are
a building with high physical mass will not
not static. Over long periods of time, such as a
necessarily perform well thermally and there are
working week, admittance values vary. As the
additional factors to be taken into account such
length of heating time increases, admittance
as thermal conductivity, cycle length and
values decline because the material becomes
admittance.
“saturated” with heat. The admittance of
Materials with high thermal conductivity absorb materials with high thermal mass declines less
heat more readily than those with low thermal rapidly because they can be exploited through
386
the longer time period and do not become Phase 2: A building thermal simulation analysis
“saturated” as quickly as materials with low was used to model an office building featuring
thermal mass. different floor constructions and occupancy
schedules. This provided an overall view of the
1.1 Main Theories
thermal performance of each construction type.
The main difficulty facing designers wishing to
employ thermal mass in their buildings is the
conflicting advice supplied by the construction 3 PHASE 1: CFD
industry. There are two main theories regarding
3.1 Procedure
the amount of thermal mass required.
Structural design calculations for a three-storey
1.1.1 Theory 1: Specified minimum of mass
office building were completed for four floor
This theory suggests that a structure does not construction types: reinforced concrete flat slab,
need to be physically massive to utilise thermal precast solid planks, precast hollow core planks
mass. A relatively small amount of physical and composite steel decking with concrete.
mass can have a regulating effect on internal
Ventilation rates and air temperatures were
temperatures. Theory 1 is suited to lightweight
calculated from industry guidance (CIBSE 1 and
construction types such as composite steel and
2, 2006-2008). Each model featured a one-metre
concrete systems as it suggests that shallow
wide vertical slice through the floor
concrete depths can provide temperature
construction. A service floor and a ceiling zone
regulation. The main argument behind this
both of 150mm depth were simulated above and
theory is that during a diurnal cycle heat will
below the floor construction respectively. Grid
only be absorbed into the outermost 75-100mm
and time dependency checks were performed to
of concrete. Any extra mass above this level
ensure accuracy of the solution.
will not be utilised and has no effect on the
overall temperature. (TATA Steel, 2011) Initially each construction type was modelled
under steady state conditions, with a ceiling air
1.1.2 Theory 2: High mass
temperature of 17°C, ensuring that the models
Theory 2 suggests that the more physically were examined from the same initial conditions.
massive a structure, the better its thermal Following the steady state simulation, the ceiling
performance and the more effective the air temperature was increased to 34.6°C to
temperature regulation. Construction types account for heat gains due to occupants,
featuring large volumes of concrete, such as equipment and lighting. This was applied to the
precast planks or reinforced concrete slabs, are floor construction via an eight hour transient
favoured by this theory. The main argument of simulation, to represent an office working day
Theory 2 is that most climates do not follow a from 9am to 5pm with full occupancy between
diurnal cycle. There may be times when extra these times. Following the heating phase, a three
mass is required, for example during a summer hour period with no heat gains or ventilation was
heat wave when the weather is warm for simulated. This stage represented the period
prolonged periods. (De Saulles, 2009) between occupants leaving the office and
activation of the service zone ventilation (i.e.
1.2 Summary
between 5pm and 8pm). Next, the service floor
The two theories outlined are promoted by inlet was activated. An inlet temperature of 12°C
competing industries and there is potential for was applied corresponding to the average July
bias in the guidance provided to the construction night time temperature for Sheffield. (Milne,
industry. It can be difficult for designers to Prof M, 2011) A transient simulation was
assess how to incorporate thermal mass to performed with cooling applied for eight hours,
greatest advantage. Therefore the aim of this from 8pm to 4am, representing night time
project was to decide which, if either, of the ventilation of the service floor.
theories is correct and how thermal mass can be
3.2 Results
used for the greatest benefit in building design.
3.2.1 Average concrete temperature
Figure 1 shows the average concrete temperature
2 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
for the four floor construction types during the
The study consisted of two phases: diurnal cycle. The plot indicates that the
composite model experienced the greatest range
Phase 1: A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) of temperature in the concrete and the flat slab
simulation was performed to enable detailed, model experienced the smallest concrete
accurate modelling of each floor construction
temperature range. This was expected because
type. This was used to understand how heat is
the flat slab model features the greatest concrete
transferred through the floor in each case.
depth and the composite model the least.
387
Figure 1: Average temperature in concrete during diurnal cycle
increased in temperature more rapidly than

Figure 1 shows a linear relationship between
predicted.
time and temperature in the concrete during the
heating phase. As the equivalent depth of 3.2.2 Average service zone temperature
concrete increases, the gradient of the trend-line
Figure 2 shows the average temperature in the
decreases by approximately the same factor as
service floor during the heating stage. The main
the increase in concrete depth between each
argument of Theory 1 is that concrete depths of
model. For example, the flat slab model is a
75-100mm are sufficient to make use of thermal
factor of 1.5 deeper than the solid precast model,
mass because during a diurnal cycle heat is
and the gradient of the heating plot for the flat
absorbed into the outermost concrete and extra
slab model is a factor of 1.5 shallower than that
mass above this depth is not utilised. The CFD
of the solid precast model. This trend applies to
results dispute this claim because heat was
the flat slab, solid precast and hollow core
transferred through the construction and into the
models. However, the composite model features
service floor in all cases. Even the flat slab
a steeper trend line than would be expected if the
model, with a concrete depth of 300mm,
gradient prediction was correct. The author
exhibited warming of the air in the service zone.
attributes this to the increased surface area of the
These results suggest that, during a diurnal
composite construction, which allows for more
cycle, heat can be transferred through the floor
heat to be absorbed and therefore the concrete
and into the service zone.
Figure 2: Average temperature in service floor during diurnal cycle
388
It is clear that the temperature in the service zone Schedule B featured full occupancy from 7am to
of the composite model increased to a much 7pm, Monday to Saturday inclusive.
greater extent than the other models. The final
service zone temperature for the composite 4.1 Effect of concrete depth
model was over 5°C greater than the next model,
i.e. the hollow core. Also, the heat was To simplify the problem and investigate the
discharged rapidly from the composite floor into effect of concrete depth on the thermal
the service zone after only approximately thirty performance of the floor construction, an initial
minutes. The temperature in the service zone thermal analysis was carried out using Integrated
increased by less than 1°C for the flat slab Environmental Solutions (IES) software (IES,
model, and this did not begin to occur until four 2011). Schedule A was applied to the building
hours had elapsed. This indicates that the over nine days and floor constructions
thermal storage capacity of the hollow core, comprising a reinforced concrete slab of 50-
precast and flat slab models is higher than that of 500mm depths were tested.
the composite model, due to the increased depth 4.1.1 Results
of concrete. Therefore the results are supportive
of Theory 2, which promotes the use of large The results show that the depth of floor
volumes of concrete to absorb and store heat. construction has a significant effect on the
internal temperature, as indicated in Figure 3.
These results have important implications for the The difference between the peak temperatures
specification of thermal mass in buildings per day is around 2.4°C, which is significant in
because any heat discharged to the service floor terms of thermal comfort. Internal temperatures
could increase the temperature of the floors for the shallow concrete depths (50-100mm)
above. The author suggests that it would be were noticeably higher than for the deeper
futile to incorporate thermal mass to absorb heat models. However, concrete depths of 150-
from one space, only for it to be almost 500mm showed negligible differences. These
immediately discharged into an adjacent space. results support the claims of Theory 1 that any
extra mass above a certain depth of concrete, in
this case 150mm, is unnecessary and will not be
4 PHASE 2 utilised during a diurnal cycle.
Phase 2 involved modelling an office building The weekend temperatures show more variation
featuring the four floor construction types. An than during the week, indicating that concrete
additional simulation was completed to assess depth has a greater effect on the internal
the effect of concrete depth on the internal temperatures when heat gains are low. This
temperature profile. Heat loads and ventilation suggests that the internal temperatures are most
rates corresponding to Phase 1 were applied and sensitive to the heat gains and are less affected
a simulation was completed for two occupancy by the construction depth. The results could also
schedules. Schedule A featured full occupancy indicate that the concrete is becoming saturated
from 9am to 5pm, Monday to Friday inclusive.
Figure 3: Average room temperatures for floor constructions of varying depth, subject to Schedule A
389
with heat during the week and therefore the difference was the slower decrease in internal
temperatures remain high, even for the deepest temperature following the midday peak for the
floor constructions. At the weekend the heat composite and hollow core models. This
gains are lower so the deeper floor constructions suggests that these lighter construction types
are able to absorb heat for longer. This is were less effective at removing excess heat gains
directly related to the admittance value of the swiftly than the heavy models. This could
floor, which varies with cycle length. potentially lead to higher or more prolonged
levels of discomfort particularly on warm days.
4.2 Effect of floor construction
Simulations were completed for an office Figure 4 illustrates that as the days progressed
building featuring four floor construction the internal temperatures increased. The same
systems; flat slab, precast solid, precast hollow result was observed for Schedule B. This could
core and composite. indicate that the floor construction was not
purged of heat before the next day began. This is
4.2.1 Results related to the declining admittance value as the
material became saturated with heat and could
Figure 4 shows the internal temperatures for the be resolved by improved ventilation of the
office building operating under Schedule A and
service floor.
indicates that there was little difference between
the four models. The same result was observed The main difference between the two schedules
for Schedule B. The results indicate that there is is the higher temperatures exhibited for Schedule
negligible difference in the thermal performance B. The maximum temperatures for Schedule A
of the floor construction types, although the were around 26-29°C through the occupied
hollow core model exhibited higher peak period. The corresponding temperatures for
temperatures than the other models. For example Schedule B were 28-33°C. This is due to the fact
on the first day of occupancy, 30th June, the that the occupied period for Schedule B is four
hollow core model had a peak temperature of hours longer than for Schedule A so the heat
26.8°C, around 1°C warmer than the next model gains are applied over a longer period. Therefore
(composite). While 1°C may seem a small longer cycle lengths lead to higher temperatures
difference, in the building services industry this and greater service zone ventilation rates may be
is significant and could be enough to activate or required to remove excess heat effectively.
deactivate the cooling system. However, this
The heavier constructions (flat slab and precast
could be caused by modelling inaccuracies due
solid) did not perform significantly better than
to the method used to specify construction
the lighter constructions (composite and hollow
elements in IES software. Layers of constant
core) for either schedule. Theory 2 claims that
cross section are used to build up each element
extra mass is required above the 100mm
so it is difficult to specify complex constructions
recommended by Theory 1 to absorb heat over
such as hollow core or composite. Another
longer periods (such as Schedule B). However,
Figure 4: Average room temperatures for the four floor constructions subject to Schedule A
390
the extra mass available for absorption in the in specifying either deep or shallow floor
heavier models appeared to have a negligible constructions, in terms of thermal performance.
effect as the internal temperatures were similar. The annual energy consumption figures
suggested that thermal mass may be more
4.2.2 Annual simulations
beneficial as a heating mechanism in cooler
Finally, annual simulations were performed climates, such as that of Sheffield, because the
featuring cooling systems to assess the energy heavier models exhibited lower heating loads
consumption of the buildings. The results than the lighter models.
showed that each building used 220-250MWh of
In summary, the results of the study were
energy. The cooling loads were similar, in the
contradictory and therefore it is not clear which
region of 1.7-2.2MWh, but differences were
of the theories are correct. The author suggests
observed in the heating loads. The composite
that this issue may be related to inaccuracy in
model required 70MWh and the flat slab model
modelling. While CFD software can be used to
required 42.4MWh of heating energy. The
examine very complex models, it is difficult to
author hypothesises that this result is related to
use on a large scale, such as a building. In
the climate of the building location; Sheffield.
contrast, thermal simulation offers less detailed
One of the benefits of thermal mass that is often
study, but can be used to model large buildings.
overlooked is the potential to heat spaces. Heat
The author suggests that a combination of these
gains absorbed in the day can be released at
types of software may be required to produce an
night. This warms the interior and reduces the
accurate representation of both the floor
need for heating, particularly in the morning.
constructions and the building. In this way more
Sheffield lies in the maritime temperate range of
accurate simulations could be carried out to
the Köppen Climate model meaning that the
assess the thermal performance of different
warmest month has an average temperature less
construction depths and types.
than 22°C, with around four months
experiencing average temperatures of 10°C or
above (Petersen, 2011). The author suggests that
6 REFERENCES
heating is a greater challenge in this climate than
cooling, so the main benefit of thermal mass is
the warming effect of releasing stored heat. The Chartered Institute of Building Services
Engineers (CIBSE 1) (2006) Guide A:
Environmental Design, 7th Edition; from Chapter 6
5 CONCLUSIONS Internal heat gains; Table 6.1: benchmark allowances
for internal heat gains in typical buildings, p6-3;
In conclusion, the results of the project were Published by Page Bros. Ltd, Norwich
contradictory. The CFD modelling indicated that The Chartered Institute of Building Services
the rate of heat absorption was inversely Engineers (CIBSE 2) (2008) CIBSE Concise
Handbook, 3rd Edition; from Section A1.4 Design
proportional to the concrete depth as the deeper
Criteria; Table A1.5: Recommended comfort criteria
models absorbed heat more slowly than the for specific applications, p3; Published by Page Bros.
shallower models. Other factors such as surface Ltd, Norwich
area were also found to be influential. The De Saulles, T. (2009) Thermal Mass Explained; from
claims of Theory 1 were disputed because heat “Measuring and optimising the benefits of thermal
was transferred through the entire floor mass”; p10; Published by The Concrete Centre
construction and into the service zone in all Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) (2011)
cases. The results suggested that the four floor Homepage; available at http://www.iesve.com/;
types behaved differently and that the heavier accessed 21st August 2011
Milne, Prof. M. (2011) Energy Design Tools –
models were capable of storing heat more
Climate Consultant 5; created by the Department of
effectively than the lighter models. This was Architecture and Design, The University of
highlighted by the significant increases in California, Los Angeles (UCLA); available at
temperature in the service zone for the lighter http://www.energy-design-tools.aud.ucla.edu/;
models. accessed 21st August 2011
Petersen, J.F. et al (2011) Fundamentals of Physical
In contrast, the results from the initial testing in Geography; from Appendix C, The Köppen Climate
Phase 2 indicated that extra mass above 150mm Classification System; p434
has no overall effect on internal temperature and Tata Steel (2011) Thermal mass: exposing the myth;
therefore supported Theory 1, which suggests from “What is thermal capacity?”; available at
that heat can only be absorbed into the outer http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/sustainability
layers of concrete. However, the second stage of /thermalmass/; accessed 12th August 2011
testing showed negligible differences between
the floor types and suggested that all of the
systems give the same degree of temperature
regulation. This indicates that there is no benefit
391
Use of FRP-Reinforcement to Improve In-Plane Shear Behaviour of

Confined Masonry Walls
Anselmo Saldaña Correa
Candidate MSc (Eng) Structural Engineering
ABSTRACT Masonry walls are bearing elements widely used around the world since they represent
an economic and easy type of construction. However the vulnerability of the walls to seismic action
makes them need structural reinforcement. FRP materials appear as an advantageous option for
reinforcement of masonry walls after satisfactory results obtained by applying them to concrete
elements.
This work evaluates the contribution of externally bonded FRP reinforcement on Confined Masonry
Walls when subjected to lateral forces in-plane. For this aim, a finite element model is developed in
order to perform linear-and no linear analysis of the walls. Special care is given to shear failure. Results
obtained from the modelling are compared with previous experimental reports.
A revision of the theoretical data for FRP strengthening design is carried out. Full procedure for
designing the shear capacity of walls is follow and comparisons are made between different design
guidelines. General results are presented in terms of lateral force – drift curves, stresses distribution,
maximum force and failure modes.
the shear behaviour of a particular type of

1 INTRODUCTION
structural elements called Confined Masonry
Masonry structures can be considered as the Walls when subjected to lateral forces in-plane.
oldest construction technique developed by the The aforementioned type of walls was selected
man and which has remained until the present as to give an innovative focus to the application
time with favourable performance. We can find of FRP reinforcement considering that must of
masonry elements, specially bearing walls, either the research carried out in the past is based on
in very old monuments or brand new simple masonry walls.
edifications, representing nowadays the most
A finite element model is developed and
popular material used in housing buildings.
available design guidelines are reviewed in order
However, different earthquakes around the to analyze the performance of the reinforcement
world have shown the vulnerability of masonry technique and the contribution of FRP to the
structures under lateral loads produce by seismic lateral load resistance of masonry walls. Results
actions. Masonry has by its own nature a poor obtained from the evaluation are compared with
resistance to tensile stresses and brittle previous experimental data in terms of load-
behaviour when failure occurs. Catastrophic displacement graphs, concentration of stresses,
events, including the lost of many human lives maximum loads and deformations.
have been the consequence of failing
constructions built by masonry walls without the
proper consideration of seismic design or 2 CONFINED MASONRY WALLS
because these structures have lost their bearing
Confined masonry consists of unreinforced
capacity over the time and have not been
masonry panels surrounded by reinforced
adequately rehabilitated.
concrete elements that are cast in place after the
The composite materials called fibre reinforced masonry is laid.
polymers (FRP) have shown a better
In Figure 2-1 it can be seen the minimum
performance than classic structural
requirements for the arrangement of confining
reinforcement techniques. The aim of this work
elements according to the recommendations of
is to evaluate the feasibility and advantages of
the Mexican code for Design of masonry
externally bonded FRP composites to improve
structures. (NTC-RCDF 2004)
392
Confined masonry has a very different mechanic  Foundation may have to be reinforced as
behaviour compared to non-reinforced masonry. well due to the increased weight of the
Moreover, when the number, placing and structure.
detailing of confining elements is adequate,  Steel corrosion.
confined masonry is an excellent material for  They take long time to be completed.
construction even in seismic zones.  The original appearance of the structure can
be easily affected.
The continuous development in technology of
materials is giving the engineers the advantage
of a wider selection of structural elements. It is
now possible to think about new structural
reinforcement materials which would allow an
optimized performance, shorter interventions
and more durability.
3 FRP-COMPOSITES AS
STRENGTHENING MATERIALS
It has been proven by many authors that the
Fig. 2-1 Minimum requirements for the retrofit of structures with composite materials
arrangement of vertical and horizontal confining increases the flexural resistance out-of-plane and
elements. (Elevation view) (NTC-RCDF 2004) the shear resistance in-plane. Thus, increased
ductility, ultimate strength and even stiffness can
The confined masonry wall technique gives be achieved. As a consequence, brittle behaviour
higher stability to the wall when subjected to and sudden failure, characteristic of masonry
lateral forces parallel and orthogonal to its plane. walls can be avoided. This technique is high-
Additionally, this mechanism can achieve stable value as a safety measure in structures.
hysteresis cycles to dissipate energy since the
longitudinal steel of the confining elements In general, satisfactory results have been
provide ductility to the system when required by obtained from the structural and economic point
seismic forces. of view using FRP as reinforcement due to their
low weigh- resistance relation, insensitivity to
corrosion, electromagnetic neutrality, despicable
2.1 Traditional Strengthening Methods for additional weight incorporated to the reinforced
Masonry Walls structure which means no increment in the
Talk about rehabilitation implies a process of inertial forces caused by earthquakes; despicable
recovery and upgrading of the original alterations to geometry and architecture, since
characteristics of a structure or constitutive the FRP reinforcement has a minimum
elements in order to increase its functionality thickness. Easy and quick installation (Fig. 3-1)
and structural safety against future demands. The makes unnecessary a long time restriction of the
most common reinforcement treatment consists buildings to be reinforced. Besides, the
on (Wenzel 1989): filling of cracks and voids by reinforcement of foundations is usually not
grouting; stitching of large cracks and other needed.
weak areas with metallic or brick elements or
concrete; application of reinforced grouted
perforations to improve the cohesion and tensile
strength of masonry; external or internal post-
tensioning with steel ties to tie structural
elements together into an integrated three-
dimensional system; and single or double-sided
jacketing by shotcrete or by cast in situ concrete,
in combination with steel
These methods provide improved stiffness and
strength, but have many limitations; some of
them are (Araiza 2006):
 Cause significant increments of the inertia
forces acting during seismic events due to the
Fig. 3-1 Comparison of installation process for
increased weight of the resulting system.
traditional and FRP reinforcement (RB-Conspro
2009)
393
3.1 Past Research about FRP-Strengthened 4.1 Review of Design Guidelines
Masonry Walls
Given the extension of the use of the FRP,
One of the first studies using externally bonded committees of professional associations around
FRP laminates (Schwegler 1994) showed that the world have developed recommendations of
the strengthened wall exhibited 50% to 300% design, techniques of application and
increases in ultimate strength and displacement. specifications for composite materials.
By comparing walls strengthened on one versus
In 2010, the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
two faces, it was observed that in the case of
Committee 440 published the ‘Guide for the
one-face application, the capacity was half of the
Design and Construction of Externally Bonded
two-face strengthening.
FRP Systems for Unreinforced Masonry
Regarding geometry and arrangement of Structures’ (ACI440 2010).
reinforcement it has been noticed that the load-
Similarly, In 2004 the National Research
carrying capacity increased when the thickness
Council (CNR) by the Advisory Committee on
of FRP laminates was increased (Hwee and
Technical Recommendations for Construction
Patoary 2004). Besides, fibre fabrics allow
published a Guide for the Design and
better adaptation to the irregular shapes and
construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems
textures of masonry specimens (Araiza 2006).
for Strengthening Existing Structures (CNR-DT
Test carried out in South America showed that
2004) which includes a special chapter about the
retrofitting with diagonal FRP bands is effective
design of masonry reinforcement.
and relatively economic when compared with
total reinforcement (Luccioni and Rougier Total capacity of the strengthened wall, as well
2011). as the contribution of each of the parts
comprising the strengthening system (namely
It was observed that if the crack was tight before
masonry units and FRP) were calculated
retrofitting, the capacity increased significantly
according to the abovementioned guidelines to
over the reference value; otherwise the capacity
obtained theoretical values of resistance.
was approximately equal to the initial one
(unreinforced) (Nagy et al. 2006). Similarly, it The Mexican code for design of confined
was shown (Cuzilla et al. 2011) that given the masonry structures (NTC-RCDF 2004) was used
same amount of FRP, the resistance capacity together with the above mentioned guidelines in
increment is higher for unreinforced masonry order to obtain a second comparison for masonry
walls with lower strength. capacity.
Finally, experimental results on in-plane
behaviour of full scale tuff masonry panels with
different FRP strengthening pattern under 4.2 Finite Element Model
monotonic shear-compression loading (Marcari In order to save time that could be spent in
et al. 2007) showed that large effective axial laboratory tests and to avoid expenses, adequate
stiffness of the FRP strips changed the original numerical models can be used. In fact, they
failure mode from shear to a shear/flexural provide a compelling contribution in assessing
mode. Additionally, the elastic stiffness of FRP and predicting the performance of structures.
strengthened panels was not substantially
modified by the external reinforcement, meaning A macro model of the masonry wall was
that FRP contribution starts after cracking is developed using the commercial software
presented. Abaqus. Masonry was defined by a
homogenization of its constituents’ properties.
The idealized wall was assumed to behave as an
isotropic element. For this purpose, it was used
4 STUDY CASE
the ‘Concrete’ material model based on the
The aim of the present work was to analyze the smeared crack approach included in Abaqus’
contribution of FRP-Strengthening to the shear library. The model was subjected to a simulated
capacity of confined masonry walls subjected to monotonic lateral load during a static non-linear
lateral force. For this purpose, two analyses were analysis (Fig. 4.2-1).
carried out:
Two versions of the model and meticulous
1) Theoretical behaviour of the FRP- calibrations were needed in order to obtain the
Strengthening according to Design best approach which was compared with the
Guidelines. experimental data in terms of lateral force – drift
2) Numerical analysis based on a Finite curves. After obtaining a representative
Element Model (FEM) developed in Abaqus. performance of the wall, FRP reinforcement was
applied been consistent with the laboratory test
Both analyses were compared with experimental
by 120 mm width diagonal elements covering
data obtained from (Velázquez et al. 2007).
394
33% of the wall surface. Different thickness was
modelled to obtain a parametric comparison of
this variable.
Fig. 5.1-2 Contribution of FRP to the shear

resistance
In Fig. 5.1-2, it can be observed the contribution
of FRP to shear strength of the wall. The
American guidelines show a value closer to
twice the one given by the masonry, while the
Fig. 4.2-1: Loading device for confined masonry Italian guidelines give about the same values for
walls. (Velázquez et al. 2007) FRP and masonry contribution. The latter could
be related to the fact that Italian guidelines are
based on an anchorage length which is not well
5 RESULTS defined in the data provided.
Results obtained from the study case are
reported in two sections: Design and Modelling.
5.1 Design
Masonry strength calculated by the previously
mentioned guidelines is showed in Fig. 5.1-1.
The strength values range from 2150 kg
(Mexican Code) to 2560 kg (Italian Guidelines).
Mexican and American guidelines give about the
same values.
Fig. 5.1-3 Lateral Strength of FRP-Reinforced
Walls
A graphical comparison of the total shear
capacity of strengthened walls is given in Fig.
5.1-3. The values are presented as resulted from
calculation following the American and Italian
guidelines, and a combination of both with the
Mexican code.
Considering a lateral load of 13230 kg for which
the test was stopped (Velázquez et al. 2007), the
values obtained above were conservative but still
Fig. 5.1-1 Contribution of masonry to the shear representative if design reduction factors are
resistance taken into account.
Considering that the masonry strength for plain
panels corresponds to the crack strength in
5.2 Modelling
confined panels (approx. 4480 kg; Velázquez et
al. 2007), the values are very conservative. For the model development the first step was to
achieve an accurate reproduction of the un-
strengthened masonry wall. Again, load – drift
curves were taken as comparing reference
between experimental and model values. Fig.
5.2-1 and 5.2-2 show the best reproduction
achieved for the masonry wall behaviour.
395
major concentration of stresses which is
likely to fail (actually failed during lab test).
Fig. 5.2-1 Load – drift comparison for un-

strengthened masonry wall Fig. 5.2-3 Direction of in-plane principal stresses
in FRP-strengthened masonry wall
Fig. 5.2-2 Load – drift comparison for FRP-

strengthened masonry wall
In Fig. 5.2-2 can also be noticed a parametric
comparison where thickness of FRP strip is the
variable. According to the plot, for higher
thickness, a greater strength is achieved. On the
other hand, ductility is reduced with strip
thickness increment.
The models developed could not reproduce the
full plastic behaviour of the wall. Nevertheless, Fig. 5.2-4 Major concentration of stresses and
they were able to showed important aspects of failure zone.
the strengthening contribution:
 FRP contribution - Comparing Fig. 5.2-1 and 6 CONCLUSIONS
5.2-2, it is noticeable that the elastic branch
is basically the same before and after FRP-strengthening was found to be an
strengthening. This characteristic confirms advantageous technique to increment the shear
the statement that before cracking, masonry capacity of Confined Masonry Walls when
is taking practically the full stress caused by subjected to lateral forces.
the external load. On the other hand, post
Theoretical values obtained from calculation
peak behaviour of the wall is fully dependant
following the design guidelines available were
on the reinforcing system.
found to be conservative but still representative
 Stresses path – In Fig. 5.2-3 it is clear how when compared with the experimental ones. The
stresses are developed within the wall, where highest accuracy was achieved by the
yellow rows shows compression and red calculations performed following the
rows (orthogonal) tension. On this basis, the recommendations of the American guidelines.
model developed gives an idea about the
optimum arrangement for the FRP which Regarding the modelling process, even when the
according to guidelines should be used in finite element model developed was not able to
tension only. reproduce the full behaviour of the FRP-
 Maximum stresses – Fig. 5.2-4 confirms the strengthened wall (due to the intrinsic limitation
ability of the model to show the zone of of the software and the poor experimental data
396
available for a detailed calibration), important Hwee, K. and M. Patoary (2004). "Strengthening
information was gained from it. For instance, the of Masonry Walls against Out-of-Plane Loads
model was able to reproduce: concentration of Using Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
stresses hence most likely failure mode; Reinforcement." Journal of composites for
geometric factors influencing the strength construction © ASCE.
achieved i.e. FRP thickness; stress path within
the wall, hence optimal reinforcement Luccioni, B. and V. C. Rougier (2011). "In-plane
arrangement to be applied. retrofitting of masonry panels with fibre
reinforced composite materials." Construction
According to the model developed, for equal
and Building Materials 25(4): 1772-1788.
distortion of plain and FRP-strengthened walls, a
strength increment of about 80% was achieved.
Marcari, G., G. Manfredi, et al. (2007). "In-plane
This increment is confirmed by the experimental
shear performance of masonry panels
data.
strengthened with FRP." Composites Part B:
Finally, it is worth mentioning that due to Engineering 38(7-8): 887-901.
particular properties of masonry, it is important
to perform further experimental work in specific Nagy, G., V. Stoian, et al. (2006). "In-plane
masonry applications (i.e. confined walls). Then, Shear Retrofit of Masonry Walls with Fibre
it will be possible to obtain a better calibration of Reinforced Polymer Composites. Experimental
numerical models and detailed parametric Investigations." Buletinul Institutului Politehnic
studies in order to optimize the strengthening din Iasi. Lourenço PB. Continuum model for
system. masonry: parameter estimation and validation.
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS NTC-RCDF (2004). Normas técnicas

complementarias para diseño y contrucción de
Thanks to the National Society of Seismic estructuras de mampostería, Gaceta Oficial del
Engineering in Mexico for the kind attention Distrito Federal.
showed providing the information used as study
case in the present work. RB-Conspro (2009). from
A special acknowledgement to CONACYT for http://rbconspro.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/refo
the economic support provided. rzamiento-estructural-con-fibras-de-carbono/.
It is appreciate the help and advice provided by Schwegler, G. (1994). Strengthening of masonry
Dr Maurizio Guadagnini. with fibre composites, Federal Institute of
Technology, Zurich, Switzerland.
REFERENCES Velázquez D, J. I., B. Quinónez E, et al. (2007).
ACI440 (2010). Guide for the Design and Comportamiento ante cargas laterales de muros
Construction of Externally Bonded Fiber- de mampostería rehabilitados con GFRP. XVI
Reinforced Polymer Systems for Strengthening Congreso Nacional de Ingeniería Sísmica.
Unreinforced Masonry Structures. A. C. 440: 46. Guerrero, Mexico.
Araiza, G. G. (2006). "Estudio Experimental de Wenzel, F. (1989). "On the state of structural
Técnicas de Reparación y Refuerzo de repair of masonry." Computational mechanics
Mampostería con materiales compuesto." XV publications, Birkhauser: 83-94.
Congreso Nacional de Ingeniería Estructural;
Jalisco, Mexico.
CNR-DT (2004). Guide for the Design and

Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems
for Strengthening Existing Structures. C. A. C.
o. T. R. f. Construction. Rome.
Cuzilla, R., L. GP, et al. (2011). Influence of

FRP reinforcement layout and geometry on
different masonry brick work. 1st Middle East
Conference on Smart Monitoring, Assessment
and Rehabilitation of Civil Structures SMAR.
Dubai, UAE.
397
SCREENS IN CSO CHAMBERS

Pelin Sertyesilisik
MSc(Eng) Environmental Management of Urban Land and Water
ABSTRACT This study has focused on a subject which a critical part of water management and
control. This subject is combined sewer overflow that is a key method to protect the watercourses.
Furthermore, in this research, its major device is that screen in the chamber is analysed. Info works CS
11.5 software has been used to investigate the performance of a CSO Chamber to Incorporate Screens.
Therefore, various rainfall events have been simulated with different weir discharge coefficient values.
1 year, 5 year and 30 year return period and 30, 60 120 minutes duration of rainfall values were used
for the rainfall events. The main aim is to observe the impact of screen on flow and the effect of
rainfall event on water level in the chamber. Moreover, data from this modelling has been used on
comparison to calculated data. As a result of this, rainfall intensity, and flow against time graphs,
various discharge coefficient data and rainfall events flow data against time, spill flow and water level
against time graphs have been illustrated to investigate the screen blinding by changing the weir
coefficient.
1 INTRODUCTION In this research, modelling approaches try to

create some basic results to help a design
In present, urban water management subject has
convenience chamber with screen in a combined
a critical importance. Cities become crowded
sewer overflow. Info work CS 11.5 and WAPUG
therefore wastewater control needs to be
guide are leader methods to determine screens in
developed. In particularly, in rainy days this
combined sewer overflow and model various
becomes harder because to avoid flooding is a
considerations` impact on the system.
main target. To control both waste water and
storm water, sewer system is used. From past to Observations of this research are based on the
present, one of the popular sewer system is rainfall events` and the weir discharge
combined sewer system. Wastewater and storm coefficient`s relationship with flow management
water are conveyed in the same pipe in the and screen blinding approaches.
combined sewer system. As a result of this , even
2 The Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs)
it is a cheaper way to control urban water, it
opens to improvements. Especially, as rain The main aim is to reduce the flooding in the
intensity is high, flow reaches above the pipe combined sewer system (Myerscough and
capacity. This causes combined sewer overflows Digman, 2008, p.1). Combined sewer system
and a huge risk for receiving watercourses conveys industrial, domestic wastewater and
because all water cannot transport to the storm water in the same pipes. Pipes are mostly
treatment plant. Some of the water gives to the convenience for dry weather flow. In rainy days,
river without treating. The risky situation is that the overloading occurs. To manage this flooding,
if the waste water reaches to the receiving flow is divided to two ways. One of the is
watercourses, aesthetic and water quality continuation flow and it is sent to treatment
problems occur. Moreover, if this water is a plant. The other one is spill flow and it is sent
source for drinking, or fishing this is a harmful either storage tank or directly discharge point of
for beneficiaries. Therefore, environment agency receiving water. The flows can be seen from
published a guide to evaluate the range of Figure 2.1. This dividing is done by the weir in
contaminant. This guideline consisted of the chamber. Therefore, weir dimensions have a
standards of discharge. In this point, spill water critical role in this situation
flow and volume are crucial parameters.
Therefore, combined sewer overflow devices
have a key role to spill flow and continuation
flow character.
398
Figure 2.1.1 A basic shape of the WaPUG Side
Weir CSO Chamber (WaPUG Guide the Design
Figure 2.1: Typical flow components of a of CSO Chambers to Incorporate Screens, 2006).
combined sewer overflow (CSO) chamber 2.2 Screens in the CSO Chambers
(Harwood and Saul, 2001).
As a mentioned before, CSO screens are used to
2.1 Combined Sewer Overflow Structure protect the receiving watercourses from gross
Harwood and Saul (2001) have noted that CSO`s solids. As a result of this, meshes or perforated
chambers key objective is to relief the flow in plates can be convenience to avoid solids in
the sewer system in consequence the chambers sewer system. There are two main screen types
mastered to convey the overflow to treatment that are powered screens, self – cleansing screen
plant or discharge to the watercourses. A basic or static screen. Meshes or perforated plates are
CSO chamber shape can be found at figure 2.1.1. suitable for screens to avoid solids in sewer
The most important consideration is that flow system. Therefore, blocking or blinding cannot
condition. The flow must be subcritical in the be seen in the system. (WaPUG Guide the
chamber. In addition to this, another significant Design of CSO Chambers to Incorporate
consideration is that water in the downstream Screens, 2006). According to WaPUG guideline
sewer should not return. (WaPUG Guide the (2006) screen place in the chamber is also very
Design of CSO Chambers to Incorporate important. This guide implicates some advices
Screens, 2006). To protect system from for the better performance. Firstly, screen can be
overflow, water level should be estimated from settled horizontally mounted on the Wet Side of
M1 30 year spill design flow (WaPUG Guide the the Weir. Secondly, screen can be placed on the
Design of CSO Chambers to Incorporate Dry Side of Weir .
Screens, 2006). To have an ideal chamber, there 3 Simulation and Modelling Approaches of
are some design approaches. Inlet diameter is the Combined Sewer system Performance
determinant consideration during the design.
Firstly, chamber width is a key parameter for the To monitor combined sewer overflows` impact
chamber performance. Chamber width should be on the environment, some modelling approaches
at least 1.4Din. Inlet length must be no lower are developed. Thus, watercourses can be saved
than 0.4Din. Outlet length can be assumed that it from contaminants. By using these methods,
is smaller than 1,5 Din but should be at least events can be analysed, samples can be
more than 1.5m inside the chamber. In addition, examined, pollution can be managed and some
at the downstream part, the length between weir implications can be done. The main aim of these
and chamber wall must be no less than Din but studies is to reduce contaminant in the sewer
not smaller than 1m (WaPUG Guide the Design system and the receiving water.
of CSO Chambers to Incorporate Screens, 2006). 3.1 Info works CS Software
A basic chamber consists of screen, weir and
scum board. Weir separates the overflow, solid While this research is done, Info works CS 11.5
separation is done by screen and scum board is software programme is used for modelling.
placed to inhibit solids movement over the weir. Because this software gives opportunities to
Lastly, there are three essential chamber types. observe combined sewer overflows with various
These are High Side Weir Chamber, Stilling rainfall events. Furthermore, different weir
Pond Chamber and Hydrodynamic Vortex coefficients’ influence can be observed on
Separator (WaPUG Guide the Design of CSO combined sewer overflows and results can be
Chambers to Incorporate Screens, 2006). analysed. As a result of this, flows and depths
graphs are illustrated and sewer system could be
simulated by various modelling approaches.
399
4 Modelling of Catchment
This project work to be based on network:
“Sheff Uni#5 - For Project - less than 100
nodes”. Figure 4.1 is illustrated some properties
of this CSO system.
Graph 4.2: Cd 0.6 and M1-120 inflow pipe

rainfall intensity
Figure 4.1 properties of CSO geo plan
The modelling and simulation approaches are
applied to the inflow, continuation flow and spill
flow pipes lines for each weir discharge
coefficients. These are Cd 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9.
Furthermore, each coefficient is used for various
rainfall event and durations. These are 1 year , 5
years and 30 years return period for each 30
minutes, 60 minutes and 120 minutes duration
for rainfall. Therefore, flow against time graphs
and water depth against to discharge coefficient
graphs, and spill flow volume against to rainfall
events graphs can be plotted and all these
different situations can be monitored.
Some rainfall intensity and flow against to time
graphs are illustrated by Infoworks CS 11.5 Graph 4.3: Cd 0.6 and M30-120 inflow pipe
software. These graphs are modelled from inflow rainfall intensity
pipe as the discharge coefficient (Cd) is 0.6.
Rainfall events are modelled as M1-30, M1-120 The grapes above illustrate some of the
and M30-120. It can be seen from these graphs significant characteristics of the rainfall intensity.
that rainfall intensity and flow behaviour. From graph 4.1, this can be seen that the
maximum rainfall intensity is nearly 60 mm/hr
and the time is between 00:00 – 00:30.
Maximum flow is nearly 0,45 m3/s. From graph
4.2, this can be mentioned that the highest
rainfall intensity is approximately 27 mm/hr and
the time is between 00:00 – 02:00. The peak
flow is about 0, 4 m3/s and time duration is
between 00:00 – 02:00. As it can be seen from
graph 4.3 that the peak rainfall intensity is
approximately 64 mm/hr and the time is between
00:00 – 02:00. The peak flow is approximately
0, 58 m3/s and time duration is between 00:00 –
02:30 in M30-120 rainfall event.
To sum up, when we analysis rainfall intensity
there is a significant reducing from M1-30 to
Graph 4.1: Cd 0.6 and M1-30 inflow pipe M1-120, while time duration become expanded.
rainfall intensity On the other hand, as the rainfall return period is
changed from 1 year to 30 year, peak flow
increases sharply.
400
The main reason to illustrate various discharge continuation flow. Also to find spill flow volume
coefficient is to observe impact on the spill flow (m3). To do these some equations were used.
at the weir. In addition, the reason of using
These are
screen is to manage solid deposition in the
chamber, and spilling to the receiving water. Inflow Equation
When discharge coefficient is altered the
qin=qc+qs+AdH (1)
behaviour of flow and spill volume in the system
can be indicated. As a conclusion, range of the {((qini+qini+1)/2)*dt}={((qci+qci+1)/2)*dt}+
Cd values and spill volume relationship can be
{((qsi+ qsi+1)/2)*dt}+AdH
examined for the same rainfall events over the
CSO weir. Continuation flow equation is
Next step of simulations is to have spill flow and Qc=Cd*Ao*√2gH (2)
volume graphs for each rainfall events. These
In this equation Cd is the orifice discharge
graphs are illustrated from outfall pipe.
coefficient that is accepted value as 1(m3/s).
According to these modelling of graphs, flows
begin at M5-120 rainfall event. It is about 0, 116 Ao is the CSO area. Its equation is (π*r2)/4, r is
m3/s. The highest flow is at the M30-120 and 0.15 m (diameter).
flow volume is nearly 1236 m3. The highest spill
volume is at rainfall event M30-120, coefficient H is the depth of the CSO. The dimension is
is 0.7 and it is 1238.508m3. The lowest spill meter.
volume is seen as coefficient is 0, 6. Continuation flow equation is
The last step of simulations is to have inflow and Qs=Cd* (2/3)*L*√2g *HW 3/2 (3)
spill flow graphs for all coefficients but for only
M5-120 and M30-120 rainfall events. These Cd is weir discharge coefficient. During this
figures provide the correlation for the entire modelling it is accepted as 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9.
discharge coefficients. It can be said from graphs L is the weir width. It is 3.6 m
is that spill flow is nearly the same for discharge
coefficient and it is 0.116 m3/s. While spill Hw = H –weir length. (4)
volume is the maximum at M5-120 and Cd is 0.9 Weir length= manhole bottom- crest level. It is
with 173.613 m3. But also maximum spill found 0.5m.
volume is at M30-120 and Cd is 0.7 with
1238.508 m3. It can be observed from modelled Storage equation is Ao*dH. (5)
graph from inflow pipe at M5-120, is that inflow Ao is the same as continuation flow CSO area,
is stable for discharge coefficient and it is Dh is (Hi+1-Hi)
0.503m3/s, inflow volume is 1954.399 m3. From
graph which is modelled from inflow pipe at These parameters are used to analysis of main
M30-120, observes that inflow is stable for considerations.
discharge coefficient and it is 0.586m3/s, inflow •Analysing spill flow volume correlation with
volume is 3095.531 m3 at discharge coefficient Rainfall event and discharge coefficient
is 0.9.
As a summary, when rainfall event becomes
higher, spill flow and volume shows increasing,
but their highest values are not at the same
discharge coefficient. On the other hand, inflow
has also the same behaviour for rainfall events,
while, M30-120 rainfall event, inflow volume
shows significant differences after Cd 0,7.
4.1 Sensitivity Analysis
Various combinations are simulated during the
sensitivity analysis by altering discharge
coefficient and determining different rainfall Graph 4.1.1: spill flow volume- rainfall event Cd
events. Some parts of these modelling are done 0,6
by the excel document. As a result of this, Info
work CS software results and excel document
results can be compared with each other’s.
The reasons of using excel programme is to
calculate water level, and spill flow and
401
Graph 4.1.2: spill flow volume- rainfall event Cd
0,9 Graph 4.1.4 Water level- TIME (seconds)
These two above graphs (graph 4.1.1, and 2) are Graph 4.1.4 indicates to sum up because it
plotted from spill volume and (M1-30,60, 120, illustrates different duration of rainfall and
M5-30.60,120 and M30-30,60,120) rainfall discharge coefficient data. Therefore, the
events data for 0.6 and 0.9 discharge coefficient. relation between rainfall duration and discharge
The reason for plotting these graphs is to coefficient can be analysed. It can be observed
analysis rainfall events` s effect on the spill flow that there are two main groups in this graph. The
volume when discharge coefficient is stable for wider one is M1-120 and the thinner one is M1-
each graph. This can be said that M30-30,60, 30 group. This is obvious that M1-30 Cd 0,6 has
120 rainfall events line have bigger and longer the biggest water level value that the others and
line than M1-30,60,120 and M5-30,60,120. This M1-120 Cd 0,9 has the lowest water level value.
can be observed that rainfall event parameter has M1-30 Cd 0,6 has the bigger value than M1 -120
more impact on the spill flow volume than Cd 0,6. In addition to these, M-120 Cd 0,9 has
discharge coefficient. the longest line. Moreover, M1-30 group and
M1-120 group reach at the same time their peak
•Analysing water level correlation with rainfall water level value whereas, M1-120 group
event and discharge coefficient reached their peak value after M1-30 group had
reached.
•Analysing and comparison of Info works
software results and Excel calculation results
Graph 4.1.3: Water level- M1-30,60,120 rainfall

event Cd 0,6
This graph is plotted from water level and
rainfall event data. While the graph is simulated,
rainfall return period is 1 year but rainfall
duration is changing (30, 60 and 120 minutes) Graph 4.1.5 Water level ( info works CS- Excel)
and also discharge coefficient is fixed at 0,6. M1-30, 120 rainfall event for Cd0,6
Therefore, the influence of duration on the water
Graph 4.1.5 is plotted from info work CS
level can be analysed. This is obvious that 120
software and excel water depth data when the
minutes rainfall duration`s line has the longer
discharge coefficient is fixed at 0,6 and return
time period when water level is considered. In
period is stable at 1 year. In this graph, M1-120
addition, water levels are very close each other.
shows longer time period and reached later peak
Moreover, 30 year return period line reaches
water depth value. Importance of this graph is
peak water level value early than others.
that this graph is a proof of excel document
results and info works results show similar
402
behaviour. They reach at the same time peak rainfall events connection with spill flow. Spill
water depth value. flow began at M5-120 for each discharge
coefficients but Cd 0,9 had the biggest spill flow
volume at M5-120. After that, the correlation
between discharge coefficient and return period
were observed. It is examined for all discharge
coefficient. M30 return period had the biggest
spill flow volume (m3).
In addition, water level data graphs were plotted.
First step was water level against time graphs
were plotted as the Cd is fixed at 0,6. When
return period was the same and M1-120 had the
greatest time period while M1-30 had the highest
water level. As duration of rainfall was fixed at
30 mm. from M1-30 to M30-30 time period
Graph 4.1.6 Water level (info works CS- Excel)- became longer and but M30-30 had the highest
M30-120 rainfall event for Cd0,9-0,6) water level. The M30-120 graph had the
biggest water level value and longest time
Graph 4.1.6 is consisted of water depth data of period. Another observation is for the water level
M30-120 rainfall event and discharge coefficient time graph is that changing Cd from 0,6 to 0,9
is 0,6 and 0,9of info works software and excel when M1-30 and M1-120. M1-30 had the
document results. The graph shows that as the biggest water level at Cd 0,6. M1-120 Cd 0,9
discharge coefficient and rainfall event are the had the longest time but the smallest water level
same , the values are very close to each other. value. This can be said that when the coefficient
Furthermore, Cd 0,9 lines have a bit lower water became bigger water level became lower.
depth value.
Finally, M1- 30 and M1-120 rainfall events, Cd
5 CONCLUSIONS 0,6 and 0,9 info works and excel data results
First of all, some main definitions were done to were compared. The findings were that M1 – 30
analysis the CSOs system. Concisely, and Cd 0,6 info work line had the biggest water
contaminant water and storm water are conveyed depth and M1-120 Cd 0,6 info work had the
together in combined sewer system. But rainy longest time period. Also, when the rainfall event
days, flow can be observed more than limit of was M30-120 and Cd was 0,6 and 0,9. M30-120
the pipe. To control overflow, CSO structures Cd was 0,6 water level(m) had the biggest value
are developed. Therefore, flow can be minimised and Cd 0,9 M30-120 had the longest time period
in the system. Continuation flow is sent to the in info works data whereas M30-120 water level
treatment plant. Spill flow is sent to the water was the smallest at Cd 0,9 excel document data.
courses or storage tank to be taken to the However, it is obvious that the values can be
treatment plant. The weir divides flow and it has different, but lines behaviours have a similarity
a key role in the chamber. For the spill flow, between excel document data and info works
screen is a key parameter. Screen property has a data.
significant impact on the spill flow quality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To analysis and model these considerations info I would like to thank to Prof. Adrian SAUL for
works CS 11,5 software was used. First of all, all useful advises.
rainfall duration and return period were changed
to establish the relationship between rainfall REFERENCES
events and flow. M1-30, M1-60, and M1-120 Harwood, R., Saul, A. (2001). Combined Sewer
data while Cd is stable at 0,6 graphs were Overflows. Fluent Inc., 1-4.
plotted. These graphs indicated that rainfall
duration became expanded, and rainfall intensity Myerscough, P.E., Digman, C.J. (2008).
became smaller from 60 mm/hr to 28 mm/hr, Combined Sewer Overflows - Do they have a
while time duration became delayed when it Future? 11th International Conference on Urban
reached the peak value. When rainfall event was Drainage (p. 10). Edinburgh: www.sbe.hw.ac.uk.
changed from M1-30 to M1-60, flow reached
WaPUG Guide The Design of CSO Chambers to
the peak value at M1-60 as 0, 46 m3/s. While,
Incorporate Screens. (2006). Retrieved April 18,
the rainfall duration was changed from M1 to
2011, from The Chartered Institution of Water
M30 flow became bigger. Next, spill flow
and Environmental Management:
against time graphs were illustrated when Cd was
http://www.ciwem.org/
stable and for each rainfall events to obtain
403
Assessment of Dynamic Response of a Real-life Grandstand

Qihui Shan
ABSTRACT Stadia structures, which are primarily used to hold sports events, suffer significant
dynamic loads generated by the rhythmic motion of dense crowds. However, the situation may become
worse if the stadia are under more crowded population and stronger synchronization of crowd motion
when they hold non-sports events such as pop concerts. Especially for many grandstands, they may
encounter a more severe loading if they are designed to be used in sports events. In these
circumstances, the large dynamic motions of grandstands lead to panic of the spectators and audiences
and even the collapse of the grandstands. In order to better understand the conception of human
structure interaction (HSI), three methods, by using assumed crowd motion (linear system in
MATLAB) and explicitly modelling body units (harmonic and transient analysis in ANSYS), are
investigated to calculate the response of the structure under different scenarios. At the end, assessment
of the grandstand is performed according to the certain limitation in Recommendations. Additionally,
conclusions are made based on comparison of the modelling results with testing results.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 STRUCTURAL DESCRIPTION AND

TESTING RESULTS
Generally speaking, the cantilevered upper tiers,
which provide larger seating capacities and 2.1 Structural Geometry
better sight lines for spectators, have become
The existing stand consists of a series of steel
popular in the design of modern sports stadia.
frames at 7.05m centres. Each frame has a width
Meanwhile, football clubs are also encouraging a
of 40m and a maximum height of 31m. The roof
lively atmosphere during matches by playing
system is primarily supported by the pin
music when goals are scored and during the
connections (see Figure 1). The seating deck is
interval. There is also pressure on owners to
constructed of L-shape precast concrete unites,
increase revenue by using the stadia for other
which are rigidly supported by the raked beams
forms of entertainments and non-sport events,
of frames, and slabs of first and second floor are
including pop concerts. These trends are coming
constructed as the composite slabs. Two tiers,
together to create a potentially dangerous
upper one and lower one, are designed to
situation.
accommodate spectators. The upper tier, like
In November 2001, “Dynamic performance cantilever, is potentially sensitive to human-
requirements for permanent grandstands subject induced dynamic load. To make the raked beam
to crowd action Interim guidance on assessment of upper tier stiffer, several props are provided.
and design” was published by The Institution of
Structural Engineers. Subsequently, in
December 2008, “Dynamic performance
requirements for permanent grandstands subject
to crowd action: Recommendations for
management, design and assessment”, which is
the recognized world leader design guideline for
permanent grandstand, was published.
In this case, the comparison of numerical results
with experimental data will be performed, and
relevant further research will also be developed.
In this paper, the main aim is to apply this
Recommendation to the real-life grandstand and
analysis of its dynamic performance. Figure 1: Dimensions of a typical frame (2D).
404
2.2 Material Properties • all elements are rigidly connected.
The Table 1 following shows the properties In this case, all these assumptions are
parameters used in the ANSYS FE code. appropriate because of the reason that
Table 1: Parameters used in FE modelling. • deformation of the structure is so small that
the materials are still in the linear range.
Parameters Values • elements are manufactured and constructed
Concrete Young‟s Modulus, 38
as drawings.
• strains and stresses are relatively low in the
Concrete‟s Density, 2500
roof system, which is primarily connected
Concrete Poisson‟s Ratio, 0.2
by pin connections. On the contrary, the
Steel Young‟s Modulus, 210 assumption will significantly reduce the
accuracy of modelling if pin connections are
Steel‟s Density, 7800 used in points with large strain and stress
Steel Poisson‟s Ratio,
such as the bottom of columns.
0.3
3.2 Two-Dimensional models
According to the Equation 1, the key parameters
2.3 Areas of key uncertainty to calculate natural frequencies and other
dynamic properties are mass and stiffness.
Structural elements include columns, beams, L-
shape seating terrace and roof system. The mass (Eq.1)
and stiffness of them can be calculated
accurately provided the grandstand was
constructed exactly the same as the drawings. where k is the stiffness and m is the mass.
However, it is hard to obtain the exact damping Therefore, everything involving mass and
value, and just damping ratio of 0.02 is used for stiffness should be considered carefully.
general steel structures. In model (a), for taking the mass of slabs into
For non-structural elements, the mass of them account, it is assumed that these slabs act as
could be estimated by engineering judgment. equivalent mass on the beams support them,
Nevertheless, the stiffness contributed by non- which increases the mass density of the members
structural elements is ignored. To some extent, directly supporting the loads. For horizontal
partitions and stair cases provide stiffness and floors, all the dead loads (including topping,
stability to the whole structure, which would partition and equipments) equals to concrete
affect the stiffness of seating decks more or less. slabs with a thickness of 200mm due to gravity.
Consequently, this assumption would lead the Similarly, thickness is 150mm for seating decks
vertical natural frequencies of seating decks and 100mm for roof system. Therefore, the
slightly lower than results of in-field test. The density of the members which are used to
damping ratio of non-structural elements is support slabs and roofs can be written as
regarded as they are steel as 0.02. Equation 2.
2.4 Testing Results (Eq. 2)
On 20 and 21 February, 2010, Prof. Pavic where t is the equivalent thickness of concrete
carried out the dynamic testing of this particular slab, A is the area section of steel element, and
stadium. The frequency of the lowest vertical 7.05 is the distance between two frames. Note:
mode of the upper seating deck is 7.67 Hz. all the quantities are expressed in SI units.
In model (b), the stiffness contributed by slab
3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODELLING system should be considered. For horizontal
slabs in first and second floors, the steel beam
3.1 Assumptions and concrete slab are treated as composite floor.
To obtain natural frequencies and mode shapes Two options are adopted to estimate the stiffness
of the empty grandstand, which are significantly of the composite member. The first one is
meaningful to assess dynamic properties, the handy-calculation following the approach that
eigenvalue analysis is conducted. In the can be found in any design code, which just
analyses, it is assumed that perform the section analysis after calculation of
effective width of concrete slab. Another method
• the structure elements are considered within
is to assume that the changed second moment of
the linear-elastic range.
area is calculated while centroid of the section
• there are no imperfections in the beams and
locates on the top flange. Note that BEAM3 is
columns and no structural changes
used in ANSYS, thus “SECOFFSET” option is
happened since the structure is established.
unavailable. Actually, the error between these
405
two methods can be neglected. Therefore, the we do not concern in this case. However, the
second method is adopted for the benefit of seventh mode (see Figure 2) mostly involves the
convenience. For seating decks, only the vertical displacement of seating deck, which
horizontal part of the concrete units with a should be paid attention to when the first vertical
thickness of 0.1m should be taken into account. mode is decided and dynamic response is
Thus, the equivalent stiffness of the raked beam calculated.
can be written as Equation 3.
(Eq. 3)
where t is the thickness of the concrete and

is the second moment of area of the steel section
about the centroid locating at the top of beam.
For the cantilever beam support the roof system,
the increase of stiffness can be neglected due to
its low impact on the result we concern.
3.3 Vertical Modes
After models were meshed in FE model, modal
analysis is conducted with the option “SUBSP”.
The modes associated with the natural frequency Figure 2: Seventh mode of the 2D model(b).
within the range from 0 Hz to 12 Hz are 3.4 Three Methods to Calculate the Response
concerned. In Table 2, the first seven natural
frequencies of both models and their difference Theoretically, three methods are feasible in this
are shown. case. Under the same situation, the error of
results from these three methods should be
Table 2: Natural frequencies of models.
acceptable. For the sake of convenience, only the
Mode number model (a) model (b) responses of cantilever tip are compared when
all the people are active in Scenario 4 and
Mode 1 1.000 Hz 1.020 Hz damping ratio is 0.02 for each mode.
Mode 2 1.845 Hz 1.989 Hz
Detail description of method (a):
Mode 3 2.662 Hz 2.663 Hz
All of the modes before natural frequency of 12
Mode 4 3.459 Hz 3.476 Hz
Hz, that is to say, first fifteen modes, should be
Mode 5 4.415 Hz 4.551 Hz considered. Then, extract the mode shape matrix
Mode 6 5.795 Hz 5.846 Hz from ANSYS, which is 40 rows×15 columns (40
rows means the 23 locations of upper tier and 17
Mode 7 6.011 Hz 7.305 Hz
locations of lower tier, and 15 columns means
the 15 modes). Provided that the motion of the
Obviously, when compared with testing results, crowds is identical with the mode shapes of their
model (a) cannot get satisfactory results. The location, calculate the properties of 3DOF
main reason is that the stiffness from seating system. Figure 3 indicates the FRF data of
decks is ignored, which has significant effect on overall fifteen modes and the contribution from
vertical natural frequency. However, model (b) each harmonic load, while Figure 4 shows the
obtains much more precise results. The response when a single mode is considered. As
difference between model (a) and model (b) is what can be seen from the FRF figure, the first
the stiffness of seating decks. The natural crest appears at around 2 Hz, which is mostly
frequencies of model (b) are higher due to the contributed by the first harmonic load at second
larger stiffness. Mode shapes of the same mode mode (back to front mode). Moreover, the other
look similar to each other. Here, only mode two crests appear at 2.5 Hz and 3.6 Hz are
shapes of model (b) are shown as examples. The mostly excited at seventh mode (vertical mode).
first mode shows the vertical movement of the These crests prove the validity of method (a).
roof system at a frequency of 1.020 Hz, which is
predominantly vibrating like a cantilever beam.
The second mode is the front-to-back movement
of the steel frame with a frequency of 1.989 Hz.
The columns seem to be cantilevers fixed at the
ground floor and other elements seem to be
attachments on the column, thus the
displacement of the elements are proportional to
the height of the ground floor. Third, fourth, fifth
and sixth modes involve the roof system, which Figure 3: RMS FRF data of method (a).
406
units. Secondly, one specified load frequency
should be defined and load steps are input and
saved. Consequently, „REDUC‟ method is
selected. Despite of time consuming, the result is
fair to compare with superposition method. The
third step is to get time history response (see
Figure 4.15), based on which RMS value is
calculated by MATLAB. In Figure 7, the curves
indicate the time history response when load
frequency is 1.8 Hz and 2.0 Hz. The RMS
Figure 4: RMS FRF data of method (a) from 2nd mode and
acceleration values are and
7th mode. separately.
Detail description of method (b):
ANSYS is used as FE software to perform
harmonic analysis and superposition method is
chosen. The first step is to update the empty
grandstand with body units and to conduct the
modal analysis (see Figure 5) to obtain the
modal properties of the combined system. The
second step is to apply the coupled loads Figure 6: Time history response of method (c).
generated by crowds, and specify the first 26
modes with frequencies less than 12 Hz to be Table 3 indicates the results of three methods.
considered. Thirdly, damping ratio and other Although the peak value of method (a) and
settings should be defined to get FRF data. method (b) appears at the different load
Something should be paid attention to is that the frequencies, the difference of maximum value
FRF data are expressed by „amplitude‟ and could be expected and accepted. Fundamentally,
„phase‟, which means complex number. At last, what should be concerned is the maximum RMS
use MATLAB code to get the RMS response response of the grandstand when it is used.
contributed by each harmonic load as well as the Therefore, method (a) is conservative and
overall response (see Figure 6). verified.
Table 3: Results of three methods.
Peak value
(a)
(b)
(c) N/A
3.5 Dynamic Response in Different Situations

In this case, model (b) and method (a) are used
to calculate the response. By observing the mode
Figure 5: The combined system. shape and proving by MATLAB program, it is
found that the crowd in the lower tier has 3%
contribution to the response of upper tier. Thus,
the lower tier can be ignored for the sake of
convenience. The upper tier can be divided into
two parts, Zone A and Zone B, as shown in
Figure 7. For each scenario, there are three
situations:
1) Zone A---Active people, Zone B---Passive
people
Figure 6: RMS FRF data of method (b). 2) Zone A---Passive people, Zone B---Active
Detail description of method (c): people
Transient dynamic analysis is conducted by 3) Zone A & Zone B---Active people
ANSYS. Through transient analysis, time history According to Recommendations (Joint Working
response can be obtained, from which 10s‟ RMS Group, 2008), there is no need to consider the
response can be calculated. The first step is to response of Scenario 1, because the crowds are
create the model including grandstand and body predominantly seated and less than maximum
407
attendance. For Scenario 4, RMS acceleration Model (c): this model consists of three frames
responses are carried out by MATLAB and and two bays with explicit shell elements of
shown in Figure 8. seating decks. The L-shape precast concrete
elements are regarded as inclined slabs with
depth which is originally calculated from
equivalent mass method. Certainly, nodes of
raked beams are moved to the top flange due to
the effect of beam-slab eccentricity. Figure 9
indicates the beam-slab geometry of this mode.
Model (d): this model is based on model (c) as
well as an expansion of model (c) from three
frames and two bays to seventeen frames to
sixteen bays.
Model (e): this model explicitly simulates the L-
shape precast units (see Figure 10) with
Figure 7: Two zones of grandstand.
continuous connections across rows and frames.
Figure 8: RMS acceleration responses of Scenario 4.
3.6 Conclusion of 2D modelling

Figure 9: beam-slab system of model (c) & (d).
Route 1 and Route 2 (Joint Working Group,
2008) are usually used to evaluate the vibration
serviceability of a grandstand. The following
Table 4 indicates the outcomes from 2D
modelling and according limits. Thus, this
grandstand is suitable for all kinds of event
scenarios.
Table 4: The outcomes from 2D modelling and according
limitation.
Route 1 Route 2
frequency limits Response Limits
Scenario 3.5Hz-
N/A N/A
1 OK Figure 10: beam-slab system of model (e).
Scenario 3.5Hz- Physically, model (e) presents the real structure

- effectively and considers the effect of seating
2 OK
OK terrace sufficiently.
7.305Hz
Scenario 6.0Hz- 4.2 Dynamic Response in Different Situations
-
3 OK
OK The similar procedures as mentioned in 2D
modelling are applicable here. However, the
Scenario 6.0Hz- mode shapes, which are the groundwork of the
-
4 OK method (a) to obtain 3DOF (Pavic & Reynolds,
OK
2008) system, are quite sophisticated in 3D
models. Special attention should be paid to
extract the mode shapes from ANSYS.
4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODELLING Seventeen frames with twenty-four rows
(twenty-three rows in upper tier and one another
4.1 Three-Dimensional models row in wherever has tiny mode shape used to
408
void Nan or Inf when calculating eigenvalue in 5 CONCLUSIONS
MATLAB) and one hundred modes are
In this paper, five models (2D model: a & b; 3D
considered. Thus, the mode shape is a
model: c, d & e) were created in ANSYS to
matrix. After acquirement of mode shapes,
represent the structure. Regularly, the
use the same MATLAB code (need some slight
assessment criterion is primarily concerned with
changes) created in 2D modelling to calculate
the lowest vertical natural frequencies and
the response of the critical point. Here, just
dynamic response. Figure 12 concludes the
model (e) is adopted in this part. The description
vertical natural frequencies of each model, as
of situations is identical with 2D modelling. For
well as the testing results. Table 6 concludes that
Scenario 4, RMS acceleration responses are
the particular grandstand is suitable for all kinds
carried out by MATLAB and shown in Figure
of scenarios in 2D modelling, while not able to
11.
held events as Scenario 4 in 3D modelling. This
is due to the fact that 3D modelling needs more
details to describe the structural elements in
side-to-side direction such as bracing and
partitions. Therefore, 3D modelling is too
conservative. Generally, 2D modelling is
accurate enough to evaluate the dynamic
response.
Figure 11: RMS acceleration responses of Scenario 4
4.3 Conclusion of 3D modelling

In this section, 3D modelling of the empty
grandstand and the combined system including
crowd units is investigated. Principally, Figure 12: Conclusion of natural frequencies of various
approaches and contents discussed in this models.
chapter are improvements of previous chapters. Table 6: Assessment of modelling results.
However, 3D modelling needs much more
details to present the structure in FE software Model (b)-2D Model (e)-3D
and produces more elements and nodes, as well
Route 1 Route 2 Route 1 Route 2
as larger matrix. Not only human work becomes
as several times as 2D modelling, also the Scenario 1 Ok Ok Ok Ok
computer time consuming. Similar to 2D Scenario 2 Ok Ok Ok Ok
modelling, Route 1 and Route 2 are used to
Scenario 3 Ok Ok Ok Ok
assess the vibration serviceability of the
grandstand under different scenarios (see Table Scenario 4 Ok Ok Ok Not ok
5). The grandstand is not suitable for events
defined as Scenario 4.
Table 5: The outcomes from 3D modelling and according ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
limitation.
The assistance provided by Prof. Pavic is
Route 1 Route 2 gratefully acknowledged.
frequency limits Response Limits
Scenario 3.5Hz- REFERENCES

N/A N/A
1 OK
Joint Working Group (2008). Dynamic
Scenario 3.5Hz- performance requirements for permanent
- grandstands subject to crowd action:
2 OK
OK recommendations for management, design and
6.520Hz assessment. IStructE, London
Scenario 6.0Hz-
3 OK
- Pavic, A and Reynolds, P. (2008) “Experimental
OK verification of novel 3DOF model of grandstand
crowd-structure dynamic interaction”, 26th
Scenario 6.0Hz-
- international modal analysis conference: IMAC-
4 OK
NOT-OK XXVI, Orlando, Florida, 4-7 Feb 2008,paper
409
Concrete Slab Analysis using Discontinuity Layout optimization

Anurag Sharma
ABSTRACT In this paper study of concrete slabs analysis using discontinuity layout optimization
method has been done. The analysis of slab is carried out using the yield line method which is a well
established procedure. Yield line method of analysis is a plastic design procedure which helps us in
estimating the ultimate load capacity of reinforced concrete slab. This method is highly efficient and
has many advantages like cost savings, ease of construction at site etc. In yield line analysis of slab
using Discontinuity layout optimization the analysis is carried out by discretizing the slab using nodes
and connecting each node with other nodes by potential yield lines known as discontinuities.
The optimization of these yield lines is carried out to reach the most efficient yield line pattern by
using linear programming. This method has been developed by Gilbert et al. (Gilbert et al. 2011) and
the procedure was able to give highly accurate results when tested against certain benchmark
problems. It was observed that the location of discontinuities and the number of nodes used while
discretization of the problem plays a vital role on the accuracy of result. Two new approaches have
been considered to study the effect of node density and node location on the load factor and failure
yield line pattern of slab. In the first approach the node locations in the problem are changed and the
optimization procedure is carried out. In the second approach a ground structure was first selected and
yield line pattern was generated. The discontinuities along which rotation had taken place are selected
and new nodes are added at the centre of them and connected to all other nodes. From the results
obtained from both the procedure it can be observed that they help in further increasing the efficiency
of the existing method but have certain limitation of their own.
mathematical problems are being solved using

1 INTRODUCTION
computers. So it has become computational
In the last centaury a lot of development has optimization theory.
taken place all over the world. Due to which the
Both these methods yield line design of slabs
resources available are depleting at a rapid rate
and optimization theory if combined together
and causing their cost to go up drastically .
can result in giving us a very useful efficient
Yield line theory is a design method for design tool. In the last few decades lots of
slabs.This method was developed by Ingerslev researchers like Munro and Fonseca (1978),
(Ingerslev 1923) and K W Johansen (Johansen Johnson (1996) (Thavalingam et al. 1998)
1943).Over the years a lot of research was (Gilbert et al. 2011)etc. have been working
carried to further improve and validate this keeping in mind these two methods and
method. The slabs designed using this method developed a new approach towards it like Yield
are comparatively more economical, thinner and line analysis of Slabs using Linear
use less number of bar marks making them easy programming.
to construct at site. The method developed by Gilbert et al that is
Another theory which has been under research yield line analysis of Slab using discontinuity
for the last two centuries by scholars all over the layout optimization in the last decade has been
world is optimization theory. Optimization is very helpful in making it more usable to the
process of finding the best possible solution for users (Gilbert et al. 2011). In this paper
a problem. The theory plays a vital role in all modification to the existing code which is based
fields of work. Optimization theory is mainly a on their formulation will be carried out to make
mathematical process. With advancement in the method more efficient and provide a more
computer technology in the last few decades optimal solution.
410
2 BACKGROUND  The objective function must be linear which
means that all variable should have a power
Concrete slab analysis using discontinuity
of one.
layout optimization mainly consists of use of
 Maximization or minimization will take
three different types of theories i.e. yield line
place of the linear function.
theory, mathematical optimization and linear
programming.  The constraint condition must be linear.
2.1 Yield line theory In late 1970s Munro and Da Fonesca developed
a new approach in which they carried out yield
This theory was developed by Ingerlsev in 1923 line analysis with help of linear programming.
and later on alot of research was carried out by The optimum yield line pattern was calculated
Johansen in 1960’s on it. Yield line is the crack using linear programming. This opened up a
along which the yielding of reinforcement take new area of research and researchers like
place in a reinforced concrete slab. The load Johnson(1996), Thavalingam et al. (1998),
bearing capacity of the slab is calculated by Gilbert et al. (2011) etc. have been working to
equating the internal work done to the work carry out further improvements to it.
done by the external loads. This method mainly
works on ultimate limit state. It provides an
upper bound solution. Over the years alot of 3 YIELD LINE ANALYSIS OF SLAB
research has been carried out in validating this USING DISCONTINUITY LAYOUT
theory. The slabs designed using this method OPTIMIZATION
are thinner, have less reinforcement and less
number of bar marks. 3.1 Background
2.2 Mathematical Optimization This theory has been developed by Matthew

Gilbert et al. It is a very efficient theory which
Optimization process deals with finding the has been tested for slab with complex shapes
most efficient solution to a given problem. It is and has given very accurate results. This theory
primarily based on the mathematical is mainly based on the works by Chan and
optimization theory. Due to advancement all Munro and Fonseca (1978).
over the world it has become very important to
provide an optimal solution to any problem. The 3.2 Formulation
optimization theory has been in research for For a slab the kinematic yield line optimization
over two centuries with initial research by formulation for perfectly plastic slab with
Maxwell (Maxwell 1840). Over the year as the supported edges quasi statically loaded is as
computational powers have increased due to shown below, (Gilbert et al. 2011)
advancements in technology the theory has been
given more importance. Min λ fLTd==- fDTd + gTp....................... (1)
The Mathematical theory tries to find the best Subjected to,

solution for a given problem based on certain Bd=0..................................................... (2)
fixed conditions. It gives an output of a vector
which comprises of integers or real numbers Np-d=0................................................ (3)
and results obtained are in numerical values fLTd=1................................................. (4)
whose efficiency can be checked by comparison.
(Arsham 2004-2011) (Darwich 2010). The p>=0................................................... (5)
theory is in application in almost all fields of Where E is the energy dissipated due to the
work like engineering, human resource rotation along the yield line, dT= {Ө1+, Ө1- , Ө2+,
management, finance etc. The optimization Ө2-…… Өm-}, where Өi+, Өi- are the positive and
theory mainly maximizes or minimizes a negative rotations along a yield line i,gT =
function based on certain constraint condition. {m1p+l1, m1p-l1, m2p+l2, m2p-l2….. mmp-lm} are
2.3 Linear Programming respectively the length, positive and negative
plastic moment of resistance along a yield line.
It is type of mathematical programming which B is the compatibility matrix. λ is the dimension
deals with a class of optimization problem in load factor, fL and fD are the vectors containing
which the objective function and the constraints the dead and live load effects, d are the
are linear in terms of decision variables. displacements along a discontinuity and N is a
To develop a Linear problem for any problem flow matrix. P and g plastic multipliers and
the following conditions need to considered and corresponding work equation coefficient.
satisfied. (Darwich 2010)
411
3.3 Equilibrium Dual formulation
As the formulation is a linear programming
problem dual will be generated in which
maximization will take place. The dual
formulation is as shown below
Max λ................................. (6)
Subjected to,
BT + λfL-q=-fD..................... (7)
T
N q<=g............................... (8)
Where
q is vector containing forces along a
Figure 1 Approach I Node coordinate variation
discontinuity.
diagram
4.2 Approach 2
4 NEW APPROACH METHODOLOGY
The methodology adopted for this method is not
In this paper modifications to existing Matlab very complex. At the start the nodes in x and y
code developed by the Computational direction are placed equidistant to each other.
Mechanics and Design group university of After setting up of nodes and elements the
Sheffield has been carried out to test the new compatibility matrix and all other matrix and
proposed approaches. The existing code was vectors are generated and the optimization is
verified against standard benchmark results. carried out. After the yield line pattern and load
factor is generated for the slab. The elements
Two new approaches are proposed in this paper.
which have positive or negative rotation are
In the first approach the coordinates of the
selected. A new node is provided at the
nodes are modified as per fixed pattern and the
midpoint of these elements and connected to all
optimization process is carried out. The effect
other nodes by elements. After the new nodes
due to the change in coordinates of nodes is
are generated the optimization process is again
monitored by change in load factor. In the
repeated and the new load factor is calculated.
seconds approach based on the initial failure
pattern new nodes are added at location where
failure has taken place.
4.1 Approach 1
In the existing code formulation the yield line
path depends on the discontinuities connected
between two nodes. A drawback with this is
approach is that the actual yield generation
might take place at a location near the existing
discontinuity. In order to study this problem
node geometry modification method has been
proposed. According to this method the
coordinates of a node in x and y direction are
modified based on a fixed pattern at a defined
step. This method can be clearly illustrated with
the help of fig 1. The initial node location and Figure 2 Approach II Node addition location
connectivity can be seen in figure by blue lines . Diagram
The nodes in the first iteration will move in the
The procedure adopted can be easily understood
direction shown by the arrows at a step defined
using the figure 2. This figure shows the yield
by the user. The optimization process will take
line pattern generated for initial nodes which
place and the load factor value will be
are placed depending on the section defined in x
calculated. Similarly for the next iteration the
and y direction by the user. The black dots in
node will move further and new load factor
the figure show the location of the initial nodes.
value will be calculated.
Depending on the yield line pattern the
elements along which rotation takes place are
selected.
412
node matrix generated are already in actual
coordinates.
 After each iteration the computed load
factor is stored in a load factor vector.
 After completion of all iterations the min
value of the load factor is searched by using
the minimum command.
 The node geometry for the lowest load
factor is selected.
 The optimization process is again repeated
to verify the results and plot mechanism is
carried to output the failure pattern
Figure 3 Approach II Diagram showing Location of 5.2 Approach 2

New nodes added  For the initial node structure the
optimization process and yield line pattern
An example of these elements is shown using generation is carried out.
the arrows in figure 2. After these elements  Elements along which rotation has taken
have been selected new nodes are provided at place are selected and stored in matrix f.
the middle of these elements which are shown  New nodes are provided at the centre of
using the blue dots in the figure. After selected discontinuities and stored in matrix
generation of new nodes the optimization o.
process is again repeated and the new yield line  Matrix newnodes is created and all the
pattern is generated. The addition of nodes in nodes from the existing nodes matrix and o
actual code is shown in figure 3. The blue line matrix are copied and stored.
shows the old yield line and black dot is the new  Elements are generated as per the newnodes
node added to the mesh. matrix and the optimization process is
again carried out.
5 MODIFICATIONS TO EXISTING CODE

In order to generate results using the two new 6 YIELD LINE PATTERNS AND RESULTS
proposed approaches modification to existing By changing the location of nodes and
Matlab code was carried out. increasing the density of nodes it was observed
5.1 Approach 1 that there is change in yield line pattern and
load factor. In the figure 4-6 the yield line
 Vector A is defined for a fixed pattern of
pattern generated by existing code and modified
movement of nodes for each iteration.
codes have been shown.
 Nodes matrix is generated the same way as
in the existing code initially.
 A new matrix B is generated which is based
on the co-ordinates in x direction from
vector A.
 A new matrix C is generated which
comprises the actual coordinates of each
node.
 To form the initial connectivity of each
node, the GCD check is used in line with
the existing code but a modification has
been done. The check is carried with the
help of the nodes matrix but the formation
of elements and its length are done using
the C matrix.
 The C matrix is renamed into node matrix
Figure 4 Yield line pattern for existing code with 42
for further use by the code. nodes
 No conversion into real coordinates is
required in this formulation in comparison
to existing code because the elements and
413
Change in Load Factor
46
45
Load Factor
44 Existing Code
43 Approach 1
Approach 2
42
20 42 72
Node density
Figure 5 Yield line pattern for modified code

Approach I with 42 nodes Figure 8 Approach I & II : Graph showing the change
in Load factor values for both Approaches against
existing code
7 DISCUSSION AND LIMITATIONS

7.1 Discussion
The results obtained from both the approach
helps us in understanding the effect node
location and node density has on reaching a
more optimal solution. During the execution of
Approach I when the code was tested with the
variation of node coordinates there was change
in yield line pattern and load factor value which
have been shown with the help of figure 5.
When less number of nodes was considered the
variation in results to the existing code results
was comparatively higher as shown by graph in
figure 8. With the increase in node density the
Figure 6 Yield line pattern for modified code variation in Load factor results was less which
Approach II with 42 nodes may be due to the increase in number of
discontinuities in the slab and the yield pattern
generated may be close to the optimum solution.
In the graph shown in figure 7 it can be seen
that with the modification of coordinates of
nodes there was change in the Load factor value
for each iteration. When twenty nodes were used
there was a gradual decrease, lowest value was
reached and then there was a gradual increase
in the Load factor. For other node densities
there was an arbitrary increase or decrease in
load factor value with change in node
coordinates. Due to this response no
convergence method was suggested and the
iteration process needs to be carried out up to a
fixed end and then lowest value of the load
Iterations factor is selected.
Figure 7 Approach I : Graph showing Load Factor The results from approach II showed good
values for different node densities reduction in load factor. There was change in
failure pattern as well because of addition of
new nodes at the centre of the existing yield line
especially at the corners of the slab. When
414
higher density meshes were used the results  Both the approaches mentioned in this
obtained were more efficient. When lesser paper can be suggested as an addition to the
number of nodes was used the addition of new existing procedure. It can be used to
node did not cause the yield line pattern and increase the efficiency of the existing
load factor to change, which may be due to fact method.
that the addition of new node did not take place  The results obtained from analysis using
at locations which might have resulted in a Approach I show us that there is no
more optimum yield line pattern. When higher predictability in the results. After each
numbers of nodes were used it was observed that iteration there can be increase or decrease
there was a change in yield line pattern due to in the load factor value with geometric
presence of new nodes in some location which variation making it a tough procedure to
can be seen in figure 6. decide on the convergence criteria. It can
also be observed that with the change in
7.2 Limitations
node location the variation in load factor
Both the approaches used in this paper provide value is not very high.
a solution which is slightly more efficient than  With addition of new nodes after the initial
the existing code. The approaches suggested optimization process change in yield
have their own limitation and further research pattern takes place mainly due to the
needs to be carried on it. In approach I the node availability of new potential yield
coordinate variation is carried out based on a discontinuities at the tentative yield line
predefined fixed pattern which may be accurate location. Due to the increase in number of
in some cases only. The method is time nodes the computational memory
consuming because the optimization process requirements and time taken to carry out
needs to be carried out after every change, the optimization process increase
which when high number of nodes are used can drastically.
take lot of memory and time. There is no
convergence criteria specified in the code so the
REFERENCES
process continues till the predefined steps are
reached even if the lowest value has been DARWICH, Wael (2010). Novel Computational
reached earlier. In approach II the new nodes Implementations for Ultimate Limit State
are added after the initial optimization process. Analysis and Design. Thesis, University of
The efficiency of the method is dependent on Sheffield,
the initial number of nodes being used, if less
GILBERT, Matthew, et al. (2011). Yield Line
number of nodes are used the approach may not
Analysis of Slabs using discontinuity layout
give a better solution. The new nodes being
optimization. In: Unpublished Manuscript,.
added to the mesh is at the center of a existing
yield line. This location might not be the most INGERSLEV, A (1923). The strength of
optimal location for the nodes to be added in rectangular slabs. Journal Institution of
some cases. Due to addition of high number of Structural Engineers, 1, 3-14.
nodes by this approach the computational time
JOHANSEN, K W (1943). Brudlinieteorier. Jul.
and memory usage increases.
Gjellerups Forlag, Copenhag (Yield Line
8 CONCLUSIONS theory, Translated by Cement and Concrete
 Yield line method of analysis of slabs is a Centre London), 191.
long well established plastic method of
JOHNSON, David (1996). Automated yield line
design which can be used to calculate the
Analysis of Orthotropic Slabs. International
maximum load carrying capacity of a
Journal Solid Structures, 33 (1), 1-10.
reinforced concrete slab.
 The recently developed procedure of yield MAXWELL, J C (1840). Scientific Papers.
line analysis of slab using discontinuity Cambridge University Press.
layout optimization is a effective method to
MUNRO and FONSECA, Da (1978). Yield line
determine the critical yield line patterns of
method by finite elements and linear
slab and load factor. This method has been
programming. Structural Engineers,.
able to identify many critical yield line
mechanism like fan type. This method has THAVALINGAM, A., et al. (1998). A
been tested against many benchmarks computerised method for rigid-plastic yield-line
conditions giving highly efficient result. As analysis of slabs. Pergamon.
it is a computerized method it can become a
very successful design method.
415
Lightweight Concrete
Dong Shen
Candidate MSc(Eng) Concrete & Structural Engineering
ABSTRACT Lightweight concrete is used in structural and non-structural application. When used
as a structural material, as in composite slabs in steel-framed structures, the cement content is usually
increased to maintain structural grade strength. However, in such application, high strength is not
essential, and low strength may be even more desirable, when consideration is given to re-cycling and
re-use. In this project, the strength of concrete was reduced either by reducing cement content or
introducing air by air entrained admixture (AEA) in lightweight aggregate concrete mixes (LWAC). For
the purpose of sustainability, ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) was use in place of
cement. Fresh properties, mechanical properties, and physical properties of theses concretes were
examined by a series of experimental tests. At the end of the project, two concrete mixes with strength
around 20MPa were obtained from the laboratory, and one of these mixtures had a considerable
reduction in weight by air entrainment. They were evaluated from the experimental results.
1 INTRODUCTION Broadly three methods are used to achieve the

low density of concrete. The first kind of
Technical innovations have been made on
lightweight concrete is produced by replacing the
producing high-strength lightweight concrete in
ordinary aggregates with porous lightweight
the past few decades. Lightweight concrete with
aggregates, and hence it is known as the
compressive strengths up to 50MPa is available
lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC). The
on site by using high-quality lightweight
second method associates the introduction of gas
aggregates. (Mehta and Monteiro, 1993)
bubbles into fresh concrete mixtures and the
However, for some structural applications, such
concrete it produces is called cellular or aerated
like the composite slabs in steel-framed
concrete. The last form of lightweight concrete is
structures, high strength is not really desired
no-fines concrete, which contains only cement,
when considering the sustainability issues. For
water and coarse aggregates of ordinary weight.
the purpose of re-cycling and re-use, it is
The absence of fine aggregate results large pores
essential to use lightweight concrete with just-
within the body of concrete and hence reduces
right strength grade to, on one hand, satisfy the
the unit weight. (Neville, 1972)
structural requirements, and on the other hand,
be easily and economically demolished with the CEB/FIP (1977) introduced a special lightweight
lowest energy consumptions. concrete which gains further reduction in unit
weight by using massive air entrainment. It was
Lightweight concrete is the concrete with a low
firstly developed in the USSR. And then there
density ranging from 300 to 1850 kg/m3. Its low
were also some more applications of this type of
unit weight is due to the presence of voids either
lightweight concrete in the UK. The process,
in the aggregate or in the mortar. Comparing to
known as Air-Lytag, produces lightweight
the ordinary concrete, lightweight concrete
aggregate ‘by introducing air into a standard
provides more economic solution in structural
lightweight concrete mix comprising both coarse
design as a consequence of the weight reduction.
and fine aggregates’.
It allows smaller structural components to be
used in constructions, which cuts down the The objectives of this project is to create
dosage and the investment on materials. Also, lightweight aggregate concrete with low grade
because of the large amount of voids within the strength by means of reducing cement content
concrete, it gives a good thermal and sound and introducing air and to investigate the
insulation. (Kilic, et al., 2003) influence of cement replacement.
416
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME In this project, skip method was employed to
obtain the proportion of LWAC with Lytag. It is
2.1 Materials
a method used in the concrete industry for large
Material used in this project included ordinary scale batching.
Portland cement (OPC), GGBFS, normal sand,
The mix proportions are presented in Table 1.
Lytag, and AEA.
The mixes were separated into three groups. The
OPC and GGBFS were both provided by Hanson control mix of the first group contained less
Cement. OPC is classified to CEM I subjected to OPC. In Group 1, from M1 to M3, percentage of
BS EN 197-1:2000, and has 28-days strength of slag to replace OPC increases from 0 to 30%
52.5N/mm2. GGBFS comforts to EN15167- at an interval of 15%. Group 2 and Group 3 had
1:2006 and has a fineness of 481m2/kg. It came a higher amount of binding material, but air were
in an appearance of white powder. entrained to reduce both strength and density.
Group 3 used the same base mix proportion as
Fine aggregates used in this project were normal
Group 2 but 15% of OPC was replaced by
river sands purchased from Derbyshire
GGBFS.
Aggregate LTD. It was classified to Grade M.
The sand has an oven dry particle density of 2.3 Test Programme
2620 kg/m3 and it absorbs 0.5% water by its dry
Aggregates, both fine and coarse, were placed in
weight.
the mixing pan to be pre-wetted by
Coarse aggregate used was Lytag provided by approximately half of the total calculated water.
Ltyag Ltd, which complies with BS EN 13055- The mixing pan was then covered by polythene
1:2002. The offered Lytag had been stored at a sheet to prevent water evaporation and the
very dry place in the laboratory for years, hence aggregates were kept in the pan to absorb water
it was assumed in an oven-dried condition before for 10mins.
use. Particle sizes were ranging from 4 to 14 mm
Afterwards, cement and the residual water were
with little amount of PFA fines combined. The
added into the pan when the mixer was on. For
oven dry loose bulk density is around 710kg/m3.
air-entrained mixes, the air entraining admixtures
The aggregate crushing strength is 6.5N/mm2. It
were firstly diluted in 200g water extracted from
rapidly absorb 15% of its own weight once
the total water. The mixing lasted for 5mins or
contact with water and it requires water of
more until the materials was uniformly
maximum 30% of its dry weight to get fully
distributed.
saturated in the long term.
Specimens of different sizes for each mix were
The AEA was Micro-Air 103 provided by
cast and compacted on a vibration table. Then all
BASF. The material is supplied in accordance
the specimens were covered by polythene film in
with EN934 Part 2 Table 5. It is a light brown
the air before de-moulding took place after
liquid with a specific gravity of 1.005g/cm3.
24hrs. The hardened specimens were separated
2.2 Mix Proportion to be stored in different curing regimes, which
were in the air at room temperature and 20oC in
Table 1- Proportions of material used in each mix
Constituent Materials (kg/m3)
Groups Mix No. OPC GGBFS Sand Lytag Water AEA (%/100kg
Cement)
Group 1 M1 250 0 790 595 307 0
M2 212.5 37.5 790 595 307 0
M3 175 75 790 595 307 0
Group 2 M4 280 0 670 651 265.6 0
M5 280 0 670 651 265.6 0.15

M6 280 0 670 651 265.6 0.30
M7 280 0 670 651 265.6 0.45

Group 3 M8 238 42 670 651 265.6 0
M9 238 42 670 651 265.6 0.30

M10 238 42 670 651 265.6 0.45
M11 238 42 670 651 265.6 0.60
417
water, respectively. days, M2 obtained 67.0% while M3 obtained
smaller strength, about 62.9% of their 21-days
Slump Test was performed immediately after the
strength. For specimens cured in water, the
mixing process according to BS1881. Fresh
strength increments from 7days to 21 days are
density of each mix was measured to determine
79.8%, 79.2% and 66.32% for M1, M2 and M3,
the air content. Compressive strength and
respectively.
flexural strength of the mixes were measured in
the accordance with BS1881. Also the porosity
and the permeability of each mix were
determined.

3.1 Effect of GGBFS
Table 2- Slump test results and fresh properties for Group 1
M1 M2 M3
Slump (mm) 40 20 40
Fresh Density (kg/m )3
1929.5 1876.0 1926.8 Figure 2- 21 day oxygen permeability of Group 1
The fresh properties of Group 1 is presented in From Figure 2, the influence of curing on
Table 2. The addition of GGBFS seems not to cementitous material hydration process can be
improve the workability of the mix significantly. seen from the big difference of permeability in
The control mix M1 attained a 40mm slump. general. On the other hand, the influence of
With the increasing cement replacement, the cement replacement can be noticed from the
slump stayed at the same level, and for M2 even trends of permeability under each curing
a smaller slump was obtained. all the three mixes condition. Cured in water, LWAC with GGBFS
were found to suffer from bleeding due to the are less permeable than it with pure OPC. An
lack of cohesion. The possible reason for this opposite trend is found when specimens were
phenomenon could be concluded as (1) cured in the air. This is because the hydration
excessive mixing water, (2) bad grading of sand process of the GGBFS blended cement is slower
and (3) the PFA fines from Lytag which has a than pure OPC. The degree of hydration is hence
spherical particle shape. lowered due to the water loss when cured in air.
3.2 Effect of AEA
Table 3- Slump test results and fresh properties for Group 2
M4 M5 M6 M7
Slump (mm) 10 25 25 50
Fresh Density 1886.7 1797.7 1719.4 1697.9
(kg/m3)
Air Content (%) 0.00 4.72 8.86 10.01
The fresh properties of Group 2 is presented in

Figure 1-7 day and 21 day compressive strength of Group 1
Table 3.The fresh properties Both workability
and cohesion were improved by entraining air.
The slump was increased from 10mm to 50mm.
Figure 1 shows the compressive strength of For non-air-entrained mix (M4), Lytag tended to
mixes in Group 1. From the graph, the effect of float up and the surface was hard to be levelled.
GGBFS in place of OPC can be seen in single Bleeding and segregation were well controlled
curing condition. For specimens cured in air, the when high amount of air was entrained, and the
highest strength was obtained by LWAC with mix showed a good cohesion and it could be
only OPC both on the 7th day and the 21st day, easily handled. The mechanism was explained by
which are 21.41 N/mm2 and 26.98 N/mm2, Neville (1972) that, air entrainment improves the
respectively. This indicates around 79.4% of the workability of fresh due to the spherical air
strength was obtained for LWAC without bubbles, and these tiny air bubbles which have
replacement. Cured in the same condition after 7 sizes normally between 0.05 to 1.27mm refine
418
the grading of sand to create a cohesive mortar to the most air entrainment and air cured (M7 in
hold coarse aggregates. air).
3.3 Effect of GGBFS and AEA Together
Table 4 Slump test results and fresh properties for Group 3
M8 M9 M10 M11
Slump (mm) 5 25 30 40
Fresh Density 1851.7 1773.3 1726.9 1703.3
(kg/m3)
Air Content (%) 0.00 4.23 6.74 8.02
Table 4 presents the fresh properties of Group 3.

Figure 3-7 day and 21 day compressive strength of Group 2 The slump tests showed that the GGBFS did not
make additional improvement to the workability
on the basis of entraining air. However, more
Figure 3 shows the compressive strength of AEA was used to get a further air entrainment.
mixes in Group 2. The introduced air reduced LWAC containing GGBFS requires about twice
the compressive strength of LWAC and the more as much AEA as the normal LWAC to get the
air content the less compressive strength it same level of air content.
obtained. The base mix got 33.22 N/mm2 in a
week and 39.72 N/mm2 on the 21st day, while the
mix with the most air entrained got 18.19 N/mm2
and 23.84 N/mm2, respectively. The percentages
of strength gained on the 7th day according to the
21 days strength from M4 to M7 are 83.6%,
75.37%, 75.44%, and 76.30%, respectively. It
seems that the entrained air has an adverse effect
on early strength. M5, M6 and M7 all gained
around 76% of strength in 7 days while the
control mix was 8% higher.
Figure 5- 7 day and 21 day compressive strength of Group 3
Figure 5 illustrates the compressive strength of

mixes in Group 3. Comparing the data obtained
in Group 3 with Group 2, both GGBFS and AEA
were found to delay the strength development at
early age. From M8 to M11, the percentage of
early strength gained were 76.0%, 72.1%,
73.2%, and 74.2%, respectively.
Figure 4- 21 day oxygen permeability of Group 2
Figure 4 shows the oxygen permeability

coefficient of mixes in Group 2. The
permeability of the LWAC is influenced by the
curing regime and the amount of air entrainment,
where the curing regime affects the degree of
hydration in the cement paste so the pore size
while the air entrainment governs the
connectivity between pores. The least
Figure 6- 21 day oxygen permeability of Group 3
permeability is found to be the mix which is non-
air-entrained and water cured (M4 in water) and
the highest permeability is the mix which is with Apart from the curing regime, the effect of
entrained air still governs the permeability of
419
LWAC with GGBFS, as the hardened concrete
becomes more permeable with more air
entrained, shown in Figure 6. The highest
permeability coefficient is obtained by mix M11
air cured specimen, which is 10.33×10-16 m2
while the lowest value is 1.34×10-16 m2 for M8
cured in water.
From the observation of fracture surface of
testing specimens, it was found that very strong
transition zone had developed between Lytag
and cement paste. As mentioned, the porous
Lytag is like a water reservoir that absorbs water Figure 7- 21 day compressive strength against oven dry
when too much water is in mortar or provides density of air-entrained LWAC
water when moisture is not enough to lead a
more sufficient hydration in the mortar,
especially in the transition zone.
The entrained air, however, weakens the strength
of the cement paste by introducing large amount
of pores. Its effect is more severe on the
interfacial zone.
Air entrainment causes more connectivity
between pores. According to the previous
observation, this finding can be elevated to that
the air entrainment weakens the transition zone
so it allows ingressive substance to pass through Figure 8- 21 day compressive strength against porosity of
more easily. On the other hand, due to the air-entrained LWAC
natural of high porosity within Lytag used in this
project, the permeability thus can be very high.
Conversely, if there is no air entrained, the dense
‘shell’ generated by sufficient hydration of
cementitious materials provides good protection
to ingressive substance, by which the
permeability is lowered.
3.4 Relationship of Properties
Figure 7 to Figure 9 illustrate the correlation
between 21 days compressive strength and other
properties. The oven dry density and the air
content of concrete in fresh state are found to be Figure 9- 21 day compressive strength against air content
good indicators of the strength of the air- of air-entrained LWAC
entrained LWAC. From Figure 7, the
compressive strength is found rising
exponentially as the oven dry density increases.
In terms of porosity to the air entrained LWAC,
the measured values are not in order so a trend is
hardly seen (Figure 8), due to the complex
internal pore structures, including the capillary
pore left by cement hydration, air voids
generated by AEA and pores existing in the
lightweight aggregates. Figure 9 shows the linear
relationship between the compressive strength
and the air content in fresh concrete. Overall,
compressive strength declines as the air content
Figure 10- 21 day permeability against porosity of LWAC
rises. Trends lines are separated due to the
factors including cement replacement and curing
regimes. The trend lines for concrete cured in the
same condition are more or less parallel, but the gradients for those cured in air is higher than in
water, which reflects importance of curing.
420
target value, but the differences are in an
acceptable range and both mixes can be
classified to low-grade concrete. The unit weight
reduction is very significant. M1 has a fresh
density of 1929.5 kg/m3 and air dry density of
1788.6 kg/m3, while M7 attains a much less
weight by air entrainment, which is 1703.3
kg/m3 for fresh density and 1595.5 kg/m3 for air
dry density. Both mixes have medium
workability. Benefited from the entrained air, the
fresh mix of M7 is more cohesive. Special care
should be taken on bleeding and segregation for
Figure 11- 21 day permeability against compressive concrete like M1. M1 is found to be less
strength of air-entrained LWAC permeable, hence it is less suffered from
ingressive substance. M1 seems more compatible
to mineral additives. The use of GGBFS makes
the mix more durable in terms of permeability to
withstand in server environment. It has to be
aware that cement replacement can increase the
setting time of concrete so the construction
duration will extend.
5 CONCLUSION
(1) Two mixes were created to have low strength
and reduced weight;
Figure 12- 1 day permeability against air content of air- (2)The addition of GGBFS did not help to
entrained LWAC
prevent bleeding and segregation in the presence
of Lygag. AEA improved the rheological
properties;
Figure 10 to Figure 12 illustrate the correlation
between 21 days oxygen permeability coefficient (3) Both GGBFS and AEA slowed down the
and other properties. Above all it can be found setting time of concrete, but GGBFS produces
from Figure 10 a linear relationship between less permeable concrete while AEA increases the
oxygen permeability and porosity of all the permeability of concrete;
mixes. Mixes cured in air are more porous owing
(4) Good bond between cement paste and Lytag
to the moisture loss so the permeability is high.
was observed in LWACs. AEA reduced the
Figure 11 and Figure 12 both show exponential
strength of concrete by weakening the interfacial
relationship between oxygen permeability,
zone.
compressive strength and air content. Concrete is
less permeable when it has higher strength and
less air. Trend is more apparently in Figure 12. It
is interesting to find that GGBFS has an adverse ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
effect on air-entrained LWAC. For the concretes I would like to thank Dr. Cyril Lynsdale for his
without entrained air, GGBFS helps to create a supervision throughout the project and the
less permeable mix, especially when concrete is technical staff for their kind helps during the
cured in air (the starting points of the curves). experiments.
From the graph, as the air content increases,
curves overlap each other. And the mixes with
GGBFS are found to be more permeable, no REFERENCES
matter what the curing condition is
CEB/FIP. (1977). Lightweight aggregate concrete: Manual
of design and technology. The Construction Press.
Kilic, A., Atis, C., Yasar, E., & Ozcan, F. (2003). High-
4 EVALUATION strength lightweight concrete made with scoria aggregate
A comparison of properties of M1 and M7 were containing mineral admixtures. Cement and concrete
research , 1595-1599.
made to evaluate the benefits.
Mehta, P., & Monteiro, P. (2006). Concrete:microstructure,
The desired strength set at the beginning of this properties and materials. McGraw-Hill.
project was 15 N/mm2. From the results, the Neville, A. (1972). Properities of concrete. Pitman.
strength of both mixes is a little higher than the
421
The Performance of Vibrated Stone Columns

Hrishikesh Shinde
ABSTRACT Demand for construction sites is constantly increasing due to the extraordinary rate at
which construction is progressing world-wide. This situation has lead engineers to construct structures
on sites which previously have proved to be uneconomical due to deficient ground conditions. As a
result of this, major developments in the field of ground improvement have occurred. Certain ground
improvement techniques are well established and have their set applications. However, research on
newer techniques is constantly undertaken to overcome the limitations of the existing techniques and to
ensure economical and durable construction. One such rapidly evolving improvement technique is the
use of stone columns to improve the bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of the soil, forms
the basis of this paper. Traditionally, stone columns have been used to improve performance of soil
beneath massive raft foundations. Recent developments include use of stone columns in smaller groups
to support isolated or pad footings. However, data on such applications is insufficient. This paper
specifically deals with the use of group of granular columns to support isolated footings. A set of tests
on the columns are performed and the results are compared with the benchmark test (i.e. sample with
no columns installed) to observe the improvement in load bearing capacity and settlement performance
of the soil. From the results, it is evident that inclusion of granular columns dramatically increases the
load carrying capacity as well as the settlement characteristics of the soil.
specifically focuses on one such commonly

1 INTRODUCTION
used technique which is - use of stone columns
Construction is progressing at an unimaginable to increase the bearing capacity and settlement
pace world-wide and there is a constant characteristics of the soil.
requirement of construction sites. This
situation has led the construction industry to
consider sites which have been proved 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
unusable in the past due to deficient ground
For over sixty, depth vibrators have been used
conditions. This limited availability of
to increase the bearing capacity and settlement
construction sites and the increasing cost of
characteristics of derelict soil. Improvement
construction have led to the use of more
techniques using vibrations can be categorised
sophisticated ground improvement techniques
into two major groups, namely vibro-
for durable and cost efficient construction. The
compaction and vibro-replacement.
necessity of constructing structures on derelict
ground is increasing nowadays. Structural
loads are increasing and there is a need to work
with soft and incapable soil. Hence various 2.1 Vibro-replacement stone columns
improvement techniques are used to stabilize It is an economical and environmentally
the ground and make it suitable for friendly improvement technique used to
construction. Depending on the type of soil, improve the bearing capacity of the soil and
structural loads and time available, appropriate reduce the settlement on footings under heavy
ground improvement techniques can be chosen loads. The vibro-replacement technique is best
[1]. Improvement techniques can be broadly suited for cohesive soils having shear strength
classified into two main categories, namely, greater than 15 KPa [2]. This is because
improvement by compaction and improvement granular columns expand transversely and
by reinforcing the ground with a foreign acquire shear resistance from the surrounding
material having higher strength. There are soil. For columns installed in soils having
numerous ground improvement techniques strength lesser than 15 KPa, the lateral support
available. Vibration, compaction, preloading provided by the soil is not sufficient for
and grouting are the most commonly used efficient functioning of the columns and can
techniques. All the methods have advantages also lead to column failure [3]. In such cases, a
and limitations to their application. This paper geotextile casing can be used to ensure
422
stability and avoid lateral bulging of the 2.4 Scope for research:
column. The replacement process generally
There are various areas on which very limited
involves replacing about 10 % to 35 % of the
research has been done and less information is
in-situ soil with crushed rock [2]. Generally
available. Previous scale model tests have been
stone column lengths range from 3m to 15m
performed to observe the effect of group of
depending on the type of soil.
three of four columns installed beneath a
circular or strip footing [1, 5]. The
2.2 Traditional use of stone columns improvement in soil characteristics like footing
settlement and load bearing capacity of soil
The use of stone columns for improving the due to installation of a small group of columns
load bearing capacity and settlement having more than four columns has not been
characteristics of weak soils is in existence for studied. This aspect provides the basis for this
over three decades across the globe [2] and this paper. It involves observing the effects of
technique has remained unchanged all these change in the configuration of the columns.
years. Traditionally, stone columns are used to
support massive raft foundations for huge This paper deals with the effect of number of
structures generally in a uniform grid type columns on the soil characteristics and group
configuration. The design methodology for interaction of the columns. The behaviour of
constructing stone columns in this fashion is group of six and nine columns installed
well established and design charts exist for beneath the footing is observed.
improving the ground based on various
parameters such as area replacement ratio
(A/Ac) [4]. The improvement factor indicates
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
the extent to which the settlement of a raft
foundation will be reduced. These basic design
curves assume the stone columns to be made The experimental work for this research
of incompressible material. Hence other design involves a series of three foundation settlement
tests with varied number of stone columns
diagrams have been established which have
installed to observe the change in load bearing
adjustments to allow for this assumption.
capacity. All tests are performed using kaolin
Practical design charts that consider load
as the material in which the columns are
distribution as well as the reduced lateral
support on the columns situated under the installed and silica sand to replicate the coarse
footing edges (corner columns) are also backfill column material. Test 1 is a test on
unreinforced kaolin sample. Test 2 and test 3
available for this layout of the stone columns
are foundation settlement tests on kaolin
[4].
sample reinforced with group of nine columns
and six columns respectively. Apart from the
three foundation settlement tests, the
2.3 Revised improvement techniques using experimental program also consists of
stone columns: supplementary tests namely shearbox test to
determine strength and angle of internal
As mentioned earlier, stone columns were
friction of the silica sand as well as vane shear
traditionally used in a large grid type
test to determine the shear strength of the
configuration with a number of columns
kaolin after consolidation in each of the
supporting a massive raft foundation. New
settlement tests.
configurations of installing stone columns are
being developed to facilitate the use of vibro-
replacement for improving the soil beneath 3.1 Sample preparation
smaller footings like isolated footings, strip
Kaolin is used as the material in which the
footing, pad footings and embankments. The
behaviour of such small groups of stone stone columns are installed. Slurry is made
columns is not completely understood as using kaolin powder and water in set
proportion and thoroughly mixed in a mixer
research is still being done on this kind of
until a homogeneous paste is obtained. A 1:1
installation method. Since it is a fairly new
proportion is used for this experiment. A tank
technique, there are concerns regarding the
stability of the columns. Since small groups of of breadth 400 mm, width 150 mm and depth
columns are constructed, the spacing between of 430 mm is used for this experiment. It has
an aluminium frame with a plexiglass window
the columns is lesser and behaviour of this
to observe the behaviour of the sample. The
layout is also not completely understood.
plexiglass window is secured by tightening all
the bolts and the kaolin slurry is evenly poured
into the tank in layers. A dual piston
423
arrangement is used to apply pressure to the kaolin bed. Figure 3.2 shows the installed
sample to consolidate it to the required columns for the test.
strength. 80 mm diameter pistons are used.
Initially, a pressure of 50 KPa (0.5 bar) is set
in the gauge and incremented to twice the
value at 24 hour intervals to ensure proper
consolidation of the kaolin sample. The height
from the top of the tank to the top of the
sample is recorded every time the pressure is
increased.
3.2 Foundation settlement tests

After the sample has fully consolidated to the Fig 3.1: Nine columns installed
required strength, three tests are performed
(i.e. no stone columns, group of nine stone
columns and group of six stone columns under After the columns are installed, a filter paper is
the footing) to observe the settlement of the placed on top and the top cap is placed in order
foundation. to keep the installed columns in place. Next the
plexiglass window is carefully removed by
sliding it downwards making sure that the
3.2.1 Procedure for installation of stone sample remains undisturbed at all times. A
columns modelling flock is sprinkled across the
exposed surface of the kaolin bed which allows
Dry top feed method is used for installing the software to record movement of soil below the
stone columns in the consolidated kaolin bed. footing and hence the settlement of the
Before the experiment, a template is made of foundation. A smaller plexiglass window is put
plexiglass having holes for the desired number in place with the rubber seal and secured in
of stone columns with the exact diameter and position. Using the dual piston arrangement, a
spacing required in both directions. The pressure of 50 KPa is applied for a few hours
template is used to ensure that the columns are to ensure that all gaps between the plexiglass
drilled perfectly vertical into the sample and a window and the sample are sealed. After a
uniform grid of stone columns is obtained. The couple of hours, the pistons are retracted, top
procedure to install the stone columns in the cap is removed and a footing of width 100 mm
kaolin bed is as follows: and breadth 150 mm is aligned with the centre
• The appropriate template is gently placed of the group of columns. The piston plate is
on the consolidated sample removed and the motor plate is mounted above
• A casing is pushed inserted through the the tank. The load cell is setup on the footing
template into the kaolin up to the required and the transducer is mounted on the motor as
depth. A column depth of 150 mm is shown in figure 3.3.
fixed for all the experiments.
• A small auger is lowered into the casing
and the kaolin is extracted to the required
depth to leave behind a perfectly vertical
shaft.
• The hollow shaft is filled with sand in
three layers. The sand is poured into the
shaft in batches of 40gms.
• The first layer of sand in poured into the
shaft and then the casing is retracted by
about 5 cm.
• With the help of a plunger, the poured
sand is compacted by giving 5 blows
from a constant height of about 5 cm.
• The next batch of sand is added and
compacted as earlier. The entire column
is installed and the weight of sand in the
column is recorded.
• The same method is used to install all the Fig 3.3: Set-up for the settlement test
desired number of stone columns in the
424
thermostatically controlled oven is used to dry
A digital camera is setup and aligned in such a the sample at 105°C to 110°C for about 24
way that the entire plexiglass window can be hours and weighed again and moisture content
captured. The data tracking system is started is evaluated. Average moisture content for the
and motor is set to displace the footing at a sample in this test is 48.62 %.
constant rate. Photographs of the plexiglass
window are taken at intervals of 15 seconds to 4.1.3 Settlement of footing and soil
observe the movement of soil below the behaviour
footing. These images are later used in
A 2.5 KN load cell measures the load applied
geotechnical testing software called ‘GeoPIV’
by the motor on the footing. The data is
which processes the images and plots the exact
collected by a data acquisition system and
movement of the soil beneath the footing. The
test is allowed to run till a settlement of about recorded by a software knows as DeLogger.
20 to 30 mm of the footing is obtained. The top From this set of readings, a load-displacement
curve is plotted which shows the variation in
plate with the motor is removed and the
the load corresponding to the displacement of
plexiglass window is removed by sliding in the
the footing. Figure 4.2 shows this relationship.
same way as previously done. Once the
From the load-displacement curve, it is
plexiglass window is removed, the sample is
carefully dissected layer by layer with the help observed that the peak load is 570.49 N at a
of sharp tools in order to expose the stone displacement of 1.95 mm. The wavy nature of
the curve after a displacement of about 7 mm
columns and observe their mode of failure.
indicates soil shearing which can be confirmed
by the result from PIV analysis mentioned
3.3 Software used for analysis of soil later.
behaviour
4.1.4 PIV analysis
GeoPIV is the software used for analysing the
settlement of the footing and the movement of For this analysis, figures are compared
corresponding to every 5 mm displacement of
soil particles beneath the footing. GeoPIV is a
the footing and these images can be related to
geotechnical testing software and uses MatLab
the load-displacement curve to estimate load
to run. It works on the principal of Particle
acting on the footing at that particular time.
Image Velocimetry (PIV) and measures
displacements from digital images [6]. The final figure will show the behaviour of soil
corresponding to the cumulative effect of all
the images in the image set used by GeoPIV
for this test. Figure 4.3 shows the final
4. RESULTS OF SETTLEMENT TESTS
displacement vectors plotted by GeoPIV.
As mentioned earlier, three tests on kaolin are
performed. The results of these tests are as
follows.
4.1 Test 1 (Unreinforced sample)

In this test, an unreinforced sample (i.e. no
stone columns installed beneath the footing) is
tested for settlement characteristics. The
footing is allowed to settle for 25 mm and the
behaviour of the soil under the footing is
observed. Fig 4.3: Result of PIV analysis of test 1
4.1.1 Consolidation From the figure above, surface heaving on
The initial height of the kaolin bed was both sides of the footing can be seen. Rotation
recorded as 385 mm and after consolidation at of footing can also be observed and the
600 KPa, the final height of the bed is found to shearing plane is distinctly seen.
be 259 mm. Average shear strength of 6.85
KPa is obtained for this sample from which it
is evident that a good quality of consolidation 4.2 Test 2 (Nine stone columns installed
is obtained. beneath the footing)
4.1.2 Moisture content In this test, the settlement of the footing and
the movement of the soil beneath the
A small quantity of the consolidated kaolin is foundation are measured and the results are
taken in a container and weighed. A compared to those of unreinforced soil. The
425
columns reinforce the soil increasing its From the figure, symmetric soil movement
bearing capacity. about the vertical axis is observed. A distinct
outline of the triangular wedge can be seen.
4.2.1 Consolidation
The final settlement of the footing is about 35
The sample consolidated from an initial height mm with no rotation.
of 395 mm to a final height of 250 mm and
average shear strength of 6.35 KPa is obtained 4.3 Test 2 (Six stone columns installed
indicating a good quality of consolidation is beneath the footing)
achieved.
The effect of group of six columns installed
beneath the footing, on the movement of soil
4.2.2 Moisture content
below the foundation is observed in this test.
Method for determining the moisture content is
the same as that used in test 1. Column spoils
are taken as sample 1 for the test and spoils 4.3.1 Consolidation
from the vane shear test are used as sample 2.
The sample in this test is consolidated in the
Hence a fair estimation of moisture content is
exact same way as that of test 1. An initial
obtained at the start and end of the experiment.
stress of 50 KPa is applied in each piston. The
Also the change in moisture content of the
initial height of the bed was 392 mm and after
sample can be observed during the test.
consolidation at 600 KPa, a final height of 265
Average moisture content of sample in test 1 is
mm is obtained. The average shear strength of
48.5 %. A change of 4.73% is observed
this sample is 2.325 KPa which is drastically
between the start and end of test 2.
lesser than that of samples in test 1 and test 2.
4.2.3 Settlement of foundation and soil The reduced strength of the sample can be a
behaviour result of higher moisture content due to
improper consolidation.
From the data obtained from the transducer
and load cell, a load-displacement curve is 4.3.2 Moisture content
plotted to observe the behaviour. A peak load
A 2 % decrease in moisture content occurs
of 1425.12 N is obtained at a displacement of
during the test which is a result of air drying.
30.28 mm. The load remains fairly constant
The average moisture content of the sample in
after a displacement of 10 mm of the footing.
test 3 is found to be 55.53%. A 10 % increase
The spiked nature of the graph indicates failure
in the moisture content is observed in this
of the installed columns.
sample compared to the sample in test 2. The
higher moisture content can be the cause of
4.2.4 PIV analysis
reduced shear strength of the kaolin sample in
this test.
The image set of this test used for PIV analysis
consists of thirty eight images captured at an 4.3.3 Settlement of foundation and soil
interval of 15 seconds as the footing settles. behaviour
Each successive figure in this comparison
A peak load of 321.46 N is obtained at a
corresponds to a 10 mm settlement of the
displacement of 24.30 mm. A total
footing. The result of PIV analysis of a group
displacement of 31 mm is recorded. The load
of ten images is compared and the final figure
remains fairly constant after a displacement of
shows the cumulative effect of all the images
10 mm. The wavy nature of the curve after 10
in the image set.
mm displacement indicates column failure.
4.3.4 PIV analysis
The image set for this test consists of twenty

six images captured at an interval of 15
seconds. From the analysis, Symmetric
behaviour of the soil can be seen as the footing
settles and no rotation of the footing occurs.
The final displacement of the footing is about
30 mm and the triangular wedge can be
distinctly seen.
Fig 4.5 Result of PIV analysis of test 2 5. CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION
426
1600
Max load = 1425.12

1400
1200
1000
Load (N)
800
600 Max Load = 570.49

N
Max Load = 321.46
400
N
6 Columns
200 9 Columns
unreinforced
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Displacement (mm)
Fig 5.1: Load-displacement comparison for all three tests
The results of all three settlement tests are [4] M. P. Moseley, K. Kirsch, Ground
presented in the above section. Figure 5.1 improvement. 2nd edition, 2004.
shows the characteristics of all three tests. The
[5] D. McKelvy, V. Sivakumar, A. Bell, J.
maximum load that the unreinforced soil
sample can carry before failure is 570.49 N Graham, Modelling vibrated stone columns in
and that of sample with 9 columns is 1425.12
soft clay, Proceedings of the Institution of
N which is a 150% increase as compared to
that of the unreinforced sample. Both Civil Engineers, Geotechnical Engineering
reinforced samples show identical profiles with
157, issue GE3, July 2004.
reference to load-displacement relationships
and the ultimate limit state is achieved after a
[6] White D. J., Take W. A., GeoPIV: Particle
displacement of about 20 mm where as in the
Image Velocimetry (PIV) software for use in
case of the unreinforced sample, the ultimate
geotechnical testing, University of Cambridge,
load bearing capacity is attained at an early
October 2002.
displacement of the footing after which
shearing failure of the soil occurs. Hence it can
be seen that the reinforced samples show
improved settlement characteristics and load
bearing capacities.
6. REFERENCES
[1] F. Kirsch, W. Sondermann, Ground
Improvement and its Numerical Analysis.
[2] V. Sivakumar, D. Glynn, J. Black, J.
McNeill, A Laboratory model study of the
performance of vibrated stone columns in soft
clay.
[3] Joel Gniel, Abdelmalek Bouazz,
Improvement of soft soils using geogrid
encased stone columns.
427
Development of whole cell biosensor array for the environmental

monitoring of PAHs metabolites
Ritu J. Shriyan
ABSTRACT Water is a very unique substance, as it has the ability to naturally renew and cleanse
itself, by allowing contaminants to settle out via the process of sedimentation or break down, or by
diluting the contaminants to non-toxic concentrations. The quality of water in the water bodies is
rapidly degrading due to the various industrial activities. To keep a check on the water quality it is
essential to develop methods which can do so. Biosensors have been developed in the past to detect the
quality of water. In this report, four strains of biosensors were constructed, namely, ADPWH_lux,
ADPWH_benM, ADPWH_catB and ADPWH_catB_ΔsalR. These biosensors were used to detect the
presence of the chemicals salicylate, benzoate and catechol. The experiment consisted of mixing each
biosensor with each chemical at 14 different concentrations in an open view plate and measuring the
bioluminescence produced by them by reading it in a plate reader. Twelve such plates were prepared.
The results demonstrate that the biosensors are capable of detecting the chemicals at even very low
concentrations and hence they can be used as a very important tool in the detection of contaminants in
environmental water samples. Some of the biosensors which were constructed to detect only specific
compounds showed specificity. Another advantage of using them to monitor the quality of water is
they produce rapid results and are easy to operate.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 POLYAROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

(PAHs)
People’s lives and livelihoods largely and
without any other alternative relies on water. The list of pollutants contaminating the water
Demand for clean water increases continually bodies is endless. The group of pollutants taken
and linearly with an increase in the world into consideration in this report are PAHs. The
population. Water quality is an important PAHs are found in air, soil and water and a vast
determinant of its availability because water majority of them are discharged into the
which is polluted is effectively unavailable for environment due to the incomplete combustion
use (Struckmeier, 2005). Water pollution is the of organic substances at high temperature and
contamination of water with chemicals or under pyrolytic conditions (Cyran et al., 2002).
foreign substances which are detrimental to They can enter the surface water through the
human, plant or animal health; by any human- discharges from industrial plants and waste
caused activities, which reduces its usefulness to water treatment plants (ASTDR, 2011). They
humans and other organisms in nature (EPA, have the ability to travel over long distances
1997). before they return to earth in the form of rainfall
which can not only contaminate surface water
Each year, approximately 14 billion pounds of
but also groundwater by penetrating the ground
sewage, sludge, and other garbage are dumped
surface (ASTDR, 2011).
into the world's water bodies (Oracle, 2001). The
problem of water pollution affects every country 2.1 Metabolites of PAHs
in the world. Peru, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,
Naphthalene is the simplest PAH. Salicylate and
India, China and Mexico are some of the
catechol are metabolites of naphthalene
countries that have severe water pollution
degradation. Naphthalene degradation is carried
problems (Crunkish, 2008). As the world has
out by some of the bacteria of the Pseudomonas
industrialized, the problem of water pollution
genus. In this degradation there is a sequential
has greatly aggravated. Globally, an estimated 2
breakdown of naphthalene to salicylate and from
billion people consume contaminated water
there two metabolites are formed, one of them
which poses an enormous risk to their health
being catechol. This is an important degradation
(NIEHS, 2011).
mechanism as the detection of salicylate by the
biosensors in the water samples indicates the
428
presence of catechol and naphthalene which are the transducer. Thus, construction of a microbial
both water pollutants. biosensor requires immobilization of microbes
on transducers with a close proximity.
Naphthalene can also undergo the benzoate
Microorganisms can be immobilized on
pathway for its degradation to bring about the
transducer by chemical or physical methods
formation of catechol. In this pathway, benzoate
(Lei, 2006).
undergoes aerobic oxidation by Azoarcus
evansii and also by a Bacillus As an alternative, bioreporters can be used as
stearothermophilus-like strain to lead to the sensors for the groundwater contaminants.
formation of protocatechuate and catechol. Bioreporters are intact, living microbial cells that
have been genetically engineered to produce a
2.2 Methods for analysis of PAHs
signal which can be measured in response to the
Various methods have been employed for the presence of a specific chemical (analyte) or
detection of PAHs in water samples. Some of the physical agent in the cell’s environment (Ripp,
commonly used analytical methods are GC-MS 2010). Bioreporters contain two essential gene
(Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy) and regulation elements: a promoter and a reporter
HPLC (High-pressure liquid chromatography) gene. The promoter is activated when the target
(Gu, 2004). Although these methods are useful agent is present in the cell’s environment. In a
they are very time-consuming, expensive, normal bacterial cell, it is associated with other
require expertise and are not very convenient genes that are then transcribed in a similar way
due to their complexity (Strosnider, 2003). and then translated into proteins that eventually
Developing countries like China, India, Pakistan, aid the cell in either combating or adapting to the
etc. that have a serious problem of water agent to which it has been exposed (Ripp, 2010).
pollution cannot afford to use these methods and
In a bioreporter, the genes linked to the promoter
hence they need a cheaper alternative. Biosensor
are removed and replaced with a reporter gene.
technology lends itself to rapid, economical and
As a result, activation of the promoter triggers
continuous monitoring skills and hence,
the activation of the reporter gene. The activated
development of these devices to complement
reporter gene in turn encodes the reporter
conventional analytical measurements can result
proteins that ultimately generate some kind of a
in a considerable cost benefit, particularly when
detectable signal. Hence, the presence of a signal
sample turnaround time and cost per analysis are
implies the presence of a particular target agent
principal matters (Rogers, 2003). Moreover,
biosensors have an added advantage of having in its environment (Ripp, 2010). Some of the
the ability to detect genotoxicity and cell toxicity commonly used reporter genes are lux gene, gfp
which is not possible by analytical methods gene and luc gene.
(Taquchi et al., 2004). Hence, the focus of this 3.2 Advantages of using a biosensor
study is to develop biosensors that can detect
different contaminants in the environmental Whole-cell based biosensors have several
water samples. advantages over conventional methods for
detecting the toxicity in a sample. The list of
advantages of using whole-cell based biosensors
3 BIOSENSORS for environmental monitoring are as follows:
A biosensor is a device or system made up of a 1. Rapid analysis

biological sensing component, which detects Biosensors create a clearer picture by providing
either a chemical or a physical change, attached physiologically relevant data in response to a
to a transducing element that generates a contaminant. This response, usually
measurable signal in response to the luminescence, is quick and easy to measure,
environmental change (Daunert et al., 2000). resulting in real-time data (Strosnider, 2003).
This signal can result from a change in protons
concentration, release or uptake of gases, 2. High sensitivity
emission of light, absorption and so forth, which The detection limit of a biosensor depends on its
is due to the metabolism of the target compound design, but it has been proved that it could detect
by the biological recognition element (Lei, concentrations as low as 7 ppb for As(III) and 35
2006). The essential components of a biosensor ppb for As(V) (Turpeinen et al., 2003).
include a biological recognition element, a
physical transducer, an electrical amplifier and a 3. Ability to measure bioavailable fraction of
data processing system. analyte
3.1 Principle of a biosensor The greatest advantage is their ability to detect

the bioavailable fraction of the contaminant
The basic principle of a microbial biosensor is rather than the total concentration (Strosnider,
the close contact between microorganisms and 2003). This is useful as knowing the bioavailable
429
fraction will aid in getting an accurate 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
assessment of the sample and the potential risks
4.1 Behaviour of the biosensors in mineral
involved.
medium
4. Less expensive
They are cheaper than other conventional
methods such as atomic absorption
spectrometry, inductively coupled atomic
electron spectrometry, and sequential extraction
procedure.
5. Ease and convenience of operation
They are less labour intensive and are
particularly helpful for field work or in situ
analysis, as the procedure for using biosensors
does not incorporate the bulky, fragile
equipment or expertise that most analytical Fig 4.1: Response of ADPWH_lux in mineral
methods require (Strosnider, 2003). Although medium
the results obtained from biosensors are free of The graph (Fig 4.1) above shows that the
chemical extractions and analytical procedures, biosensor ADPWH_lux can respond to salicylate
they are comparable to and compatible with and benzoate although its response to catechol is
chemical analysis. extremely weak. It also shows that an increase in
6. Ability to measure non polar molecules the emission of bioluminescence is seen as the
concentration of the inducer goes on increasing.
They also have the ability to measure non polar The graph clearly indicates that the biosensor is
molecules which do not respond to most more effective for detecting salicylate and
measurement devices and they allow rapid and benzoate in water samples. Also, the minimum
continuous control (Gregor, 1990). concentration of the inducers to be present in the
environment for it to be detected by the
biosensor is 2 µM of salicylate and 100 µM of
3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN benzoate.
Four biosensors, namely ADPWH_lux,
ADPWH_benM, ADPWH_catB and
ADPWH_catB_ΔsalR, were cultured in mineral
medium with succinate as a carbon source and
LB medium by incubating them overnight.
These were then used for testing their efficiency
as a biosensor by taking a small amount of the
solution and diluting it with the medium they
were inoculated in. Inducers were added to this
diluted solution of biosensors. Each biosensor
was tested against the three inducers viz.
salicylate, benzoate and catechol. 14 different
concentrations of the inducers were used. The Fig 4.2: Response of ADPWH_benM in mineral
procedure basically involved adding the different medium
concentrations of inducers to the respective
The response of this biosensor to the three
diluted biosensor solutions. Every set of
inducers is different from the biosensor
biosensor-inducer mix was prepared in
ADPWH_benM. It responds to all three inducers
triplicates and read on a plate reader to measure
moderately well. It’s response to benzoate is the
the intensity of bioluminescence produced.
highest. Also, as it can be observed from the
figure 4.2 the biosensor’s response to the three
inducers goes on increasing exponentially with
an increase in the concentration for the last 5
concentrations. The biosensors response to
catechol is very good as it can detect its presence
in a concentration as low as 100 nM
approximately. It also detects both salicylate and
benzoate at a significantly low concentration of
200 nM. For benzoate, it shows a good response
after the concentration reaches 100 µM.
430
4.2 Behaviour of the biosensors in LB
medium
Fig 4.3: Response of ADPWH_catB in mineral

medium
The graph above (fig 4.3) shows the response of Fig 4.5: Response of ADPWH_lux in LB
the biosensor ADPWH_catB to the three medium
inducers. This biosensor, as it can be observed, The above graph (fig 4.5) shows the response of
can detect all the three inducers. It’s response to the biosensor ADPWH_lux to the three inducers
benzoate is the best and highest indicating it is a in the LB medium. It shows an almost negligible
good biosensor to detect the presence of response to catechol. It shows some response to
benzoate in a water sample. It can also be benzoate at the highest concentration which is 10
observed from the graph that the minimum mM. Although, it can be observed that its
concentration of any of the three inducers to be response to salicylate is very strong and it shows
present in the environmental water sample for an almost exponential increase in its emission of
the biosensor to detect its presence is 200 nM. bioluminescence with an increase in the
concentration of salicylate indicating it is a good
biosensor to detect the presence of salicylate in a
water sample. It can detect salicylate at a
concentration of 1 µM.
Fig 4.4: Response of ADPWH_catB_ΔsalR in

mineral medium
The figure 4.4 shows the response of the
biosensor ADPWH_catB_ΔsalR to salicylate,
benzoate and catechol. This biosensor was Fig 4.6: Response of ADPWH_benM in LB
constructed to detect the presence of catechol medium
and benzoate and not salicylate. It performs its
function as it shows negligible response to This is the response of the biosensor
salicylate whereas it emits bioluminescence in ADPWH_benM to salicylate, benzoate and
the presence of catechol and benzoate. This catechol in the LB medium. The construction of
biosensor too has the ability to detect both this biosensor was for it to detect the presence of
catechol and benzoate at a concentration as low all three inducers. From the graph above it can
200 nM. Its response to catechol and benzoate is be seen that it responds to all three biosensors
more or less the same and hence it is a good and hence performs its function. It can also be
biosensor to detect both. observed that its response to all the inducers is
more or less the same except for the highest
concentration of catechol (10 mM) where the
response of the biosensor increases dramatically.
The minimum concentration at which this
biosensor can detect any of the three inducers is
500 nM.
431
4.3 Comparison between the behaviour of the
biosensors to the inducers in the mineral
medium and LB medium
ADPWH_lux: From the figures 4.1 and 4.5, it
can be seen that this biosensor can detect
salicylate and benzoate well although it cannot
detect catechol. This behaviour is observed in
both mineral medium and LB medium. This
indicates that this biosensor is not useful in
detecting catechol. It can also be observed that
the biosensor cannot detect benzoate efficiently
in LB medium whereas it works best in detecting
Fig 4.7: Response of ADPWH_catB in LB salicylate as it can detect salicylate efficiently in
medium both mineral medium and LB medium and
The graph above (fig 4.7) represents the shows an almost exponential increase in its
response of the biosensor ADPWH_catB to the emission of bioluminescence as the
inducers at different concentrations. This concentration of salicylate goes on decreasing.
biosensor, like the biosensor ADPWH_benM ADPWH_benM: The figures 4.2 and 4.6
performs its function of detecting the presence of represent the response of this biosensor which
all the three inducers. Also, its response to each shows that it has similar responses for each
inducer is almost the same except for the highest inducer in both mineral medium and LB
concentration of benzoate where its response is medium. It can be observed though that in the
greatest. The minimum concentration of the mineral medium it has a slightly better response
inducers to be present in the environmental to benzoate as it can detect benzoate at a lower
samples for the biosensor to detect their presence concentration compared to its detection in LB
is 200 µM. medium. In the mineral medium it can detect
benzoate at 100 nM whereas in the LB medium
it can detect benzoate at a concentration of 500
nM indicating it has a slightly better sensitivity
towards benzoate in the mineral medium
compared to the LB medium.
ADPWH_catB: The response of ADPWH_catB
to the three inducers in the two media shows that
it has a more or less similar behaviour in the
mineral medium and the LB medium. Also, it
can be observed that in both the media it can
detect the three inducers at a concentration of
500 nM. Although its response to the three
Fig 4.8: Response of ADPWH_catB_ΔsalR in inducers is almost the same, it has a better
LB medium response to salicylate in the mineral medium as
it emits greater bioluminescence in the mineral
The graph above shows the performance of the medium than the LB medium for the same
biosensor ADPWH_catB_ΔsalR in the LB concentration of salicylate which is between 1
medium to detect the presence of the three µM and 10 µM.
inducers. As mentioned earlier, the aim while
constructing this biosensor was for it to be able ADPWH_catB_ΔsalR: This biosensor responds
to detect catechol and benzoate but not to all the three inducers in each medium almost
salicylate. Its response to salicylate shows that it identically. Since, the function of this biosensor
performs its function as its response can be is to detect the presence of benzoate and
regarded as negligible since even at the highest catechol and not salicylate, it shows an almost
concentration used its response to salicylate is negligible response towards salicylate. Towards
very weak compared to the other two inducers the other two biosensors it has a similar response
used. It should also be noted that the response of and can detect both of them in both the media at
this biosensor to catechol and benzoate is almost a concentration of 500 nM.
the same and it can detect them at a
concentration which is as low as 20 µM.
5 CONCLUSION
From the study carried out it can be concluded
that biosensors can be used as fast and common
too for environmental monitoring if we carry out
432
a detailed analysis of the mechanism it follows Oracle. (2001, September 24). The Environment:
and make use of various genetic engineering A Global Challenge. Retrieved August
methods to modify the gene sequence. It is 12, 2011, from
certain that the future of biosensors will depends http://library.thinkquest.org:
largely on the success of emerging sophisticated http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Envi
micro and nanotechnologies, biochemistry, ronmental_Problems/water_pollution.ht
chemistry, thin-film physics, and electronics. To ml
reach this goal, an important, generous and
Oracle. (2009, February 02). Cellupedia.
extensive investment in research and the
Retrieved August 22, 2010, from
necessary facilities is needed. However, as the
http://library.thinkquest.org:
world becomes more concerned about the impact
http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/r
that environmental contamination may have on
na_translation.html
public health and the ecosystem in general, the
demand for rapid detecting biosensors will only Ripp, S. (2010). Biosensors: Advanced
increase. bioreporter technologies for targeted
sensing of chemical and biological
agents. Retrieved May 24, 2011, from
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Biotechnology:
http://www.ceb.utk.edu/bioprimer.pdf
ASTDR. (2011). Toxic Substances Portal:
Rogers, K. (2003). Biosensors for
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
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Strosnider, H. (2003). Whole-Cell Bacterial
Crunkish. (2008, January 05). Top 10 Most
Biosensors and the Detection of
Polluted Countries. Retrieved July 05,
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http://crunkish.com/top-10-pollution-
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Cyran et al., J. (2002). Determination of
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Water (including drinking water) of genotoxicity detection system using a
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http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-
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Lei, Y. (2006). Microbial biosensors. Analytica
chimica acta, 200-210.
NIEHS. (2011, July 07). Water Pollution.
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http://www.niehs.nih.gov:
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exposure/water-poll/index.cfm
433
Why is the water quality in the Doe Lea River so poor?

Mark Stevens
Candidate MSc(Eng) Urban Water Engineering and Management
ABSTRACT The Doe Lea River has a long history of pollution issues which once earned it the
reputation of the most polluted river in Europe. Water quality has succumbed to the pressures of mining
heritage, industry, agriculture, urban growth and major highways which dominate the catchment. The
river has poor chemical, biological and ecological classification with the Environment Agency and
conditions of low flow are often observed, which intensify water quality issues.
In order to determine the reasons for the degradation of surface water quality, a project has been
devised to take a snapshot of the water chemistry. Fifty water samples were collected simultaneously
across the catchment and repeated for each season of the year. Analysis of these samples has developed
understanding of pressures and influences that are contributing to water quality degradation. With a
mass balance analysis, it has been possible to locate particular areas of concern, determine sources and
quantities of pollution and devise land management options to alleviate pollution stresses. Significant
pressures have been determined as the result of diffuse runoff from agricultural and urban landuses, mine
related discharges and sewage treatment effluent. Solutions are suggested and further study identified to
improve the water quality in the river to meet the water framework directive targets of 2015.
mining practices of the 20th century. In the

1 INTRODUCTION
1990’s, the river was described as being the most
The Doe Lea Catchment is located in Derbyshire, polluted in Europe (Skinner, 1992). This was as
UK. It lies 7km east of Chesterfield and covers a result of a Dioxin release from a chemical
an approximate area of 69.7km2 (CEH, 2011). processing facility which discharged untreated
The River Doe Lea stretches 18km from its effluent to the river. Although this was due to a
source near Tibshelf in the south of the single pollution event, the long term stresses on
catchment to its end point where it discharges the catchment from the coal mining industry have
into the River Rother to the north. The river is resulted in a trend of degraded water quality.
fed by natural and anthropogenic land drainage There is also a history of poor flow conditions
and springs in the east of the catchment. The two within the river and this only acts further in the
main tributaries to the river, Pools Brook and degradation of the ecology of the watercourse
Hawke Brook, each cover approximately 5km (Gustard et al, 1992).
and discharge into the lower reaches of the River
This is not the first attempt to study the
Doe Lea.
characteristics of water quality in the Doe Lea.
The river is situated in a predominantly rural Other studies have previously been undertaken
catchment with other mixed urban landuse and the Environment Agency (EA) has had a
including mining, industry and major highway long involvement with recording flow, chemical
routes such as the M1 motorway. Landuse in the and biological quality and ecological values of
upper catchment is mainly agricultural, with the river (EA, 2011a, CEH, 2011). These studies
some industry on the periphery and redundant have been of much smaller scales than the one
collieries scattered near settlements. The lower undertaken in this investigation as detailed data
catchment shifts to more urbanised landuse. has only been recorded in a few locations along
Although much has now closed, industry, mining the river.
and landfill still have a strong presence; though
The Water Framework Directive requires rivers
agriculture currently dominates the landscape.
to achieve ‘good chemical and ecological status
The catchment has a long history of water quality for surface waters by 2015’ (Water UK, 2011).
issues which relate to its land uses and aggressive The Doe Lea has been classified as ranging from
434
‘good’ to ‘bad’ with regard to its ecological further sampling days to be completed in
status as shown in figure 1.1. November and February so a full annual profile
can be developed. These will be undertaken in an
identical manner to the April & July sampling.
Figure 1.1: Ecological status of the river as defined by

the Environment Agency (EA, 2011b)
The EA (2011b) has predicted the Doe Lea River
will only reach these water quality standards by
2027 as ‘it is considered technically unfeasible
or disproportionately expensive to otherwise
achieve’. The issues seen in the Doe Lea are not
unique. There is a common trend through the Figure 2.1: GIS map of the Doe Lea Catchment
remainder of the Humber river basin of poor detailing the fifty sampling locations of the project
water quality for the duration of the watercourse.
This therefore justifies the need for a project of 2.2 Flow measuring
this magnitude and depth, which if successful can Flow measuring is crucial to estimate mass flux
be repeated in other stressed catchments. of pollutants at each of the fifty sampling points.
It was undertaken at feasible locations and eight
flow measurements were measured in the field.
2 FIELD INVESTIGATION, PREVIOUS Four were measured on the main Doe Lea River,
WORK, LABORATORY ANALYSIS AND and others were taken on Hawke Brook and
GIS MODELLING Pools Brook to establish a flow profile for much
of the lower catchment. The upper catchment
To develop the snapshot of water quality across
was mainly dry or inaccessible due to excessive
the catchment, fifty water samples were taken at
plant growth so a rainfall runoff model estimated
the same time at equidistant locations along the
the flow at these points. Estimations of flow from
river and tributaries of the Doe Lea. This allowed
springs in the east were derived from measuring
analysis of spatial variation to be presented to
spring discharges near sites 48 and 19. The mean
determine where in the catchment that pollution
of these flows was applied to all of the spring fed
issues arise.
tributaries in the east catchment to estimate their
2.1 Collection of water samples contributions to the river.
For the two sampling events undertaken within Flow was estimated by investigating water
the timeframe of this project, volunteers were velocity with a Geopacks flow meter and
selected and positioned at each of the fifty establishing the cross section of flow by detailing
sample points which were located as displayed in the dimensions and depth of the river channel. A
figure 2.1. 50ml Water samples were collected rainfall-runoff model was fitted to these values to
simultaneously by the volunteers at exactly 11am estimate flow across the remainder of the
on the day of sampling. This ensured that a full catchment.
profile of water quality could be developed from
across the catchment at one particular moment. 2.3 Laboratory analysis
This was initially undertaken in April and was Following the sampling of the fifty river
repeated again in July to determine the effects of locations; the water samples were collected,
seasonal variability. The full project requires two labelled and stored on ice prior to analysis in the
435
University of Sheffield environmental laboratory. 3 MASS BALANCE ANALYSIS OF RIVER
They were checked for concentrations of many REACHES IN THE CATCHMENT
mainstream organics, inorganics and metals
A mass balance analysis is essentially accounting
found within natural waters. In total 36
for material within a system and is widely used
compounds were measured to analyse the water
within environmental engineering analyses. It
quality in the catchment. This was in addition to
works on the basis of the conservation of mass
a PAH and pesticide analysis to aid the
law that material cannot spontaneously appear
determination of sources and drivers of river
within or disappear from a system. Most
pollution. The analysis derived a concentration of
importantly it helps to derive non-point sources
compounds at each of the sampling locations in a
such as areas of agricultural runoff and can
mg/l format.
establish areas where better land management
2.4 Comparison with Environment Agency can be encouraged. Chemical transformations
river monitoring data occurring within the river can also be detected,
such as those of the nitrogen cycle. By
Numerous important water quality parameters
continuing the laws of conservation, creation of
are recorded and are widely available from EA
one compound will lead to mass reduction in
sources. These were used to validate and give
another and display the characteristics leading to
confidence in the findings from this study. Thus
the poor water quality.
developing a thorough understanding of the
catchment, its land use and its water quality; In order to develop a plot of mass balances, it
ultimately defining the types and sources of was required to establish flow and pollutant
major pollutants. concentrations at each of the fifty sites. Hence, a
mass flux was then be developed by multiplying
Data used for this comparison was nitrate and
the two together as follows:
phosphate concentrations which are a key
concern for the EA in the river and hence a Concentration (mg/l) x Flow (l/s) = Mass Flux (mg/s)
comprehensive database of measurements was The change in the mass flux at the start and end
available. It was found that the concentration of a river reach is what defines the additions or
readings in this project matched to within 10% of
abstractions to and from the river.
EA values for the same sites, except for one at
sampling site 35 which was within 20%. Hence a 3.1 Mathematically estimating flow via the
strong confidence was developed in the rainfall-runoff model
methodology and laboratory procedure
A basic rainfall-runoff model was designed for
undertaken here. Differences were most likely
the catchment in order to estimate flow within
attributable to the EA values being a seasonal
the river. Rainfall, soil and geology and artificial
average, whereas our samples were one-off
influences were all required in order to develop a
readings.
fair estimate of flow, hence:
2.5 Representation of data with ArcGIS
3.1.1 Precipitation, land use and catchment
ArcGIS subsidiary programme ArcMap was subdivision
utilised thoroughly throughout the project. This
Initially the region was divided into fifty sub-
was selected due to the ease of manipulation to
catchments which contributed to flow at the
represent an array of spatial data as developed in
adjacent downstream sampling point. Landuse
this study. It is a popular and widely used method
was predetermined by CEH (2011) and was used
of data representation in river and catchment
in order to estimate the percentage distribution of
investigations such as the study of Hiscock et al.
urban, rural, agricultural and grazed land in the
(1995). Application of multiple layers of
fifty sub-catchments. An estimated rainfall for the
information can be personally manipulated to
period from a 3 month average was developed
produce tailored outputs. Revision of maps is
from Met Office records and applied to the
simple when new data needs to be analysed and
catchment. This value of 0.62mm/d was
plots are accurately mapped due to the universal
multiplied by the catchment area to derive a m3
and precise nature of its coordinate system. The
per day volume of water per sub-catchment
ability to distribute concentrations of pollutants
potentially accessible to the watercourse. Runoff,
on a colour scale makes interpretation of outputs
infiltration and evapotranspiration characteristics
simple even for non-educated readers in the
were estimated in relation to landuse and a
subject. Therefore GIS was chosen as the best
percentage of rainfall that becomes runoff was
solution to represent data derived from this
established. This quantity of runoff was used as
investigation.
an estimate for baseflow in the river.
436
3.1.2 Hydrology of soil and geology 3.2 River reaches of greatest concern
determined by mass balance analysis
An investigation of soil and geology defined the
potential for runoff and infiltration in the After the determination of flow from the rainfall
catchment. The majority of soils are slowly modelling and pollutant concentrations from
permeable restored opencast and have hydraulic laboratory analysis, mass fluxes (mg/s) at each
conductivities which comfortably allow average point were derived. Longitudinal plots were
precipitation to infiltrate. They are however developed for the Doe Lea, Hawke Brook and
easily waterlogged and contribute runoff to the Pools Brook which immediately highlighted areas
river in storm conditions (NSRI, 2011). of particular concern. The most noticeable river
reach was between sites 28-34 due to aggressive
Site geology is primarily middle coal measures
influxes of nitrate and phosphate. Similarly, at
consisting of a sequence of mudstone, siltstone,
sites 33 and 39 there is a significant influx of
sands, clays and dolomitic limestone. Sandstones
metalliferous pollutants. In the west of the
are fine grained, well cemented and dense
catchment at site 15 is a considerable increase in
resulting in very little permeability and act as an
Zn and Ni concentration and finally there are
aquitard (Cheney, 2007). Groundwater flow is
numerous spikes in nitrate concentrations in the
therefore restricted to fractures between aquitard
agricultural uplands of Hawke Brook and the
layers. This reduced storage capacity is expected
western slopes of the Doe Lea.
to cause water logging of soil during the winter
sampling and contribute to excess quantities of 4 SIGNIFICANT INFLUENCES ON
runoff reaching the river. WATER QUALITY AND SOURCES OF
POLLUTION
The primary aquifer is situated on the east of the
catchment and provides a flow contribution via To develop solid conclusions of where the
an abundance of springs. It does however slope sources of water degradation are in the
to the east at a 1 in 75 slope effectively draining catchment and methods of remediating these;
groundwater from the catchment identification of affected sites has been
established from the mass balance analysis. It is
3.1.3 Artificial discharges to the river
therefore possible to detail those findings here:
It has not been possible to accurately quantify
4.1 Worst affected sites in the catchment
artificial influences from mine drainage or sewage
treatment outfalls. Hence estimations have been The most important site of the catchment is 34
established using a population equivalent and where a significant nutrient influx is evident from
mean water use 125 litres pppd. It has not been site 28. There is a concern especially over
feasible to establish industrial or highway phosphate concentrations within the river and the
discharges due to their sporadic and intermittent mass of nutrients entering the river here is the
nature. However, combining all known and main driver of water quality degradation as
estimated influences in the rainfall-runoff model shown in figure 4.1. It is the main cause of
returned the flow profiles for April and July in eutrophication and could be directly responsible
the catchment as shown in figure 3.1: for the reduction in ecological value of the river.
Analysis Increase between 28-34

2120mg/s
April (Nitrate)
19mg/l
1290mg/s
July (Nitrate)
30mg/l
104mg/s
April (Phosphate)
1.0mg/l
168.5mg/s
July (Phosphate)
4.85mg/l
Figure 4.1: Extent of nutrient influx at site 34

In the EA water quality standards, the increase in
nutrient concentration raises nitrate classification
from ‘low’ to ‘moderate’ for April and ‘low’ to
‘excessively high’ for July. Phosphate
concentrations increase from ‘low’ to
Figure 3.1: Estimated profile of flow for April (left) ‘excessively high’ for both the April and July
and July (right) sampling with largest spheres sampling. However, in July, phosphate levels
representing highest flows
437
reach five times the EA recommended maximum of water quality fluctuation in the wetter winter
concentration in rivers of 1mg/l. Therefore the months compared to the dry conditions seen in
discharge of nutrients to the river in this reach is April and July. Spring 2011 was among the driest
very significant and has a severe influence on the on record so flows were low and runoff heavily
rivers quality. limited. Therefore, with the effects of increased
rainfall and the knowledge that soils have limited
Site 33 is clearly under stress from mining related
storage capacity encouraging runoff, the analyses
discharges. Upstream of this point drains the land
for the winter months are expected to be very
of the former Arkwright Colliery and Arkwright
different. Hence in order to define the sources
Tip. Significant spikes in pollutants characteristic
and intensity of pollution in the catchment, these
of mine drainage are observed including Fe, Mn,
two remaining sampling events need to be
Al & SO4. Signs of pollution from the mining
completed and analysed.
heritage are also evident in other locations
throughout the study area such as sample point 5 It has also been suggested to add additional
at Silverhill Colliery. This is in contradiction to sampling sites between sites 28-34 and 33-39 to
the Coal Authority (2011) who claim no mine aid the understanding of the sources of pollution.
waters surface in the area or discharge directly It remains unclear whether these are point source
into the rivers of the catchment. However, water pollutants from the sewage works and colliery; or
chemistry supports that some interaction is indeed if they emanate from land runoff or
certainly occurring here. groundwater pollution from mine waste leaching.
Locations on the periphery of the upper
catchment in Hawke Brook breach the nitrate
5 CONCLUSIONS
directive maximum concentration of 50mg/l. Site
47 for example recorded a concentration of In conclusion, the project has highlighted areas of
66mg/l in April effectively branding it a nitrate particular concern to water quality in the
vulnerable zone. catchment. There are a number of influences that
require further investigation in order to decide on
4.2 Effects of seasonal variability on quality
remediation strategies and prevent or reduce
Significant trends were observed when analysing their discharges to the watercourse. A summary
the seasonal variability of April and July. Plots of the main drivers of water quality as
were developed for mass fluxes in April against determined by the spring and summer analyses is
July for the most noteworthy compounds in the included in figure 5.1. This highlights the areas
water samples. Of the 12 compounds analysed, 7 known to have most influence on river quality
returned excellent correlation, with R2 values of during this project period; though again this is
greater than 0.96. Three more returned values of expected to vary somewhat for the winter
greater than 0.8 with the remaining two, analyses.
phosphate and copper showing some correlation
The land users within the catchment providing
at ~R2=0.6
the greatest concern to water quality in the river
Of all the pollutants that show excellent have proven to be predominantly urban rather
correlation, there was a trend of mass flux being than rural. Sewage treatment, mining and
approximately three times in April what they localised industrial discharges have proven to be
were for the equivalent sampling site in July. The the main degraders of water quality. Agriculture
worst correlation of phosphate would perhaps be does have a significant effect as seen in the upper
explained by the random nature at which it enters catchment; however, this is not to the extent
the watercourse via runoff from non-point expected prior to the investigation. This is most
sources. likely attributable to the reduced transport of
pollutants to the watercourse as a result of the
The robustness of the correlation between April
exceptionally dry period between March and
and July’s sampling data would suggest that
July.
there is a continuous supply of pollutants with
similar water chemistry in both seasons. This may result in skewed findings for the period
However, the availability of pollutants is higher and may also affect the outstanding analysis in
in April due to the greater transport potential via November. Pollutants stored in soil and the
runoff. unsaturated zone due to the dry season may
contribute excessive concentrations to the river
4.3 Further study
when the ‘first flush’ of pollutants occurs in the
This project still has two more sampling events winter. This has been noted in previous studies
left to run in order to develop a full annual such as that of Neal et al (2010) and should be
examination of the catchment characteristics. A taken into consideration during the analysis of
key area of further study is to analyse the effects the next sampling data in November.
438
A special acknowledgment must go to Tina
Bardill of the National Trust who proved an
invaluable resource of local knowledge.
REFERENCES
CEH, 2011. National River Flow Archive: Doe
Lea at Staveley Available from: www.ceh.ac.uk/
[Accessed on 03 July 2011].
Cheney, C.S. 2007. The hydrogeology of the
Chesterfield, Matlock and Mansfield district
(Geological Map Sheet 112). British Geological
Survey & Natural Environment Research
Council: Nottingham, UK
Coal Authority, 2011. Enquiry into mine
drainage in the Doe Lea Catchment [e-mail]
(Personal Communication, 2 August 2011)
Environment Agency, 2011a. River quality
assessment: Nutrients [online]. Available from:
http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/
[Accessed on 28 June 2011]
Environment Agency, 2011b. Water for life and
livelihoods: River basin management plan
(Humber river basin district). Annex B: Water
body status objectives. Environment Agency and
DEFRA. pp 808-810
Gustard, A., Bullock, A., and Dixon, J.M., 1992.
Low flow estimation in the United Kingdom.
Figure 5.1: Map detailing the key areas of concern to Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford. Available
water quality within the catchment: Blue = Mining, from www.ceh.ac.uk [Accessed on 29 June 2011]
Yellow = Nitrate, Red = Industry & Green = Nutrients
Hiscock, K.M., Lovett, A.A., Brainard, J.S. and
In conclusion, the one issue most detrimental to Parfitt, J.P. 1995. Groundwater vulnerability
river quality is the nutrient influx at site 34. At assessment: two case studies using GIS
site 33 there is a significant and notable influx of methodology. Journal of Engineering Geology &
metalliferous compounds emanating from Hydrogeology, Vol 28(2) pp179-194
Arkwright Colliery. However, Pools Brook still
Neal, C., Jarvie, H.P., Withers, P. J. A., Whitton,
retains a ‘good’ ecological classification with the
B. A., and Neal, M. 2010. The strategic
EA so the effect of this pollutant influx is not a
significance of wastewater sources to pollutant
major concern.
phosphorus levels in English rivers and to
Industrial discharges, such as that at site 15 environmental management for rural,
where catchment high concentrations for Zn, Ni agricultural and urban catchments. Science of
and Cd were observed are more easily traced. the Total Environment. Vol 408. pp 1485–1500
Following recommendations from the April
NSRI, 2011. Academic Soils Site Report for
analysis, the National Trust has begun to
location 445276E, 368014N, 5km x 5km.
investigate these emissions more thoroughly and
National Soil Resources Institute, Cranfield
are devising a plan of action to tackle the metallic
University. Available from: www.landis.org.uk
discharges to the watercourse from this location.
[Accessed on 23 June 2011]
Skinner, D. 1992. House of Commons Debate 13
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS February 1992: Dioxin pollution (Bolsover).
203 col. 1204-12.
Thanks go to my dissertation supervisor, Prof.
David Lerner whose guidance and input has Water UK, 2011. About the Water Framework
enabled me to complete this project. Also the Directive [online]. Available from:
assistance of Andrew Fairburn in the University www.water.org.uk [Accessed on 22 June 2011]
laboratories has been invaluable to the project.
439
The Effect of Water Content on the Strength of Rock

Chatchanee Tamrongtamratn
ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to evaluate the strength of three limestones i.e. Carboniferous
limestone, Jurassic limestone and Cretaceous chalk when the presence of water at different degree of
water saturation. The test used for this investigation is unconfined compressive strength test specified
by ISRM (1981). The results indicated that water content significantly influences to the strength of all
the rocks types tested. The strength underwent and exponential reduction as the water content changed
fro m dry to fu lly saturated condition. The strength of Carboniferous limestone sharply declined for 0-
1% saturation while the strength of other two rocks gradually decayed from dry to fully saturated
condition. All three of rock types experienced a high reduction in strength, which was over 40%. The
results illustrated that the strength in dry condition for both Cretaceous chalk and Jurassic limestone
were related to moderately strong, whereas, the strength of Carboniferous referred to strong. The
theories are discussed in order to understand the reasons that water content causes the strength
decreases and the minimisation fracture energy is seemly the most plausible exp lanation.
saturated conditions and sometimes, they are

1 INTRODUCTION
tested in saturated conditions. It is known that
Rocks generally support building foundations wet rocks are weaker than dry ones.
and use commonly for the construction materials
Although, limestones and chalk have been
in engineering as an aggregate in concrete and
chosen because they are mostly consisted of the
tarmacadam. The strength of rock is important to
same mineral which is calciu m carbonate and
rock applicat ions and pore liquid is one factor
have been classified in the same rock type but
that can affect strength and other properties of
they still have a different pores structures and
rock. The need to understand rock types and
grains, hence, they also have a different
their properties are significant for the engineers
properties so it is expected that their strength
to design buildings. As we can seen that we do
will be affected in different ways . As it depends
need to undertake thorough investigation of
on rock structure, properties and source, thereby,
construction sites using both in-situ and
it imp lies that if rock co me fro m difference
laboratory testing. By this enables engineers to
sources then the strength would also be
achieve an effectively and economically design
difference even for the same rock type.
by selecting suitable materials . It therefore will
be preventing the building failures.
Rock strength and other properties will change 2 ROCK DES CRIPTION AND EFFECT OF
with water content rates by wet conditions are WATER CONTENT
usually weaker than dry conditions (Romana and
2.1 Properties of li mestone
Vásárhelyi 2007). In order to design in
engineering, the dry strength is use in which the Limestone have calcite mineral more than 50%
standard testing specified rocks should be dry. and it produced from the deposit of carbonate
Whilst, in the use of rock they are whether dry or sediments in the sea with inorganic chemicals
nor saturated but will contain in partially processes and fossils so it called as a type of
440
chemical sedimentary rock (Bell 2000). saturation but the strength has been decreased
Co mmonly, limestone colour is wh ite, grey, soft- much by co mparing to the dry condition.
pink or black in which it is a porous rock due to
The fracture energy reduction theory may
high porosity but low permeability by
possibly scenario to explain the strength
intergranular (Bell 2000). The limestone in
reduction or called the Griffith criterion which
Britain is classified in 3 types in term of period:
developed by Griffith (1920) that is σ f =
Carboniferous limestone is the oldest and has the
(2Eγ/πC)1/2 which called the Griffith failure
strongest compressive strength compared to the
criterion where σ f is failure tensile stress, E is the
other limestone types and its strength is referred
Young’s modulus, γ is specific surface energy
to strong then follo wed by Permian Magnesian
and C is cracked length. The criterion is
limestone and Jurassic limestone respectively
interesting in term of energy i.e. surface-energy
which their strengths are moderately strong (Bell
reduction in tension rather than acting force
2000). The term strong defines in between 50-
(Gordon 1991). It is based on the Griffith
100 MPa and moderately strong has 12.5-50
experiment to verify his hypothesis that the
MPa in accordance with Bell (2000).
dimension decreased as the fracture stress
Specific gravity 2.66 – 2.85
increased on solid materials and the term of
Dry density (Mg/m-3 ) 2.09 – 2.61 surface-free energy is the amount of energy
Sat density (Mg/m-3 ) 2.24 – 2.66 required to create a new surface on materials that
Hardness 3-4 on Mohs scale is if material was cracked into two dimension so
Porosity (%) 12 – 20 the energy will be required to create two new
Permeability(x10-8 ms -1 ) 1.14 – 17.5 surfaces (Collett 2007).
Dry UCS (MPa) 60 - 170 The water content indicates the amount of water
contains inside pore spaces so the amount of
Table 1: General properties of British limestone
water depends on rock structure in which
(after Bell 2000, Farmer 1983 and Carmichael &
Klein 2006) expressed by the percentage i.e. water content
(%) = ((W Sat – WDry )/WDry )x100 where W Sat is
2.2 Properties of chalk the water saturated weight and WDry is the dry
weight.
According to Bell (2000), chalk contains over
95% calciu m carbonate and having a porous In common, the mechanical properties which
texture which is made fro m o rganic ingredients influencing to strength is pores spaces (Ojo and
deposited together and called as bio-chemical Brook 1990). In the dry conditions, the pore
sedimentary rock. Generally, chalk colour is spaces are contained with gases or air but liquids
white, soft-grey or soft-yellow and having a are absented, whereas, gases are absented in the
small pore bulk everywhere which it called high water saturated conditions (Farmer 1983).
porosity rock which it may deposited with 70- Although, the strength in saturation is the most
80% porosity, high permeability but various depended on the porosity but the other factors
density (Bell 2000). The chalk in Britain formed are also effectively such as absorption, density,
the most in upper Cretaceous period which in a permeab ility etc (Farmer 1983).
soft type of limestone and its strength is referred
Even though, the strength in water saturated
to moderately strong in wh ich it is a non-elastic
rock (Bell 1983). condition is less than in dry condition but there
are no exactly relat ionship between both
Specific gravity 2.65 – 2.73
conditions (Romana and Vásárhelyi 2007). In
Dry density (Mg/m-3 ) 1.76 – 2.30 general, dry condition is that outsides or rock
Sat density (Mg/m-3 ) 2.11 – 2.43 surfaces are dry but it is still saturated insides ,
Hardness 1-3 on Mohs scale whereas, rock surfaces or outsides are saturated
Porosity (%) 16.2 – 36.4 and the insides are dry called as saturated
Permeability(x10-8 ms -1 ) 0.03 – 0.12 condition. However, it is not only the strength is
Dry UCS (MPa) 18 - 60 changed in water saturated condition but also the
effective normal stress is decreased, hence, the
Table 2: General properties of Brit ish chalk fracture energy and frictional will be reduced as
(after Bell 2000, Farmer 1983 and Carmichael & it because water diminishes the free surface
Klein 2006) energy to propagation so cracks are spread
everywhere and grow up by water pressure in
2.3 Effect of water content
pores, and also decreasing of capillary tension
Vásárhelyi and Ván (2006) claimed that the most along with losing elastic modulus while pore
influencing factor that has an effectively to the pressure will be increased and those caused
strength is water content as the result of the chemical and corrosive deterioration then rock
mechanical properties of rock are deformed even will start to cracking in shear primarily until it
though it is contained little o f water only 1% reaches failure later on (Collett 2007).
441
According to Bell (2000), the reduction of be circular cylinder rather than rectangular prism
Carboniferous limestone strength is approximate with height to diameter ratio between 2.0-3.0
21% which the least reduction compared to and avoiding an abruption of irregularit ies and
others types of limestone while the Jurassic smoothness on the both surfaces end which
limestone has around 40–42% reduction in should be not provided by any use of capping
strength and about 50–70% reduction on materials and surface treatments and specimen
Cretaceous chalk. Besides, Hawkins and should not be stored over 30 days to be preserve
McConnell (1992) noted that the reduction rate water content and number of specimen should be
is less than 25% referred to low reduction, at least 5 per testing.
moderate is between 25–40% reduction and high
3.2 Dry procedure
reduction referred to greater than 40%.
Moreover, Ro mana and Vásárhelyi (2007) The drying process is intended the specimens to
claimed that the ratio of saturated compressive be in 0% of water content which specimen is
strength to dry compressive strength between usually dry outsides or around surfaces while
0.8–0.9 is well indurated strong rock, 0.6–0.7 is insides is supposed to be dry. To be in dry
cemented mediu m strength rock and around 0.3 condition, a standard laboratory oven was used
is soft argillaceous rocks. at temperature of 105℃ for minimu m of 24
hours and allowed to cooling in desiccators for
30 minutes in which suggested by the ISRM
3 METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTS (1981). After cooling process, specimens were
weighed by standard balance which scale is able
3.1 Speci mens collection and preparation
to read being an accuracy of ±0.01g. After the
A total of 70 specimens were used for test which weight was recorded, specimens were wrapped
total of 20 specimens derived from 4 of lower in cling film and stored until testing.
Carboniferous limestone blocks which were
3.3 Fully saturation procedure
collected fro m Hope Valley, Derbyshire, 4 of
upper Cretaceous chalk blocks for total of 25 The fully saturation condition is when air or
specimens which were co llected fro m Barnetby, gases in pores spaces is replaced by any liquids
North Lincolnshire and 4 of Jurassic limestone which fully everywhere insides even though
blocks for 25 specimens total which were more liquid flo w though but pores spaces cannot
collected fro m Netheringham, Lincolnshire. All contained anymore on liquid, therefore, weight
rock blocks were obtained fro m quarries which will be constant which is the weight of 100%
approximating the minimu m size by 350 x 100 x saturation (Franklin and Dusseault 1989). The
150 mm (length, width, and thickness method of this condition is by immersing
respectively) in wh ich one block-drilled got specimen in water which is Sheffield University
around 5 – 7 specimens. All specimens were deionised water for minimu m of 24 hours but
drilled with diameter o f 46 mm and length of specimen needs to completed in drying process
100 mm except 7 specimens of Carboniferous first in order to be confidence that pores spaces
limestone had length of around 80-98mm as it have no air, gases or other fluids contained and
because some blocks were damage during the then weighed and recorded after that wrapped in
drilling. cling film. It is caution before specimen
Blocks Engineering weighting, it needs to be certain that specimen
Description surfaces must be drying out of water by using
1- 4 Strong, light grey with tissue paper as it because of fully saturated
white, fine-g rained, condition is not including water on surfaces
lower Carboniferous which it can be easily disappeared and not
LIM ESTONE exactly contained in pore space, hence, it is not
5- 8 Moderately strong, the water content on specimen certain ly.
Rocks white, very fine - 3.3 Parti ally saturation procedure
grained, upper
Cretaceous CHA LK The partial saturated condition in this study is at
9 - 12 Moderately strong, 1%, 5% and 25% water and it can be done by
light brown ish with using drying method combines with fully
white, fine-g rained, saturation method.
porous, Jurassic First of all, drying process was used to obtain
LIM ESTONE specimens at 0% water then specimens were in
Table 3: Materials description in accordance fully saturation process to gain the weight at
with BS 5930:1999 100% water. Calcu lating porosity by both dry
and fully saturated weight and then estimating
The specimens size was drilled in accordance the desired water weight for partially saturated
with the ISRM (1981) which is specimen could condition. Afterwards, take specimen back to
442
standard laboratory oven to eliminating the if height to diameter rat ion is lower than the
exceed water content and cooling down by using suggested so the strength should be adjusted.
chemical desiccators then weighed and recorded
As the strength underwent and exponential
it. If weight is still greater than the required
reduction because of pores spaces size were
weight then continue drying again but if weight
small and that specimens were gradually
is lower than the required weight then
absorbed water so the rock properties were
immerging into water to be saturated. Therefore,
slightly deformed, thereby, the strength still
it could be better that keep periodically
remained and continued dimin ish more and more
weighting to achieve the desired weight to
by water content increased. It is obviously that
prevent overshot or undershot of water content.
the UCS of Carboniferous limestone was sharply
After the desired weight is obtained and
declined fro m dry state to 1% water compared to
recorded then wrap up with cling film and store
the other two rocks as Vásárhelyi and Ván
until testing.
(2006) claimed that before in which it decreased
3.4 Method of testing almost half of dry ones, whereas, the Jurassic
limestone and chalk were gradually reduced
The ISRM (1981) suggested for UCS testing that
until fu lly saturation.
the applied load which acting on specimen for
one axis should be steady and continues Re
throughout the test by the rate of 0.5-1.0 MPa/s Dry Sat σsat duc
and test should be completed in the short time Rock type UCS UCS /σdry tion
around 5-10 minutes per test after loading (MPa) (MPa) (%)
applied in which failure should be occurred on Carboniferous
that time suggested. The test should be achieved limestone 76.18 29.44 0.39 61
in short time as a reason of specimen can alter Carboniferous
water content inside so result will be h igher than limestone(adj) 76.57 31.76 0.41 59
it could be. Additionally, do not leave specimen Jurassic
long time after cling film was unwrapped as it limestone 40.60 22.60 0.56 44
cause of water content evaporated by time. Cretaceous
chalk 30.68 11.47 0.37 63
4 RES ULTS AND DICUSSIONS Table 4: Average UCS and reduction in strength
at 100% saturation
4.1 Trends
Besides, the result of dry strength of
Figure 1 shows the reduction in average UCS for Carboniferous limestone was strong, while, both
the three rock types. All three follow a similar strength of Jurassic limestone and chalk was
trend in which there is a steep drop in strength moderately strong in accordance with Bell
for a increase in water content to about 5% and (2000). Ho wever, the reduction in strength of
litt le further decrease as the water content above Carboniferous limestone was more than half of
about 25%. dry ones and the reduction percentage is around
twice than Bell (2000) claimed, wh ile, the
80 Carboniferous Jurassic limestone were reduced a little bit
limestone(adj)
higher than Bell (2000) stated. Meanwhile, chalk
70 Carboniferous limestone had the highest reduction from dry to fully
saturation compared to the others two which is
60 Jurassic limestone
Avg UCS (MPa)
about 63% as Bell (2000) claimed that around

Cretaceous chalk 50-70% reduction in chalk strength, in which
50
three limestones reductions were high reduction
that is over than 40% in accordance with
40
Hawkins and McConnell (1992). According to
30 Ro mana and Vásárhelyi (2007), the ratio of sat
UCS to dry UCS of Carboniferous limestone and
20 chalk were soft argillaceous rock, while, the
Jurassic limestone ratio was cemented mediu m
10 strength rock.
0 25 50 75 100 4.1 Porosity
Water content (%) It is obvious in Figure 2 that the porosity of
Jurassic limestone has much greater than the
Figure 1: Average UCS vs saturation level Carboniferous limestone. The former rock has
The strength of Carboniferous ones had been visible pores and bubbles occurred when it was
adjusted as it suggested by the ISRM (1981) that immersed. Hawkins and McConnell (1992)
443
noted that rocks with high porosity such as chalk
bubbles appear for both full and partial 60 Carboniferous
limestone
saturation for about 30 seconds to 20 minutes
after immersion. In addit ion, chalk was lost Jurassic
50 limestone
some fined-grains when it was immersed as Bell
(2000) claimed that chalk was possible lost some Cretaceous
UCS (MPa)
chalkstone
grain by dewatering. 40
30
60 Carboniferous
limestone
Jurassic limestone 20
50
Cretaceous
UCS (MPa)
chalkstone 10
40 0 2 4 6 8 10
Absorption (%)
30 Figure 3: UCS vs absorption
4.4 Bulk density
20
Since, the chalks are being a porous rock as it
because of high porosity so it caused the bulk
10 density had lower than both limestones and it
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 caused more pores as Bell (1983) claimed that
Porosity (%) density will be increased by aging, thus, chalk
had the lowest density comparing by period to
Figure 2: USC vs porosity the others two rocks in which it referred to low
Co mparing to the properties of both Jurassic density and the Jurassic limestone also related to
limestone and chalk, it is noticeable that the low density, meanwhile, the density of
strength of the Jurassic limestone were higher Carboniferous limestone related to moderate in
than the chalk by comparing appro ximately at accordance with Bell (2000).
the same percentage of porosity. Meanwhile, Carboniferous
comparing appro ximately at the same strength 60
limestone
value it is distinctly that the percentage of Jurassic
Jurassic limestone porosity is rather lower than 50 limestone
the chalk in wh ich comparing around 25 MPa Cretaceous
and consequently, Jurassic limestone has about chalkstone
UCS (MPa)
11% porosity while the porosity of about 15% 40

by chalk. As the porosity of Jurassic limestone
was related high porosity so chalk was also 30
related to high porosity as it because of chalk
porosity was over than Jurassic limestone in
accordance with Bell (2000). Whilst, the 20
porosity of Carboniferous limestone was low in
comparison with the other two rocks which it is 10
around 0.5-1% and referred to very low in
1.9 2.3 2.7
accordance with Bell (2000). Bulk density (Mg/m-3)
4.3 Absorption
Figure 4: UCS vs bulk density
The results of absorption were related to the
percentage of porosity as it can be seen in Figure Fro m all properties results, it cannot be denied
3 that the percentage of absorption of that the Carboniferous limestone is the strongest
Carboniferous limestone had the lowest about rock co mpared to the other two rocks in dry
0.5-1% co mparing with the others two as the condition as the result of the strength depends on
result of the percentage porosity was also very period which rocks were formed i.e. the latest
low which it means the Carboniferous limestone period will have the lowest strength, meanwhile,
had less pore space so it can be absorbed and the strongest strength was formed in the oldest
stored less water than the other two rocks. period in accordance with Bell (2000).
Whereas, the absorption of chalk had also higher Although, the Carboniferous limestone had only
than the Jurassic ones so water can be more 4 specimens per test but the results were
absorbed as the result of high porosity. gathering in range of each group so the only 4
444
specimens were accepted and satisfied per Properties. Available at:
testing for this study. http://www.britannica.co m/ EBchecked/topic/505
970/rock/ 80184/ Physical-properties Accessed on
Furthermore, Co mparing to three limestones
12 July 2011.
strength when in fully water saturation and
taking into account it is evidently that all Collett, R. (2007) The Effect o f Moisture Content
strengths of rock tested were degraded. on the Unconfined Compressive Strength of
Although, the Carboniferous limestone has the Rocks. Civil and Structural Engineering, The
strongest strength in comparison with the other University of Sheffield, Sheffield.
two rocks but its strength went down at the same
Farmer, I.W. (1983) Engineering Behaviour of
range of the other two rocks at 100% saturation.
Rocks. 2nd ed. Chapman and Hall Ltd, London.
Thus, it might be imp lied that even though the
rock has either high or lo w strength but when it Franklin, J.A. and Dusseault, M.B. (1989) Rock
is in fully saturation the strength will be Engineering. McGraw-Hill Inc., the United
degraded in which the reduction in strength will States of America.
be more or less depending on the rock structure,
Go rdon, J.E. (1991) Structures, or why things
pore space, pore size etc.
don’t fall down. 2nd ed. Penguin Books, London.
Hawkins, A.B. and McConnell, B.J. (1992)
5 CONCLUS IONS Sensitivity of Sandstone Strength and
Deformability to Changes in Moisture Content.
The following conclusions were draw fro m this
Quarterly Journal o f Engineering Geo logy. 25.
study:
pp 115-130.
 The strength of all rocks tested are
reduced by the presence of water and the ISRM Suggested Methods (1981): Brown, E.T.
reduction is related exponentially to the (ed) Rock Characterization, Testing and
Monitoring. Pergamon Press, Oxfo rd.
amount of water.
 The reductions of all types of rock tested Ojo, O. and Brook, N. (1990) The Effect of
are related to high reduction in strength Moisture on Some Mechanical Properties of
Rock. Mining Science and Technology, 10
fro m dry to fully saturation.
(1990), 144-156. Elsevier Science Publishers
 Carboniferous limestone has the highest B.V., A msterdam.
strength followed respectively by Jurassic
Ro mana, M. and Vásárhelyi, B. (2007) A
limestone and Cretaceous chalk.
Discussion on the Decrease of Unconfined
 The rock strength depends on period Compressive Strength between Saturated and
which rock was formed i.e. the strongest Dry Rock Samples. The Second Half Century of
rock is formed in the oldest period. Rock Mechanics 11th Congress of the
 Pore space is the most influencing factor International Society fo r Rock Mechanics,
effect on rock strength. Vo l.3. Taylor & Francis 2007, UK.
 Fracture energy reduction seems to be Vásárhelyi, B. and Ván, P. (2006) Influence of
plausible scenario to explain the Water Content on the Strength of Rock.
reduction in strength when rock are Engineering Geology 84 (2006), 70-74.
contained of water.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincerely, thank you to Dr John Cripps and all
technical staffs whom helped with my
experiments, granting me access to relevant
resources and educating me on this subject.
REFERENCES
Bell, F.G. (1983) Engineering Properties of
Soils and Rocks. 2nd ed. Butterworths & Co.
(Publishers) Ltd, London.
Bell, F.G. (2000) Engineering Properties of
Solis and Rocks. 4th ed. Blackwell Science Ltd,
Oxford.
Carmichael, R.S. and Klein, C. (2006)
Encyclopædia Britannica Online – Physical
445
Reducing Noise by Natural Means

Soo Hong Teah
Candidate MSc (Eng) Architectural Engineering Design
ABSTRACT This project is aimed to reduce noise by natural mean. Three aspects such as vegetation,
substrate and green roof have been carried out to investigate their sound absorption by using impedance
tube. In measurement of vegetation for absorption coefficient, it is found that Aloe Cosmo has the
highest overall absorption. The other five succulent plants have progressive increases with the
frequency. For substrate, it is clear that the smaller size particles have lower absorption coefficient and
the larger size particles have presented parabolic curve. Additionally, the measured absorption
coefficient for smaller size particles have been compared with predicted value which introduced by
N.N.Voronina and good agreement has been found at high frequency. Four types green roofs have been
investigated and Green roof 1 which contains foam has overall highest absorption coefficient. The
other three green roofs have similar material on the bottom with same soil and vegetation thus has
similar profile on absorption coefficient. Additionally, the effect of depth of the soil on absorption
coefficient has been carried out and it is found that there is a potential maximum absorption coefficient
of 80% for soil deeper than 40mm.
1 INTRODUCTION
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
In order to reduce the outdoor noise to a
2.1 Sound Propagation through Vegetation
satisfied level, EU directive on environmental
noise and several actions have been taken but Vegetations have always been cited and
with less consideration on sustainability. researched as natural way to reduce noise. The
Hosanna is a project to widen the use of green sound absorption through vegetation has
spaces for reducing noise impact of traffic and theoretically derived according to the energy
this dissertation is based on the Work Package3 dissipation by T. Watanabe (1996). In this case,
(trees, shrubs and bushes) and Work Package5 a leaf is regarded as a rectangular plate and the
(green buildings) of the project. Thus, it will be dissipation energy can be expressed as:
divided into three parts which are vegetation,
substrate and green roof measurement. K 2 w
Ea  V S
2 2 (1)
There are several researches on the effect of
vegetation on noise reduction have been carried K A 1 1
And   
out and proven that it is effective depending on 2 2 4 8 (2)
some factors such as leaf area, density and
thickness. Substrate, used as growing medium where A is a constant which is determined by
for vegetation can be categorised as a porous the dimension and shape of the plate; V is
material and its sound absorption is highly particle velocity of sound wave; S is the area of
depends on its porosity and flow resistivity. The one side of the plate; η is the coefficient of
purpose of this part is to test the effect of viscosity of air and w is angular frequency.
particle size on the sound absorption. In order to The incident energy per unit time is given by
recommend a green roof with good acoustic
performance, four types of green roof will be 1
Ei  cV 2 S
used for measurement of sound absorption 8 (3)
coefficient.
where c is the velocity of sound. Thus, the
The results obtained from the measurements absorption coefficient can be expressed by
will be analysed in order to recommend a
combination of vegetation, substrate and green E f
roof with good acoustic performance.    4K
Ei c 2
(4)
Regarding G as frequency-absorption factor:
446
 Z  Z a  iZ i  1  Q  i
Q
G  4K
c 2
(5)
1 Q / 1  Q 
2
(8)
1 1 H 200 
Q
  Gf 2
(6) HD k 0 C 0
(9)
Thus, the absorption coefficient is proportional Where the Za and Zi are the real imaginary part
to the square root of frequency of sound. of the impedance; µ=1.85×10-5 is the dynamic
2.2 Sound Propagation through Soil viscosity; D is the pore diameter; ρ0 is the air
density; C0 is sound velocity in air; k=2πf/C0 is
Soil can be categorised as porous materials in wave number and f is frequency. Hence,
acoustic. This kind of material is rigid and absorption coefficient can be obtained through
interconnected with particles and voids. The
z 1
2
acoustic absorption of porous material is mainly   1
based on the viscous losses as air moves within z 1
(10)
the pores. The sound speed and attenuation in
soil are the functions of its properties such as 2.3 Sound Propagation through Green Roof
size, shape, water content and degree of
Green Roof has been well recognised as
compaction of particles. The porosity of soil is
advantageous to ecology and economy. It can
defined as:
be generally categorised as extensive and
Va  V w V intensive by depending the depth of soil.
H  is
Va  Vw  Vsoil Vtot (7) T.V.Renterghem (2009) has described a
numerical sound propagation model by using
Where Va is volume of air; Vw is volume of
the finite-different time-domain (FDTD)
water; Vsoil is volume of soil; Vis is volume of
method. The sound propagation equations in a
total interstices and Vtot is total volume of soil
still and homogenous medium are expressed in
with interstices.
the form
Additionally, the relationship between flow
V
resistance and absorption coefficient of porous   p  0  0,
material should be concerned as shown in t
Figure 1. Numbers on curves are the factor of p
  0 c02   V  0.
the flow resistance of air in units of c . This t (11)
figure has demonstrated generally that the larger
the flow resistance the lower absorption where P is acoustic pressure; ρ0 is the mass
coefficient. In the case of low frequencies, the density of air and t denotes time. In this
situation is reversed. equation, some parameters such as viscosity,
molecular relaxation, gravity and thermal
conductivity are neglected.
Sound propagation in a rigid frame porous
medium is described by the Zwikker and Kosten
phenomenological model in the form
 0 k s c02
 p    V  0,
H ks
p  0 c02
   V  0.
t H ks (12)
where R is the flow resistivity of the porous
Figure 1: Relationship between Flow medium and Ks is the structure factor.
Resistance and Absorption Coefficient of
Porous Material (Kosten, 1960)
N.N.Voronina (1998) has carried out an 3 METHOD
empirical model to predict the impedance of
In order to carry out the absorption coefficient,
rigid-frame porous materials with low porosity
impedance tube will be used with normal
by introducing the structural characteristic, Q: incidence as shown in Figure 2.
447
Figure 2: Cross Section Diagram of Impedance Tube
The transfer function which is known as Thus, the absorption coefficient of plant is
frequency-response function between the two highly depends on the dimension, shape and
microphones will be obtained. The microphone density of the plant. Although it is unable to
closer to the sound source is the reference obtain density of the plants in this experiment, it
channel and hence the reflection coefficient, RC is observed that absorption coefficients of the
can be determined from the transfer function, six succulent plants are generally proportional
H12: to their weight as stated in Table 1. In this case,
the heavier plants has overall higher absorption
H 12  e  jkx j 2 k ( L x ) coefficient. Apparently, more volume or heavier
RC  jkx e
e  H 12 (13)
plants have stronger scattering and vibration
damping effects and accordingly higher
where L is the distance between the sample and absorption coefficient.
the first microphone; x is the distance between It is noticeable that the Aloe Cosmo has a
the two microphones. Hence, the absorption parabolic curve in absorption coefficient which
coefficient and normalised impedance of the is particular from other plants and there is a
sample can be obtained from the reflection peak absorption coefficient of almost 100% at
coefficient (Andrew F. Seybert): frequency range between 500Hz and 1000Hz.
This might be caused by the macrostructure of
  1  RC
2
the Aloe Cosmo as the arrangement of leaves is
(14)
forming cavity and hence resonance absorption
Z 1  RC mechanism is dominated in this case while the

0c 1  RC (15)
resonant frequency is at between 500Hz and
1000Hz. The detail of resonance absorption will
To control this equipment, software be explained later.
dBAlphaTest will be used to acquire the 100% Plant
accurate normal incidence and output of results.
Height (mm) Weight (g)
Aloe 155 503
4 RESULTS Cleistocactus 76 211
Haworthia 84 261
4.1 Effect of Vegetation on Sound Absorption Opuntia 188 227
Six succulent plants which are Aloe Cosmo, Orbea 100 194
Cleistocactus Strausii Cristate, Haworthia Sedum 56 45
Retusa, Opuntia Microdasys V. Rufida, Orbea Table 1: Height and Weight of the Six Plants
Hadimedicola and Sedum Spathulifolium ‘Cape
Blanco’ are adapted to test their effects on 4.2 Effect of Substrate on Sound Absorption
absorption coefficient. The effect of particle size of substrate on sound
The difference of absorption coefficient absorption has been investigated. In order to
between the six plants is shown in Figure 3. separate the substrate into particular size, a
Generally, the absorption coefficients of the six sieve are used and the substrate is divided into
succulent plants are increasing gradually with size ranges of 0.25~0.6mm, 0.6~0.85mm,
the increased frequency. Referred back to 0.85~4mm, 4~6.3mm, 6.3~10mm, larger than
Equation (6), the absorption coefficient is 10mm. These particle size ranges will be
proportional to the square root of frequency. adapted to compare with the mixed substrate.
This equation has explained the absorption
coefficient profile in the figure.
448
Air in the cavity acts as a spring and the
100 dimension is assumed to be small when
Absorption Coefficient (%)
compared with the wavelength. When the air in
80 the neck moves as a single mass, the spring
supported the mass and hence forming a
60 resonator. When a sound at a frequency strikes
the resonator the air in the neck vibrates and
40 absorbs the sound by viscous loss. The vibration
is particularly strong at resonant frequency
20 which is given as:
c Ao
0
f0 
0 500 1000 1500 2 Vc  L    (16)
Frequency (Hz)
Aloe Cleistocactus where c is sound speed; Ao is the area of
Haworthia Opuntia opening; Vc is the volume of cavity; L is the
length of opening neck and δ is called end
Orbea Sedum
correction.
Figure 3: Comparison between the Six Plants Thus, the resonance absorption mechanism is
only effective at resonant frequency.
Figure 4 has shown the absorption coefficient of Accordingly to Figure 4, resonant frequency of
all particles size ranges of substrate as well as the three large particles size ranges is believed
the mixed one. The seven lines are shown differ that 800Hz as it is the sharp peak of absorption
in particles sizes and density of substrate. As coefficient.
expectation, the smallest three particle size
ranges which are 0.25~0.6mm, 0.6~0.85mm and Mixed substrate has the highest average
0.85~4mm have very low absorption coefficient. absorption coefficient compared with all other
This can be explained that the interstices particle size ranges. The peak absorption
between the particles are small and hence have coefficient is 91% at frequency of 500Hz.
higher flow resistance and accordingly low However, the curve shows that the result is not
absorption. as stable as pure particles size substrate and it is
variable depending on the compositions.
However, the result showed that the absorption
coefficient has a trend to increase with 100
increasing frequency and even higher than large
particle size substrates at high frequency. This

is because at high frequency, the sound wave is 80
shorter and easier to transmit through the
interstices and energy could be absorbed. This 60
is based on the absorption mechanism of porous
media. 40
All the other three particle sizes range which are
4~6.3mm, 6.3~10mm and above 10mm have 20
presented parabolic curves. The highest
absorption coefficients of the three ranges are 0
84%, 75% and 67% respectively at frequency of
800Hz. The largest particle sizes substrate has 0 500 1000 1500
the smallest average absorption coefficient in Frequency (Hz)
the three sizes range. Surprisingly, 4~6.3mm
range has the highest absorption coefficient. >10mm 6.3mm~10mm
However, these three curves are not a typical 4mm~6.3mm 0.85mm~4mm
absorption profile for porous material. As
discussed in literature review, a porous material 0.6mm~0.85mm 0.25mm~0.6mm
has low absorption coefficient at low frequency Mixed
and high absorption coefficient at high
frequency.
Figure 4: Effect of Particle Size of Substrate on
It is because the pores in the big particles have Absorption Coefficient
formed an open cavity and hence the Helmholtz
Resonator absorption dominates in this case.
449
100
90
80
70 Measured 0.25~0.6mm
60 Predicted 0.25~0.6mm
50 Measured 0.6~0.85mm
40
Predicted 0.6~0.85mm
30
20 Measured 0.85~4mm
10 Predicted 0.85~4mm
0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5: Comparison between Measured and Predicted Results
Additionally, measured result of small particle
size substrate which has porosity absorption
mechanism will be used to compare with the
predicted result by applying the Equation (8)
and (9) from the empirical model introduced by
N.N.Voronina (1998). The comparison is shown
in the Figure 5.
According to the figure, the prediction model is
able to obtain satisfied result at higher
frequency since it has a good match with the
measured result. However, at the low frequency,
the measured result has relatively large
difference with the prediction. This might be
caused by the inaccuracy of the measurement
and the assumption of the model.
Figure 6: Materials for the Four Green Roofs
However, it is unable to obtain accurate
porosity and pores size. Thus, the porosity is Figure 7 shows the difference of absorption
assumed to make the prediction closest to the coefficient between the four types of green roof
measured result as shown in Table 2. The pore without vegetation. Green Roof 1 has presented
diameter is taken from the mean value of the significantly high absorption coefficient and
particle size range. increasing proportionally with frequency.
Referred back to Section 2.2, this profile is due
Particle 0.25~0.6 0.6~0.85 0.85~4 to the Green Roof 1 material as shown in Figure
Size Range mm mm mm 6(a) is porous media. In this case, the peak
Assumed 0.11 0.08 0.04 absorption coefficient of green roof is reaching
Porosity almost 100% at frequency of 900Hz.
Table 5.4: Porosity Adapted in the Prediction Compared with Green Roof 1, the other three
Model types of green roof has relatively smaller
absorption coefficient and similar with each
4.3 Effect of Green Roof on Sound
other. This is because three of the green roofs
Absorption
have soil with same deep and properties as well
The sound absorption of green roof may be as the similar material. However, the three
contributed by vegetation on top layer, growing green roofs have reached the peak of absorption
medium and the materials for filtering on the coefficient as 68% at frequency of 300Hz.
bottom. Four types of green roof with different
Thus, this figure has given a profile that the
material as shown in Figure 6 are involved into
foam in Green Roof 1 is able to provide good
experiment. Green Roof 1 has foam that acted
sound absorption performance at medium
as growing medium and filter material. The
frequency while the other three green roofs
other three green roofs have 80mm soil that
perform better at lower and potentially higher
supported by the material.
frequency.
450
5 CONCLUSIONS
100
90 For vegetation, Aloe Cosmo has overall highest
Absorption Coefficient(%)
80 absorption coefficient throughout the six

70 succulent plants. It is observed that the
60 absorption coefficients of the six plants are
proportionally increasing to the weight of the
50
plants. For effect of substrate particle size, it is
40
clear that the smaller particle size substrates
30 have lower absorption coefficient with porous
20 absorption mechanism and larger particle size
10 substrates have presented with resonance
0 absorption mechanism. A good agreement
0 500 1000 1500 between predicted and measured result has been
Frequency(Hz) found at higher frequency on the small particle
size substrates. Additionally, for the
Green Roof1 comparisons between the four green roofs, it is
Green Roof2 found that Green Roof 1 performed better at
Green Roof3 medium frequency while the other three have
Figure 7: Comparison between Four Green high absorption coefficient at low and
Roofs potentially higher frequency. Also, it is
observed that the adapted soil has a potential
In this case, the depth of substrate is adapted as maximum absorption coefficient of 80% while
80mm for Green Roof 2, 3 and 4. This value is the soil depth is above 40mm.
recommended by Green Roof Centre, Sheffield
as it suitable for growing of most vegetation and Although the measured results have been
brushes. However, for some cases, the depth obtained comprehensively, some improvements
could be decreased to reduce the weight of should be concerned in future such as more
green roof. Thus, the effect of depth of soil has prediction models can be adapted to validate
been carried out with step of 10mm as shown in measured result.
Figure 8.
From depth of 10mm to 40mm, the absorption ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
coefficient is overall increasing. However, when
the depth of soil exceeds 40mm, the deeper soil The author would like to thank her supervisor,
has higher absorption coefficient but they Professor Jian Kang for giving support and
increase up to 80%. This increase tends to more supervision. It is also a pleasure to appreciate
dramatic with deeper soil. Afterward, they are ANS Group, Shire Green Roof Substrates Ltd
slightly decreasing and remain consistent. and Mr Jeff Sorrill for providing materials for
Therefore, this type of soil has a potential experiment unselfishly. She would like to show
maximum absorption coefficient of 80% even her gratitude to Hong Seok Yang who given
the depth is increased. guidance and assistance on the experiment.
100
REFERENCES
80
Kosten. C. W. (1960) Acustica 10:400.
60 T.Watanabe and S.Yamada(1996) Sound
Attenuation through Absorption by Vegetation.
40 J. Acoust. Soc. Jpn (E) 17, 4.
20 N.N.Voronina (1998) An Empirical Model for
Rigid-Frame Porous Materials with Low
0 Porosity. Applied Acoustics 58 pp.295-304.
0 500 1000 1500 T.V. Renterghem, D.Botteldooren, (2009)
Frequency (Hz) Reducing the Acoustical Façade Load from
10mm 20mm 30mm Road Traffic with Green Roofs. Building and
40mm 50mm 60mm Environment 44, pp. 1081-1087.
70mm 80mm Andrew F.Seybert, Notes on Absorption and
Figure 8: Effect of Depth of Green Roof Soil on Impedance Measurements. University of
Absorption Coefficient Kentucky.
451
Influence of Tensile Membrane Ation on Fire Resistance of Composite

Floors
Tian Tian
ABSTRACT Serious of researches have been done to analysis the influences to the fire resistance
of a building. After the six large fire tests which are taken during the year 1995~1996 at BRE Research
Laboratory, Cardington, Scientists found that for a whole full-scale building under natural fire, the fire
resistance of the building is very different from the results that were got from the furnace tests. The
interaction of each member including the interaction of connections between column and slab, or the
interaction between the slab of the beam can affect the fire resistance of the building. So the computer
programme Vulcan is used to analysis the membrane action of a composite slab and discuss how there
can form tensile membrane action and how the membrane action influence the fire resistance of the
composite floors.
elements. First, assuming the structure as an
1 INTRODUCTION
assembly of finite beam, column, spring, shear
From 1995 to 1996, six large fire tests were connecter (Ian W. Burgess 2003). Second,
carried out at the BRE Fire Research Laboratory dividing the cross section of each element into a
at Cardington. Those test were done on a full- number of segments and putting the distribution
scale composite building with steel beams and of temperature, strain and stress into each of the
Cardington. columns 、 lightweight and steel segments with defining the boundary condition
decking compromising slabs. After those six of each of the elements. And then the numerical
large fire researches, it is clear that for a real analysis can be done. Geometric linear and non-
building when exposed to fire, the strength and linear is included in the Vulcan system as well as
the fire resistance (which can sustain 1200°C the material linear and non-linear analysing. The
(Nestor 2007) without collapse ） is far more influence of tensile membrane action will be
bigger than that is calculated from current design discussed under standard fire condition.
code (which the collapsing temperature is
680°C). After those fire tests, it is obvious that
the tensile membrane action does help to 2 METHODOLOGY
enhance the fire resistance of a building as a Assumptions are needed when analysing the
whole. And we have to consider the interaction membrane action of a composite slab according
of each element of a structure rather than to the previous research and the basic
research them as a single member. Additionally, requirements of the finite analysis method. First,
the membrane action which can affect largely on the location of the slab is fixed throughout the
the fire resistance of the building has to been whole procedure of analysing. Second, each of
considered about when analysis the fire elements of the structure is defined in a common
resistance of a composite Try to create a logical reference plane which is assumed to have
flow of ideas from the introduction (setting the accordance with the mid-surface of the slab.
scene) through to the main body of the text Third, the slab is assumed to be an orthotropic
(where the new ideas are presented and non-linear element which means specifying the
justified), finally finishing with a clear set of effective stiffness of each layer independently.
conclusions and recommendations. Third, the maximum stress-strain failure of
So a Vulcan model is designed to analysis the concrete is adopted for the analysing. And last,
membrane action .A 9m x 6m composite slab is either the uniaxial properties specified inEC4 or
designed. The basic theory for the Vulcan the temperature-dependent material properties
programme is the finite element analysis with the elevated temperature is adopted..
principle. For this procedure, each of the The characteristic loads are assumed to be:
structural members has to be divided into finite • Self-weight for composite slab: 1.5KN/m2
452
• Self-weight for steel: 0.2KN/m2 for both perpendicular direction and horizontal
direction. So there are two steel layers for
• Partitions: 1.0KN/m2 analysing the material non-linear of the
• ceiling loads, loads for Raised floor and membrane action
services,: 0.8KN/m2
• Imposed load: 1KN/m2
The study is based on the ISO standard fire test
(BS 5950 Part 8), so the partial load factors at
the fire limit state are:
• for dead load: 1.0
• for imposed load: 0.8

Figure2. The layered slab
So the total load for the limit fire state is 4.3
KN/m2 which will be used throughout the For this studying case, two kinds of composite
analysis. The steel beam is assumed to be S275. slab are used. One is the composite slab with
Otherwise, the reinforcement mesh A142 and the second one is the composite
slab with mesh A393. Both of these two slabs are
Two sections of beam are used. One is UB divided into 12 layers. From layer 1 to layer 4 is
457X191X82 as the primary beam (9m), the the mental decking layer, and the layer 6 as well
other one is UB 610X229x101 as the secondary as the layer 7 represented the steel layer for the
beam. The analysing will be done under the ISO slab. The layers left are all solid concrete parts.
standard fire cuerve. This definition of slab represents the material
2.1 Modelling of the slab non-linear parts of the slab element.
2.2 Definition of Protection
For this study, four kinds of beam-protection
will be defined. They are:
• All edge-beams are protected, and the
internal secondary beam is unprotected
• Two primary beams are protected and the

left beams are unprotected
• Three edge-beam are protected with the

internal secondary beam and one edge-
Figure 1.Division of composite structure into secondary-beam is unprotected
beam and slab
• Two primary beams are protected and the
For a composite structure, the spring element is left beams are unprotected
provided with "0" length with the same degree of
freedom as the column-beam element to identify
the steel to steel connection of the structure. The
column-beam element is divided as a three-node
element with 6 degree of freedoms which are the
three translational degrees of freedom and the
three rotational degrees of freedom. The slab Protection regime 1 Protection regime 2
element is modelled as a layered orthotropic slab
element in a composite structure. The
temperature can be specified independently for
each of the slab element as well as the
temperature dependent material properties. This
kind of definition can represent a better model
for the ribbed composite slab according to the Protection regime 3 Protection regime 4
previous isotropic layered method
Figure3.Different protection regimes of the
Figure 2 shows the division of the layered slab slab
with the total depth of 120mm. The whole depth
of the mental decking is 40mm with the left Figure3 shows different protection regimes of
depth of 80mm for the concrete solid part. The the slab member. The red lines denote the beams
steel mesh is located up onto the mental decking which are protected when doing the fire
453
analysing and the black lines represents the formation of tensile membrane action but like the
beams which are left un-protected. one-way spanning deformation.
So it is clear that if the tensile membrane action
is acceptable, the support of the slab should be
strong enough.
3.2 Protection Regime 1
As talked above, the stiffness of the beam should
sufficient so that choosing the UB 610X229x101
as the secondary beam.
Figure4.Definition of critical points
3．Analysing of tensile membrane action.

3.1 Protection regime 1 with different
secondary beam
For protection regime1,using two kinds of Figure 7.Deflection of Mid-point for case 1
secondary beam to analysis the formation of Figure7 shows the deflection of the critical
tensile membrane action. First, using UB central point of the slab under two conditions in
351X171X45 as the secondary beam ,then using fire. We can see from the picture that the
UB 610X229x101 as the secondary beam. deflection of the geometric non-linear one is
much small than the geometric linear one.
Especially when the temperature is up to 500°C.
when the temperature goes up to around 500°C,
the steel beam which supports the slab becomes
to soften. At the same time, the concrete part of
the slab has an initial compressive line on the top
surface. When the temperature rises, the steel
beams soften fast, and the concrete part of the
slab become to lose its strength as well. Then
after the temperature is so high that the concrete
Figure 5.deflection of UB 351X171X45 beam lose all of its stiffness, otherwise, the deflection
of the slab becomes larger and larger. The
reinforcement of the slab becomes a major load
carrying element and at this time, the tensile
membrane forms. Figure 8 shows the condition
of the formation of tensile membrane action
Figure 6.deflection of UB 610X229x101 beam

It is found that if the stiffness of the protected
secondary beam is too small, the deflection
under the geometric non-linear analyzing method
which allows the appearance of membrane action
is still very large. Checking of the deflection of Figure 8. formation of tensile membrane
each critical nodes that the deflection of the action in fire
small secondary beam is too large to accept the
3.3 Protection Regime 2
454
Figure 10.one-way spanning failure for case 2
Figure 9. the formation of tensile membrane 3.4 Protection Regime 3
action in fire case 2
It can be seen from the picture that the geometric
non-linear deflection is bigger than that of the
geometric linear one. So checking of the
deflection of the mid-point B for the protected
edge-secondary beam is the same under
geometric linear condition and geometric non-
linear condition. With the temperature elevated,
the deflection of the geometric non-linear is
much bigger than that of the geometric linear one
which is not match the action of the slab under
membrane action. This is because the steel beam Figure11. Deflection at mid-point case 3
softens at the temperature of 500°C, the steel (mesh A393)
beam will lose the stiffness when the temperature Figure 11 represents the deflection of the mid-
goes up to such a level. when the temperature span for the composite slab with different slab
reaches 500°C, the unprotected beam begins to reinforcement. Both of the pictures show that
lose its stiffness, so that the beam is not strong under the temperature of 600°C, the geometric
enough to support the slab and the deflection linear deflection of the geometric non-linear
become bigger and bigger with the elevated deflection is the same, when the temperature
temperature. Anyhow, for the protected beam, rises up to 600°C, the deflection of the geometric
the deflection is smaller than that of the non-linear condition is a little bigger than that of
unprotected one. Because of the unbalance the geometric linear one. But when the
deformation of the beam, it is hardly to have temperature reaches to 1000°C, the deflection
tensile membrane action which has to deform under both condition remains the same to each
under double curvature condition). Furthermore, other. This is all because that when the
in this case, the composite floor is simple temperature is under 600°C, the unprotected
supported so that it is free to pull-in which beam becomes softening significantly, faster than
indicates a single curvature action occurs. So for the deflection of the reinforcement of the slab, so
this type of protection, there will have no the tensile membrane action which has to deform
membrane action and the failure of protection in double curvature is difficult to form. So that
regime 2 will be described in figure6.11 which when the temperature up to around 700°C, there
illustrates the failure as one-way spanning. seems to be a little tension in the middle of the
slab. But when the temperature reaches at 900°C,
It can be got from the Vulcan results that the the unprotected beam softens fairly quickly,
runaway failure of the slab is up to around quicker than the deflection of the mid-span
800°C. The deflection of span/20 reaches at the (which reaches to the point of span/20). So under
temperature 858°C for mesh A 142 and 859°C such a high temperature situation, even when the
for mesh 393. These temperatures only arrive at protected beam can still support the slab, the
a fire resistance of 30 min which indicates that unprotected beam softens faster than the
there is no membrane action for this kind of protected beam, the slab deforms like a triangle
protection. But the slab that is highly reinforced folder rather than a circular bay. Figure 6.13
do affect the fire resistance of the slab. The shows the deformation of this pattern of
deflection of the mesh A393 is much smaller protection, there is minimal membrane action in
than that of mesh A 142 in this protection this kind of protection.
regime.
455
nor there is run-away failure in a short time when
the structure is in fire condition.
Figure 12. Triangle folding failure for case 3

3.5 Protection Regime 4 Figure 14one way spanning failures for case 4
4. Influence of Membrane Action on Fire

Resistance
4.1 Geometric Linear and Geometric Non-
Linear
The results above show that no matter which
reinforcement of composite slab uses, the
deflection of the critical mid-point is the same in
both analysing way when the temperature is up
to about 500°C. This indicates that when the
Figure 13.Deflection at mid-point case 4 temperature is not so high that the steel beam can
still strong enough to support the slab, the
Figure 6.14 shows the central deflection of the
influence of the membrane action which comes
slab with different reinforcement mesh in fire
out from the reinforcement of the slab can be
condition, protection regime 4. It can be seen
negligible. But with the rising of temperature, the
from the picture that when the temperature goes
steel beam may lose most of its original stiffness
up to around 750°C. The deflection of the mesh
so that can not sustain the load any more, then
A393 is a little smaller than that of the mesh
the membrane action becomes a key factor to
A142. Both of the two reinforcement mesh has a
sudden deflection in this kind of protection. This reduce the deflection of the slab.
is because of the softening of the edge secondary It can also be seen from the Vulcan resultss that
beam which locates in the longitude direction with the development of temperature. the
(9m) of the slab. The length of the unprotected deflection of the slab (A142) is 693.196mm, and
beam is large, so when it is not protected, it will the deflection of slab (A393) is 653.475mm
lead to a sudden deflection. Simultaneously, the respectively when using the geometric linear
short protected beam does not deform because of analysing method. But when there is membrane
the protection. This is associated with catenary action, the deflection of slab (A142) is
action rather than membrane action. 429.088mm and 348.356mm for slab (A393). As
Nevertheless, the slab is assumed to be simple a result, it is evident that the membrane action
support, so it is free to pull-in, and the catenary can help to reduce the deflection of the slab
action which depends largely on the adequate especially when the temperature is high. And for
anchorage of the column can be neglected. this case of this dissertation, the deflection can
Anyhow, in this protection condition, there is be controlled within span/20 which is 450mm.
little membrane action. And the failure of the After all, when the temperature is at a high level,
slab will be like a folding in the middle line the influence of membrane action becomes
throughout the mid-point of the unprotected significant increasingly, and it will be a key
secondary beam. Figure 6.16 shows the collapse factor to affect the fire resistance in high
mode for this type of protection regime. temperature condition.
The span/20 occurs when the temperature is 4.2 Different Reinforcement Mesh of
685°C for slab (A142) and 690°C for slab Composite Slab Affects the Tensile
(A393) respectively. This can hardly reach a fire Membrane Action
resistance of 30 min for this kind of protection.
So the resistance of 60 min can hardly be It can be seen from the pictures 15that if the slab
accepted with this kind of protection regime. It is under the analyzing of geometric linear one
indicates that under this kind of protection which represents the slab has no membrane
regime, neither the membrane action will form action. The reinforcement of the slab does
456
nothing to do with the fire resistance of the curvature. So it is impossible to have a
structure. This is because the tensile membrane membrane action if the support is not
action depends largely on the reinforcement of string enough.
the slab, if the tensile membrane action is
neglectable, the deflection of the slab should be • Different patterns of protection may lead
the same. to different kinds of failure. It is clear
that the tensile membrane action should
deform in double curvature and the
formation of the tensile membrane action
depends largely on the pattern of the
protection of the beam.
• Because the tensile membrane action

should deform in double curvature, the
reinforcement of the slab will form an
area which has the tensile force and
deforms like a circle shape in the middle
of the slab, and the compressive action
Figure15.Geometric linear deflection of occurs around the four edges area. So the
different reinforcement of slab for case 1 development of the tensile membrane
But if there is membrane action, such as figure action depends on the reinforcement of
6.19 shows. The reinforcement of the slab will the slab which means the reinforcement
affect the membrane action as well as the fire of the slab is used to sustain the tensile
resistance especially when the temperature is stress when under a high temperature
high. It is shown in the picture that the deflection condition. A stronger reinforcement will
is all within 450mm (span/20). There is no sign have a better enhancement of the tensile
of run-away failure in this protection regime. membrane action. In order to higher the
Comparing the deflection of the two different fire resistance of the slab, the area of the
meshes in protection regime 1, the deflection of reinforcing area should be increased.
slab with the reinforcement A393 is
(348.356mm) smaller than that of mesh A142 After analyzing the tensile membrane action. It is
(429.088mm). So it is evident that if the slab is clear that the tensile membrane action can help
highly reinforced, the deflection of the slab is to reduce the deflection of the slab when the
smaller than that of the slab which is less temperature is high, as well as improving the fire
reinforced. So the fire resistance of the highly resistance of the slab.
reinforced slab is better than that of the less
reinforced slab.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks very much for the large help and great
5. CONCLUSIONS advice from Dr. Huang
The geometric linear analysis indicates the slab REFERENCES
which does not allow the appearance of
membrane action and the geometric non-linear [1] International Organization for
analysis represents the slab which has membrane Standardization. ISO 834: fire resistance tests-
action. After several of analyzing, the results are element of building constructions; 1985
shown as follows:
[2] "The Influence of Shear Connectors on the
• In order to make sure if there is Behavior of Composite Steel-framed Buildings
membrane action or not, the stiffness of in Fire, Journal of Constructional Steel
the beam which is used to support the Research", 51 (1999) 219-237, Zhaohui Huang,
composite slab is very important. Ian W. Burgess, Roger J. Plank,
Because the membrane action should
form under a double curvature situation, [3] “Modeling membrane action of concrete
so if the stiffness of the beam is in- slabs in composite buildings in fire. Part I:
sufficient, the deflection of the beam will Theoretical development”, Journal of Structural
become too large to hardly deform a Engineering, ASCE, 129 (8), pp.1093-1102,
double curvature when in high 2003. Huang, Z., Burgess, I.W., and Plank, R.J.
temperature condition. So the slab will [4] “Finite Element Procedures in Engineering
shape like a folder which means the one- Analysis”, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey, 1982.
way spanning rather than a double Bathe, K.J.
457
Modelling of Fatih Sultan Mehmet Suspension Bridge

Toygun Tirpan
ABSTRACT A finite element model of Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (Second Bosporus Bridge) was
created in order to investigate modal behaviour of the bridge. ANSYS finite element software was used
in this dissertation. Mainly, a model was solved by using two types of decks separately. First one is
equivalent orthotropic plate deck and second one is simplified deck. Some adjustment was made in
order to obtain decks which behave like real-time decks. Effects of deck type to vibration modes were
discussed. The results were compared against experimental and theoretical results from previous
papers.
Finally, decks were modelled as box sections

1 INTRODUCTION
which are simplified version of real decks.
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge is second
The aim of this research is to create a 3D finite
suspension bridge in Istanbul. It has a vital part
element model of Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge
for Istanbul transportation system. Commercial
which gives first few vibration modes correct. If
transportation vehicles are allowed to use only
a viable model is obtained, the model can be
this bridge. Therefore, this bridge is important
used in earthquake assessment of the bridge.
for Turkish economy as well. Any disruption in
Also, the model must give accurate results after
traffic flow on this bridge may cause deep
a quick analysis in order to obtain economy.
impacts to transportation system (Apaydin,
Therefore, necessary simplification must be
2010).
made in modelling process.
Istanbul is under an earthquake threat and this
circumstance urges researchers to study
earthquake resistance of important structures in 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Istanbul. Even tough, there was no problem in
2.1. History and Evolution
Istanbul transportation system in Izmit
earthquake (magnitude 7.4); these structures Need of suspension bridges started in early ages
must be assessed for further dangers (Erdik et al. of history. People passed small spans with
2003). Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge can be simple suspension bridges which were only for
counted in first rows in the important structures pedestrians. The basic materials of these bridges
list. Therefore, dynamic analysis of this bridge were iron chains and wood. First iron suspension
was made by several researches to see behaviour bridge was constructed in 16th century. Until 18th
of the bridge under earthquake motion. Results century, suspension bridge was constructed by
of these researches may show a necessity of a using iron. In the next century, engineers started
remedy in the bridge. to use steel cable and this allowed passing longer
spans. Using steel cables initiated construction
In this research, vibration characteristics of Fatih
of modern suspension bridges (Okukawa et. al,
Sultan Mehmet Bridge were investigated. A 3D
1999).
model of the suspension bridge created and
updated in order to get first few natural Finley‟s Jacobs Creek Bridge was finished in
frequencies correct. First try was made by using USA in 1801. It had 21.3 meter span which is
equivalent orthotropic deck. A plate deck was very short for a suspension bridge. The
created and its material properties were changed importance of this bridge is usage of truss
in order to get equivalent behaviour of real deck. stiffening girder. These truss girders created
Then, lateral stiffness of this deck was increased extra rigidity for transferring loads to hangers.
by increasing shear modulus but reducing height As a result of this, big deflection in the bridge
in order to get better lateral mode shapes. was avoided. Clifton Suspension Bridge,
Bristol, is the oldest in service suspension bridge
458
for cars. It was completed in 1864 (Okukawa et. increases, vertical deflection decreases.
al, 1999). Moreover, when sag gets higher, deflection gets
higher. Therefore, it can be said that, dead load
In the middle of 19th Century, Americans started
stress, which occurs in cables due to dead load
to use aerial spinning method. This method was
of decks, gives enough stiffness to carry live
used for constructing parallel wire cables.
loads (Semper, 1993). Numerous bridges were
Niagara Falls Bridge and Brooklyn Bridge were
constructed according to this theory. Stiffer
constructed by using this method. The Brooklyn
cables and shallower catenaries but highly
Bridge can be called as first modern suspension
flexible decks were used in these bridges.
bridge because first time in the history steel
However, these bridges were really vulnerable
wires were used in the suspension bridge‟s
under wind effects because decks did not have
cables. Centre span of this bridge is 486 meters
torsional stiffness (Billington and Bunopane,
(Okukawa et. al, 1999). First 1000 meter span
1993).
suspension bridge is George Washington Bridge
which was finished in 1931. Then, the Golden After failure of Navier‟s theory, engineers
Gate Bridge, San Francisco, was constructed and started use Elastic Theory to get enough stiffness
has 1280 meter mid-span. under wind loads. They designed stiffened
trusses which worked well under live and wind
Importance of wind moves appeared in 1940.
loads. In Elastic Theory, only trusses are
Tacoma Narrows Bridge was destructed by wing
stiffening members in bridge design and it was
oscillations four months later the bridge was
assumed cables do not act as a stiffener under
opened for traffic. Wind move triggered high
live load (Billington and Bunopane, 1993).
bending oscillators with torsional mode. Then
Elastic theory designs were seemed to give
the bridge was reconstructed by using truss
sufficiently enough stiffness but these stiff
girders instead of I-girders (Okukawa et. al,
trusses were too much heavy and it was costly to
1999). Truss girders are much stiffer then I-
pass long spans with these trusses (Semper,
girders.
1993).
Golden age for suspension bridges started in 60s.
The more recent model (Deflection Theory)
Severn Bridge was an exclusive step for
considers all the above stiffness, but further
suspension bridges. In this bridge, box girders
accounts for the fact that deflection in the bridge
were used and hangers were constructed as
deck results in an additional “live load” tension
diagonal members. Then The Humber Bridge
in the cable (Semper, 1993). This theory reduced
was constructed. It had the longest centre span,
necessity to deck stiffness against wind load. As
1410 meters, until 1997. The company
a result of this, decks became cheaper with this
constructed Humber Bridge also built Bosporus
theory. In the beginning of 1900s, engineers
Bridge in Turkey. This Bridge has 1074 m span
noticed the economy of designing decks
and the structure of this bridge is similar to
according to Deflection Theory. Then, several
Severn Bridge. Then, Fatih Sultan Mehmet
bridges were designed according to this theory
Bridge, second suspension bridge in Istanbul
such as Manhattan Bridge (Billington and
was completed in 1988. It has vertical hangers
Bunopane, 1993). However, there are still
and 1090 m span (Okukawa et. al, 1999).
stiffness problems with this theory against wind
2.2. Three Theories oscillators. For example, Tacoma Narrows
Bridge was designed with this theory but it
Three important theories for suspension bridges
failed under wind moves only after 4 months it
were developed in history. Each of theories was opened to public use. Deflection Theory is
corrected the theory which was developed before still in use in bridge engineering today.
it. First, suspension bridges were thought as one
dimensional structures. Therefore, longitudinal 2.3. Natural Frequencies and Earthquake
direction of bridge was accepted as major axis Engineering
and vertical deflection of decks were assumed as
Modes and natural frequencies are very
the biggest concern while designing a bridge
important in earthquake engineering. Spectral
(Semper, 1993). In order to reduce vertical
analysis methods can be made by using modes
deflection under live loads, Navier assumed the
of structures. For example, elastic response
bridge acts like as a stiffened cable and found an
spectrum by using natural periods of structure or
equation according to this assumption
mode shape vector can be used in order to find
(Billington and Bunopane, 1993).
modal earthquake excitation factor (Ln) in
ν= (1) response analysis.
The basic equations in order to fine mode shape
In this equation L is span, f is sag, w equals to
and frequencies are given below (Dumanoglu et
dead load and P is applied point load to cable.
al., 1992):
According to this equation, if dead load
459
Mx‟‟ + Cx‟ + Kx = f (2) 3.2. Previous Researches about the Bridge
M is global mass matrix. C and K are damping Suspension bridges are substantial structures so
and stiffness matrices. x‟‟, x‟ and x are they were always at centre of the attraction of
acceleration, velocity and displacement. f is a researches. Therefore, it is possible to find many
force equation. K has two matrices inside. First academic papers about these bridges (Apaydin,
one is elastic stiffness matrix (Ks) and the other 2010). For this dissertation, three literatures
one is geometric stiffness matrix (e.g. gravity reviewed so far. Two of them were carried out
stiffness for main cable of a suspension bridge). by Brownjohn and Dumanoglu and the other
paper was carried out by Apaydin. At the end of
If there is no damping effect:
this dissertation, mode shapes and natural
Mx‟‟ + Kx = 0 (3) frequencies obtained from analysis is going to be
compared with results from these researches.
Then, ω (natural frequencies) and φ (mode
shapes) satisfies eigenvalue equation obtained Mo Brown- Duman- Apaydin
from Equation 3: de john oglu
(Theore
(K – ω2M) φ = 0 (4)
(Experim (Theore tical)
ental) tical)
3 FATIH SULTAN MEHMET BRIDGE Freq (Hz) Freq Freq
Istanbul is the biggest city in Turkey with (Hz) (Hz)
population around 15 millions. However it was
not that much big city in the past, while only 1 0,125 0,125 0,148
24% of Turkish people were living in Istanbul
2 0,155 0,159 0,156
province in 1945, this number increased to 58%
in 1985 (Kaya and Curran,2006). According to 3 0,208 0,211 0,156
this data it could be said that Istanbul rapidly got
more crowded day by day especially after World 4 0,244 0,250 -
War 2. As result of this rapid population rise,
5 0,317 0,323 -
transportation demand of the city increased so in
1973 First Bosporus Bridge was opened. In first 6 0,389 0,396 -
year, this bridge had 32.520 vehicle/day density Table 1 Comparison of Vertical Mode
but fourteen years later this ratio was 130.000 Frequencies
vehicle/day. Therefore, construction of Fatih
Sultan Mehmet Bridge (Second Bosporus
Bridge) was started in 1986 and finished in 1988
4 THE MODEL OF THE BRIDGE
with cost of 380 million US Dollars (Dost and
Dedeoglu, 2008). 4.1. Modelling Process
Generally, suspension bridges have complex
structures but Fatih Sultan Mehmet Suspension
Bridge has a relatively simpler structure than
3.1. Specification of the Bridge other bridges. Although, the bridge has a simpler
structure, it is needed to model parts of the
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge was built 5 km
bridge carefully. Therefore, structural elements
north of the Bosporus Bridge. It can be classified
must be clarified. The model created in this
as gravity-anchored suspension bridge and it
research has four main parts, which are;
does not have side spans (Apaydin, 2010). This
single span suspension bridge has overall length - Towers
of 1560 meters and span length is 1090 meters.
- Cable
Moreover, width of the bridge is 39.4 meters
with 8 lines and 2 walkways. Height at the - Decks
middle of the bridge is 64 meters from the sea
level. The bridge has four main parts, - Rocker Bearings
In modelling process, scripts of these structural
 Towers
elements were written. All coordinates in scripts
 Cables were taken from a SAP4 Code which is from 80s
(Dumanoglu, 1992).According to these
 Decks coordinates, geometry of bridge parts created.
After creating the geometry, section and material
properties were entered to the system. Then,
boundary conditions and loads were defined. At
460
end of this process, the model checked against valid results. Therefore, some properties of box
warnings and errors. Necessary corrections made girders, which are used in real life, must be
and final model had been finished. Then analysis known. For example, moment of inertia or
was made. torsional constants must be known.
Level of detailing in FEM modelling needs some Three checks must be made to get an equivalent
adjustments because too much detailed model deck; vertical deflection, lateral deflection and
cannot be solved due to computing problems. torsional rotation checks. To make these checks,
Therefore, some simplifications were made in single equivalent deck model was created in
the bridge model such as modelling towers as ANSYS and solved. The results of vertical and
line elements. Also, having insufficient data lateral loaded models were checked against
reduced detail and accuracy of work. simple theoretical cantilever beam deflection
formula and rotation formula. Then, material
Two models were created in this paper. First
properties of the deck was found as Ex = 2.0
model has an orthotropic plate deck which has
E+11 N/m2, Gxy = 7.2 E+5 N/m2 and height of
equivalent properties of real deck. In the second
the deck is 1m.
model, every part of first model was kept same
except the decks. The decks were created as
simplified version of box decks. Models have
4.3. The Model with Simplified Deck
same coordinate systems, x-axis is longitudinal,
y-axis is vertical and z-axis across the bridge in Orthogonal plate decks are not suitable to get
other words it is orthogonal to x and y axis. lateral and torsional modes. Therefore, another
model with simplified box girder deck was
4.2. The Model with Equivalent Orthotropic
created. The purpose of this model is to see how
Plate Deck
box girders affect lateral and torsional modes.
4.2.1. Material, Element Types and Real This simplified box girder deck does not have
Constants sidewalks and stiffeners. The deck was created
with only plates and diaphragms.
Towers, cables, hangers, loads and boundary
conditions were kept same with previous model
while creating new model. The only difference is
in decks. Therefore, properties of tower and
Table 3 Element Types cable models will not be described in this part
again. Extra keypoints were created for upper
and lower plates of box girder.
4.3.1. Simplified Decks
This time while doing optimization, only
thickness of plates and diaphragms were
changed in order to get correct vertical lateral
Table 4 Material Types
and torsional deflections. Elastic modulus of
steel was always kept as 2x1011 N/m2 and
Poisson‟s Ratio was kept as 0.3. After several
tries, sufficiently near values were found as 20
mm plate thickness and 20 mm diaphragm
thickness. Higher thickness values were not tried
in order to not rise mass higher.
4.4. Comparison of Two Models with Past
Researches
Table 5 Real Constants In this part, two models analyzed in this

dissertation will be compared with past three
Element types , material types and real constants researches which were mentioned in Chapter 3.
used in the model can be seen in Table 3,4,5. The model with equivalent orthotropic plate
decks will be named as „First Model‟. The model
4.2.2. Equivalent Orthotropic Plate Decks with simplified deck will be named as „Second
In order to simplify the model, orthotropic plates Model‟.
were used instead of box girders. Orthotropic 4.4.1. Vertical Modes
plates mean that plates may have different
material properties in every axis. The orthogonal Mode shapes were found same for both models.
equivalent deck must have same stiffness However, frequencies were found different. First
properties with real life box girder deck to get
461
four vertical mode shapes can be seen in Figure
1 and comparison can be seen in Table 6.
Table 7 Comparison of Lateral Mode Frequencies

(Second Model)
4.4.3. Torsional Modes
Torsional mode shapes could not obtained with
plate decks so only, torsional mode shapes of
second model were discussed in this paper. First
torsional mode frequency was obtained with
almost 0% error. Torsional mode shapes can be
seen in Figure 3 and comparison of frequencies
against measured values can be seen in Table 7.
Figure 1 Vertical Mode Shapes
Table 6 Vertical Mode Comparison

4.4.2. Lateral Modes
It was not possible to get proper lateral modes in
first model so lateral modes of second model
was compared against measured values
(Brownjohn et al, 1992). First mode frequency
was found with high accuracy. Lateral mode Figure 3 Torsionalal Mode Shapes of Second
shapes of second mode can be seen in Figure 2 Model
and frequency comparison can be seen in Table
7.
Table 8 Comparison of Torsional Mode

Frequencies (Second Model)
5.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEND-

ATIONS
5.1. Conclusion
In this dissertation, it was focussed to get correct
Figure 2 Lateral Mode Shapes of Second Model first few vertical, lateral and torsional modes of
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge. This aim was
achieved partly. All models managed to give
462
modes partly correct. For example, model with Brownjohn J. M. W., Dumanoglu A. A., Severn
equivalent orthotropic deck could only give R. T., Ambient Vibration Survey of Fatih Sultan
correct vertical modes while simplified deck Mehmet (Second Bosporus) Suspension Bridge,
model could give lateral and torsional first Earthquake Engineering and Structural
modes correct. Models can be improved with Dynamics, Vol. 21., p 907-924, 1992.
some further adjustments.
Dost Y. and Dedeoglu E., Design and
Torsional mode shapes are the hardest to obtain. Construction Stages of Fatih Sultan Mehmet
It is not possible to obtain proper torsional mode Bridge, First Collaborative Symposium of Turk-
shapes with plate decks. Using simplified box Japan Civil Engineers, 5 June 2008, Istanbul,
decks are reasonable to get better modal analysis Turkey
results. Although, first vertical mode frequency
Dumanoglu A. A., Brownjohn J. M. W. and
could not be obtained with simplified box decks,
Severn R. T., Seismic Analysis of Fatih Sultan
first lateral and torsional modes were obtained
Mehmet Suspension Bridge, Earthquake
with high accuracy. The disadvantage of using
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 21.,
simplified box deck is the analysis time.
p 881-907, 1992
Analysis time is very long due to higher detail
and number of element data. Erdik M., Aydinoglu N., Uckan E., Celep U.,
Apaydin N., 1999 Turkey Earthquakes: Bridge
5.2. Recommendations
Performance and Remedial Actions, Oakland
This work can be improved with some changes. CA: Earthquake Engineering Research
First of all, a way must be found to use link Enstitude; 2003.
elements in cables. Also, excessive
Kaya S. and Curran P. J., Monitoring urban
displacements in backstay cables are another
growth on the European side of the Istanbul
issue must be considered. Better lateral mode
metropolitan area: A case study, International
shapes can be obtained with better modelled
Journal of Applied Earth Observation and
equivalent plate decks. Moreover, box section
Geoinformation, Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages 18-
decks can be modelled with higher detail level if
25, January 2006.
technical drawings can be found. Finally, these
models can be used in earthquake engineering in Okukawa A., Suzuki S., Harazaki I.,
necessity. “Suspension Bridges”. In Chen W., Duan L.
(eds.), Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC
Press, USA, P. 18-(1-36), 1999.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Pugsley A., The Theory of Suspension Bridges.
I am very grateful to Prof. James Brownjohn for 1st edition, Edward Arnold Publishers, 1957.
giving opportunity to work on Fatih Sultan
S.G. Bounopane and D.P. Billington , Theory
Mehmet Bridge which is in my country. I am
and history of suspension bridge design from
thankful his support and supervision during my
1823 to 1940, Journal of StrucTural
study.
Engineering, 119 3, pp. 954–977, March 1993.
Also, I thank Mr. Rahi Rahbari due to his help.
Semper B., "A mathematical model for
His past experiences about modelling bridges
suspension bridge vibration." Mathematical and
were really helpful to me.
Computer Modelling 18(11): 17-28, 1993.
Semper B., Finite Element Methods for
REFERENCES Suspension Bridge Models, Mathematical and
Computer Modelling, 26(5), p. 77-91, 1993.
Apaydin A., Erdik M., “Structural Vibration
Monitoring System For The Bosporus Takizawa Y. and Kasuga A., Erection of Cable
Suspension Bridges”, In Erdik M. (eds) Strong Second Bosporus Bridge, IHI Engineering
Motion Instrumentation for Civil Engineering Review, Vol. 21 No. 4, October 1988
Structures, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 343-
367, Netherlands, 2001
Apaydın N. M., Earthquake performance
assessment and retrofit investigations of two
suspension bridges in Istanbul, Soil Dynamics
and Earthquake Engineering 30, 2010.
Blevins R. D., Formulas for Natural
Frequencies and Mode Shape, Krieger Pub Co.,
p. 87-202, 1995.
463
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF A BUILDING WITH A VISCO-ELASTIC

BASE ISOLATION SYSTEM
Panagiotis Tsamanis
Candidate MSc (Eng) Earthquake and Civil Engineering Dynamics
ABSTRACT One kind of structural retrofitting system that can improve the performance of historical
stone masonry buildings under earthquakes without interfering with their appearance, is the passive
base isolation, which aims at separating the superstructure from its foundations. One type of base
isolation system is the lead-rubber bearing which exhibits a viscoelastic hysteretic behaviour under
dynamic loadings such as earthquakes.
The effectiveness of such a system is examined in this dissertation, which is installed on Old High
School of Almyros, a historical stone masonry building in Greece in author’s hometown, using DRAIN-
2DX software. The performance of the building is checked by comparing the fixed-base and base
isolated building in terms of interstorey-drifts and damage that occurs in the masonry, tested under three
recorded earthquakes, El Centro, Loma Prieta and Parkfield. The results prove the effectiveness of such
a system for seismic retrofitting purposes and can provide a simple guidance for engineers who
are interested in this sector.
is extremely important to retain their

1 INTRODUCTION
architectural value after retrofitting. Therefore
Stone masonry is a traditional form of retrofitting techniques that require the addition
construction that is practiced for centuries of more structural elements, like shear walls,
especially in regions where stone material is may not be appropriate for such a building. One
largely available. It has been common technique that can overcome this issue is the
practice in Europe for centuries and therefore retrofitting with base isolation system, which is
there are a lot of structures that were built separation of the building or part of it from
this way and most of them nowadays are its foundations using flexible isolation
considered to be of great historic bearings (Figure1-1).
importance[1,2].
The performance of such buildings is not
satisfactory under earthquakes due to lack of
ductility, since stone is a brittle element,
discontinuity of elements, the elements of
masonry structures are usually composed of
blocks of stone or brick linked together by
means of mortar joints thus, the structure
behaves more as independent units acting Figure 1--1: Fixed-Base and Base Isolated Building
altogether rather than a continuous system., under earthquake excitation[1]
resulting in low lateral resisting system and also
loss of the vertical resistance capacity due to Here in, the retrofitting of Old-High School of
movement of the elements and also due to Almyros, in Greece in author’s hometown
deterioration of elements. Moreover, no special implementing a lead-rubber base isolation
considerations were made for seismic design in system is investigated using DRAIN-2DX
older times. computer software. The aims and objectives of
this study is to: (a) show how the isolation
Therefore it is of great importance for historical system is implemented in a computer software;
buildings to be retrofitted against earthquakes, (b) show how damage is reduced after its
since they represent the culture and the isolation; and (c) show how the building’s
civilisation of each country. Moreover to that it
464
response is minimized in terms of displacements, The most important parameters for the
interstorey drifts and forces. modelling are K1, K2 and Q. K1 is the elastic
stiffness, K2 is the post-yield stiffness and Q is
2 LEAD-RUBBER
the yield force of the lead plug (usually around
BEARINGS:PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN
10.3 MPa [1,7,10]). K2 depends on the shear
For this project lead-plug bearings are going to modulus of the rubber that is used (usually
be implemented, which are a type of elastomeric around0.4MPa[1,3,4]). K1 can be calculated
bearings, therefore only the properties of such using K2 and according to Kelly [1,3,4] a general
bearings are going to be examined here. rule of K1=10 K2 can be assumed. KEff is the
effective stiffness of the lead-plug at a
The aim of base isolation is to add horizontal
displacement D and can be calculated using
flexibility and damping in order to minimize the
relative displacements of the superstructure and
the ground(Figure 1-1) and to lengthen the
Q
natural period of the building so that the building K Effective  K 2  .........................(2.1)
is least affected during an earthquake. D
Elastomeric materials exhibit to some extent
hysteretic behaviour. Their hysteretic behaviour The yield displacement of the bearing, Dy is
can be improved by using vulcanised bonding given by
sheets of rubber to thin steel reinforcing plates Q
and lead plug is inserted into a vertical hole to Dy  ...............................(2.2)
increase damping, as it can be seen in Figure 2-1 K1  K 2
and 2-1 [3,4]. This lead core deforms in shear
The energy dissipated per cycle (area of
by the steel plates, which is why it provides
hysteresis loop), WD, can be calculated using
additional damping. Because the lead deforms
in a bilinear way its force-displacement WD  4  Q  ( D  D y )..................(2.3)
characteristics can be represented by a hysteretic
loop as shown in Figure 2-2. The stiffness and and the effective damping of the
damping of that kind of bearing largely depend bearing,βEffective which can be calculated by
on the displacement of the lead core. The
elastomers are constructed with low-damping 4  Q  (D  Dy )
material and provide the lateral stiffness of the  Effective  .........(2.4)
bearing, while the damping is provided by the
2  K Effective  D 2
lead core through its bilinear hysteretic
3 DESCRIPTION OF OLD HIGH-SCHOOL
behaviour, which can be seen in Figure 2-2 [4].
OF ALMYROS
The Old High School of Almyros is an old
Building which now serves as a conservatory
and as a cultural centre. The building has
been announced to be as a building of
structural heritage of city of Almyros in
Central Greece by the Greek Ministry of
Figure 2-1:Lead Rubber Bearing and its
Hysteresis Loop[1] Culture. It was constructed in 1933 and it
served as a High-School until 1980, when a
The lead-rubber bearing non-linear behaviour destructive earthquake, for the city of
can be modelled using the bilinear force- Almyros, of 6.7 magnitude caused heavy
displacement curve which can be seen in Figure damage on some parts of the building. In
2-4. The formulas used below are extracted 1985 the retrofitting of the building was
from Kelly and Naeim [7]. decided by the Greek Ministry of Culture .
The building is made of limestone uncoursed
rubble masonry with lime mortar. It consists
of two (2) storeys and a basement which is
partly above the ground level. Its dimensions
are 23.8m x 10.9m in plan (Figure 3-2) and it
has a total height of 14.24m. The geometry
is exactly the same along the height of the
building. The basement is 2.93m high and
the first and second storeys are 4.7m and
Figure 2-2: Hysteresis Loop of lead-rubber 4.9m respectively. The building also has a
bearing[3] gable roof which is made of wood truss
465
framing and clay tiles on top of it. Both The retrofitting strategy was to strengthen the
stories have wooden floor supported on parts where cracking had occurred using
timber beams which are supported by GUNITE. Also, a lot of walls where
internal and external load bearing walls. All strengthened using a GUNITE mantle
of the walls (internal and external) of the especially the two walls in the entrance
basement are 85cm thick, of the first storey along all their height in order to transfer the
75cm thick and the second storey 65cm centre of stiffness the closest possible to the
thick. centre of mass so that torsional problems
will be negligible. Also, the floors were
properly anchored in the walls and the walls
were jointed together at each storey level so
that diaphragmatic action will be provided.
Of course, strengthening and stiffening works
occurred in the roof so it will also exhibit
diaphragmatic action[5].
4 COMPUTER MODELLING
4.1 Layout of the model
The model in DRAIN-2DX was set up using
Figure 3-1: Photo of the building from the elastic panel elements that are connected
1950s[source:en.wikipedia.org] together with inelastic horizontal and vertical
connections to represent the failure
mechanisms of the building. The face of
the building was considered as three frames
in total to account for the fact that the
middle frame is a little more out than the
side frames. Also, since there is a sub-
basement for the fixed base structure was
horizontally restrained at the ground level.
Thus for base isolating the structure a seismic
gap will need to be provided at the ground level.
The model can be seen in Figure 4-1.
Details about the connections and failure
Figure 3-2: Plan View of the sub-basement of the mechanisms are provided in sections that
building [Municipality of Almyros Archive,
follow.
Pavlidou A.]
Figure 4-1: 2D Model of The Building
available to the author[7-11]. The loads and

4.2 Loading and Materials materials are shown in Tables 3-1 and 3-2
below. Elastic Modulus of Limestone
The load combinations were calculated
20,000 MPa, Shear Modulus of
according to Eurocode 8[6] load combinations
Limestone 600 MPa, Unit Weight of
for seismic loading conditions. The materials and
Limestone 2,160 kg/m3, Compressive
loading conditions were assumed according to
Strength of Limestone 2 MPa, Tensile
other similar researches because apart from the
Strength of Limestone 0.150MPa. For the roof a
geometry any other information was not
dead load of 0.90 kN/m2 and an imposed load of
466
0.6 kN/m2 and for the other floors a dead load of
2kN/m2 and an imposed load of 5kN/m2 were
assumed.
4.3 Failure Mechanisms
Elastic panels (DRAIN-2DX Type 6
Element[12]) were used to model the masonry.
In order to model the failure mechanisms of
masonry a horizontal and a vertical inelastic
connection ((DRAIN-2DX Type 4 Element[12])
between the elastic panels were used. The
horizontal connection was used to represent joint
slip failure mechanism (Figure 4-2) based on the Figure 4-3: Bearings Locations
maximum friction force between the interface of
stones and mortar and the vertical one was
representing the tension and compression
yielding (Figure 4-3) of stone masonry based on
the values that were presented in subchapter 4.2 .
This type of failure mechanism was based on
Lourenco’s work.[7,8]
Figure 4-2: Failure Mechanism of Horizontal

Connection [7,8]
Figure 4-4:Design Spectrum Change of Fundamental

Period Before (Red) and after (Green) Isolation
Figure 4-3: Failure Mechanisms of Vertical

Connections[7,8]
4.4 Design of Base Isolation

It was assumed that 21 lead-rubber bearings
were used in total and they were introduced as
inelastic connections at the foundation level of
the building as can it is shown in Figure 4-3.
This can be seen by the design response
spectrum of the building which was designed
according to Eurocode 8 (Figure 4-4). Therefore
following the procedure described in paragraph 2
and assuming a target isolated period of about 3
seconds and a maximum allowable displacement
for the bearing of 40cm (seismic gap of 40cm)
the properties of the isolators can be easily
calculated and are presented in Table 4-1. By
performing a linear modal analysis the fixed-
base and base-isolated first three natural periods
are presented in Table 4-2. Table 4-1: Properties of Lead-Rubber Bearings
467
The maximum displacements for El Centro,
B. I. F.B.
Loma Prieta and Parkfield were 16cm, 37cm and
Natural Natural
5 cm respectively meaning that the bearings
Periods Periods
maximum displacement of 40 cm was never
1st 2.814sec 0.2563sec exceeded thus performing well.
Period
5.4 Horizontal Forces
nd
2 0.1516sec 0.0854sec A significant decrease in the horizontal forces
Period causing sliding failure was observed after the
3rd 0.0742sec 0.0511sec isolation of the building. The average reduction
Period for El Centro, Loma Prieta and Parkfield was 19,
12 and 15 times lower than the fixed-base
Table 4-2:Natural Periods of Fixed Base(F.B.) and
building respectively meaning that almost no
Base Isolated (B.I) Building
sliding failure occurs after isolation. Even
though there is some yielding after isolation the
yielding force hardly exceeds the resistance of
5 SIMULATION RESULTS the connections.
A time-history analysis was performed using 5.5 Vertical Forces
three earthquake records El Centro, Loma Prieta
and Parkfield ground motions. These records There was also significant decrease of vertical
were chosen because they are well known forces causing compression and tension failure.
distractive earthquakes and they were scaled to Compression resistance of the elements were not
match the design spectrum characteristic of the exceeded even without base isolation.
area in terms of peak ground acceleration. Nevertheless, after base-isolation the
compressive forces were reduced 6 times for the
5.1 Damage El Centro, 9 times for Loma Prieta and 7 times
The overall damage reduction was expressed in for Parkfield.
terms of the number of elements that yielded Tensile forces were the main failure mechanism
during at each of the three earthquakes in per and they were reduced 15 times for El Centro, 20
cent(%). This per cent is calculated in terms of times for Loma Prieta and 18 times for Parkfield
the total elements of the building. That is out of earthquake comparing to the fixed-base structure
a total of 622 horizontal connections and 380 meaning that tensile resistance was only
vertical ones how many of them yield during the occasionally exceeded. Thus, base isolation
three quakes. system proved very effective in reducing the
For El Centro an overall reduction of 92% in seismic induced forces.
damage was achieved, for Loma Prieta an 85% 6 INSTALLATION OF BASE ISOLATION
and for Parkfield a 97%.
The author could not collect any information
5.2 Interstorey Drifts about the type of the existing foundations but it
The inter-storey drifts are the relative is assumed that raft foundations probably exist
displacements of the storeys. Lower values of under the building. Depending on the condition
inter-storey drifts along the height of the building of the existing foundations there can be two
means good seismic behaviour. This is because different approaches in terms of installing the
no uneven load concentrations occur at specific bearings. The first approach would be to
elements of the building and thus stress place the isolators under the existing
concentrations at specific parts are avoided. foundation (Figure 6-1). The isolators would
be installed on new footings below the
For El Centro, Loma Prieta and Parkfield a existing foundation.
reduction of 85%, 81% and 89% respectively
was achieved.
5.3 Displacements
One of the important issues when designing the
base isolation system is to achieve an allowable
maximum displacement for the whole building.
This is an important issue because it could cause
damage not only to the building, which is
considered to be separated by the ground by a
seismic gap of 40cm, but it could also destroy
the bearings themselves. Figure 6-1: First installation Proposal
468
In the second case the isolation would be I would also like to thank Mr. Konstantinos
installed above the foundations and not Mamouras, a Greek Civil Engineer, who helped
below it (Figure 6-2). This is because there is a me to collect some information about the
case that the existing foundations might be too building.
hard and too strong to cut under them. This
REFERENCES
would include cutting through the walls,
meaning of course that the bearing elements have [1] Naeim, F The Seismic Design Handbook, 2nd
sufficient resistance for that. Edition, Springer, 2001
[2] Lutman, M http://www.world-housing.net/ ,
It is therefore necessary to perform an in-situ
Accessed on 15/08/2011
investigation on the material and properties and
[3] Naeim, F and Kelly, J Design of Seismic
condition.
Isolated Structures, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 1999
[4] Constantinou, M C, Whittaker, A S,
Kalpakidis, Y, Fenz, D M and Warn, G
P,Performance of Seismic Isolation Hardware
Under Seismic Loading, MCEER-07-0012, 2007
[5] Παλιούρας, Δ Το παλιό Γυμνάσιο του
Αλμυρού ,Αχαιοφθιωτικά Β΄, Τόμος Β΄,
Πρακτικά του Β΄ Συνεδρίου Αλμυριώτικων
Σπουδών,σελίδες 381-396, ΑΛΜΥΡΟΣ 1997
(Translation:
Figure 6-2: Second installation Proposal Paliouras, D, The Old-High School of Almyros,
Achaiofthiotika B, Volume B, Second
Conference of Researching for Almyros, p. 381-
7 CONCLUSIONS 396, Almyros 1997)
[6] Eurocode 8, EN-1998
Although a lot of assumptions were made in
[7] Lourenço, P B Experimental and numerical
terms of the material properties about the
issues in the modelling of the mechanical
building since not many information were
behaviour of masonry. In: P. Roca et al. (ed),
available, the results showed significant
Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions,
decrease in the response of the base isolated
Barcelona, CIMNE, p. 57-91,1998
building against the fixed-base one.
[8] Lourenco, P B and Snthivel, R Finite
Summarizing, after the isolation of the building, element modelling of deformation
tensile seismic forces induced into the structure characteristics of historical stone masonry shear
were reduced by an average of 15-20 times for walls, Engineering Structures, Volume 31, Issue
all three ground motions comparing to the fixed- 9, p. 1930-1943, September 2009
base building. Compressive forces were reduced [9] Giordano, A, Mele, E and De Luca, A
6-9 times and sliding forces were reduced 12-19 Modelling of historical masonry structures:
times. There was also damage reduction of comparison of different approaches through a
85%-97% and the inter storey drifts were case study, Engineering Structures, Volume 24,
reduced by 81%-89% comparing to the fixed- Issue 8, p.1057-1069, August 2002
base structure. Finally, the maximum considered [10] Vintzileou, E, Zagkotsis, A, Repapis, C and
displacement of 40cm in the beginning was Zeris, Ch, Seismic behaviour of the historical
never exceeded for any of the three ground structural system of the island of Lefkada,
motions. Greece, Construction and Building
Materials,Vol. 21, p 225-236, 2007
Finally for retrofitting purposes base isolation
[11 Karantoni, F and Fardis, M Computed
can be a very complicated and difficult
Versus Observed Seismic Response and Damage
procedure, in terms mainly of the installation
of Masonry Buildings,Journal of Structural
of the bearings. Nevertheless, it is obvious from
Engineering, Vol.118, No.7, p.1804-1821, July
the results how effective such a system is for
1992
historical masonry buildings.
[12] Prakash, V, Powell, G H and Campbell, S
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DRAIN-2DX BASE PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
AND USER GUIDE, Department of Civil
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to
Engineering, University of California, Berkeley,
my Supervisor Dr. Mihail Petkovski, who not
California, November 1993
only helped and guided me, but he was also an
inspiration to me.
469
BEHAVIOUR OF REVERSE-CHANNEL CONNECTIONS IN FIRE

Ioannis Andrea Tsapoutshis
Candidate MSc Steel Construction
ABSTRACT A fire event leads to a progressive structural collapse, as the various stresses types involved
complicate the connection’s design and the elevated temperatures weaken the structural members, which
may fail under the combination of the applied axial forces and moments.
Due to the large variety of specimen sizes, and the high cost of experimental testing, a very effective way to
predict the behaviour of specimens is the development of an efficient parametric study. A Finite Element
Model of beam-to-column connection using reverse channel has been developed by this study (in
ABAQUS/CAE), while a validation through the high convergence of the modeling and the experimental
results has been obtained. The high rate of validation achieved, ensures that the parametric study of the
reverse-channel connections are representative samples that can be further employed by the researches,
with the aim to achieve the optimum simple modeling of this connection type.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 BEHAVIOUR OF REVERSE-

CHANNEL CONNECTIONS
Over the last decade, many investigations have
been conducted in steel joint’s connections. A connection can be defined as the place where
Most of these researches employed Finite two or more members meet together and a joint
Element programmes for modeling either steel as the zone where two or more members meet
or composite structures, which are increasingly together as it is shown in Fig. 2.1 (Burgess
more popular. The Finite element programs are 2008). A very simplified and analytical model,
very powerful tools, not only for research which analyzes the joints in ambient
purposes but also for structural fire engineering temperatures, has been provided in the European
applications. Due to the perception that standards EN 1993-1-8:2005, known as the
connections are not critical in steel and Component Method. According to Burgess
composite frame structures, usually the finite (2008) this method considers a joint as a set of
element analysis of frames in fire ignores the basic zones with each zone performing as an
detailed behaviour of the connections, by individual structural component that can be
assuming either fixed or pinned joints. considered as a non-linear spring with the
According to the full scale tests, however, combination of them forming the whole joint.
performed in BRE in Cardington (1995), the (Fig. 2.2)
connections are not as strong as assumed, as
under high temperatures the axial-moment
combinations may easier cause collapse. A very
productive way to investigate the behaviour of
the connections is to set-up a test experiment or
simulates a finite element model, which will be
validated with the experimental results. The
economic and very efficient way to investigate
the reverse-channel connection is the finite
element analysis.
Fig. 2.1 Joint and Connection parts of a double-sided joint
470
Fig. 2.2 Spring model of Reverse-Channel Connection
Fig. 2.4 Equivalent T-Stub identification and orientation

2.1 Reverse-Channel connections to
tubular columns (a) and T-Stub Failure Mode (b) [Spyrou 2002]
This type of connection is consisted by, the steel

tubular column filled with concrete, the reverse
channel welded on the face of the column, and 3 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF
an endplate bolted with 6×M20, 8.8 steel grade REVERSE-CHANNEL CONNECTION
bolts on the face of the channel welded at one The development of Finite Element simulation
site of the Universal Beam. Fig. 2.1 will be explained using ABAQUS/CAE 6.10
The behaviour of the channel can be simplified and compared with test results of COMPFIRE
by using plastic hinge mechanisms instead of an 2010 (European project). Simulating and
equivalent T-Stub, as the high complexity of the validating the model, enables a wider parametric
channel’s shape (π shape) and the arms of the study of the joint and a deeper investigation of
channel allow high rotations and make the the reversed-channel. Specifically, a number of
connection vulnerable to bending. With the different reversed-channel specimens in terms of
force application to the connection, the first dimensions will be analyzed.
plastic hinge forms at the bolts position (Fig. The material used for all sections was S275 and
2.3a), then at the corner between face and arm Grade 8.8 for the bolts. The reverse channel
of the reverse channel (Fig. 2.3b) and then at the simulation was carried out for both ambient and
weld between channel arm and column face elevated temperatures and the results are briefly
(Fig. 2.3c). discussed below.
4 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND

MEASURES
The Finite Element Simulation of the reverse
channel has been validated with the results of
COMPFIRE 2010. Specifically, the parallel
flange channel (PFC 230x90x30) under ambient
temperatures has been tested as well as another
Fig. 2.3 Reverse-Channel connection to tubular column test with the same specimen under elevated
temperatures. (Fig. 4.1)
2.2 Beam’s Endplate connected to reverse-
channel face
The endplate of the beam can be represented as
an equivalent T-Stub with adequate dimensions
in order to represent the real connection. The
equivalent T-Stub is shown in the next Fig.
2.4a, with the reverse-channel connection
having 20mm thick endplates. According to
Spyrou (2002) the more likely to occur failure
mode is the, Failure Mode 3, where the endplate
remain elastic and essentially flat and the bolts
start yielding until their failure, Fig. 2.4b.
Fig. 4.1 Test setup for Reverse Channel connection
471
4.1 Parametric study of the Reverse- Fig. 4.3 Reverse Channels with 8mm and 6mm face
Channel Connections thicknesses (blue and red curve respectively)
A parametric study on the influence of reverse- It can be seen from the above Fig. 4.3 that the
channel dimensions has been performed in order blue curve corresponding to the stiffer reversed
to investigate a large variety of sectional sizes channel (RC-200x8), experiences the same
under constant temperature rates and specific rotations for higher loading demands. It is
loadings. Regarding to Ding and Wang (2007a, interesting that slightly thicker reverse channel
2007b) the temperature in the reverse channel, experienced its peak load occurs for the same
the endplate and the bolts can be assumed to be rotation of approximately 16 degrees, after
uniform. Thus, the temperature used in the which the downward trend starts forming. (Fig.
parametric study was 550 degrees Celsius for 4.3). The identical performance of the reverse-
the whole connection, except from the loading channel sections, are due to their similar
device, which was considered to be in an geometry, resulting into proportionally higher
ambient temperature, of 20 degrees Celsius. stiffness for RC-200x8.
Ding and Wang (2007a, 2007b) also stressed 150 RC-200x8
RC-250x8
that the temperature destribution of the welding
between the arms of the channel and the tubular
Force [kN]
100
column, may also be assumed to be uniform, but
different from the above. Before starting the
parametric study, the model was validated with 50
test results from COMPFIRE 2010. The
validated reverse channel was a cut off square
0
hollow section, with uniform thickness.
For validating the RC200x6 model, 0 10 20 30
Rotation [º]
ABAQUS/CAE Explicit was employed and the Fig. 4.4 Comparison of the RC200x8 and RC250x8
high convergence of the resulting Force-
It can be seen from Fig. 4.4 that for increased
Rotation curve with the test results is being
widths of the channel, the reverse-channel’s
presented in Fig. 4.2.
connections become increasingly ductile,
120 reaching its peak loading for higher rotation
100 rates. Furthermore, the initial stiffness of the
connection drops to extremely low values,
80
Force [kN]
making the initial stiffness 30% lower from the

60 one of RC200x8.
200 RC-200x8
40
RC-250x8
Test - 550C
RC-300x8
Force [kN]
20 150
FEM - 550C
0
100
0 10 20 30
Rotation [º]
Fig. 4.2 Comparison of the FEM model and COMPFIRE 50
2010 test on RC200x6 at elevated temperatures Rotation [º]
0
The small divergence among the curves is due
0 10 20 30
to the material properties used for FEM
Modelling were the normal values that EC3 Fig. 4.5 Comparison of the RC200x8 with RC250x8 and
suggest, are causing the plastic hinges on the RC300x8
bolts and channel’s corners to form earlier. (Fig. A very similar behaviour has been observed in
4.2) the comparison of the RC350x8 and RC400x8
150
with the RC200x8 (Fig. 4.5 and Fig. 4.6). As
Force [kN]
RC-200x6
RC-200x8
the arms of the reverse channel move apart, the
100 face of the reverse channel becomes larger and
weaker. Then the yielding strength is reached
quicker from those with shorter channel face.
50 When the yield strength is reached, the
channel’s stiffness decreases as a result of the
Rotation [º] rapid increase of rotations. The higher load
0
capacity in the connections of larger reverse-
0 10 20 30
channel’s width is due to their capability of
472
allowing the endplate of the beam moving into Based on Fig. 4.6 the RC180x8 has higher
the reverse channel, and thus the joint to rotate stiffness from RC200x8, although its smaller
in higher levels. For higher rotations the reverse peak loads. As the face width of the channel is
channel, the beam and the loading device are smaller from the endplate’s, high stresses on the
resisting the parallel external loading, with the compression zone of the reverse channel are
connection resisting in pure tension. As the bolts developed. (Fig. 4.8) As a result the reverse
work perfectly in tension, the high resistance of channel arms are squeezed towards the fixed
the connection is reached. The following Fig. ends, Fig. 4.9. This behaviour leads to lower
4.7(a) to Fig. 4.7(c) shows exactly the above load resistance, as the pull out failure of the first
explanation. bolt row of the connection is formed (Fig. 4.8).
200
RC-180x8
180
RC-200x6
160 RC-200x8
140
RC-250x8
Force [kN]
RC-300x8
120
RC-350x8
100 RC-400x8
80
60
40
20
Rotation [º]
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fig. 4.6 Parametric study of Reverse Channel connection using different section sizes
Fig. 4.9 Reverse Channel RC180x8 compression zone

By investigating the RC-400x8 from Fig. 4.6, it
can be seen that after a certain amount of force
the bolt failure forms. Specifically, at 165kN the
bolts capacity is exceeded causing a brittle
failure and sudden downward trend of the curve.
Fig. 4.7 Deformed Shape of Reverse Channel RC400x8

5 MECHANICAL MODELING OF
BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTION
The ability of the simple modeling to establish a
full frame modeling consists the main reason of
its high importance for elevated temperatures.
Therefore, the representation of the connections
with a great and simplified model is essential.
Fig. 4.8 Reverse Channel RC180x8 and Beam’s Endplate
Due to the high complexity of the reverse
with the failure mode channel, the difficulty to simplify it in an
equivalent T-Stub is very high, unless if realistic
assumptions can be made. Thus, the plastic
hinge mechanism theory, employed by this
study.
473
(5.2)
The small Delta can be expressed in terms of d

and B by:
(5.3)
and the relationship between the two angles

alpha and B is:
(5.4)
Fig. 5.1 Dimensional notations
Based on Fig. 5.1 the energy balance equation Based on the geometry of the channel shown in
can be expressed by using the Work done in the Fig. 5.1, the corresponding displacement Δ can
hinges equals to the work done by the Force.0 be expressed as:
(Neal 1977)
(5.1) (5.5)
With Mp, θ, F and δ are the Plastic Moment, the Substituting Eq. (5.4) and (5.5) into Eq. (5.2),
rotation, the Force and displacement yields
respectively. Based on the above expression
(5.1) (Neal 1977), the balance equation
corresponds to the above Fig. 5.1 is:
(5.6)
Simplifying the above Equation and substituting Eq. (5.5) into Eq. (5.6) gives
(5.7)
The Tying Capacity from SCI & BCSA Joints in

Steel Connection can be used by assuming that
the components work individually without any 6 CONCLUSIONS
group effects and the reverse channel tension
zone can be represented as an equivalent T- The simulation using finite element analysis
Stub1. The next curve is the result. (Fig. 5.2) software was established with a great success, as
the validation of the FEM Models adequately
represented the real behaviour of the whole joint
in ambient and elevated temperatures.
At high temperatures, the behaviour of the
channel was different compared to the ambient
temperatures, where the failure mode was in the
bolts rather than in the channel face.
As the reverse-channel face becomes bigger,
Fig. 5.2 Force – Displacement curve after simplify both peak load and rotations are increasing
modelling dramatically, in contrast with stiffness which is
decreased hugely.
A relationship of force and deflection (based on
the reverse channel geometry) has been
proposed (Eq. (5.7)), while explanations on the
assumptions have been made in order to end up
with this formula.
1
The section is similar to T-Stub by placing the
channel arms together.
474
ACKNOWLEDGMENT CEN, European Committee for
Standardization, 2005a. Brussels, Belgium.
I would like to express my gratitude to my EN 1994-1-2, Eurocode 4: Design of composite
supervisor, Professor I. W. Burgess, for his steel and concrete structures, part 1-2:
support, interest and guidance during this Structural fire design. CEN, European
project. Committee for Standardization, 2005c
Brussels, Belgium.
REFERENCES Li, X. (2009).”Moment – Rotation Behaviour of
Al-Jabri K. S., Seibi A., Karrech A. (2004). Reverse Channel Connection to Tubular
“Modeling of un-stiffened flush end-plate Columns, University of Manchester“
bolted connection in fire.” Journal of Neal B. G. (1977) “The plastic Methods of
Constructional Steel Research Vol. 62 Structural Analysis” Third (S.I.) Ed. London
(2006) pp. 151-159 Chapman and Hall
Block F. (2006). “The development of a Purkiss, J. A. (2007). “Fire Safety Engineering
component-based connection elements for Design of Structures.”
endplate connections in fire.” PhD thesis, Romero. E. R. (2010). “Finite element
The University of Sheffield. simulation of a bolted steel joint in fire using
Buchanan A. H., (2002). “Structural Design for abaqus program.” MSc thesis. Tampere
Fire Safety.” University of Canterbury, New University of Thechnology.
Zealand Spyrou, S., Davison, J. B., Burgess, I. W.,
Burgess I. (2008). “Connection modeling in Plank, R. J. (2002) Development of a
fire.” In: Proccedings of the workshop of componenet-Based Method of steel beam-to-
European union Cost Action C26 urban column joints at elevated temperatures. PhD
habitat construction under catastrophic thesis, The University of Sheffield.
events SCI & BCSA, Joints in steel connection, Simple
Burgess I., Santiago A., Wald F. (2008). connections. UK: The Steel Constraction
“Behaviour of steel and composite joints in Institute and The British Construction
fire”. In: Proccedings of the workshop of Steelwork Assosiation Limited; 2002.
European union Cost Action C26 urban SCI & BCSA, Steel Building Desing: Design
habitat construction under catastrophic Data. UK Eurocodes: The Steel Constraction
events. Institute and The British Construction
Burgess I., (2011). “CIV6265 Structrula Steelwork Assosiation Limited; 2009
Analysis & Design for Fire.”
Burgess I., (2011). “CIV6020 Dissertation
Planning and Paper Presentation.”
Dassault Sestèmes Simulia Corporation (2010),
Abaqus/CAE v.6.10 User’s Manual:
Interactive Edition.
Davison J. B., (2010). “CIV6245 Design of
structural steel frames, Portal Frames.”
Ding J., Y. C. Wang (2007). “Experimental
study of structural fire behaviour of steel
beam to concrete filled tubular column
assemblies with different types of joints.”
Engineering. Structures journal, Vol. 29
(12).pp 3485-3502.
Ding J., Y. C. Wang (2007). “Temperature in
unprotected joint between steel beam to
concret filled tubular column in fire.” Fire
Safety Journal, Vol. 44 (2009).pp 16-32.
EN 1991-1-2, Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures
- part 1-2: General Actions – Actions on
Structures exposed to fire. CEN, European
Committee for Standardization, 2000.
Brussels, Belgium.
EN 1993-1-2, Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures - part 1-2: Structural fire design.
475
IAPPS DESIGN AIDS FOR STEEL-FRAMED BUILDING DESIGN

Mustafa UCOZ
MSc Steel Construction
ABSTRACT Eurocodes are the structural design codes, which are widely used all over the world.
The European Committee for Standardisation prepares the codes based on extensive researches, tests
and most developed countries design codes background. Eurocodes are the most advanced civil
engineering codes in the world. The codes are still being developed and intend to be used by most of
the countries in the world. UK is the one of the countries that switched from British Standards to the
new Eurocodes as the British Standards Institute approved their use from 31st March 2010. They have
been used in UK since the BSI approval. Although, the Eurocode replaced with old BS building codes,
not many UK designers were happy about using them even for today. The reason of this is they appear
to be more complex than British standards. Therefore, the engineers don’t prefer to follow a code,
which seems to be more difficult than what they used to before. Apart from its complexity, the
programmability feature of it comes into prominence. The reason of that complexity can be based upon
the easy programmable structure of the code. Hence a lot of design aids such as load tables, handbooks,
excel sheets and computer software are being utilized by many designers and students.
Smartphone applications are started to appear very recently so a smart phone application can be utilized
in order to decrease the mentioned complexity of EC. Although most of the people use various
structural software programs to design beam and column members, significant number of engineers and
all the students use to hand calculation to design. Therefore, a smartphone can be turned in to small-
scaled practical design software, which can be always under user hand.
1 INTRODUCTION However it takes less than 2-3 minutes for the

user to check lateral torsional resistance of any
Eurocodes are being used in UK as structural
UB or UC members with the proposed IPhone
design codes. However, UK designers are not
Application.
happy to use those codes because of their
complex provisions to design steel structures.
Both BS5950 and BS449, which were the
2 EC3 LTB CONSIDERATIONS
previous code of practices in UK adopts design
tables varies according to section’s slenderness EC3 considers four LTB curves according the
for LTB. Therefore the designers find that easier height to width ratio of the cross-section, the
than the EC3’s requirements to check lateral and cross section entire shape and the manufacturing
torsional stability of a member. Therefore the process of the cross-section whether it is welded
engineers are become more reliant to design aids or rolled. EC3 defines lateral torsional buckling
such as spread sheets, design tables and design curves for two cases (1 p. 64; 2 p. 115):
software. Recently smart phone applications are • The general case (clause 6.3.2.2)
started to appear so an IPhone application can be • Rolled sections or equivalent welded
used to reduce the engineers’ effort in designing sections (clause 6.3.2.3)
steel beams to EC3. This design aid provides The 2nd case that is for rolled or equivalent
user to time saving in design of beam, and ease sections (clause 6.3.2.2) is adopted by the
to perform hand calculations. Basically, it developed beam application.
produces design outputs according to Consequently clause 6.3.2.3 is used for
Eurocode3’s complex provisions with the calculations that are performed by the
minimum input. IPhone Beam Design Application.
For example normally a LTB check of a member
takes at least 20 minutes if we assume the Mcr is
calculated at the first attempt. In addition to that
if the section fails, everything must be repeated.
476
2.1 Adopted EC3 Approach to the Proposed The parameters 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 , 𝛽 are given in the National
IPhone Application Annex. Please note that all the given
considerations are for the rolled sections since
Eurocode3 uses a reduced moment resistance to
the proposed application considers only rolled
check the lateral torsional buckling resistance of
sections. For more information UK National
a particular beam. This reduced moment
Annex should be revised. The following values
resistance Mb,Rd is:
are recommended for rolled sections in clause
𝑊𝑦 ∗𝑓𝑦 6.3.2.3 and UK national annex
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝜒𝐿𝑇
𝛾𝑀1 𝜆𝐿𝑇,0 = 0.4 (For rolled sections)
Where:
• Wy =Wpl,y for Class 1 or 2 cross-sections 𝛽 = 0.75 (For rolled sections)
• Wy =Wel,y for Class 3 cross-sections The recommendations for buckling curves are
To perform the Lateral Torsional Buckling given in table 3.
resistance calculation along with the Eurocode3,
the elastic critical buckling moment has to be
calculated regarding to the applied load case by
Table 2 Imperfection factors
C1 factor first.
The above table shows the appropriate buckling
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼𝑧 𝐼 𝐿2𝑐𝑟 𝐺𝐼𝑇
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶1 �[ 𝑤 + ] curves for rolled and welded sections for the
𝐿2𝑐𝑟 𝐼𝑧 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼𝑧
rolled or equivalent welded sections approach.
The latest adopted C1 values consider the UK
This table is the one that is recommended to use
National Annex’s recommendations are given in
by National Annex (3).
SCI P362 (3 p. 54). The latest C1 factors are
given in the below table 1.
Table 3 Recommended buckling curves

There is another factor for this approach, which
modifies the calculated reduction factor 𝜒𝐿𝑇 with
factor f to take into account the moment
distribution between lateral restraints of
members (1; 3). Therefore the modified
reduction factor is called 𝜒𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 and is given by
the below equation:
Table 1 C1 values for various moment conditions 𝜒𝐿𝑇 1
𝜒𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜒𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 ≤ 1 ≤ 2
For rolled or equivalent welded sections in 𝑓 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇
bending the values of 𝜒𝐿𝑇 for the appropriate 𝑓 = 1 − 0.5(1 − 𝑘𝑐 )[1 − 2.0�𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 − 0.8) � 2
non-dimensional slenderness may be determined
by using the below equations that is suggested 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓 ≤ 1.0
by National Annex; kc is the moment diagram correction factor:
1
1
𝜒𝐿𝑇 ≤ 1 𝑘𝑐 =
√𝐶1
𝜒𝐿𝑇 = �𝜒 ≤ 1
Φ𝐿𝑇 +��Φ2 �2 𝐿𝑇 �2 Finally the calculated buckling moment
𝐿𝑇 −𝛽𝜆𝐿𝑇 � 𝜆𝐿𝑇
resistance Mb,Rd should be greater than the design
Φ𝐿𝑇 = 0.5�1 + 𝛼𝐿𝑇 �𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 − 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇,0 � + 𝛽𝜆̅2𝐿𝑇 � moment. If the beam is a partially restraint, the
maximum moment between two restraints is
𝑊𝑦 ∗𝑓𝑦 considered to be the design moment. Then the
𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 = �
𝑀𝑐𝑟 moment resistance is modified by 𝜒𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑 and
Where 𝛼𝐿𝑇 is an imperfection factor from table given in the below equation;
2.4 (Table 6.3 from EN 1993-1-1:2005) for the 𝑊𝑦 ∗𝑓𝑦
four lateral torsional buckling curves and Wy is 𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = 𝜒𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑
𝛾𝑀1
the section modulus appropriate for the
𝑀𝐸𝑑
classification of the cross-section, as given in the ≤ 1.0
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑
above 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 equation (2). 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 is the non-
dimensional slenderness and can be found by After satisfying the above MEd/MbRd equation,
using the critical buckling moment Mcr that is the adopted section can be termed as safe against
given in 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 equation. 𝛼𝐿𝑇 is the imperfection lateral torsional buckling under the applied
factor that is the modification value to take in to loading.
account the available residual stresses and initial
imperfections.
477
2.2 Flow Chart of the Beam Design Application
A detailed flow chart that the application follows to calculate resistances of each beam is given in below figure 1. Those steps that given in the flowchart followed for all UC
and UB sections whilst whole sections are checked in bending, shear and buckling resistances.
Figure 1 Flowchart of the calculation process
478
3 IPHONE BEAM DESIGN APPLICATION in EC3 and to calculate the appropriate section,
to get the fast and accurate solutions. The
3.1 Introduction to IAPP proposed application aims and objectives are as
follows.
The proposed IAPP is designed to reduce the
designers’ effort in selecting the appropriate Aims
beam section for the required design situation in The overall aim of the proposed IAPP is:
accordance with Eurocode3 rules. The main aim 1. To reduce the complexity and effort in
of this IAPP is to reduce the workload involved LTB calculations to EC3
in applying EC3’s lateral torsional buckling 2. To get a fast and accurate solution
resistance calculation. However, it will also 3. To propose a section according to EC3 in
consider the other resistance check requirements terms of required;
to EC3 such as bending moment and shear a. Bending Resistance Capacity
resistance checks. b. Shear Resistance Capacity
EC3 is more complicated than the BS code. For c. LTB Resistance Capacity
example, the BS calculates the lateral torsional Objectives
buckling resistance of a member by finding a  To calculate the bending, shear and
reduced steel strength (pb) very easily and buckling resistances based on
quickly by following relatively simple design Eurocode3 for members subjected to
rules and the given tables. However, in EC3 the bending only.
designer is required to go back to elastic stability  To propose a section with the minimum
and calculate the elastic critical bending possible input.
moment, Mcr, the formula for which is not given  To deliver a range of output that allows
in the code, which is used to calculate the non- the user to select the most appropriate
dimensional slenderness 𝜆̅LT rather than the one.
geometric slenderness L/i. As already stated, the buckling resistance
As a result to design a suitable section for calculations for members susceptible to LTB
unrestrained, partially restrained or restrained using EC3 requires lengthy calculation
beams, the calculations have to satisfy the EC3 procedures, hence students as well as practicing
provisions. Designers, who wish to perform engineers will be benefited from this IAPPS.
hand calculations instead of using engineering The proposed IAPPS will give all the necessary
software for simple jobs, can utilize the IAPP in calculation steps and intermediate results for the
order to complete their calculations and design a buckling resistance of member, enabling
section that completely satisfies the Eurocode students to check their calculation results with it.
resistance requirements. Moreover, the IApp will give more opportunity
The IAPP will be a kind of design tool that gives for students to explore the effect of using
the user a selection of suitable sections different cross sections thereby helping them to
according to EC3. Once a section from the range study more about buckling resistances.
of suggested outputs has been chosen the Practicing engineers use relatively simple IAPPS
application will also give key parameters (Mcr, χ, for designing members rather than going for the
𝜆̅LT, and Ф etc.) so hand calculations and checks analysis or design with sophisticated software.
can be done properly in a faster way. The In addition to that, engineers who would like to
application will consider restrained, unrestrained design a small-scale project without utilising a
and partially restrained beam end support computer based software and prefer hand
conditions. Composite actions of beam are not calculation can decrease the workload of the
considered. design calculations by means of the IAPP.
LTB is mainly an issue for open section so only
the UKB and UKC sections, that are commonly 3.2 Beam Design Application’s Function
used for a beam section, will be considered in As it is already been mentioned the
that particular IAPP. The application will focus Application’s main aim is to reduce the
on the LTB of I or H beams. Another application engineers effort along the design of beam
could be developed considering the channel, sections. It is achieved by minimum input and
tube and circular sections in future. These are minimum complexity integrated with significant
not considered in this application in order to design process and detailed output. Essentially it
maintain simplicity of the application, otherwise asks user to select between three choices which
more input would be required from the user. are; Fully Restraint Beam Design, Partially
The main aims of the proposed IPhone Restraint Beam Design and Fully Unrestraint
application are to speed up the process in Beam Design. The first welcome screen is given
calculation of complex formulations laid down in below figure 2.
479
3.3 Limitations of the Beam Design
Application
There are some limitations that program
adopt or don’t consider. Please be aware of those
limitations before using the application. Don’t
use the software for the circumstances out of the
below specified limitations. These are given as
follows:
• Design Code: BS EN1993-1-1: 2005
• Only Rolled UB and UC sections are
designed.
Figure 2 Welcome screen Figure 3 Input screen • No Intermediate Stiffener is assumed in
section’s web for Shear Resistance
Figure 2 shows the input screen for the partially Calculation
restraint beams. Fy is the steel grade that can be • Steel Building Design: Design Data, In
input as 235, 275 and 355 in N/mm2, Lcr is the accordance with Eurocodes (called Blue
critical length between the two lateral restraints, Book) and the UK National Annexes
MEd and VEd are design moment and design approach is adopted.
shear forces respectively that the formulas are • Only Class 1,2, and 3 sections are
given in the associated “i” button. At last C1 is designed.
the factor that varies according to different • No Class 4 sections are considered to be
moment diagrams due to loading and design.
constraints. The recommended C1 values are • Max input moment is 8000kNm, Max input
given after user pressing the related “i” button shear is 7000kNm, Max beam length is
next to text box. Once the user touches the “i” 15m
button next to C1’s text box the C1 values that is
• C1 values only 1-3
already given in table 1 appears. Therefore it is
easy to input values in to the input screen. After • SI units are considered
hitting the design button all the lateral torsional • Section Types of UB, UC are considered
buckling considerations that are given in section only.
2.1 are performed then pass to below screen • Moment and Shear force calculations are
(figure 4) that shows all the UB and UC sections not performed by the application. The
with their utilization ratios (VEd/Vc,Rd, MEd/Mc,Rd input is Internal forces MEd & VEd only.
and MEd/Mb,Rd). To select the optimum beam (User have to calculate the appropriate
section along all the UB and UC sections, the design moment and shear according to
optimized button should be touched. The most given formulas in IAPP)
optimum UB, UC and optimum section in terms • No load combination or Internal force
of weight, height and width are displayed in factors are considered (User has to
figure 5 in a table. perform the load combination and select
the critical combination’s MEd & VEd).
• γm0=1.0 (From UK National Annex)
• γm1=1.0 (From UK National Annex)
• Ultimate limit states design only.
• Plastic design approach for class 1 and 2
(Wpl)
• Elastic design approach for class 3 (Wel)
• Partially laterally restraint, fully laterally
restraint and fully unrestraint beams can
be designed.
• Only moment-shear interaction is
considered but no reduction in Wy due to
Figure 4 All UB & UC Figure 5 Optimum beam
sections with utilization sections high shear (VEd>0.5Vcr,Rd).
ratios • When VEd>0.5Vcr,Rd program shows high
Then after touching an “i” button associated to a shear and doesn’t calculate the related
section, it will show the detailed output for that moment resistance.
related section. This output view shows all the • No axial loads are considered on the
calculation steps that are required to find the particular beam.
resistance of the section in terms of shear, • Only uniform beam sections are
moment and lateral torsional buckling. considered.
480
• EC3 Clause 6.3.2.3 (Page 62) LTB curves phone applications can be used in any specific
for rolled sections or equivalent welded subject to reduce the engineers workload.
sections approach is used to calculate the
value of 𝜒𝐿𝑇 and ∅𝐿𝑇 for the appropriate
non-dimensional slenderness 𝜆𝐿𝑇 .
• “f” factor is used to obtain modified REFERANCES
𝜒𝐿𝑇,𝑚𝑜𝑑
• Modulus of Elasticity; E = 210, 000 N/mm2
𝐸 𝑁
• Shear Modulus; G = ≈ 81, 000 2
2(1+𝜈) 𝑚𝑚
• Poisson’s ratio in elastic stage; 𝜈 = 0.3
Bibliography
4 VALIDATION of BEAM DESIGN 1. (CEN), European Committee for
Standardization. BS EN1993-1-
APPLICATION
1:2005,Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures-
This proposed IPhone application follows the Part1-1: General rules and rules for buildings.
SCI P363 (4) approach in order to calculate the Brussesls : Steel Construction Institute, 2005.
shear, bending moment and lateral torsional ISBN 0-580-46078-9.
buckling resistances for any particular beam
2. Lecture Notes of CIV6215. Huang,
section. Therefore the VEd, Mc,Rd and Mb,Rd of the
Dr.Zhaohui. Sheffield : University of Sheffield,
IAPP results are compared with the Blue Book
September 2009, Design of Steel Structures to
results. The results are first compared for S275
EC3, pp. 110;111;111-112.
and S355 steels for all the UB and UC sections.
Shear and moment resistances checked directly 3. Brettle, M E and Brown, D G . Steel
but buckling moment resistances varies with Building Design: Concise Eurocodes (P362).
respect to bending moment diagram shape factor Berkshire : The Steel Construction Institute
“C1”, length and cross-section. Therefore they (SCI), 2009. 978 1 85942 194 9.
compared as a combination of C1 and length
parameter. The average shear resistance 4. BCSA, Members of SCI and. Steel Building
accuracy for all sections is 99.69%, and then the Design: Design Data. Berkshire, London : The
average moment resistance accuracy for all Steel Construction Institute, The British
sections is 99.82% for S275 and S355. For the Constructional Steelwork, 2009. SCI P363 ISBN
buckling moment resistance validation, the 978-1-85942-186-4.
resistances are checked for 2m, 4m, 7m, 10m, 5. Boissonnade, N., et al., et al. Rules for
12m and 14m for both S275 and S355 steel Member Stability in EN 1993-1-1 Background
grades so the average accuracy percentage is documentation and design guidelines. Brussels :
found to be 99.64%. There are only few sections ECCS, 2006. 92-9147-000-84.
that the accuracy go below 90% because blue
book consider Wpl,eff for class3 sections with
class1 or class2 flanges instead of Wel.
5 CONCLUSION
In this report, an investigation about an IPhone
Application that provides to user a simple and
easy beam designing according to EN 1993-1-1:
2005. As it has already been mentioned EC3 has
complicated process to arrive buckling moment
resistance compared to previous code of
practices in UK. Therefore this application is
designed to reduce the designers’ effort to
design beam sections according to EC3. This
application is really ensures user to design a
beam section in a few single steps and also gives
the detailed output for the people who desire to
perform a hand calculation. The validation of the
application found to be very accurate. Finally,
that kind of application provides variety of time
saving to the designer. The further work can be
performed in future that designs different cross-
sections and European sections. The smart
481
Passive mitigation methods of human-induced vibration

Kevin Vazquez
ABSTRACT This paper intends to provide an overview of the current available vibration control
techniques, showing their similarities and differences and to some extent their application in civil
structures. The work includes a brief introduction to the vibration engineering theory and the type of
forces that can cause a disturbance on them. Nevertheless, due to the wide variety of structures and also
the extensive variety of sources of vibration, the scope of this work will deal with those forces induced
by human activity as a source of disturbance. Then again, within the mitigation methods an ample
variety of techniques have been developed, thus passive mitigation techniques are going to be the scope
of this paper. Lastly, in order to exemplify how structures behaviour can be improved by passive
techniques. The analysis of the structure will be by using Finite Element Method (FEM) software
ANSYS and the design of a corrective solution of a structure which faces excessive vibrations will be
shown as a case study. The basic procedure in which structures facing vibration troubles should be
assessed is included. Due to the structure does not meet serviceability limits, the design of a remedial
solution had to be implemented. The results of the controlled structure and enhancements of the
response will be discussed
1 INTRODUCTION active and passive. Depending on the severity,

characteristics of the disturbance and dynamic
Vibration is 4D physical phenomena which
properties of the structure (e.g. stiffness, mass
affects not only civil engineering structures but
and damping) the selection of the most suitable
also any kind of artefact which implies motion
solution has to be made.
of one its parts. Vibration properly defined is an
omnipresent type of dynamic behaviour, and Due to the broad spectrum of the available
where the motion is an oscillation about a certain techniques, this work will only provide an
equilibrium position (Mead, 1999). overview of the available passive control
techniques, highlighting their principle of
In humans, excessive vibration levels have
operation and their applicability.
shown leading fatigue, which in turn might lead
to inefficiency, accidents or even degenerative Some of the most susceptible to human vibration
illnesses. The worst representation of vibration structures are: footbridges, grandstands,
cases can lead the collapse of structures (e.g. lightweight staircases, floors with large spans,
earthquakes). Vibration caused by machinery is lightweight concrete floors, high diving
also important to consider, since an improper platforms, shopping malls, etc.
calibration and isolation, excessive dynamic
The study of a staircase which faces excessive
forces may transmit undesirable effects into the
vibration levels will be shown. Besides, the
primary structure. However, human-induced
analytical model, the assessment of the structure
vibration will be the scope of this paper.
and the implementation of a passive measure of
Vibration control growth as a need of providing control will be described and controlled
comfort to humans. But also it was found that responses depicted.
extreme and continuous levels of vibration was
2 VIBRATION ENGINEERING
able to lead resonance on structures, and whether
the structures had not been designed to work and
Vibration engineering studies the repetitive
behave properly under such as conditions,
motion of objects relative to a stationary position
collapse can be caused.
thought as a state of equilibrium. Any structure
Within the available controlling techniques, vibrates and their behaviour depends on their
there are three main categories: active, semi- inherent dynamic properties such as stiffness,
mass and damping.
482
Structural dynamics describe the behaviour of a 2.1 SDOF and MDOF
structure due to dynamic loads. Dynamic loads
Dynamic systems can be classified according to
are applied to the structure as a function of time,
two distinct types of mathematical models:
resulting in time varying responses (e.g.
discrete and continuous. Discrete models possess
displacements, velocities and accelerations) of
a finite number of degrees of freedom (DOFs),
the structure.
whereas continuous models possess an infinite
number of DOFs.
In order to obtain the responses of the structure a
dynamic analysis is performed with the objective The number of DOFs of a system is defined as
to solve the equation of equilibrium between the the number of independent co-ordinates,
inertia force, damping force and stiffness force required to describe its motion with the required
together with the externally applied force: level of accuracy.
fI + fD + fS = fext
The natures of exciting forces that can disturb a
Where: fI = m (Inertial force) SDOF directly modify the response, the latter
depends on whether the system is damped or
fD = c (Damping force)
undamped, because it defines the decay of the
fS = ku (Spring force) response. The type of forces which can excite
the structures are harmonic in which resonance
fext = f(t) (External applied force) of the system and the forcing force is the main
The equation of motion if the mathematical concern, impulse forces, periodic forces, step
representation of the physical phenomenon and forces, etc.
it is written as follow: Structures in reality have an infinite number of
degrees of freedom (DOF’s). It is, however,
possible to approximate all structures as an
assemblage of finite number of mass less
In reality, two different dynamic behaviours can members and a finite number of node
be found according to the number of degrees of displacements.
freedom of the structure. Firstly, those ones The mass of the structure can be assumed as
which can be modelled as a system with one lumped at the nodes and for linear elastic
degree of freedom (SDOF) and those which have structures the stiffness properties of the members
to be modelled as a multi-degree-of-freedom can be approximated accurately. Such a model is
system (an MDOF). called a multi-degree of freedom (MDOF)
system.
As a result of observing structures behaviour, the Unlike SDOFs and in order to determine the
behaviour of a spring has been found represent a natural frequencies and the vibration mode
periodic motion shapes of a structure, the modal analysis is
commonly used. The natural frequencies of a
x (t) = A sin (ω t + φ) structure are the frequencies at which the
structure naturally vibrates under no
Where; x(t) = Displacement disturbances.
A = Amplitude The corresponding equation of motion for a
ω = Angular frequency MDOF is:
φ = Phase
And, This recalls the terminology of SDOF yields:
Velocity
Acceleration
Natural frequencies and mode solutions:
ω
φ φ
φ φ
φ φ
With the above set of equation is possible to
solve the differential equation which describes Where [K] is the stiffness matrix, [C] the
the motion of a structure. damping matrix and [M] the mass matrix.
483
2.2 Human loads on structures - Footbridges
- Lightweight and slender floors
- Staircases
During walking on a structure, pedestrians
- Concert halls, grandstands, etc.
induce dynamic time varying forces on the
surface of the structure. These forces have 2.4 Vibration assessment
components in all three directions, vertical,
The process of assessment of any structure
lateral and longitudinal and they depend on
implies the determination of the following basic
parameters such as pacing frequency, walking
steps:
speed and step length.
Source: Here is determined the origin of the
Dynamic forces induced by humans are
disturbance (e.g. humans, machinery, railways,
therefore highly complex in nature, thus several
heavy construction, etc.)
studies have been carried out in order to quantify
pedestrian walking forces. Path: The mass, stiffness and damping of the
structure have to be determined. Even sometimes
the presence of stationary people on the structure
has to be considered, since they provide not also
mass to the system but also damping and
stiffness.
Receiver: In this step is determined the degree of
acceptance of vibration levels, depending on the
usage intended for the structure.
Figure Error! No text of specified style in
document.1. Components of human Human perception depends on two main
Figure 1 shows the typical footfal impacts of
walking variables. The first one is the inter-subject
human walking. variables which involves the features of the
receiver, elements such as: height, weight and
The average pacing frequency for walking is
sex. The second one is intra-subject variables
around 2 steps per second, which gives a vertical
such as time of day, mood and postures.
forcing frequency of 2 Hz. Slow walking is in
the region of 1,4 - 1,7 Hz and fast walking in the The most often used parameters of the responses
range of 2,2 - 2,4 Hz. This means that the total are: Peak and RMS accelerations:
range of vertical forcing frequency is 1,4 - 2,4
Hz with a rough mean of 2 Hz, values out of this
range can be considered abnormal walking.
(Smith, 2002).
Human walking can be represented with the Then the response factor R is obtained as:
series of Fourier harmonics as follows:
This tolerance factor varies depending on the

Where, use, time of exposure and time of the day. For
G = Weight of a person (Normally 700N); instance, R=4 is the maximum value allowed for
office buildings during day and night, and under
Tp =Activity period = 1/fp; continuous exposure.
rN; is the dynamic loading factor (DLF) The codes of design that contain some guidance
The kinds of human periodic excitation that a through the design of structures for vibrations
structure can be subjected are: are: British Standards: BS5400 for footbridges,
BS6472 for floor structures, BS6399 loading for
- Walking buildings, SCI Guide P354, UK (1989);
- Running EUROCODE: ISO 10137, ISO 2631-2;
- Dancing American codes: Design guide series No.11.
- Jumping 1997. AISC
However all of them are subjected to present
2.3 Structures prone to human induced- limitations on their applicability, therefore
vibration engineering judgment and further analysis may
Due to their inherent dynamic characteristics, the be required.
most prone to vibration structures are the
following:
484
3 VIBRATION CONTROL 3.3 Passive mitigation methods
3.1 What is vibration control? Friction Dampers.- The principle of this
technology is placing them in those parts of the
Controlling vibrations implies the reduction of
structure in which relative motions are great,
structures responses under disturbing forces. The
placing on the elements which will slide over the
aim is to provide comfort and safety to the
other; the friction generated sometimes is also
occupants or a suitable environment to sensitive
called “Coulomb friction” transform the energy
equipment. (Nyawako and Reynolds, 2007).
in to heat.
3.2 Mitigation Techniques
Viscous Fluid Dampers.- A viscous damper
Vibration control can be introduced either as a basically consists of a piston filled with a fluid
remedial vibration problem or as a process of i.e. silicone or oil, the head of the piston has
changing the structural design, when the analysis orifices in which the fluid passes in a controlled
shows that the structure might be susceptible to manner, the latter defining the capacity of the
an undesirable behaviour. device. A viscous damper is a device which
virtually creates a damping force which is
The first implies the addition of an additional
directly proportional to the system’s velocity,
device or devices into the structure which will
but with the sign changed.
enhance the performance of the structure,
making it less responsive to its vibrating Viscoelastic Dampers.- The energy alleviated
environment. The other can be thought as a re by the materials when deformed in cyclic
arrangement of the structures concept, i.e. a manner i.e. elongation and compression, strains
better distribution of the stresses and hence the induced by stresses applied on the flexible
strains on the resisting structural members. material generate dissipation of energy; the kind
of the latter is heat. There are three different
Within the mitigation techniques three main
sorts of viscoelastic treatments. Free layer
categories are included: dampers (FLD) mainly consist of a flexible
Passive.- Passive control briefly described addition placed in the base of structures and
involves the modification of the stiffness mass which are subjected to extension and
and damping of the vibrating system, making it compression stresses during motions.
response under a disturbance. This can be Constrained layer dampers (CLD) They
achieved by three main ways: adding masses e.g. basically consist in a layer of a rubber material
(chunks of concrete), adding springs e.g. strategically placed in the structures, where the
(vibration isolators or enhancing the damping maximum values of shear strains are partially
e.g. (Tuned mass dampers). One of their main composite beams show the greatest
features of passive implementations is the fact enhancement.
that their dynamic characteristic is not
Tuned Mass Dampers.- This technique
considerably altered through time. In addition, basically comprises the attachment of a degree
they do not require additional power supply or of freedom with stiffness and damping onto the
energy for their operation, making them highly
primary structure and the principle is to split the
reliable and autonomous.
resonant response. The element is normally
Semi active.- This technique can be also placed at the point of maximum vibration
described as a controlled passive technology, displacement amplitude and which will ensure
due to the device used does not add mechanical the maximum possible efficiency with the lowest
energy to the main system. Likewise the control effort. Damping occurs when the mass attached
system can be adjusted in real time, depending oscillates, activating the damper connected to the
on the frequency content, the amplitudes and the main structure transferring to it the more
duration of the input signal. It has been shown possible energy. The aim is to reduce the
that when properly implemented on structures, response of the main structure by tuning a single
semi active control can achieve most of the frequency matching with one of the frequencies
advantages offered by active control. of the main structure. In practice, TMDs devices
have been successfully implemented in
Active control.- It is the most advanced structures affected by human induced forces as
technique and basically implies the addition of footbridges, staircases, composite floors,
an external input force or signal applied by balconies, etc.
actuators in a controlled manner. Unlike the
other two types of vibration control, an active Tuned liquid dampers.- These devices are a
technique represents the most expensive solution variation of the conventional TMDs, in which
in monetary terms and implies a higher level of the mass is simply replaced by water. The same
knowledge required for its design and concept of tuning a specific frequency is applied
implementation. and the damping provided by them is in some
extend well defined.
485
Within this category of dampers, two different main structure was just intended to transfer shear
types of TLD i.e. tuned sloshed dampers (TSDs) forces by using fin plates. Specifications of
and tuned liquid column dampers (TLCDs). materials: Steel: S275, bolts and welds: M16 8.8.
TLDs represent a potential solution since they
can be adjusted to different frequencies. Simply
varying the quantity of water can modify their
dynamic properties.
Resilient isolation.- The principle implies that
flexible mountings would be connected to the Figure 2. Staircases
structure supports, so the frequency of the General dimensions: Upper flight length
isolated system is reduced, markedly reducing =11.4m, lower flight length =10m, width of
the structure’s response i.e. acceleration. The tread: 1.585m. Finishes of the treads made by
system also provides flexibility to the system plywood 40mm.
and capability for energy dissipation. The system
normally also includes the addition of a damping 4.2 Study of staircases
device which dissipates the energy and control Light-weight staircases frequently represent the
the relative displacement of the connected parts. culmination of an aesthetically pleasing
Adding stiffness.- Commonly used to mitigate architectural concept. It has been determined that
harmonic vibration excitations avoiding the built the type of human uses that might affect
up of resonance by detuning the modal staircases are three: walking, running and
frequencies. The alteration of the elements jumping or falling down (Bougard, 2002).
stiffness’s by modifying the properties of those Footfall rates at 2.0[Hz] and 3.3[Hz] have been
elements that contribute the most to resist the found the most comfortable for walking and
motion. Sometimes those elements are the same running respectively.
that take the greater static loads.
4.3 Mathematical modelling ANSYS
Other methods.- Despite the wide variety of
innovative methods offered to address vibration The finite element method software (FEM) was
shortcomings, depending on the severity there is used to model the structure, allowing us to get a
always the chance to remediate the problem by good approximation of the behaviour of
simple measures applied on structures. They structures.
imply no modification or addition of device.
Some examples of such as methods are:
repositioning of vibrating sources, reducing the
mass of the system, adding partitions, propping
and changing the use of the structure.
4. VIBRATION MITIGATION ON Figure 3.- FEM Staircases
STAIRCASES HEADQUARTERS OFFICES
DONCASTER, UK. Modal analysis
The case study comprises a staircase structure A modal analysis was performed in order to
which faces vibration problems which has been determine the dynamic vibration characteristics
outlined in the design brief. The project i.e. (natural frequencies and mode shapes) of the
essentially implies the revision of two flights of structure.
a staircase structure in an office building in
which the structure concept meets aesthetical
requests hence the solution provided appeal has
to meet visual requirements but also would not
alter the current usability.
4.1 Description
Figure 4.- 1st and 2nd mode of vibration
The structures comprises basically two sections,
the first flight connects the ground floor with the The first mode is led by the upper flight with
1st level, whereas the second section goes up to fn=6.83s, whereas the 2nd one is governed by
the second level. the lower flight with fn=12.13Hz.
The staircase was structured by rafters made of Harmonic analysis.- Harmonic analysis is a
steel box sections 430x150mm, the treads are technique used to determine the steady-state
bent steel plates all of them fabricated in shop. response of a linear structure to loads that vary
The connections of the treads to the rafters are sinusoidally (harmonically) with time. The idea
bolted and the connection of the rafters to the is to calculate the structure's response at several
486
frequencies and obtain a graph of some response 5 CONCLUSIONS AND
quantity (usually displacements) versus RECOMMENDATIONS
frequency. "Peak" responses are then identified
After an extensive revision of the available
on the graph. The harmonic components used
mitigation techniques, it can be concluded that
were:
human activities and the forces that they induce
HARMONIC ANALYSIS STARICASES
G= 700 N Descent
can disturb civil engineering structures.
Section 1 Section 2
Walk Run
Amplitude 1 Amplitude 2
However careful has to be taken when selection
fh
Hz
F=DLF*G
N
fh
Hz
F=DLF*G
N
FACTOR =2 FACTOR = 3
N N
the most appropriate for each case. However
Natural Frequency 6.83 12.13
Harmonic 2 3.42 61.60 - - 123.21 -

there is still a long way for researches to study
Harmonic 3
Harmonic 4
2.28
1.71
33.50
16.87
4.04
3.03
41.41
22.90
66.99
33.74
124.24
68.70
new materials. For now passive methodologies
Harmonic 5 - - 2.43 15.59 - 46.77
are specially worth noticing, since they represent
Table 1.- Harmonic components an affordable and reliable solution. Moreover,
0.00025
Displacement Harmonic analysis lower flight
1
Acceleration response structure 2 while power supply is not necessarily required,
0.0002
0.1
0.01
these methodologies may be served as
Acceleration [m/s2]
Displacement [m]
sustainable solutions.
0.00015 0.001
0.0001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.00005
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [Hz]
12 14 16 18 20
0.0000001
1E-08
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [Hz]
12 14 16 18 20
Regards to the analysed structure, it is suggested
STRUCT NO TMD STRUCTURE NO TMD
that a finite element (FE) model will be always
Figure 5.- Uncontrolled harmonic responses performed when the complexity and severity of
the vibration problem worth. For the specific
Transient analysis.- This type of analysis can case study using TMDs, a mitigation factor
be used to determine the time-varying λ∞=8 obtained for the first flight by tuning the
displacements, velocities and accelerations in a first mode is a clear sample of the potential of
structure as it responds to any combination of
the technique.
static, transient or harmonic loads applied in the
structure. The footfall test loads were used to Further study of staircases under crowd loads
analyse the structure. and stationery persons is suggested using FE
0.3
Time-history acceleration lower flight, walking downstairs fp=1.85Hz models and building a model using MATLAB,
0.2 to have a better control of the variables.
0.1
Acceleration [m/s2]
-0.1
-0.2
REFERENCES
-0.3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
RMS Acceleration
Time [s]
RMS acceleration 1sec BOUGARD, A. 2002. Human loading on

staircases. Proceedings of the
Figure 6.- Transient response
Institution of Civil Engineers-Structures
4.4 Vibration assessment and Buildings, 152, 371-380.
The suitability of the structure was determined HOUSNER, G. W., BERGMAN, L.,
by assessing the accelerations of the structures CAUGHEY, T., CHASSIAKOS, A.,
by modelling the harmonic forces which would CLAUS, R., MASRI, S., SKELTON,
lead resonance. It was found then that a remedial R., SOONG, T., SPENCER, B. &
solution had to be implemented. YAO, J. 1997. Structural control: past,
present, and future. Journal of
4.5 Implementation of the corrective measure Engineering Mechanics, 123, 897-971.
For this structure it was made the decision of KERR, S. & BISHOP, N. 2001. Human induced
using a TMD beneath the landing area would loading on flexible staircases.
mitigate the excessive vibration. Engineering structures, 23, 37-45.
MEAD, D. J. 1999. Passive vibration control,
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
NYAWAKO, D. & REYNOLDS, P. 2007.
Technologies for mitigation of human-
The responses of the controlled structure look induced vibrations lin civil engineering
like: structures. The Shock and vibration
digest, 39, 465-493.
Acceleration responses structure 1
Displacement Harmonic analysis structure 2 1
0.00025
0.1
0.0002
0.01
0.001
SMITH, J. 2002. Human-induced vibrations.

Displacement [m]
Acceleration [m/s2]
0.00015
0.0001
Dynamic loading and design of

0.0001
1E-05
1E-06
0.00005
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency [Hz]
12 14 16 18 20
1E-07
1E-08
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
structures, 285.
Frequency [Hz]
STRUCT NO TMD STRUCTURE+TMD STRUCTURE NO TMD STRUCTURE+TMD
Figure 7.- Harmonic controlled responses
487
Passive Control of the Seismic Response of Reinforced Concrete

Frames: Optimum friction Force Distribution
Ioannis Violatos
ABSTRACT The installation of a friction connection at a chevron bracing is a thoroughly

researched and very effective system of passive control of structures during a seismic event. However a
well-established method of designing these systems has not yet been developed. In this paper slotted
bolted connections and chevron bracings were installed in two high ductility frame buildings of
identical geometry and loading, to examine the optimum friction force distribution. A pure numerical
analysis was performed using fixed reduction percentages and sequential, step-wise combination
scenarios within a wide range of values around the “optimum” uniform friction force. The results led to
patterns of distribution that: i) minimize drift and/or yielding of the gravity elements; ii) minimize the
total friction force under practical boundaries of drift and/or yielding of gravity elements, which reduce
significantly the total friction force and provide a quick sensitivity assessment of their application.
shear force–deformation behaviour of such an

1 INTRODUCTION
element, with two sliding steel plates and a
Friction dampers offer an effective solution for single frictional interface. In this research, the
passive control of the seismic response of multi- initial stiffness and other model parameters were
storey frames. One of the most practical and able to be adjusted within a relatively wide range
widely applicable friction systems are the to control its energy dissipation property. But the
slotted-bolted connections (Soong and Dargush, most important parameter was still the friction
1997), which have eliminated the yielding and force.
inelastic buckling of the bracings and provided a
2.1 Optimum friction force distribution
stable and very efficient hysteretic loop. The
seismic performance of the controlled structure The energy dissipation in the damper is
depends on the relationship between the storey proportional to the product of the friction force
stiffness and strength of the base frame and the and the slip travel during each excursion. If the
magnitude and distribution of the friction forces friction force is extremely high, the energy
in the connections. Due to the strong nonlinear dissipation through friction will be zero, because
behaviour of the friction joints the optimum the slip will be close to zero. If the friction force
friction force distribution has not yet been is very low, there will be negligible energy
identified. dissipation. At an intermediate force value the
energy dissipation reaches its maximum.
Softening of the structure due to slipping of the
2 DESIGN OF FRICTION DAMPING
braces can lead to higher or lower seismic forces,
SYSTEMS
depending on its relation to the frequency
The Limited Slip Slotted-Bolted joint had content of the ground motion. The different
originally been developed by Pall et al. (1980) natural period can have positive or negative
for seismic control of large panel structures. effect, depending on the seismic event and
Brake lining pads were inserted between steel affects the energy dissipation of the friction
plates in order to provide a consistent force- system. Adjusting the slip load, it is possible to
displacement response, which does not depend “tune” the response of the structure to an
on the size of the bracings (Fitzgerald et all optimum value for the entire range of
1989). More materials and configurations have earthquake.
been proposed by Grigorian, and Popov (1993)
Non-linear, parametric studies on moment
leading to an even superior performance. Law et
frames have been used in early attempts to find
all. (2005) has provided analytical models of the
488
optimum uniform friction force distributions Eurocode 8. The two frames had identical
based on energy and drift performance indices geometry and vertical loading, but different
(Pall et al. 1980, Pall and Marsh 1982, Filiatrault design seismic loads.
and Cherry 1990). These were further improved
The frames had seven storeys, of 3.5 m height
by statistical methods (Colajanni and Papia 1995
each and three spans of 7.0 m, 6.5 m and 7.0 m
and 1997). Equivalent linearization methods
respectively. It was assumed that the frames were
have been developed for single degree of
inside a building of bay length 7.0 m. Except to
freedom frames where the normalized response
self-weight, the vertical design loads included
can be established in terms of the structure’s
2.5 kN/m2 variable load and 0.5 kN/m2
characteristics (Ciampi et al. 1995, Fu and
permanent load for finishes, which were changed
Cherry 1999 and 2000, Park et all. 2006, Lee et
to 1.0 kN/m2 variable load and 1.0 kN/m2
all. 2008).
finishes for the top storey.
Genetic algorithms, Sequential Search
The seismic effect was evaluated through a
Algorithms and Neural Networks have also been
multimodal response spectrum analysis. The
successfully used to solve the optimization
ground type was assumed to be type C based on
problem (Moreschi and Singh 2003, Garcia and
the EC8 classification and the behaviour factor
Soong 2002, Apostolakis and Dargush 2010).
(q) 5.85 for DCH moment frames. Peak ground
However most methods are of little practical use, acceleration (ag) were selected 0.42g and 0.32g
since they either do not present a complete for the two frames (g is the gravitational
analysis on the variation pattern or require large acceleration), so that the second frame has
computation times or result in extremely variable reduced strength and stiffness.
profiles. A simplified numerical analysis which
3.2 Development of Scenarios
can lead to simple, economic and practical
profiles of friction force distribution and assess The variable friction force distributions were
their sensitivity is more useful and applicable for created by two different, but supplemental
practising engineers. approaches: i) sequential, step-wise variations
with upper boundaries; ii) fixed reduction
2.2 Performance Indices
percentages variations. Both of them are based
As a first approach the optimum seismic on the 1st storey friction force, which ranges
response consists of minimizing the difference from -50% to +100% of the optimum uniform
between the input energy and the energy friction force.
dissipated. If energy is dissipated in gravity
A numerical analysis with scenarios generated
loading elements through yielding, then localized
from a complete combination rule using a small
damages occur. It is obvious that a supplemental
force step requires extremely high computation
energy dissipation system based on friction can
times and the probable variability of results
be tuned to dissipate more energy than a high
limits its application. Instead limiting the value
ductility building without the localized damages.
of the friction force at each storey to that of the
This introduces a performance index for the previous storey, reduces the number of scenarios,
efficiency of the damping system, which is based creates sensible variations where the friction
on the minimization of the energy spent on the force is either lower or equal to that of the
base frame elements. Other commonly used previous storey and can result in practical
performance indices are based on inter-storey patterns of near optimum distributions.
drifts, velocity and acceleration. These are
The fixed reduction percentages approach was
related to specific requirements of some
applied to complete the previous approach since
buildings related to the sensitivity of machinery
relatively large force steps were used. They
and procedures and the mechanism of the
emerged from current practice and experience
installed dampers (e.g. velocity in the case of
gained so far in this field, e.g. most of the
viscous dampers). Typically each performance
applications have employed a variable friction
index leads to a different optimum friction force
force distribution that reduces along the height of
distribution and their effect is not yet fully
the building. Two reduction rules were selected:
investigated.
i) a constant reduction on the friction force along
the height of building, based on a reduction
percentage applied on the 1st storey friction
3 ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
force, ranging from 1% to 16%; ii) a successive
3.1 Test Models reduction on the friction force along the height of
building, based on a reduction percentage
In this research project two medium rise, high
applied on the friction force of the previous
ductility (DCH), moment frame buildings were
storey, ranging from 1% to 40%.
designed according to the provisions of
489
These methods can provide a very fast and and the abbreviations are presented in Table 1 in
accurate assessment of the potential of a variable Appendix.
friction profile in terms of minimizing the
In summary variable distributions enhanced the
performance index and/or the total friction force.
performance of the friction damping system and
3.3 Seismic Response Simulations improved the response of the frames under both
seismic events. Patterns of optimum response
The performance of the bare and the friction
involved uniform profiles of friction force, up to
damped frames was assessed through nonlinear,
and around half the height of the building.
time-domain analysis under two recorded
Despite the small improvement in response, the
earthquake accelerograms: i) El Centro; ii) Loma
reduction of the total friction force was very high
Pieta (Figure 1).
up to 40+% over uniform solutions, due to the
expansion and flattening of the optimization
zone. Minimising the total friction force and
setting boundaries in the response, resulted in
even more economical design with combinations
of uniform profiles along the height of the
buildings.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 1Accelerograms: El Centro and Loma A friction damping system is a very efficient
passive control system of the seismic response of
For the purposes of this research the appropriate
structures, in terms of drift and yielding of main
software of analysis was Drain-2DX developed
structural elements. Considering that the actual
by Prakash et all. (1993). The input and output
point of inserting friction systems in new
of the program through text files and the DOS
buildings is to keep the main structural elements
execution environment allowed to program and
undamaged, a lower ductility class is
automate the entire analysis in Matlab.
recommended for new structures (DCM). This
A simple computer model was used to describe increases the stiffness and strength of the bare
the bare and friction damped frames. Full frame, but lowers ductility and reinforcement
diaphgramatic action was assumed in all storeys. detailing requirements. Then a friction damping
The beam elements were simple, inelastic system can contribute to the prevention of
elements, yielding under positive and negative collapse and minimization of repairs.
momnets at the two ends. The column elemnts
Among the performance indices of acceleration,
were similar to the beams, but their yielding
energy dissipation and drift, energy indices are
included information about the interaction
more practical and realistic, when they are
between axial force and moment. Beam and
treated reasonably. Adjusting the friction
column elements were assigned with a typical
damping system to a variable friction force
stiffness proportional damping factor of 0.0042,
distribution, results in an improved performance
while the structure was assigned with a mass
of the structure compared to the uniform
proportional damping factor of 0.33484.
scenario and an expansion of the optimization
Chevron bracings were modelled with simple
zone. Thus the total friction force can be reduced
inelastic bar elements, having large stiffness
and the danger of an inefficient design is
value to minimize their effect on the
practically eliminated.
displacement prior to slip. Friction connections
were described with simple, inelastic, connection In general a uniform friction force profile until
elements of zero length, yielding under constant half the height of the structure combined with
horizontal force. another linearly reduced to the limit force value
for wind or low to moderate earthquake loads
can be a good overall pattern for both drifts and
4 ANALYTICAL RESULTS yielding of the main structural elemnets. If the
aim is to further improve the energy indices, then
A part of the results is summarized in Figures 2-
a uniform profile is suggested for the storeys
9 in Appendix. These contain the responses of
below half the height of the structure and then
the DCH frame under El Centro and of the
either linearly reduced profiles or sets of uniform
DCHH frame under Loma Pieta for the
profiles to the limiting force value.
sequential, step-wise combinations, which
outperformed fixed reduction percentages Despite the different performance indices, the
combinations. The figures are self-explanatory distribution patterns are simple, practical and
economic and result in a near optimum
490
distribution which does not require excessive Fu Y, Cherry S. (2000), Design of friction
fine tuning for controlling drifts and yielding of damped structures using lateral force procedure,
gravity elements. Actually any variable friction Earthquake Engineering and Structural
force profile will increase the energy dissipation Dynamics, 29(7): 989–1010.
of the damping system and improve the behavior
Garcia D. L., Soong T. T., (2002), Efficiency of
of the structure for a wide range of values around
a Simple Approach to Damper Allocation in
the optimum uniform profile. Graphs produced
MDOF Structures, Journal of Structural
for a wide range of buildings and earthquakes
Engineering Control, Vol. 9, pg. 19-30.
can provide an envelope for the friction forces
and a design procedure based on a minimum Grigorian, C. E., Yang, T. S., and Popov, E. P.
total friction force. (1993), Slotted Bolted Connection Energy
Dissipators, Earthquake Spectra, Earthquake
Thus it is not anymore sufficient to produce a
Engineering Research Institute, V. 9, No. 3,
profile which leads to a good seismic response.
August 1993, pp. 491-504.
Instead every method must be evaluated on the
basis of how close is to the overall optimum Law S.S., Wu, Z.M. Chan S.L. (2005),
profile, which minimizes the total friction force. Analytical model of a slotted bolted connection
The only way to answer this question is through element and its behavior under dynamic load,
an extensive numerical analysis, similar to the Journal of sound and vibration, vol. 292 pg. 777-
one applied in this research project, but with 787.
increased accuracy, larger number of profiles
Lee S.H.., Park J.H., Lee S.K., Min K.W.,
and without boundaries on the generation
(2008), Allocation and Slip Load of Friction
method or the values of the profile.
Dampers for a Seismically excited building
Structure Based on Storey Shear Force
Distribution, Engineering Structures, vol. 30, pg
REFERENCES
930-940.
Apostolakis, G. and Dargush, G. F. (2010),
Moreschi LM, Singh MP. (2003), Design of
Optimal Seismic Design of Moment-Resisting
yielding metallic and friction dampers for
Steel Frames With Hysteretic Passive Devices,
optimal seismic performance, Earthquake
Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Engineering & Structural Dynamics;
Dynamics, Wiley&Sons Publications, V. 39, pp.
32(8):1291–311.
355-376.
Pall, A. S., Marsh, C. (1982), Response of
Ciampi V, De Angelis M, Paolacci F. (1995)
Friction-Damped Braced Frames, Journal of
Design of yielding or friction based dissipative
Structural Engineering, American Society of
bracing for seismic protection of buildings.
Civil Engineers, V. 108, No. 6, pp. 1313- 1323.
Engineering Structures; 17(5):381–91.
Pall, A. S., Marsh, C., and Fazio, P. (1980),
Colajanni, P. and Papia, M. (1995), Seismic
Friction Joints for Seismic Control of Large
Response of Braced Frames With and Without
Panel Structures, PCI Journal, Precast/Pre-
Friction Dampers, Engineering Structures,
stressed Concrete Institute, V. 25, No. 6, pp. 38-
Elsevier Science Ltd., V. 17, No. 2, pp. 129-
61.
140.
Park J-H., Kyung-Won M., Lan C., Sung-Kyung
Colajanni, P. and Papia, M. (1997), Hysteretic
L., Hyoung-Seop K., Byoung-Wook M. (2006),
Characterization of Friction-Damped Braced
Equivalent linearization of a friction damper-
Frames, Journal of Structural Engineering,
brace system based on the probability
American Society of Civil Engineers, V. 123,
distribution of the external displacement,
No. 8, pp. 1020-1028.
Engineering structures vol 29, pg 1226-1237
Filiatrault, A. and Cherry, S. (1990), Seismic
Prakash, V., Powell, G. H., and Campbell, S.
Design Spectra for Friction-Damped Structures,
(1993), DRAIN-2DX Base Program Description
Journal of Structural Engineering, American
and User Guide; Version 1.10, Report No.
Society of Civil Engineers, V. 116, No. 5, pp.
UCB/SEMM-93/17, Department of Civil
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Zsutty, T. (1989), Slotted Bolted Joints in
Soong, T. T. and Dargush, G. F. (1997), Passive
Aseismic Design for Concentrically Braced
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Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
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York, N.Y.
383-391.
491
APPENDIX
Benerg Energy dissipated from the beam elements in the structure
DCH High ductility structure (EC8)
DCHH A DCH frame with lower strength and stiffness
drift Relative inter-storey displacements
funi uniform friction force
fi friction force at storey i
maxBenerg Benerg over Benerg of bare frame
maxdrift Drift over drift of bare frame
minBenerg Benerg over minimum Benerg at uniform friction force scenario
mindrift Drift over minimum drift of uniform scenario
RBenerg Benerg over Benerg at uniform friction force scenario
Rdrift Drift over drift at uniform friction scenario
Friction force at storey i over 1st storey friction force (represents equivalent
Rfi
uniform friction force profile)
Rsumf Sum of friction force over Sum of friction force at uniform scenario
udrift drift value of the uniform scenario, at the same f1 value
uBenerg Benerg value of the uniform scenario, at the same f1 value
Table 1 List of abbreviations
Figure 2 DCH frame-El Centro-Minimum drift analysis: Friction force distributions
Figure 3 DCH frame-El Centro-Minimum friction force analysis, drift<1.0*udrift: Friction force
distributions
Figure 4 DCH frame-El Centro-Minimum Benerg analysis: Friction force distributions
492
Figure 5 DCH frame-El Centro-Minimum friction force analysis, Benerg<1.0*uBenerg: Friction
force distributions
Figure 6 DCHH frame-Loma Pieta-Minimum drift analysis: Friction force distributions
Figure 7 DCHH frame-Loma Pieta-Minimum friction force analysis, drift<1.0*udrift: Friction

force distributions
Figure 8 DCHH frame-Loma Pieta-Minimum Benerg analysis: Friction force distributions
493
The Implementation of Temporary Effects of Strain Rate Acceleration in

the BRICK Soil Model
William Wholey
ABSTRACT The BRICK soil model is a kinematic hardening model for soils developed in strain
space. Since its development and initial publication in 1992, the model has been used for research as
well as in industry, with some researchers modifying the code in efforts to model more advanced
behaviour including time-dependent and strain rate-dependent effects (Kanapathipillai, 1996, Clarke,
2009, Sorensen, 2006). A further development is proposed in this publication that builds upon the
strain-rate dependent developments of Sorensen (2006) and Clarke (2009). While the approach taken
initially followed suggestions from Sorensen, the method he proposed was found to be impractical in
terms of its complexity and inaccurate in terms of its formulation for implementation alongside the
most recent developments of the BRICK code. The author thus builds upon Clarke’s Strain Rate
Dependent (SRD) String Length BRICK code, and presents herein a new model for the implementation
of Temporary Effects of Strain Rate Acceleration (TESRA) in the BRICK framework. The model is
briefly validated against the trends of TESRA, with further validation and other improvements
recommended for further work.
(Sorensen, 2006). The implementation of these

1 INTRODUCTION
suggestions has been undertaken, and while it
Just because the behaviour of a substance is not was ultimately untenable, an alternative
well understood, that does not mean that it is approach to Sorensen’s has proven successful in
unimportant to model. On the contrary, implementing TESRA in the BRICK framework.
behaviours that are poorly understood need more
careful abstractions that are able to predict them
as reasonably as possible. The mechanisms of 2 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN
soil behaviour are still poorly understood, but UNDERSTANDING SOIL BEHAVIOUR
the behaviour of soil is an increasingly pertinent
The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed
issue for the designers of modern buildings and
a significant shift in the focus of soil mechanics.
infrastructure. With the over-crowding of cities
This shift was away from simple failure
and the rising costs and liabilities for unexpected
prevention and toward the determination of soil
of poorly assessed ground movements, models
parameters for more precise predictions of soil
that accurately predict soil behaviour are more
behaviour (Clayton, 2011). C R I Clayton (2011)
valuable than ever before.
has identified at least three reasons for this shift:
Most of the material models familiar to urbanisation’s resultant pressure to redevelop
engineers are developed within stress-space, inner city sites and buildings, a growing need to
providing deflections resulting from loads. The build nuclear and other high risk structures
BRICK soil model however, is a kinematic safely, and the rise of numerical modelling and
hardening model that operates in strain space, computing power to enable the use of such
providing stiffness and stress from a specified parameters. As a result of this shift in the focus
strain. This model has been shown to be able to of soil mechanics, the stiffness of soil at small
accurately model many complex behaviours in strains was examined in greater detail than ever
soil, including a non-linear stress-strain before, thus beginning more detailed
relationship, ageing effects, soil loading history, examinations of soil behaviour.
creep, and viscous effects (Sorensen, 2006;
2.1 Soil at Small Strains and the Need for
Clarke 2009). Sorensen suggested a method
Research
through which the model could be modified to
include yet another viscous behaviour of soils: Prior to the 1960’s, soil was assumed to have a
the temporary effects of strain rate acceleration simple, linear stress-strain relationship until
494
failure, when plasticity ensued. The problem was as axes in strain space. As the man moves
that field data showed a much higher stiffness through strain space, initially the strings are
for many soils than laboratory testing reported. slack so the soil strains elastically, but as the
While there were large discrepancies between man moves further so the bricks start to move
field and laboratory data, these discrepancies too in the same direction. The more bricks that
were commonly believed to be due to sampling move the higher the proportion of soil
effects (Burland, 1989). Simpson, however, undergoing plastic deformation and the lower
suggested that soil may display a bi-linear stress- the stiffness of the soil. This relationship
strain relationship with a greater stiffness at between the soil proportions and strain gives
small strains. This was able to account for much rise to the s-shaped curved used in the Brick
of the discrepancy between field and laboratory model to recreate small strain stiffness.’ Clarke
data (Simpson et al., 1979). But with (2009)
improvements in laboratory apparatus, the work
of many in the field confirmed a highly non-
linear stress-strain relationship for many soils at
small strains, particularly London Clay and
North Sea Clay (Jardine, 1984; Jardine et al.,
1986; Burland, 1989). These soils exhibited a
very high initial stiffness which degraded State 1 State 2
quickly with straining, creating an ‘S-shaped’
curve. It was this understanding that later
became the catalyst for the development of the
BRICK soil model.
2.2 The BRICK Soil Model
State 3 State 4
The BRICK is a kinematic hardening model
originally developed by Simpson for use with Man Brick
London Clay, and published in 1992 (Simpson,
Figure 1 The analogue of the BRICK routine: a man
1992). Its development in strain space makes it dragging bricks on different length strings through various
particularly well-suited to modelling the highly state of strain in strain space after Simpson (1992)
non-linear stress-strain relationship of soil at
small strains. It has the added benefit that its In the terms of this analogue, the model is able
simple analogue enables the conceptual to model different soils of different stiffness or
operation of it to be easily grasped. strength through the manipulation of string
lengths. If string lengths are long, then the soil
2.2.1 Model Operation
will behave elastically for a long time, thus
The BRICK model works by dividing the soil developing high resistance to applied loads. If
into portions and assigning an elasto-plastic string lengths are shorter, then the modelled
yield model to each portion of soil. Each portion stiffness degrades quickly, and the displays
has a uniquely defined point at which plastic plastic behaviour. Thus the resistance of the soil
behaviour ensues. When the behaviour of the is not as great as with longer string lengths. It is
portions is brought together in the whole, it through manipulation of the string lengths in the
allows a highly nonlinear gradation from elastic BRICK model that Clarke modelled changes in
behaviour to plastic behaviour. soil stiffness associated with time-dependent and
strain-rate dependent effects, as suggested by
This model has an analogue that has been
Sorensen (Clarke, 2009; Sorensen, 2006).
summarised many times by various authors.
Clarke (2009) describes the BRICK model as a 2.2.2 Time and Strain Rate Dependent Effects
kinematic yield surface developed within strain Modelled in the BRICK Routine
space. Simpson’s diagram explaining the
In addition to the magnitude of the applied
analogue is provided in Figure 1. Clarke’s
strain, research has established many other
following description of the analogue of the
factors that affect a soil’s exhibited stiffness.
BRICK model cannot be significantly improved
Some of these factors are not time dependent,
upon, so it is reproduced here.
such as anisotropy and the direction of shearing,
‘The model itself has an analogue, which is that stress-history, and the method of formation of
of a man walking around a room with a series of the soil (Atkinson, 1991; Jardine et al. 1984).
bricks tied to him on separate strings. Each Many time dependent and strain-rate dependent
brick represents a proportion of the soil, and effects in soil behaviour have also been
each string length represents the amount of discovered. These can be thought of in two
strain required to create plastic deformations in categories: ageing effects such as weathering
the soil. The walls of the room can be thought of and cementation, and viscous effects such as
495
creep and strain rate effects (Kongsukprasert and overconsolidation effects), ̇ is the applied strain
Tatsuoka, 2003). rate, and ̇ is the reference strain rate, a rate at
Tatsuoka has examined strain rate effects in soils which the effects of strain rate are thought to be
and describes four observed viscous behaviours: negligible.
1) isotach, 2) temporary effects of strain rate
acceleration (TESRA), 3) general or
intermediate TESRA, and 4) positive and 3 THE SORENSEN APPROACH TO
negative (P&N) (Tatsuoka, 2003, 2007). These IMPLEMENT TESRA WITHIN THE
behaviours relate to a change in strain rate, and BRICK MODEL
are illustrated in Figure 2. Isotach behaviour is 3.1 Details of Implementation
characterised by an increase in soil stiffness with
an increase in strain rate that persists as long as The most developed suggestions for the
the new strain rate persists. TESRA also displays implementation of TESRA within the BRICK
a rise in soil stiffness, but with on-going strain, framework were put forward by Sorensen in
the soil reverts back to a stiffness independent of 2006 (Sorensen, 2006). Similar to the method
strain rate. General or intermediate TESRA is ultimately employed by Clarke, string lengths
between isotach and pure TESRA behaviour, so are associated with strain rate, thus allowing the
the persisting effect of the altered strain rate is model to exhibit changes of stiffness with
not as great as the initial effect. P&N is a strange changes in strain rate. Rather than the
behaviour in which an increased rate of strain relationship outlined in equation 1, Sorensen
results in an initial rise in stiffness followed by a introduces a string length formulation according
persistent softening of the soil. to equation 2 (Sorensen, 2006). In this
formulation, the neutral strain rate is a fictitious
rate that changes with applied strain according to
equation 3. According to equation 4, initially,
the neutral strain rate matches the applied strain
rate, but following a change in strain rate (and
hence string lengths, and hence soil stiffness) the
neutral rate lags behind in changing to match the
applied strain rate. Thus the modelled behaviour
is stiffer or softer accordingly until the neutral
strain rate matches the applied strain rate.
| ̇|
( ( ̇ )) (2)
̇
( )[ ̇ ̇ ] (3)
( ) * + (4)
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of four strain-rate dependent
soil behaviours Clarke (2009) after Tatsuoka (2007)
In these equations, is the current string
Clarke has implemented isotach behaviour in the length, is the reference string length, ̇ is the
BRICK model through the introduction of time, applied strain rate, ̇ is the neutral strain rate,
strain rate, and strain rate dependent string and are material constants, and is the
lengths. To introduce time, Clarke assumes that strain since the onset of the acceleration event.
each step of the BRICK routine through strain 3.2 Challenges of Implementation
space takes one second. Strain rate is thus
equivalent to the incremental rate of strain Sorensen’s suggestions provide a very elegant
applied in the model. By associating string mathematical solution that could be very
lengths (and hence soil stiffness) with strain powerful, enabling isotach, pure TESRA, or
rates via equation 1, Clarke enables the BRICK intermediate behaviour to be modelled through
model to exhibit isotach behaviour (Clarke, modifying only a few material constants. It was
2009). Due to Clarke’s improvements, the found in implementation, though, that the
modified BRICK framework has the potential to suggestions are impractical due to the complex
model TESRA as well. relationships between the various elements of
the string length formulation. Additionally, the
| ̇|
( (̇ )) (1) changes in strain rate were blunted by necessary
damping in the BRICK routine which had been
In this equation, is string length, is the introduced by Clarke to ensure that the algorithm
reference string length, is a viscous constant is stable. Thus the desired change in stiffness
(not to be confused with which refers was simply never exhibited. A new approach
elsewhere in the BRICK routine to was needed for implementing TESRA.
496
4 AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO  The rate of decay to reference string
IMPLEMENT TESRA WITHIN THE lengths is controllable.
BRICK MODEL
The key to this formulation is that it allows the
Building on Clarke’s introduction of strain rate decay of the isotach behaviour associated with
dependent string lengths and incorporating the Decay Function and the rise of the TESRA
Sorensen’s suggestion to make string length behaviour associated to the Reference Function.
additionally dependent upon strain since a
change in strain rate, a new formulation for Initial Model Results
string length is provided in equation 5.
( ( ̇)) (5)
̇
( ̇) ( ( )( | |))
̇
̇
( ( )( |̇ |)) (6)
( ) ( ) (7)
( ) ( ) (8)
In equations 5, 6, 7, and 8, ( ̇) is the
variation in string length multiplier, is strain, ̇ Figure 3 An example of logistic decay and growth to illustrate
is the strain rate, is the viscous beta, ̇ is the the type of functions used for the scaling of string length
formulae
reference strain rate according with Clarke
(2009), and ̇ is a neutral strain rate that is Figure 4 provides a test run of the modified
defined by the researcher in accordance with BRICK model. It is worth noting trends in the
material properties. and are material model results and comparing them briefly to
constants that define the soil’s sensitivity to established TESRA behaviour.
strain rate acceleration effects.
This formulation incorporates Clarke’s strain
rate dependency, as in equation 1, but calculates
within the formulation both an isotach part and a
reference part of the string length. The reference
string length is set by defining a reference strain
rate. This is the rate that produces effects similar
to the persisting time-independent stiffness
mentioned in section two for pure TESRA for a
given soil modelling.
Logistic Decay of String Lengths
Figure 4 Test-Run of TESRA BRICK routine under step-
Rather than modify the string lengths via the changed rates of strain
strain rate formulation, a simpler approach is to
modify them directly by incorporating a strain- Overall, the model has performed very well. The
dependent multiplier into the formulation, given essential features of TESRA are clearly evident;
by equation 6. Thus, as strain increases an initial large change in stiffness following
following a change in strain rate, the string acceleration of strain rate and the decay to a
lengths decay according to equations 7 and 8 curve independent of strain rate with on-going
towards the formulation with the reference rate. strain. The model has performed similarly well
against other test scenarios, but a weakness can
The choice to use logistic decay, as illustrated be noted as well; the deviator stress, q, observed
schematically in Figure 3, is based upon the fact when approached from above and below should
that logistic decay meets a number of criteria be the same, but it is not. The reason for this is
essential for the accurate modelling of TESRA: not fully understood, but it is believed to arise
 It provides a sustained initial value of from the change in incremental stress rate
unity, thus allowing initial isotach resulting in altered modelling states within
behaviour develop. BRICK.
 It decays to zero as strain is increased.
 Delay in the onset of decay is possible This model has also been able to reproduce
and controllable. isotach and general TESRA in through the
alteration of material properties in equation 7. It
thus accomplishes that which Sorensen’s vision
497
to produce a united strain rate dependent model In addition to validation, some behaviours of the
for isotach and TESRA, but in a different way. TESRA BRICK model mentioned in section 4
have occurred unexpectedly and should be
understood and corrected.
5 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Conclusions
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A new method for the implementation of
Many thanks to my supervisor, Dr Sam Clarke,
TESRA within the BRICK framework has been
for his guidance and support in this research.
proposed and implemented, and its trends have
discussed. This new modification to the SRD
BRICK code is a great improvement because it
REFERENCES
is a more general soil model, able to model Pure
TESRA, Isotach, and General TESRA through ATKINSON, J. & SALLFORS, G. Experimental
the modification of a very limited number of soil determination of soil properties. 1991. 915–956.
parameters. There is no reason to expect that the
BURLAND, J. 1989. Ninth Laurits Bjerrum
new model should interfere adversely with the
Memorial Lecture:" Small is beautiful"-the
existing creep functionality of Clarke’s SRD
stiffness of soils at small strains. Canadian
BRICK model. The functionality and flexibility
Geotechnical Journal, 26, 499-516.
of the BRICK routine to model strain-rate
dependent behaviour has been significantly CLARKE, S. D. 2009. Enhancement of the
improved through these new developments. BRICK constitutive model to incorporate viscous
soil behaviour. Doctor of Philosophy, University
The model operates within the well-established
of Sheffield.
BRICK framework, a kinematic hardening
model in strain space. The TESRA BRICK CLAYTON, C. 2011. Stiffness at small strain:
model has been designed using logistic decay of research and practice. Geotechnique, 61, 5-37.
string lengths, and hence soil stiffness, from
peak values obtained for isotach as developed by JARDINE, R., FOURIE, A., POTTS, D. &
Clarke (2009) to values defined for the correct BURLAND, J. 1986. Studies of the influence of
TESRA behaviour of the soil by the operator, non-linear stress-strain characteristics in soil-
defined by a neutral strain rate. This decay structure interaction. Geotechnique, 36, 377-396.
obtains the correct change in stiffness that is JARDINE, R., SYMES, M. & BURLAND, J.
observed in soils due to changes in strain rate. 1984. The measurement of soil stiffness in the
This new method for implementing TESRA is triaxial apparatus. Geotechnique, 34, 323-340.
necessary because it was established in the KANAPATHIPILLAI, A. 1996. Review of the
course of implementation that an approach Brick model of soil behaviour. MSc, Imperial
suggested by Sorensen, while elegant, was College.
untenable in terms of its complexity and
limitations within a brick-led strain rate KONGSUKPRASERT, L. & TATSUOKA, F.
framework that has been developed since his Ageing Effects Developed During Creep
research. Nevertheless, many of the concepts Loading And During Extremely Slow Straining
that were suggested by, and are necessary for the Of Cement-Mixed Gravel. 2003. 593-594.
implementation of Sorensen’s approach were SIMPSON, B. 1992. Retaining structures:
utilised or built-upon by this research. displacement and design. Geotechnique, 42,
5.2 Recommendations for Further Work 541-576.
There are great avenues for future work to build SIMPSON, B., O'RIORDAN, N. & CROFT, D.
upon and develop the TESRA model that has 1979. A computer model for the analysis of
been developed in this dissertation. The most ground movements in London Clay.
pressing need in further work is for proper SORENSEN, K. K. 2006. Influence of Viscosity
validation of the model to be undertaken. While and Ageing on the Behaviour of Clays. Doctor of
beyond the scope of this dissertation, the model Philosophy, University College London.
is unfortunately useful only in the theoretical
sense until it is shown to be able to predict and TATSUOKA, F. Effects of Viscous Properties
not just back-fit soil behaviour. This validation and Ageing on the Stress Strain Behaviour of
will be very time and work intensive, as there Geomaterials. 2003. ASCE.
are a great number of gaps in current knowledge TATSUOKA, F. 2007. Inelastic deformation
regarding strain rate dependent properties of soil characteristics of geomaterial. Soil Stress-Strain
for implementation in the BRICK code. Behavior: Measurement, Modeling and Analysis,
1-108.
498
The Fate of Copper, Lead, Nickel and Zinc applied to a green roof
substrate via wet deposition.
Iain Wilson
ABSTRACT In this investigation the short and long term fate of copper, nickel, zinc and lead in rain
when applied to a green roof substrate was investigated. Green roofs are an important part of the
sustainable urban drainage (SUDs) concept. With an increase in urban impermeable surfaces and urban
pollution green roofs can play an important role in the reduction and retardation of stormwater.
However, the effect of green roofs on water quality is uncertain. A green roof substrate and laboratory
rain containing known concentrations of heavy metals was prepared before batch testing and column
simulation experiments were undertaken. In the short term experiments first order reduction of copper,
nickel, zinc and lead is observed, with larger rate constants and smaller half lives found at higher initial
concentrations. In long term experiments, it has been seen that zinc has a greater affinity for the solid
phase than the other heavy metals of interest, this is confirmed by the largest sorption co-efficient.
Copper, nickel and iron are observed at higher concentrations in the run-off than in the substrate in long
term experiments. Therefore, it can be concluded that, green roof substrates can be a source and sink of
heavy metals over the longer term depending on the metal of interest. However, in short term events, it
has been shown that green roofs are a sink for heavy metal contaminants.
improve stormwater quality of many

1 INTRODUCTION
contaminants by utilising numerous processes
Sustainable Urban Drainage (SUDs) is a concept including filtration, adsorption, biodegradation,
that accounts the for long term environmental, volatilisation, biodegradation, precipitation,
financial and social effects of drainage. Green nitrification, and plant uptake (CIRIA, 2007).
Roofs are part of this concept and can be used in
However, at present views on the effects on
the SUDs treatment train as a source control
water quality caused by green roofs vary from
device, and can be utilised with other SUDs
fears that nutrients will permanently leach from
devices to maximise the effectiveness of SUDs:
the substrate, or that they are bound to be
Prevention – Source Control – Site Control – environmentally friendly due to their replication
Regional Control of natural systems (Stovin, 2009).
The effects of increased impermeable surfaces
in urban areas, in addition to the increase in
urban pollution, are putting increased strains on 2 GREEN ROOFS
water treatment networks. SUDs are more Green roofs are composed of a number of layers
sustainable than conventional drainage as they each performing a different function. A
mitigate many of negative impacts on the waterproof layer and a water adsorbent layer are
catchment occurred via stormwater (CIRIA, used to protect the roof. The drainage layer is
2007). It has been found that SUDs can reduce used to store any excess water for run-off, which
run-off and additional run-offs caused by is covered by a filtration layer to prevent fine
urbanisation, while encouraging groundwater sediments from reaching the drainage layer and
recharge, thus causing an overall reduction in the therefore, maintain permeability. A substrate
total volume of stormwater (CIRIA, 2007). The (also known as growing medium) layer is an
effectiveness of green roofs for the reduction of engineered soil used to provide air, water, and
stormwater has been proven with reductions of nutrient levels sufficient for plant growth. The
60 – 100% recorded in Germany and North top layer is the vegetation layer (CIRIA, 2007).
America (Stoven, 2009). It has also been The type and depth of substrate and type of
suggested that SUDs devices can be used to vegetation used is dependent on the green roof
499
being produced, with intensive and extensive to green roofs is by wet deposition. Tables 1 and
being the most common types. 2 below illustrate typical wet deposition
concentrations of various heavy metals, and
2.1 Types of Green Roofs
important anions and cations.
The type of green roof used is dependent on the
type of green roof wanting to be produced. There
are four main categories of roof, extensive, bio
diverse, semi-intensive and intensive (GRO,
2011). Each category has different objectives,
therefore, the minimum substrate depth changes
for each category. For example, extensive roofs
are light-weight and require low maintenance
and subsequently have substrate depths of
<100mm, with a minimum depth of 80mm
(GRO, 2011).
2.2 Green Roof Substrates
In addition to the changing depth of the substrate Figure 1: Typical rain concentrations of major anions and
depending on the substrate category, the cations
substrate composition and specification change
also. Green roofs are designed to be lightweight
therefore a combination of soil, organic matter
and lightweight material are combined to
produce a substrate. Crushed bricks are often
used in substrates due to their availability, and
cost and lightweight. However, lava, pumice,
limestone and other commercial materials can
also be used. The organic matter portion of the
substrate is usually from composted bark, peat or
composted green waste. The percentage of
organic matter in commercial substrate varies
depending on use, with most types containing < Figure 2: Concentrations (ug/l) of various heavy metal
20% organic matter contaminants and pollutants in urban and rural rainfall
At present there are no UK or European 3 METHODS

regulations for the composition of green roof 3.1 Substrate and Testing Rain
substrates, though the Green Roof Organisation
has recently published guidance on the designing A green roof substrate was produced using
and building of green roofs. The current best crushed bricks, wood bark and sandy loam soil.
practice is to use the German Landscape The substrate produced had an organic matter
Research, Development and Construction content of 10% and 50% crushed brick. The
Society (FLL) Guideline for the planning, substrate was then tested against test for a variety
execution, and upkeep of green-roof sites, as the of parameters, including the granulometric
society has over 25 years of experience and their distribution, maxing water holding capacity and
advice has been used by Switzerland, Austria, pH.
Japan, and North America for the basis of their A laboratory rain was also produced to the
guidance documents (GRO, 2011) National Institute of Standards and Technology
2.3 Green Roof Run-off (NIST) RM 8409-I specification (Koch et al,
1994). This NIST level 1 rain contained all of
It has been shown that green roof run off has the major anions and cations of interest.
higher concentrations of nitrate and BOD when However, this standard did not contain any of the
higher organic matter content substrates have heavy metals of interest. Therefore, stock
been used (Retzlaff, et al, 2008). In Sweden, solutions of Copper, Nickel, Zinc and Lead were
fertilised green roofs have shown to be a source produced to US EPA method 200.8 revision 5.4
of potassium and phosphate, while reducing (2008) and diluted to levels found via wet
nitrate, ammonium and total nitrogen deposition in the NIST RM 8409-I
concentrations (Berndtsson et al, 2006).
3.2 Batch Testing
Heavy metal concentrations in run-off have also
been seen to be a problem in urban To assess the short term fate of the heavy metals
environments. The main source of heavy metals in the rain, it was batch tested with the substrate
500
at ratio of 2.5g: 50ml of substrate. The tests were
run for 6 hours with samples being taken after 5,
10, 20, 60, 120, 240 and 360 minutes. These
samples were then centrifuged and filtered
through 20um filters, before analysis by ICP-MS
following British Standard procedures. These
tests were conducted at a range on initial
concentrations, allowing for the effect in change
of concentration to be observed.
3.3 Column Testing
A column experiment was conducted to assess
the longer term fate of the heavy metals of
interest. An 80mm column of substrate had the
annual daily average of rainfall for Sheffield
applied to it daily for two weeks. The run-off
collected from the column was then analysed
following the same method used for the batch
test run-off.
After rain application for two weeks, the
substrate column was dried and digested, before
analysis ICP-MS
4 SUBSTRATE TESTING Table3: Green roof substrate results for various parameters,
plus the standard deviation and relative standard deviation of
To ensure the substrate produced for this the results
investigation was suitable, the substrate was
analysed for numerous parameters (table 3). It
can be seen from figure 3 that the actual organic 5 RESULTS
matter content of the produced laboratory 5.1 Chemical Kinetics
substrate is 11.2%, compared to the target 10%.
The additional organic matter will be due to The results of the batch tested substrate at three
organic matter present in the sandy loam soil different initial concentrations (figures 4 – 6)
used for the substrate. When the results from show that there is an initial reduction in
table 3 are compared to the FLL reference values concentration of all the heavy metals of interest
it can be seen that the lab produced green roof especially at higher initial concentrations (figures
substrate is suitable for use as an extensive green 5 and 6). However, figures 4 - 6 also show an
roof substrate. The produced substrate meets the increase in concentration of Copper, Nickel,
requirements for most other uses except for Zinc and Lead after 210 – 240 minutes.
organic matter content, as intensive green roofs
require lower organic matter contents (FLL,
2002)
Figure 4: Concentration of Copper, Nickel, Zinc and

Lead in the run-off with an initial concentration of
7.5ug/l, 2.5ug/l, 10ug/l and 1ug/l respectively.
501
Initial
Compoun Concentratio
d n (ppb) K R2 t1/2 (min)
0.515 130.782
Cu 40 0.0053 9 5
0.0026 0.369 263.554
Ni 20 3 4 1
0.524
Zn 35 0.0042 6 165.035
0.391 346.573
Pb 7.5 0.002 5 6
Table 8: The rate constant, half life and fitting co-efficient

for Copper, Nickel, Zinc and Lead at initial concentrations
Figure 5: Concentration of Copper, Nickel, Zinc and Lead in of 40ug/l, 20ug/l, 35 ug/l and 7.5ug/l respectively.
the run-off with an initial concentration of 40ug/l, 20ug/l, Initial
35ug/l and 7.5ug/l respectively. Compoun Concentratio
d n (ppb) K R2 t1/2 (min)
115.524
45 0.006 0.8439
Cu 5
216.608
40 0.0032 0.8113
Ni 5
173.286
45 0.004 0.6245
Zn 8
128.360
20 0.0054 0.639
Pb 6
Table 9: The rate constant, half life and fitting co-efficient

for Copper, Nickel, Zinc and Lead at initial concentrations
of 45ug/l, 40ug/l, 45 ug/l and 20ug/l respectively.
5.2 Sorption
The batch test data was also used to calculate the
Figure 6: Concentration of Copper, Nickel, Zinc and Lead in
the run-off with an initial concentration of 45ug/l, 40ug/l,
adsorption co-efficient (Kd) of each metal at
45ug/l and 20ug/l respectively. various initial concentrations (Ci). The data was
plotted for linear and non-linear behaviour using
From the data in figures 4- 6 the reaction order the linear (table 10), Freundlich and Langmuir
can be calculated by plotting the natural log of isotherm models.
the concentration over time. As expected first
order rate kinetics were exhibited meaning that
the reaction rate constant and half life for
Copper, Nickel, Zinc and Lead at three different
initial concentrations could be calculated (tables
7 – 9). From tables 7 – 9 it can be seen that the
highest rate constants are found at the highest
initial concentrations, with copper exhibiting the
largest rate constants. As to be expected, at
higher initial concentrations, the half lives are
smaller (Table 9). Therefore, during the initial
phase of reactions the metals are moving from
the aqueous phase to the solid phase. This would
indicate sorption is occurring.
Initial Table 10: The initial concentration (Ci),Final Concentration
Compoun (Ce), fitting con-efficient (R2), sorption co-efficient (Kd) and
Concentratio K R2 t1/2 (min)
d retardation factor (R) for Copper, Nickel Zinc and Lead
n (ppb)
0.519 From the modelling it was seen that the best
Cu 7 -0.012 -57.7623
2
model for the initial reduction of metal
0.558
Ni 2.5 -0.0012
4
-577.623 concentration data produced during this
0.006 462.098 investigation was the linear model. As can be
Zn 10 0.0015 seen in table 10 the fitting for the linear model
9 1
0.358 was perfect, thus meaning the non-linear
Pb 1 -0.0039 -177.73
2 Freundlich and Langmuir models were rejected.
Table 7: The rate constant half life and fitting co-efficient for
The sorption co-efficient and retardation factors
Copper, Nickel Zinc and Lead at initial concentrations of were calculated using the linear model (table 8).
7ug/l, 2.5ug/l, 10 ug/l and 1ug/l respectively. From table 10 it can be seen that higher sorption
co-efficients are observed at higher initial
502
concentrations for all the heavy metals tested 6 ERRORS AND FURTHER RESEARCH
during this investigation. Zinc has the largest
6.1 Errors
sorption co-efficient, therefore, a smaller
retardation factor is experienced. The largest To minimise any potential errors during the
retardation factor is experienced by Lead at an production of the substrate, the total volume
initial concentration of 1 ug/l, and therefore, the required for the whole investigation was made in
lowest sorption co-efficient is observed. one batch. The same process was also followed
for the laboratory produced rain.
5.3 Column Testing
All experiments were performed in triplicate to
The laboratory rain was applied to a column of
increase the reliability of results by increasing
80mm deep substrate in a column with an
the precision and accuracy of the results. To
internal diameter of 140mm. The column of
ensure the precision and accuracy of the green
substrate had 50ml of rain applied to it daily.
roof substrate suitability analysis. Additionally,
The collected run-off was always less than the
the regression co-efficient of the data was also
volume initially applied, typically approximately
used when interpreting data, to assess the
35ml. This indicates the substrate column was
reliability of the trend indicated.
performing its primary objectives of reducing the
run-off volume. Statistical analysis of the errors was performed
through the use of the f-test. The f – test was
The ICP-MS data showed that the concentration
used due to it being a good measure of random
of copper, nickel, and lead in the run-off
errors in data sets. The null hypothesis that the
increased over time, with nickel and lead having
differences in the variances of the data were not
concentrations in excess of the concentration in
significant, was accepted for the batch test data.
the rain after a week of application. Zinc
however, shows a reduction in concentration in The trends found during this investigation can be
the column run off over time. further investigated in a number of areas. Due to
external problems anion and cation data for the
After two weeks the column was dried and the
batch and column testing were unavailable. This
substrate was digested to calculate the solid
data could be used to confirm the trends
phase concentration of the heavy metals of
observed in this investigation. The effect of first
interest after 2 weeks of daily rainfall (table 11).
flushing and changes in the organic matter
content could also be investigated to assess their
effect on the fate of copper, nickel, zinc and
lead. Other heavy metal contaminants to assess
whether they exhibit the same behaviour, for
example, iron and cadmium. The initial
concentration of cation and anions in the
laboratory produced rain could also be
investigated to assess their effects on the
processes seen here. Finally, the effect of the
substrate and vegetative layer should be
investigated due to this investigation on the
substrate layer only. This had the effect of
removing some of the potential removal
pathways, for example removal via plant uptake.
Table 11: Concentration of Copper, Nickel, Zinc and
Lead in the run-off with an initial concentration of
45ug/l, 40ug/l, 45ug/l and 20ug/l respectively. 7 CONCLUSIONS
From table 11 it can be seen that zinc is found in In this investigation the short term fate and long
the greatest concentrations in the substrate, with term fate of copper, nickel, lead and zinc have
copper found at the lowest concentrations. The been investigated. Over the first 240 minutes of
sorption co-efficient data indicated that zinc had exposure to the substrate all heavy metals
the greatest sorption co-efficient and copper showed first order removal from the aqueous
having a lower co-efficient (table 10). Therefore, phase via sorption. The highest co-efficient of
it is to be expected that Zinc has the greatest sorption was found to be Zinc with a Kd of 558
affinity for the solid phase and thus found in the at an initial concentration of 45ug/l. However,
greatest concentrations in the substrate. copper is seen is to have the largest rate constant
and shortest half life over this same time period.
During the initial 240 minutes it has been
observed that the rate constant increase with
503
higher initial concentrations for all of the heavy Science of the Total Environment, 235, 1999, p
metals of interest. Though it appears that the 235-245
concentration of copper and zinc are not limiting
Koch, W.F., Marinenko, G., Holland L.A., and
the rate reaction at initial concentrations of
Paule, R.C., Preparation and Certification of
40ug/l and 35ug/l respectively. The long term
Reference materials for rainwater analysis,
fate of zinc has been seen to adsorb out of
National measurement Laboratory, 1994
solution and into the solid phase. However, the
same is not exhibited by Copper, nickel and lead. Mason, Y., Ammann, A., Ulrich , A., and Sigg,
These metals display a preference for the L., Behavior (sic) of Heavy Metals, Nutrients,
aqueous phase rather than the soil phase. Thus and Major Components during Roof Runoff
meaning the short term and long term fate of the Infiltration, Environ. Sci. Technol. 1999, 33,
heavy metals in solution are not always the same. 1588-1597
The column experienced exhibited a reduction in Retzlaff, W., Ebbs, S., Alsup, S., Morgan, S.,
the run-off volume, therefore, indicating that the Woods, E., Jost, V., and Luckett, K., What is
roof was meeting the guidelines produced by the that running off of my green roof?, Session 3.1:
FLL and GRO. It also met the reference values Runoff Quality and Quantity, Greening Rooftops
set by the FLL for the physical and chemical for Sustainable Communities, Baltimore MD,
parameters of the substrate. April 30th – May 2nd 2008
Stovin, V., The Potential of green roofs to
manage Urban Stormwater, Water and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Environment Journal 24, 2010, pp 192-199
I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Maria
The Green Roof Organisation (GRO), and the
Romero-Gonzalez for her help in the selection of
Environment Agency, The GRO Green Roof
the dissertation topic and suggestions for
Code, Green Roof Code of Best Practice for the
investigative techniques. In addition, I would
UK 2011, 2011
also like to thank Dr. Gaby Kakonyi, Dr. Emma
Wharfe and Bennett Nwaobi for their help Zobrist, J., Muller, S.R., Ammann, A., Bucheli,
organising and executing laboratory work. T.D., Mottier, V., Ochs, M., Schoenenberger, R.,
Finally I would like to thank Geoff Sorrill of the Eugster, J., and Boller, M., Quality of Roof
Green Roof Centre, Dr. Steve Thornton and Runoff for groundwater infiltration, Wat. Res.
Andy Fairburn for their assistance during the Vol. 34, No.5, 2000, pp 1455 - 1462
completion of this dissertation
REFERENCES
Berndtsson, J.C., Emilsson, T., and Bengtsson,
The influence of extensive vegetated roofs on
runoff water quality, Science of The
Environment, 355, 2006 , p 48-63
CIRIA (Construction Industry Research and
Information Association), The SUDS Manual,
2007
Creed, J.T, Brockhoff, C.A., and Martin T.D.,
Method 200.8: Determination of Trace elements
in waters and wastes by inductively coupled
plasma – mass spectrometry, Revision 5.4, 1994,
US EPA
Forschungsgesekkschaft Landschaftsentwicklung
Landschafstbau e.V. (FLL), Guideline for the
Planning, Execution and Upkeep of green-roof
sites, 2002
Garnaud, S., Mouchel, J-M., Chebbo, G., and
Thevenot, D.R., Heavy metal concentrations in
dry and wet atmospheric deposits in Paris
district: comparison with urban run-off, The
504
Sustainability – The Economic and Environmental Sustainability of Concrete

Craig Wynne
ABSTRACT The purpose of this research was to assess the environmental sustainability of the
concrete structural elements in the new, one storey, office and entrance building at Lubrizol in
Hazelwood, Derbyshire and investigate various concrete alternatives. The foundation, ground floor
slabs, internal and external structural supports were all analysed with proposals made for each of the
structural systems. The parameters used in this study varied across the four structural systems. They
included materials used, construction method employed, task duration, labour used embodied energy,
thermal conductivity. The aim was to provide evidence to support an opinion on relative sustainability
and then propose an alternative if a more sustainable solution was found. Once a solution was decided
on, the percentage cost variation between the proposed and existing solution was considered. The main
conclusions from this study suggested that a significant increase in cost follows what has been
proposed as a more sustainable solution. For the foundation internal support and external support
solutions the cost rose by approximately 16%, 84% and 58% respectively. Whilst more sustainable
solutions for the ground floor slab were analysed, cost information is not included. A reduction in the
cost of sustainable building costs is required which can be brought about by government spending and
an enhanced knowledge and trust in less understood materials, promoting there use in the mass market.
in the position they find themselves in today had

1 INTRODUCTION
it not been for concrete?
The global environmental impact that concrete,
On the other hand, there are those feel the rate of
its constituent materials, processes, world, been
this global expansion is accelerating at an
devastating. The controversy the material has
unsustainable rate with the production and
courted in recent times has brought about a
utilisation of concrete aiding such acceleration.
furore of debate with a solution keeping both
They are apart of the party claiming that the
sides of the coin content, seemingly some way
concrete industry, in particular the production of
off. There are those with the belief that our
cement, is an industry without the ability to
world’s consumption of concrete is a necessary
reform thus reducing its vast environmental
evil in our inevitable demographic expansion.
footprint. The already irreversible damage
People are living longer; birth rates are
sustained is set to continue and urgent action is
increasing; urban migration is occurring in the
required to curb this trend.
emerging hub of the Far East where city walls
are encroaching on an ever shrinking agriculture The purpose of the second part of the study was
heritage that these once indigenous lands were to analyse the sustainability of a particular
used too. Developing nations are emerging as construction project, whilst looking at
global economic powers. The likes of China, alternatives to the structural solutions provided.
India and Brazil are clear examples of countries In comparing the differing concrete solutions a
that require vast amounts of concrete as a redesign of the structure, concentrating on
building material to keep up with their almost improving its carbon footprint was carried out.
seamless emergence as a global powerhouse. The information provided for the purposes of
Global demographic expansion needs to be comparison is not a definitive guide on whether
supported by the built environment and one system is or is not more sustainable than
infrastructure, which in turn relies so heavily on another. Setting out to prove this would boarder
the production and utilisation of concrete as a on impossible as the concept of sustainability
structural material. Would developing nations in will differ depending on who undertakes this
the Far East, East Africa and South America be particular study. The information provided
however will suggest, through varying criteria
505
which systems will offer the most sustainable importance. Plant prices are not
building solution. Once each structural system is itemised to provide information on
considered, the effect that offering a more individual cost of fuel usage but are
sustainable solution has on cost will be included only to give an indication on
considered whilst exploring reasons that a more energy output. The cost stated is the
‘green’ or sustainable approach to building is not price to run the equipment per hour.
implemented within the construction and Fuel will either be unleaded petrol or
engineering mainstream. diesel, the price for which is parity.
Quantifying energy output is difficult,
however the running cost of the
2 ASSESMENT CRITERIA equipment will be an adequate way of
comparing how much energy is used by
In the redesign of the structure, the concrete
the machinery.
structural elements are the only aspects of the
building that have been considered in terms of 2.4 Labour
sustainability. Existing structural elements have
been assessed on their sustainability as have Labour will be considered where there are
alternatives. The structural elements considered significant differences in price to carry out a
are: particular task.
1. The Foundations. 2.4 Cost
2. The ground floor slab. The cost of each alternative will be considered
against the existing structural solution in
3. The internal load bearing system. assessing the economic sustainability of the
structure.
4. The external load bearing system.
2.5 BRE assessment criteria
In analysing the sustainability of concrete Where possible, the structural systems used will
engineering for this particular project, there are be assessed upon their BRE Green Guide
three stages of sustainability which could be assessments. BRE provide detailed ratings
measured. It is important to state that no single ranging from A+ to E on varying structural
piece of information will determine particular
elements regarding sustainability. There
tasks sustainability, but by providing as much
assessment criteria is an overall measure of the
information as possible about each structural
environmental impact of issues such as climate
system, an adequate judgement can be made
change, fossil fuel depletion, ecotoxicity of fresh
regarding their relative sustainability.
water and waste disposal to mention but a few.
Comparisons will be drawn from the following
criteria. 2.6 Embodied energy
2.1 Materials used The embodied energy of a particular product is a
measure of the energy inputs within certain
The primary assessment here will be the amount boundaries. The embodied energy value given in
of concrete used in each structural system this study is a measure of energy input and CO2
employed. Ancillary materials will also be
release from ‘cradle to gate’. Cradle to gate
considered where their utilisation will have a
measures all of the CO2 emitted up until the
significant influence on the cost of the individual product is ready to be transported to site. The
task. Where alternative construction methods for information is based on that found in Civil
a particular task consume similar amounts of Engineering Standard Method of Measurement 3
ancillary items, they will be ignored.
carbon and price 2011.
2.2 Construction method Any data found for generic products regarding
 The duration of construction – CO2 emissions can never be considered entirely
assessing the difference in individual accurate. Production and manufacturing methods
task durations. The longer a project will vary from factory to factory, resulting in
goes on the less sustainable it’s likely to accurate quantification being extremely difficult.
be. Any generic data collection can therefore only
ever be considered an estimate. It should also be
 The plant used in each method – the
noted that the data used here was collated with
power out put of some of the plant used
the help of published research from a University
in construction can be excessively large
of Bath research publication Inventory of carbon
on a day to day basis. Employing and energy (Hammond and Jones, 2011). Suffice
construction methods requiring the to say that this is a reliable academic source and
minimum amount of plant in getting the the quality of information, although impossible
job finished most efficiently is of great
506
to be sure, is likely to be accurate and quality depth of ground structure which has been
data collection. Embodied energy data can be proposed by the structural engineer. There are
fabricated by manufacturers amongst others to also the trench blocks to consider with the deep
try and gain a commercial edge in what has trench foundation. This type of construction is a
become a very important selling point for green significant drain on labour resources and is
builders. rather time consuming in, whereas building a
raft foundation will require the height being built
2.7 Perceived reduction in running costs
up with a strong grade stone which consumes
This is of course a conceptual redesign, therefore less time thus reducing the task duration.
to calculate exact reduction in running costs of
Regarding the construction method employed for
the building would be extremely difficult as the
each of the solutions, a clear problem arises with
building doesn’t exist in any of the forms
pad foundations. The total task duration for this
proposed. The perceived reduction arises from
solution has been estimated at 12 weeks. This is
knowledge of the structure and how it performs
due to the fact that the excavation required
thermally for example, once constructed.
would be colossal. A task duration lasting 12
weeks in comparison to a 4 week task will
The coefficient of thermal conductivity (U- significantly increase the running cost and
Value) is a measure of the amount of heat loss resources consumed for a site. The less time a
through a particular structure within a square site is in operation the better. Unless planning
metre, with a temperature difference of 1°C restrictions had placed a cap on the height of the
between the inner and outer surface of the building and a basement storey was required,
structure. For the purpose of this study, the U- this type of construction for the building
Value was used as a ranking tool for the proposed building would be possible, but
materials and systems considered. The values of impractical. There would of course be issues
thermal conductivity given are for the main regarding disposal of the excavated material.
constituent material within the system and not Unless required on another part of the site or on
the thermal conductivity of the whole system. another site within very close proximity to the
For example, the U-value of the flooring system site, there would be significant transport costs to
will relate to the sub finished floor and not consider, not mentioning energy exerted in
consider the thermal conductivity of any finishes transit.
laid on top.
In terms of the fuel usage within the plant used
for the different tasks, the most fuel used would
The factors in assessing this building overall
be for the piled foundations. This is a logical
sustainable have been chosen with a view to
conclusion, considering the size of and power
analysing the whole life impact of the project.
exerted by the flight auger. However the figures
The embodied energy values relate to the impact
for the construction of the pad foundations also
of the project pre construction; the labour, plant,
construction method and volume of material stand out as being excessive. Again this is due to
used relate to the construction phase impact; the size of the excavation required and gives
whilst the thermal conductivity will relate to the further indication of the scale of the task
environmental impact the project has during required to complete pad foundations.
occupancy. As the U-Value decreases, so too The embodied energy values given show a large
does the amount of energy utilised to reheat the amount of embodied CO2 as a result of the deep
building. trench foundations which can almost solely be
accounted for by the amount of concrete used,
3 BUILDING DESIGN whereas the rest of the solutions show
significantly lower levels of embodied CO2. It is
3.1 Foundation solutions worth noting that for the pad foundations, the
Types considered: values for both the embodied CO2 and cost
figures are misleading. Excavating to the depth
1. 2.4m, 600mm deep trench foundations required would involve a ground stabilisation
(existing solution). method such as sheet piling. Site logistical
2. 19 No. 14m deep pile foundations. problems would arise as the practicality of
3. 19 No. 1.09m2 pad foundations. excavation became an issue. Once reinforced,
4. 300mm deep raft foundations. access ramps would need to be built enabling
Looking at the four proposals the existing plant, materials and labour to access the trench.
solution is the one that used the most concrete, This has not been considered with the cost or
using 98m3 which is over twice the amount embodied CO2 analysis and would inevitably
required for the other types of foundations. This increase both figures. The embodied energy
is huge amount of material for the type of values for the remaining two foundation
building constructed and is due to the shear solutions are similar even though there is a
507
difference in the amount of concrete used. This Weighing the options up, the excellent thermal
can be accounted for by the site transport and properties and the fact no plant is required to
logistics of the piling equipment. construct the floor, the preferred construction of
the floor is a beam and block construction. This
In conclusion, having taken all of the factors into
is a more sustainable option and will reduce the
consideration, the foundation solution of choice
operational running cost of the building as
would be piling. The amount of material used to
recognised by its A+ BRE eco rating. There is
support the building is significantly less than the
also scope for reuse of the beams used in
existing proposal. The task duration is a sensible
construction once the building is no longer
amount of time considering the task involved.
required.
Problems arising due to the disposal of extracted
material are non existent as the surplus material 3.3 Internal support solutions
is minimal. The energy consumption during
Types considered:
construction is the most by far of all the
proposed solutions; however this is the only 1. 100mm load bearing solid blockwork
drawback in terms of task sustainability. What (existing solution).
effect does this have on the cost? As shown 2. Insitu concrete columns with thermally
using the piled solution would increase the cost insulated plasterboard.
of the foundation by over 16% which is 3. Insulating concrete formwork.
accounted for in the complexity of the piling 4. Insitu concrete columns with thermal
operation. A more expensive construction, blocks.
however a more sustainable, greener solution.
When looking at the existing solution there is a
3.2 Ground floor solutions large amount of material required to carry out
the construction. 17 packs of concrete blocks
Types considered:
amounting 12.25m3 of concrete is a substantial
1. 150mm hollow core precast slab amount of material in comparison to some of the
(existing solution). other methods. The use of cement as the only
2. 100mm solid precast slab. binding material is another problem with this
3. Thermal beam and bock construction. type of construction in terms of sustainability.
No provisions were made at all for the use of
Firstly, looking at the material used, constructing
any cement replacing materials. By stark
a building with solid pre cast concrete slabs is
comparison, in considering the use of thermal
going to consume a significant amount of
blocks, there is scope for the inclusion of lime
concrete. As mentioned the only real comparison
with the mortar mix. This reduces the amount of
to be made between the hollow core and solid
OPC by three fifths and would offer a more
slab is the amount of material used. As the tables
sustainable option in terms of materials used.
show, with the inclusion of 40% of the volume
The first proposed solution, insitu concrete
of the slabs amounting to voids there is a 20%
columns and beams with plasterboard, uses a
reduction in the amount of concrete used. This is
significantly less amount of concrete material as
obviously an advantageous aspect to using this
all that is required is the insitu concrete columns
type of slab.
and beams. The second proposed solution, ICF,
The inclusion of expanded polythene bonded to has a similar amount of concrete used to the
the underside of the units, ensures that the U- existing solution. This however is
value for the slabs is 0.22 W/m²K. This is an counterbalanced with the other benefit on offer
extremely low value and offers much better from this type of construction.
thermal insulation than the solid pre cast slab.
The only plant required to construct any of the
However, both pre cast systems thermal
structural systems is a concrete mixer. This of
conductivity is inferior to that of the thermal
course is only required in the structural systems
block and beam system. The name of this system
involving masonry and contributes only a small
is somewhat misleading as blocks are not
amount to the overall carbon footprint of the
actually used. The infill material which is again
project.
expanded polythene offers fantastic thermal
insulation and will undoubtedly have a positive The tasks involving masonry have by far the
impact on the running cost of the building once longest durations. Laying blockwork, dense or
in operation. aerated, is a very time consuming task and can
also be a drain on labour resources. The
Another advantage of this is that there is no need
difference in durations between the two concrete
for the use of plant, which unlike the other two
columns and beam tasks can be accounted for by
systems considered will reduce the energy
the relatively quick erection of stud partitioning.
expenditure throughout the duration of the task.
ICF construction is an extremely quick method
of construction with most ICF contractors
508
claiming to have a small sized storey ready for 3. Insulating concrete formwork.
concrete pouring by the end of the day. This 4. Insitu concrete columns with thermal
reduced task duration significantly reduces the blocks.
carbon footprint of the project.
This comparison is similar to one made
The embodied energy statistics show that the regarding the internal supports. However it must
lowest embodied energy for any of the structural be said that although in both cases the end
solutions is concrete columns and beams with outcome is a wall system providing a partition
plasterboard. This can be accounted for as it is between rooms or between inside and outside,
the proposal using the least amount of concrete. the properties required from the two systems are
The relatively high embodied energy of the ICF completely different.
solution would be increased if a figure for the
Analysing the existing solution it is noted that
formwork construction was available. It should
constructing with solid blockwork is a huge
be noted however that the tasks involving
drain on resources and materials. Because of the
pouring concrete have the added fuel
relatively large perimeter of the building, a large
expenditure of getting the concrete to site.
number of blocks, cement and sand are required.
Although a local ready mix plant is within close
As with the internal blockwork, no provisions
proximity to the site there is a significant weight
for any replacing material were made, resulting
to be carted from plant to site which will have a
in a large carbon impact from the use of cement.
detrimental effect on the carbon footprint of the
project. As mentioned, the most significant consideration
and difference in comparing the internal and
The thermal conductivities of the relative
external support, is the structural systems
structural systems are shown at the bottom of
function. It is for this reason the decision was
each table. They only apply to the main
made to use ICF for the external solution. Yes
constituent material of that system. For example,
there is a significant amount of material
for the concrete columns and beams with
consumed however this is counterbalanced by
plasterboard the U-value applies to the thermal
the enhancing thermal properties, thermal mass
conductivity of the plasterboard and not the
and overall solid structural system that an ICF
structural system as a whole. The concrete
system offers. It can be concluded that in using
blocks have the higher U-values whereas the two
this type of structural system, which is also rated
other systems have relatively low U-values.
A+ in BRE’s green guide, running costs whilst
In conclusion, having analysed each structural the building in its operation should be
system, although debateable, the preferred considerably lower, as the buildings ability to
solution is the concrete columns, connecting control its temperature in relatively extreme
beams and plasterboard. This is for a number of conditions is enhanced.
reasons. Firstly, for the type of building
In terms of cost this structural system as with the
considered, little noise protection is needed from
others sees a significant jump in cost with a
room to room. If this was required the preferred
more sustainable solution. A 58% increase in
solution would be a system with solid walls
cost comes with the construction of an ICF
partitioning the rooms. Although ICF has the
system as opposed to a traditional blockwork
lowest U-value which offers the best thermal
construction.
solution, the amount of concrete used is a
deciding factor and acts against this form of
construction. The U-value is very similar to the
preferred solution and being only internal 4 CONCLUSIONS
partitions little thermal insulation is required. The first conclusion that can be made regarding
The preferred method also has the lowest the building at Lubrizol is that the designers and
embodied energy statistics. Looking at costs, as client placed little emphasis on the sustainability
with the foundation solution, a more sustainable of the construction project and focused on
option costs considerably more. The price has financial constraints. Not to say that
risen by over 84%, generating a significantly sustainability was completely discarded, but was
larger figure than the cost of the existing not at the top of the list of considerations prior to
solution. the commencement of works.
3.3 External support solutions The main problems surrounding this particular
study have centred on the theoretical nature of
Types considered:
the type of research involved. Some of the
1. 140mm load bearing solid blockwork statistics quantified are only a measure of how
(existing solution). the structural systems could potentially perform.
2. Insitu concrete columns with thermally The U-value for example is only for the
insulated plasterboard. individual element which is considered the main
509
constituent material of the structural system and Akash Rao, Kumar N. Jha, Sudhir Misra (2006)
will not relate to the how the system performs Use of aggregates from recycled construction
holistically. Values for thermal conductivity are and demolition waste in concrete
promised by contractors but until each individual
Bjork F. (1999) Concrete technology and
construction project is tested, the exact U-value
sustainable development key issues from the
obtained can never be guaranteed. The
1999 Vancouver symposium on concrete
information provided gives an indication of
technology for sustainable development.
which systems perform best and hopefully
provide an insight into which would be a more Franklin and Andrews (2011) CESMM3 carbon
sustainable option. and price book 2011 Thomas Telford limited,
London
This said there was clearly scope to improve
how sustainable this project actually was. The Kjellsen K. (2005) CO2 uptake during the
effect that this has on the cost of the various concrete life cycle: CO2 balance of concrete in
structural elements is rather alarming though. If a life cycle perspective
a more sustainable attitude to building is be
adopted by designers and contractors alike, U.S army corp. of engineers (2004) Reuse of
something must be done about the cost of Concrete Materials from Building
Demolition. [Internet]. Available from:
sustainable building. Although there has been a
push by our own national government in recent <http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/ARMYCOE/PWTB/
years to promote sustainable housing for pwtb_200_1_27.pdf> [Accessed 17th June 2011]
example, and trying to reduce our reliability on Yong P.C. Teo D.C.L (2009) Utilisation of
fuels for heating through schemes such as free recycled aggregates coarse aggregate in
loft insulation, can more be done? This amongst concrete. [Internet]. Available from:
other measures are retrospective and with a <http://www.feng.unimas.my/ujce/images/article
housing shortage in this country and the /vol1issue1/3874-0809-11.pdf> [Accessed 17th
government beginning to promote self build, June 2011]
what better way to promote sustainable
development then to offer financial incentives Worrel E. ET Al (2001) Carbon dioxide
for use of sustainable technologies. This does emissions from the global cement industry
not relate to the likes of erecting a wind turbine Annual review energy environment.
in the garden but more affordable solutions
which can be used en mass. A fundamental
change in the way we use concrete and our
attitudes to sustainable building will not come
unless coordination from the very the top, in the
form of financial encouragements, to start using
some of the more expensive but more
sustainable options.
These could manifest in the form of government
contributions for credited products with proven
environmental credentials. Also, greater
marketing on such products encouraging there
use, consequently enhancing knowledge of and
trust in these products eventually leading to
greater use.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Steven A Woodcock of
Kingfisher Construction Services for his effort,
time and resources whilst the project was
undertaken. I would also like to thank my
dissertation supervisor, Professor David Lerner
for both his guidance and advice throughout the
project. Again without this help the project
would have never come to fruition.
REFERENCES
510
Fire Resistance of Structural Engineering

Wei Xia
MSc(Eng) Structural Enigineering
ABSTRACT
Current the criterion of design code is issued for limitation of current fire design. The code is base
on the performance of isolated member under standard fire furnace test（ISO834）A typical steel
frame is design based on EC3 part1.2 . To observe the behaviour member within frame is restrained
and simple supported beam is unrestrained under fire condition, which have different performance.
Also, the program Vulcan is conducted for the main technique tool support the research. The series
computational modelling a steel frame under fire condition is carried out. Heated member at different
position are conducted to observe the restraint boundary condition by adjacent frame and around
cooling area. As well as, the nature fire of cooling phase and different connection are taken account
into the influence of fire resistance of steel structure. A series of analysis of structure under fire is
present within the thesis, which includes thermal response and mechanical response are discussed
during three scenarios with nine case studies. In the further, the work presented here has profound
implication for future studies of fire resistance and may one day help solve the problem of fire safety.
Key words: Fire resistance, Steel structure, 2-D frame, Vulcan, Fire Compartment, Structural
Engineering
induced tension force. Due to the thermal
1 INTRODUCTION
extension of beam, the columns sway, so that the
In the 21th century, buildings of steel structure P-△effect should be taken account. The metrical
become popular around the world due to its properties and reduction factor of strength and
faster construction. The steel structure is stiffness at elevated temperature are based on
advantage in easily recycling, cost-effectively, EC3 part1.2 model. In 1990, H.A.saab and
sustainable development and etc. Because of a D.A.Nethercot presented a formulation for
large number of buildings were extensively nonlinear analysis of two-dimensional steel
damaged by fire events (e.gWTC 911 fire event), frame under fire conditions by numerical
the fire protection engineering is carried out mode[12]. This method is more safety and
during design stage for safety. But the criterion economical. The VULCAN program which is
of design code is issued for limitation of current used to observe the behaviour of structure under
fire design. The Eurocode 3 part 1.2 of fire fire condition are conducted at university of
design is only based on the behaviour of isolated Sheffield. Moreover, this programme also
member under furnace test based on the standard provides systematical analysis and parametric
ISO834 time temperature curve. However, the studies. Furthermore, VALCAN can be applied
behaviour of steel structure in fire is for performance design.( Najjar and Burgess
significantly more complicated than that of 1996; Bailey et al. 1996; Huang et al. 1999;
isolated members. Huang et al.2003a; Cai et al. 2002_)[4]
Many experimental tests have been carried out Aim and objectives
for investigation of the steel structure behaviour The time dependent temperature curve is
with the interaction between structural elements calculated under ISO834 (standard fire curve)
now. The full-scale fire tests of Cardington and parametric curve from spreadsheet. Data‘s
Laboratory (1993-2003) confirm that the real of steel temperature are applied to model the
behaviour of structural elements is difference material thermal property. To observe the
from isolated member. Additionally, natural fire influence of restraint due to cooler area to a
curve have three stages which are ignition- heated steel member at different positions within
smouldering, heating, and cooling. Previous the steel frame, Vulcan of programme is adopted
analysis of structure only considers the in here; To observe heated isolated member
behaviour of frame at heating phase, but recently under standard fire or parametric curve by
some research of cooling phase within structural Vulcan (unrestrained beam and column) To
behaviour are carried out. The heated member observe how different types of connections
within frame receiving a significant restraint by influence the fire resistance of the structure
adjacent frame and around cooling area, this subjected to cooling phase and heating phase. To
phenomenon should be observed. Also, previous observe the limiting deflection (Span/20) of mid-
research and finding of the connection can be a span heated beam corresponding to the beam
potential failure according to cooling phase run-away failure. To observe the axial force of
511
beam, and the influence of axial force to Assumptions of the design :
connection under heating phase and cooling The frame is designed base on permanent
phase[13] To compare fire resistance from the Gk=2.7kN/m2; Qk=2kN/m2;The building has six
results which are obtained by Vulcan and storeys and 5 bays, height of each floor is 3.6
Eurocode 3 provide calculation. meters, and width of each bay is 9 meters.; The
column is fixed at the ground floor ;Pinned or
2. METHODOLOGY
rigid connection are applied for connect beam to
In order to achieve the aim and objectives, a column ;Selection of UB 457x191x98 for beam,
series scenarios with case studies are carried out. and UC 305x305x198 for column
The flow diagram 2.1 to illustrate the each step
Figure(2.1) The Two Dimensional Frame
what it is conducted.
Step • Design the two dimensional steel structural

1 based on Eurocode 3
• Selection of member section used
Step • Based on material thermal properties
2
• Numerical modeling the isolated member
• Numerical modeling the quarter of whole
design building
Step • All beam and column are three node
3 element
• All connection is modeled two node spring
element
• Discipline the scenarios Elvation
Step • The different connection and fire curves are
4 carried out 2.3Discipline the scenarios with nine case
Step studies
5 • Theoretical analysis of results
Step
6 • Make discussion and conclusion
Flow diagram(2.1) the Procedure of Reserch

Method
2.1 Vulcan Programme
Numerical approaches have been included in
BS590 part 8 and EC3 Part 1.2 have been
improved to investigate the behaviour of simple
supported members during the heating phase of a
fire by C.G.Bailey, I.W.Burgess and R.J.Plank at
Sheffield university 1996.[5] The Vulcan
program can be conducted for numerical
modelling the two dimensional frame, it has
been to simulate the behaviour of steel frame or Table (2.1) Discipline the scenarios with nine
composite frame under fire load. Due to the cases
temperature distribution of cross section can be
non-uniform, the thermal properties are defined Scenarios 1 isolated members with case 1 and
by different cross-section and material to be case2. The two case studies to observe the
represented. The cross-section of member is behaviour of unrestrained member under fire
divided into a number of segments to allow condition；Scenarios 2 restrained members with
variation in the temperature. The material case3 and case 4. The two caste studies to
properties of stress and strain should be observe the behaviour of restrained member
represented within the Vulcan. In a frame, the under fire condition ； Scenario 3 fire
beam to column connection can be present a compartment with case 4 to case 9. The five case
two-node spring element, and beam and column studies to observe the structural restraint to
is present a three-node element within Vulcan. member at different fire region. In Addition, the
parametric fire curve to heat member and
2.2 The designed two dimensional frame
512
different type connection are carried out to the As the critical temperature is 791.9℃, The 3
Table（3.2）The results of beam under parametric fire curve

Time（min） Critical temperature oC Deflection(mm)
To Eurocode 3 Vulcan Maximal Recovery

Limiting (Span/20)
deflection
Simple supported beam 20.75 791.9 684.8 1027.23 81.16
Restrained beam 19.86 791.9 641.2 739.3 136
modelling. These factors is possible to effect side exposure beam has higher beam
the fire resistance of structure.
Simple Supported Beam Test under Standard Fire Curve
2.4 Theoretical analysis of results
Unprotect Steel Time(mi Critical Limited
Due to the EC3 part 1.2 proposal the critical ed beam Temperatu n) Temperatu Deflecti
temperature of fire design, the high critical under re re on
Standard Meeting
temperature with high fire resistance. During the Fire At span/20 the Eurocode Span/20
2-D frame model research, the deflection of critical 3
Deflectio
span/20 (450mm) indicates the beam run-away n
failure, and corresponding temperature is critical
3side 684.8 19.87 791.9 450mm
temperature; the deformation of column is exposure
carried out , and the deformation of frame too.
4side 653.6 18.2 738.3 450mm
The internal force at mid-span against the time, exposure
moreover, the heated member at different
location. As the member is heated by parametric Restraine 641.2 19.11 791.9 450mm
d Beam
fire curve, then the cooling phase induced (pinned)
tension force should be observed at cooling
Rigid RB 821.8 37.72 791.9 450mm
phase. The different type of connection is used,
which can be effect to the fire resistance of Table(3.1) The results of beam under standard fire
temperature than 4 side exposure at limited
Standard fire curve Parametric fire deflection. Due to the top flange be protected by
(ISO834) curve(Natural
slab, the top flange temperature is lower than
fire)
bottom flange and web. The critical temperature
Time to MaxΘa Time to Max is quite high due to lower load ratio. The
max Θa max Θa overestimated the critical temperature indicated
Θa
the over design the fire resistance by EC3 part
Unprotected 120min 1046.1 21 696.7 1.2 fire design.
Beam
Table（3.2）shows the critical temperature of
Protected 120min 661 27 186.8 beam is 684.2℃ when the mid-span deflection
Column
reached limiting deflection 450mm is obtained
member within frame. by Vulcan. From the Eurocode 3 design
Table(2.1) steel temperature， Θa is steel temperature approach, as the critical temperature is
791.9℃.The reversal deflection induced by
Table (2.1) show the steel temperature under
thermal contraction during occurring at
different fire condition with unprotected beam
temperature cooled down to ambient
and protected column. Based on Eurocode3 part
temperature. It follows that the eurocode3 design
1.2 the design fire resistance of beam, that the
code not publishes the relative design code to the
critical temperature is 791.9℃. cooling phase, it is only considered based on
3.THE BEHAVIOUR OF ISOLATED MEMBER heating phase. Therefore future investigated on
the steel in deflection of reversal is allow
3.1 Isolated Beam assessment of the accuracy of the theoretical
The isolated beam deflection of span/20 is approach during cooling phase at parametric fire.
achieved at 684.8 oC for 3-side exposure to fire, 3.2 Isolated Column
and at 653.6 oC for 4-side exposure to fire, from
the results indicating that the beam is run-away. The unprotected column induced large
horizontal displacement. In this case, columns
have to protected due to the column within steel
513
frame cannot guarantee following the The internal column has better fire resistance
deformation of the column is safe at elevated than the external column, because of the cooling
temperature. However Eurocode 3 ignore the area around the internal column resulting in
effect of thermal expansion of the members greater restrained to column deflection and
under fire, in addition, and unrestraint to the improves the fire resistance. The external
Figure（5.1）Fire compartment at different position

CF1 CF2 CF3 CF4 CF5
column only restrained by adjacent bay1, but the

elongation of column in simple supported
internal column is restrained by two side bay1
column. Otherwise, the unrestrained column can
and bay 2.
expand freely.
The EC3 design approach is based on the
4.THE BEHAVIOUR OF RESTRAINED BEAM
buckling length of the column. The boundary
The aim of case is used to investigate the condition of restrained column should be applied
behaviour of beam within structure, and the for the design code for fire design. The
temperature is non-uniform distributed on cross- restrained thermal elongation can be affect to
section. Simultaneously, the beam is three side fire resistance of column. The deformation of
exposed to fire. beam is more obvious compare to the
deformation of column due to the column is
4.1 Restrained beam
protected. For above reason, the P-△ do not
When the mid-span deflection reached 450 mm require be considered within the cases of the fire
of limiting deflection span/20, the beam compartment due to the protected column is not
temperature is 684.8 for isolated beam and obvious effect to fire resistance at elevated
641.2℃for restrained beam. For simple temperature. In this case, the protected column
supported beam the temperature reached the applied restraint to beam against thermal
684.8 ℃ , and then the beam run away directly, elongation
but the restrained beam not run-away directly 4.3 Rigid Connection
when it subjected to limiting deflection span/20
due to the influence of adjacent cooler member. The table(3.1) shows the used rigid connection
In this case, it proofs the around cooler member with a higher critical temperature than used
can enhance the performance of fire resistance of pinned connection. The rigid connection induced
beam until it is melt at elevated temperature. the moment redistribution, which the mid-span
This findings from standard fire curve heat to the sagging moment is reduce, but the end support
beam. have been generated hogging moment. In
addition, the reduction of mid-span deflection is
From table(3.2) to illustrate as beam temperature very significant to affected by used rigid
reached 690 oC of maximum temperature is connection.
cooled down to ambient temperature during
parametric fire, and the deflection of beam is 5.FIRE COMPARTMENTS
reversal. The restrained beam induced reversal
The figure(5.1) shows the fire compartment at
deflection is larger than the simple supported
different position. Fire compartment with five
beam due to the philosophy adopted to represent
scenarios (different location fire load are carried
strain reversal during cooling phase, because of
out).The objective of these cases are adopted to
maximal deflection of the simple supported
research building fire remains localized; and the
beam is larger the restrained beam at the same
influence of restrained region due to steel frame
steel temperature, therefore the strain of simple
is significant restraint from cooler areas
supported beam is larger than the restrained
surrounding it.
beam too, so that the reversal deflection depend
on the reversal strain under cooling phase Member is heated by standard fire curve
4.2 Restrained column The deflection of mid-span at CF2 and CF3 is
more large than CF1 and CF4.
514
The case 8 of CF4 with mid-span at node 90, induced tensile force is larger than the catenary
that is the lowest critical temperature 612.7℃. action induced tensile force. Due to the large
This is meaning the middle bay3 is less ability of tension force, it should be attention for potential
fire resistance than other fire compartment. The failure at connection part. Within case 9, and the
case 9 of fire load on ground floor, the bay3 with deflection of reversal is almost the same at
the largest deflection of mid-span, it is more different mid-span of bays. The larger fire area
danger to failure under fire condition. Within without cooler member restrained as the beam
fire design, the middle bay 3 is the critical one within frame. The connection of bay3 is tend to
due to the lowest critical temperature is 546.3℃ failure at cooling phase due to the thermal
of bay 3 which should be designed to satisfy contraction induced tension force is the largest in
demand fire resistance. The figure(5.1) show the here.
catenary action induced tension force is the same Rigid connection
at each case studies. The deflection has not been exceed limiting
deflection span/20 under parametric fire, but the
deflection of reversal is quite small due to the
rigid connection is providing restraint to thermal
Figure(5.1) The axial force(Fx) of each case under standard

fire
As the steel loss strength and stiffness gradually Figure(5.2)The axial force(Fx) of each case under parametric
becomes more significant than the restrained fire
expansion, the axial force of mid-span beam is contraction. As the critical temperature
reduced gradually until the compression force
(829℃)is higher 4% than the critical
became the tension force, this phenomenon can
be called catenary action, and it is usually take temperature(791℃) by Eurocode 3, this is mean
place at large deflections from run-away, and the rigid connection is enhance the fire
most experimental test discover catenary action resistance of beam Within frame. However, The
become obvious as the mid-span deflection had rigid connection is very significant effect to the
exceeded span/20, this results is similar deflection due to moment redistribution. But the
according to experimental investigation of different type connection is less the influence of
behaviour of axially restrained steel beam in fire cooling phase induced tensile force. The used
[7]. But the catenary action has potential danger rigid connection is less the deflection of reversal,
lead to adjacent structure collapsing due to that only a recovery of 34 mm. From above
Eurocode 3 design approaches do not consider to discover, the rigid connection is restraint to
resist this catenary force induce horizontal force. thermal contraction.
For this reason the suitable factor of catenary 6.CONCLUSION
action induced force is taken account in design
of steel beam are proposal by Yin,Y,Z of The comparison between case1 and case 2 of
analysis of catenary action in steel beam using a isolated members and other cases of members
simplified hand calculation[8]. within a whole frame, it indicated that the fire
resistance of isolated member is different from
Member is heated by parametric fire curve member within the frame. The Eurocode 3 of
The deflection of reversal is the largest at CF2 fire design which was designed based on the
and CF3. The recovery of deflection is a behaviour of isolated member is heated by
significant the influence of fire resistance under ISO834 time-temperature curve. For above
parametric fire. Due to the thermal contraction reason, it cannot actually response to the
induce the tension force at cooling phase, larger behaviour of member interaction within frame.
tension force is causing large recovery of The conclusions of each case studies are given
deflection. See the figure(5.2), the largest as follow: The thermal extension of member is
thermal contraction induced tension force at restrained by adjacent frame；The deflection of
CF2. To compare between the figure(5.1) and the beam which is located in a frame is smaller
figure(5.2), and find the thermal contraction than that as a single member; The connection
can affect significantly the deflection of beam
515
due to moment redistribution. In addition, the
reduction of the mid-span deflection which use 8.REFERENCE
rigid connection is larger than that of the 1. F. Wald, L. S. da Silva, D. B. Moore, et al.,
deflection if use pin connection. On the other ―Experimental behaviour of a steel structure under
hand, the type of connection has less affect on natural fire,‖ Fire Safety Journal, vol. 41, no. 7, pp.
509–522, 2006
the development of axial force within beam. 2. Al-Jabri KS, Lennon T, Burgess IW, Plank RJ (1998),
After all, the rigid connection can enhance the ―Behaviour of steel and composite beam to column
catenary action more obvious under standard connections in fire”. Journal of Constructional Steel
fire ； The large deflection of beam can be Research, vol. 46:1-3, paper nº180
3. CEN, Eurocode 3, prEN—1993-1-2: 2003, Part 1.2:
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Catenary action is more obvious when the structures, Stage 49 draft, April 2003, CEN, European
deflection exceeds limiting span/20 ； The Committee for Standardization, Brussels,2003.
4. Huang, Z., Burgess, I.W. and Plank, R.J., ‗The Influence of Shear
deflection of beam recovery occurs when beam Connectors on the Behaviour of Composite Steel-
temperature reaches maximum temperature Framed Buildings in Fire‘, J. Construct. Steel
(about 690 ℃ ) is cool down to ambient Research, 51 (3), (1999) pp219-237.
5. Bailey, C.G., Burgess, I.W. and Plank, R.J.,'Analyses
temperature ； By considering the parametric of the Effects of Cooling and Fire Spread on Steel-
fire, it can be noticed that the tension force Framed Buildings', Fire Safety Journal, 26, (1996) pp
induced by cooling phase is larger than that by 273-293.
catenary action; therefore, the potential failure of 6. F. Wald, L. S. da Silva, D. B. Moore, et al.,
―Experimental behaviour of a steel structure under
connection occurs at cooling phase ； It is natural fire,‖ Fire Safety Journal, vol. 41, no. 7, pp.
observed from fire compartment that the 509–522, 2006
different restrained boundary condition can 7. Liu, T.C.H, Fahad, M.K. and Davies, J.M. (2002),
―Experimental investigation of behaviour of axially
affect to the structural behaviour of members； restrained steel beams in fire‖, J. Construct. Steel
Comparison of Eurocode 3 design and the results Research, 58, pp1211-1230.
by Vulcan, the critical temperature which based 8. Yin YZ, Yang YC. 2005. Analysis of catenary action
in steel beams using a simplify ed hand calculation
on the Eurocode 3 is over estimated；There are method,Part 1: theory and validation for uniform
some potential failures haven‘t considered when temperature distribution. Journal of Constructional
analyze the fire resistance, such as: connection Steel Research 61: 83–211.
9. Zhaohui, Huang(2010). ‗A simplified model for
failure at cooling phase and P-△second order modeling End-plate Connections in Fire‘ Department
effect global stability. The Vulcan can be used of Civil and structural engineering, the university of
for performance based design, that demand fire Sheffield.
10. H.A. Saaba and D.A. Nethercotb Modelling steel
resistance to meet the supplied fire resistance；
frame behaviour under fire conditions Engineering
Based on the investigation, the fire resistance Structures Volume 13, Issue 4, October 1991, Pages
design can not only depend on the critical 371-382
temperature. Furthermore, The structural 11. Huang, Z., Burgess, I.W. and Plank, R.J.‘ Fire
resistance of composite floor subject to fire
possible failure which generated by the catenary compartments‘, Received 29July 2002; accepted
action and cooling phase induced large tension 28August 2003, journal of constructional steel
force also should be carried out for design fire research 60(2004)339-360.
resistance；It is noticed that the finite elements 12. Leston-Jones, L.C. (1997), ―The influence of semi-
rigid connections on the performance of steel framed
method is a good choice for analysing the fire structures in fire‖, PhD Thesis, University of Sheffield.
resistance of steel structures subject to fire.
13. Huang, Z., Burgess, I.W. and Plank, R.J., ‗The
7. Acknowledgement Influence of Shear Connectors on the Behaviour of
Composite Steel-Framed Buildings in Fire‘, J.
First and foremost, I would like to show my Construct. Steel Research, 51 (3), (1999) pp219-237.
deepest to my supervisor Dr. Huang, a 14. Franssen J-M, Dotreppe JC. Fire resistance of columns
respectable, responsible and resourceful scholar, in steel frames. Fire Safety J 1992;19 (2–3):159–75.
who has provided me with valuable guidance in
every stage of the writing of this thesis. Without 15. British standards institute.BS5950: structural use of
steelwork in Buildings, Part 8: code of Practice for
his enlightening instruction, impressive kindness Fire Resistant Design.1990
and patience, I could not have completed my
thesis. His keen and vigorous academic
observation enlightens me not only in this thesis
but also in my future study. I shall extend my
thanks to my ground friends of Miss Tian, Sir
Chen, Sir SUN(PHD) and Miss Yang for all her
kindness and help.. My sincere appreciation also
goes to the teachers and students from the
University of Sheffield.
516
Modelling Discolouration in Water Distribution Systems Using EPANET-MSX

Yiying Xin
ABSTRACT Among all the problems about drinking water complained by customers,
discolouration which is caused by suspended particles in the water takes up a large portion. In order to
protect customers from discoloured water, maintenance strategies of the water distribution systems are
carried out by water companies. Boxall et al (2001) developed a semi-empirical model (termed as
PODDS) to simulate discolouration. The PODDS model has been coded into EPANET software and
calibrated through investigations. However the study of layer regeneration following by an event is still
limited. In the classical PODDS model, regeneration is currently assumed as an inverse process of
material mobilisation. Yet researches indicate this is not the case. In order to develop a method to
model the regeneration more accurately, EPANET-MSX is introduced due to its flexible characteristics.
In this study EPANET-MSX is applied to turbidity modelling. It is calibrated as a feasible tool to
model discolouration by comparing turbidity results with former calibrated EPANET using an assumed
flow pattern. The model using MSX is also applied to a long term trunk main data, suggesting that the
parameters used to calibrate the model vary with season and flow regimes.
1 INTRODUCTION A common technique currently used to control

discolouration risk is periodic flushing to
Discolouration is caused by suspended particles
remove the stored turbidity on the pipe wall
in the water (Boxall et al., 2001) and turbidity is
(Boxall et al., 2003; Husband and Boxall, 2008).
used to describe it. The general mechanism of
Studies indicated that regeneration of material
discoloured water is described in three stages:
layers occurs after flushing operations. When the
the particles originate from external sources or
system is exposed to a shear stress higher than
processes within the system, accumulate on the
the conditioned layer shear strength, materials
pipe wall and are subsequently released to the
are mobilized and when flow rates come down,
bulk water (Gauthier et al., 2001; Vreeburg and
materials regenerate on to the pipe wall and are
Boxall, 2007). A computer based semi-empirical
finally conditioned by the new hydraulics. Hence,
model named Prediction Of Discolouration
the rate of this regeneration process can affect
events in Distribution Systems (PODDS) was
the flushing strategy and exploring methods to
developed to predict the turbidity which
model layer regeneration is of importance
responses to the change of the hydraulics in
(Husband and Boxall, 2011).
water distribution system. This model suggests
that materials are hold in cohesive layers on the Currently three modes of layer regeneration
pipe wall and are conditioned by daily peak process are developed:
hydraulics. In normal hydraulics, the material
(1) The material layers regenerate from weaker
layers stay stable and no discolouration events
to stronger;
occur. Once a hydraulic disturbance happens, the
applied shear stress will exceed the conditioned (2) Material layers regenerate ‘from strong to
layer shear strength and the materials will be weak’, which is an inverse process of the
released to the bulk fluids. Detail maths is in mobilisation;
Boxall et al. (2001). PODDS model has been
(3) The regeneration is a mixture process of the
coded into the EPANET software and the
feasibility of using PODDS model to simulate two modes above.
turbidity during discoloration events has been Regeneration in the classical PODDS model
verified both in UK and international (Boxall coded in EPANET is currently assumed as the
and Saul, 2005; Boxall and Prince, 2006; second mode. Yet researches indicate that the
Husband and Boxall, 2010). regeneration behaves in the third mode. Once
coded into EPANET, the model is not allowed to
517
change. In order to develop a method to model Darcy-Weisbach friction factor; u is the average
regeneration more accurately, EPANET-MSX is velocity, m/s and D is the pipe diameter, m.
introduced due to its flexibility. EPANET-MSX
(Multi-species Extension) is an extended and The change of layer shear strength (τs) and
updated program to EPANET. While keeping all release of turbidity (N) over time are
the capabilities of EPANET, the MSX version explained in equation (3) to equation (6).
introduces an approach to allow users to define
= − (τ − τ ) (3)
their own mathematical expressions which
control the dynamics of processes being studied
= (τ − τ ) (4)
(Wricke et al., 2007). Basic objectives for this
paper are:
− (τ − τ ) (τ ≤ τ )
τ
(1) Demonstrate feasibility of using EPANET- = (5)
MSX to model discoloration by comparing its ′
−P (τ > τ )
model results with previously calibrated PODDS
model coded in EPANET. − (τ − τ ) (τ ≤ τ )
τ
(2) Applied the model to field data with a view = (6)
to long term operation. ′
−P (τ − τ ) (τ > τ )
Where τs is the layer shear strength, N/m2; P is
2 CALIBRATION OF EPANET-MSX the coefficient of material supply rate; P’ is the
coefficient of regeneration rate; n and k are
This part focuses on calibrating the feasibility of parameters helping describe the function and As
EPANET-MSX in modelling discolouration by is the internal surface area, m2.
comparing the modelling results with former
verified PODDS model coded in EPANET 2. Equation (3) describes the change of layer shear
strength without regeneration. In Equation (4),
2.1 Model Building with MSX and EPANET regeneration is in a linear way, and in Equation
The study is carried out with a dummy system (5) the process is a function of excess shear
stress (τa-τs). These two ways of regeneration
involving a reservoir, a single demand point and
both focus on the “strong to weak” mode which
a pipe. The pipe that links the reservoir and the
demand node is 1000m long, with a diameter of is the inverse process of material mobilisation.
800mm and a roughness of 0.5 (in Darcy The coefficient of determination R2 is used to
Weisbach). A pre-determined unidirectional value the goodness of fit between the MSX
flushing from the reservoir is applied to this pipe. results and the EPANET results.
The flow pattern is displayed in Figure 1.
∑ ( )
R = 1− ∑
(7)
( )
Where mi is the measured values (here it takes

the values from EPANET), Pi is the modelled
values (here as the results from MSX), and is
the mean value of measured data.
2.2 Results
Scenarios with same parameters are modelled by
MSX and EPANET, and the results are
Figure 1 Flow pattern in modelling compared in Figure 2 (a), (b) and (d). Scenarios
When using MSX to model turbidity, three with changed regeneration coefficient (P’) are
primary outputs are of interest: the modelled modelled using MSX and the comparison with
turbidity, layer shear strength and applied shear former EPANET results are displayed in Figure
stress. Equations to describe these are displayed 2 (c) and (e). R2 values are listed in Table 1.
as follows. In scenario 1, the model does not consider layer
τ = ρgR h (1) regeneration. All the parameters used in MSX
method are the same with those involved in the
h = (2) EPANET 2. Scenarios 2 to 5 simulate turbidity
with layer regeneration. In scenarios 2 and 3, the
Where τa is the applied shear stress, N/m2; ρ is layer regenerates in a linear way; and in scenario
the density of water, kg/m3; g is the acceleration 4 and 5, the regeneration is a function of excess
due to gravity, m/s2; Rh is the hydraulic radius, shear stress.
m; h0 is the hydraulic gradient, m/m; λ is the
518
Table 1 R2 between MSX and EPANET model
Scenarios R2 Scenarios R2
1 0.9968
2 0.5771 4 0.4395
3 0.5763 5 0.5724
2.3 Discussion
(a) Scenario 1: Without regeneration
As is displayed in Figure 2(a), high consistency
between turbidity modelled by EPANET 2 and
MSX can be observed with a high R2 value of
0.9968 (Table 1). The trend of turbidity and the
layer shear strength also corroborates that the
formation of discolouration complies with the
cohesive transport model. In scenarios 2 to 5,
due to regeneration instead of staying stable,
layer shear strength drops down in stage 3 and 6
where lower applied shear occurs. Therefore,
(b) Scenario 2: Linear regeneration (P’=0.00005) when applied shear stress goes higher in stage 4
(although not as high as that in stage 2), material
is mobilized and turbidity generated.
In Scenario 2 and 4, parameters used in MSX are
the same with those in EPANET 2. Comparing
the two regeneration path visually, turbidity
modelled from the linear one is much more
similar with the EPANET results and by
mathematical comparison, a higher R2 square
value is obtained from this pattern than the other
(c)Scenario3: Linear regeneration (P’=0.000007) one (0.57 and 0.44 respectively). It seems
therefore that in EPANET modelling,
regeneration is modelled in a linear way.
From Figure 2(b), it can be observed in the third
and last stage, the layer shear strength drops
quickly due to the high materials regeneration
rate and a little bit of turbidity is observed in
these two stages. In scenario 4, it can be
observed from Figure 2(d) and Table 1 that the
(d) Scenario 4: Regeneration is function of goodness of fit for turbidity from MSX and
excess shear stress (P’=0.000007) EPANET in stage 4 (after layer regeneration) is
not as satisfying as that in other stages. The
reason may be that with these model
parameters, the material layers regenerate
slower and so does decay of layer shear
strength. Thus, when a new higher hydraulic
shear is applied, the difference between the
new shear stress and the current layer shear
strength is much smaller leading to a relatively
less turbidity.
(e) Scenario 5: Regeneration is function of
excess shear stress (P’=0.0002) To achieve a better fit, regeneration coefficients
in Scenario 3 and 5 are adjusted and results are
Figure 2 (a-e) Results of MSX and EPANET presented in Figure 2(c) and Figure 2(e). In
scenario 3, a lower regeneration rate is applied
comparing with scenario 2. Thus in stage 3 and 6,
the gradient of layer shear strength decrease is
gentler and no turbidity comes out in these
stages. In scenario 5, the regeneration rate
coefficient is enlarged by 4 times comparing
with scenario 4 and, the layer shear strength
519
comes to equilibrium with the hydraulic shear at 3.2 Results
the end of stage 3. Therefore, more turbidity is
3.2.1 Best fit results for the whole data set
achieved and the R2 between the MSX and
EPANET results reaches 0.5724. Take the one year’s data as a whole, iterated
simulations are made to determine the
It is observed that when regeneration is taken
parameters used in both MSX and EPANET
into account, the peak value of turbidity
modelling that lead to best fit between field data
modelled by EPANET becomes larger and the
and modelled ones. The modelled turbidity,
decrease gradient in every stage is also
layer shear strength and applied shear stress
diminished. This may indicate that in the
using MSX are presented in Figure 4 and a
EPANET model, layer regeneration also
comparison of turbidity from MSX and
contributes in stages where only material
EPANET is displayed in Figure 5.
mobilisation occurs in the concept of MSX
model.
3 FIELD STUDY
3.1Introduction of study site
In this study, turbidity modelling using EPANET
MSX is applied to a long term trunk main data
set. A year’s flow and turbidity measurements
were taken from a 15km steel trunk main with a
diameter of 800mm and a roughness of 0.5mm
in Rainton, UK. From November 2009 to
November 2010, hydraulic data (flow rate) was
measured continuously at an interval of 15min
while the measurement of turbidity started from
January 2010 with the same test interval. The Figure 4 Results of turbidity and layer shear
flow rate and corresponding turbidity are strength from MSX modelling
displayed in Figure 3. Flow in this trunk main
varies from 8 ML/day to 24 ML/day throughout
the year. From January to May, the flow stays
relatively constant at an average value about 15
ML/day; then it drops dramatically to about
9ML/day and from middle July the flow rises up
again reaching a peak mean value of about
20ML/day.
Figure 5 Comparison of turbidity results from

MSX and EPANET modelling
3.2.2 Different parameters in different stages
Take the data set as a whole, parameters are
determined by iterated modelling to achieve best
fit. However when looking into some individual
part of the data, draw backs can be found.
During different period of the year, different
mobilisation rate and regeneration rate
coefficients used in MSX modelling are found to
achieve best fitting. The parameters and
corresponding R2 values are listed in Table 2 and
parameters leads to best fit in each period are
Figure3 Flow and Turbidity data of Rainton
presented in Table 3.
trunk main
Given the hydraulic force data, turbidity is
modelled using EPANET MSX from January
2010 to November 2010. The regeneration
process is assumed as function of excess shear
stress and simulations with different parameters
are carried out.
520
Table 2 Parameters used in MSX in different suddenly drops and then increases incrementally
time and the corresponding R2 keeping lower than the layer shear strength.
Thus according to the model, no turbidity comes
R2 values out whereas in field data, released materials are
Parameters Jan May Aug Oct observed in this stage during these stages
Whole causing inconsistency between modelled results
to to to to
year and field data. From January to May, the model
May Jul Oct Nov
fails to describe the turbidity with an R2 less than
P’=1×10-7 0 even with best fitting parameters chosen by
-0.02 0.11 -0.06 0.48 0.23
P=3×10-5 iterated simulations. The possible reason may be
P’=3×10-7 in this period, the hydraulic conditions are
-0.04 0.12 -0.05 0.34 0.17
P=1×10-5 relatively stable and according to the mechanism
of the model, material layers are conditioned by
P’=2×10-7 the daily peak shear stress. Thus without
-0.03 0.07 0.06 0.24 0.15
P=1×10-5 apparent hydraulic disturbance, only a bit
P’=3×10-7 turbidity is generated from the model whereas
-0.19 -0.73 -0.69 0.53 0.01 high turbidity events are detected in field data. It
P=4×10-5
might be possible that during this period of time,
Table 3 Best fit parameters for different time apart from layer regeneration, other processes
and the corresponding R2 also occur affecting the turbidity in the system.
Jan to May to Aug to Oct to Comparing the R2 value in Table 2, it can be
May Jul Oct Nov pointed out that parameters work best in one
P’ 1×10-7 3×10-7 2×10-7 3×10-7 period are not the finest during other periods.
And models that do not fit so good for the whole
P 3×10-5 1×10-5 1×10-5 4×10-5 year data however can achieve good results in a
R2 -0.02 0.1216 0.0594 0.5334 certain period. The parameters which bring best
fit in each stage are compared in Table 3. The
3.3 Discussion regeneration rate and mobilisation rate might be
somehow in connection with the hydraulic
From Figure 4, it can be indicated that in the first
conditions. Comparing the mobilisation rate
half year, the layer shear strength stays
coefficient (P) in lower flow rates (from May to
comparatively stable which may be due to the
August) with that in higher hydraulic forces
stable hydraulic forces. Then from May to
(from January to May and from October to
August, the conditioned layer shear strength
November), it might be suggested that with
decays due to the material regeneration. Then
higher hydraulic forces, the materials are much
from September, the applied shear stress goes
easier to be released. The possible reason may be
higher than the layer shear strength and large
that the forces created by higher flow are
amounts of turbidity are observed. R2 between
stronger and much easier to overcome the
the modelled and field collected data is
binding forces in cohesive layers. Thus with
calculated as 0.23. By visually comparison, it
higher applied shear stress, the rate of material
can be suggested that the model fits best after
supply is larger. The regeneration coefficient P’
September when flow rate rises apparently after
is larger from May to July and from October to
a period of regeneration. Together with the
November during which dramatic hydraulic
consistency between MSX and EPANET shown
changes take place. These parameter variations
in Figure 5, MSX can be regarded as a useful
may also be attributed to the seasonal effects
tool to model turbidity.
linking with biofilms. Studies on the microbial
R2 values in Table 2 and Table 3 confirm the biofilms in the distribution system are
finding that model works best during October to undergoing (Dienes et al., 2010) and the relation
November when high hydraulic forces occur between the formation of biofilms and
after a period of low flow rates. This trend can discolouration may be studied in the future.
be observed in all of the four models listed in
Table 2 irrespective of different regeneration
rates and mobilisation rates. From May to 4 CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER STUDY
October, the modelled turbidity is much lower
 MSX is calibrated as a feasible method to
than that collected in field. The reason may be
model turbidity. High consistence was observed
that in this classic model, layer regeneration is
between turbidity modelled by EPANET and
assumed as a reverse process of material
MSX. When MSX modelling is applied to a long
mobilisation which is not the real case in field
time trunk main data, acceptable agreement
tests. At the beginning of regeneration process
between modelled and field collect turbidity is
(May to July) and the successive period from
obtained.
August to October, the applied shear stress
521
 Layer shear strength was modelled and Boxall, J B and Saul, A J (2005) Modeling
presented using MSX. The behaviour of layer discoloration in potable water distribution
shear strength and corresponding turbidity systems. Journal of Environmental Engineering-
modelled by MSX corroborate the cohesive Asce, Vol. 131, pp. 716-725.
transport model. With greater difference between
Boxall, J B, Saul, A J, Gunstead J D and Dewis,
applied shear stress and current layer shear
N (2003) Regeneration of Discoloration in
strength, more turbidity is observed.
Distribution Systems. ASCE, EWRI, World
 It is shown that EPANET models Water and Environmental Resources Conference
regeneration in a linear way by comparing in Philadelphis, USA.
turbidity results with MSX that uses two
Boxall, J B, Skipworth, P J and Saul, A.J. (2001)
different regeneration paths.
A novel approach to modelling sediment
 When modelling with regeneration, peak movement in distribution mains based on
turbidity obtained by EPANET is higher than particle characteristics. CCWI conference,
that form MSX and during a turbidity event, the Leicester, UK, 7-12 September.
gradient of turbidity decay is smaller. It is
Deines, P, Sekar, R, Husband, P S, Boxall, J B,
suggested that regeneration affects EPANET
Osborn, A M and Biggs, C A (2010) A new
model results where only material mobilisation
coupon design for simultaneous analysis of in
occurs.
situ microbial biofilm formation and community
 Long time trunk main modelling suggests structure in drinking water distribution systems.
that the model works best in the late of the year Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol.
when dramatic hydraulic increases take place 87, pp. 749-756.
after a period of lower flow rates.
Gauthier, V, Barbeau, B, Millette, R, Block, J C,
 Mobilisation rates and regeneration rates Prevost, M and Iwa (2001). Suspended particles
that fit the model best to the field data vary in the drinking water of two distribution systems.
during the year. Parameters that achieve best fit
Husband, P S and Boxall, J B (2008) Water
in one period may fail in another one.
Distribution System Asset Deterioration and
This work verified the feasible of MSX in Impact on Water Quality – a case study. World
modelling discolouration. With the flexibility of Environmental and Water Resources Congress,
MSX in which users are allowed to change May 2008 Ahupua’a, Hawaii, ASCE.
model equations, further work may be carried
Husband, S and Boxall, J B (2010) Field Studies
out to model regeneration coping with various
of Discoloration in Water Distribution Systems:
changed layer shear strengths using MSX.
Model Verification and Practical Implications.
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parameters change during the year which may be 136, pp. 86-94.
attributed to the seasonal effects such as biofilms.
Husband, P S and Boxall, J B (2011) Asset
Then it might be essential to work on the effect
deterioration and discolouration in water
of biofilms on discolouration events and how
distribution systems. Water Research, Vol. 45,
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Vreeburg, J H G and Boxall, J B (2007)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS systems: A review. Water Research, Vol. 41, pp.
519-529.
I truly appreciate my supervisor Prof. Joby
Boxall for his help and suggestions. Wricke, B, Henning, L, Korth, A, Vreeburg, J et
al. (2007) Particles in relation to water quality
I truly appreciate Dr. Stewart Husband for all the
deterioration and problems in the network.
help during my dissertation time.
TECHNEAU report, European Commission.
REFERENCES
Boxall, J B and Prince, R A (2006) Modelling
discolouration in a Melbourne (Australia)
potable water distribution system. Journal of
Water Supply Research and Technology-Aqua,
Vol. 55, pp. 207-219.
522
The influence of steel connections on the fire resistance of composite

steel-framed buildings
Zitong Yang
ABSTRACT Fire resistance on steel structures has been a popular topic these days, in this paper a
two nodded end-plate connection element between steel beam and column has been modelled for tests
under different fire conditions. This is a 2D model and the symmetrical method is used for easier
analysis. Beams and columns are choosing from standard I sections and connections are designed
according to green book. The software which was used here is Vulcan developed by the University of
Sheffield together with a series of parametric studies. The main object of the failure mode due to
bending, axial tension, compression and vertical shear under different fires are considered, also the
behaviour of the whole structure and the connection in cooling phase is anther object. After the analysis
we can find out the influence of the connection on the structural behaviour of steel and composite
buildings in fire. The results show us different connection types deeply affect the deflections of beams
in a steel structure especially under ISO834 fire and don’t affect a lot about axial forces in a beam even
in cooling period. Also different heated places would changes some results.
1 INTRODUCTION
software. Fire temperatures are calculated
Nowadays steel structures are used more and
according to Eurocode with the spreadsheet
more widely in human’s lives instead of stones
and tests are set in 120 minutes. Connections
and woods. We clearly know that buildings
may fail due to axial force, shear force or
made of steel have a lot of advantages such as
bending moment on the end-plate or bolts,
its light weight and large space, however the
however, since we are going to find out the
fire safety really need to be considered as
effect of different type of connection of a
steels are easily got failed in high temperature.
structure in fire, the behaviour of unprotected
A large amount of tests about the performance
beams are taking into account to determine the
of composite steel-framed structures in fire has
structure’s fail mode. What's more, the
been carried out in the past two decades.
behaviour of connections under cooling phase
Actually research on fire resistance of steel
is another important object to be investigated.
connections is not so much as beams and
columns. Fortunately, we still could get some 2. METHODOLOGY
useful information from previous tests, and this
2.1 Model’s Set Up
also proved that connections did an important
role in a whole steel structure. And previous Symmetrical method is used for the analysis in
tests were always about isolated members, VULCAN to save a lot of time. And for these
Cardington fire tests [1] also proved us that series of tests a 2D sub-structure is shown as
steel members in a building had greater fire fig. 2.1. Beams (UB 533 are
resistance than that of isolated members. In
this paper we are going to discuss a steel
connection’s behaviour under different kind of
fire conditions in a structure.
VULCAN, a non-linear finite element
programme, developed by the University of
Sheffield for modelling and analysing the
behaviour of elements or structures in fire.
Here the behaviour of different kind of Fig. 2.1 2-diminsion steel structure model
connections of a 2D frame under different fire
conditions is modelled to analysis in this
523
unprotected with the length of 9m and columns rising. Obviously, beams will get a higher
(UC 305 305 97) are under protected. Both temperature than the columns since it's not
of the beams and columns are in S275, 4 points under protected, and in real conditions
at the central of each beam are shown as connections will get a temperature higher than
follows. 3 nodded model is standing for a the column but lower than the beams. (fig. 2.4)
beam or column and a beam is separated into 9
Natural fire
elements. The grid is not showing here but we
1200
could find it out easily in the input VULCAN ISO fire
files. 1000
Beam(natur
End-plate connection is used for analysing in al)
the paper, and it's designed according to the 800 Beam(ISO)
green book. Speciment is shown in fig. 2.2, the
end-plate is S275 573 250 mm with 4 rows 600 Column(nat
ural)
of tension bolts and 1 row of shear bolts. 400 Column(ISO)
Here we just used the same connection but
Connection(
assuming to different types. 200 natural)
Connection(
0 ISO)
0 30 60 90 120 (min)
Fig. 2.4 Time-temperature curves of
unprotected beams, protected columns and
connections
2.2 Characteristic Study
Our purpose is to investigate the influence of
the connection on the structural behaviour of
steel and composite buildings in fire, therefore
Fig. 2.2 End-plate connection details
there are two important variables: fire and
Fire resistant tests have its own standard, to connection. Normally for conventional design,
compare a different reaction under different a connection between steel beam and column
conditions, we choose nature fire and ISO834 is always assumed to be pin or rigid. While no
(ISO 1975) fire separately. Time-temperature bending moment is transferred as pinned and
curves of these two fires are shown in fig. 2.3. no relative rotation exists as rigid. However,
1200 for real conditions, there is a kind of
performance of realistic connection between
Temperature(℃)
1000
these two extremes, which is semi-rigid
800 Natural connection. Also, Nethercot (1985) had a
fire serious of numerous research studies shown
600 ISO fire that all connections would transmit bending
400 moment from connected beams to columns
200 even in the most flexible realistic connection.
Hence the connection could be assumed to
0 three kinds as rigid, pinned and semi-rigid. We
0 30 60 90 120 have discussed above about the fire types as
Time (min)
natural fire and ISO834 fire, while when we
Fig. 2.3 Time-temperature curves of Natural set a beam or column not in fire, it should be at
fire and ISO834 fire ambient surroundings. The connections should
be put in a whole structure to discuss, then we
Beams and columns here are all in I-section, could imagine that fire could heat different
our temperature is distributed differently on places in fire. The third characteristic is the
the top flange, web and bottom flange, also heated places. In this paper three different fire
different along the beam and column length. conditions are considered as shown in figure
Time- temperature curves of unprotected beam 2.5. Fist one is still whole frame heated, the
and protected columns under different kind of behaviour of each beam are considered. The
fire are calculated by the spreadsheet second and third condition is only heated one
according to Eurocode 3. [2] Natural fire part of beam, in this substructure, fire is only
achieves its highest temperature of 800 at under one beam.
about 38 minutes and then turns into cooling
period, while ISO834 fire gets similar
temperature before 38 minutes and then keeps
524
mm
0 pin
-200 semi-
rigid
-400
rigid
-600
-800
-1000
0 30 60 90 120 min
Fig. 3.2 Time-deflections of different kind of

connections under ISO834 fire
0
POINT A
-200
POINT B
-400
POINT C
Fig. 2.5 Different fire conditions -600 POINT D
-800
3. VULCAN RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 0 30 60 90 120
These 3 characteristics give us 18 different
Fig. 3.3 Time (min)-deflection (mm) of beams
cases to be discussed. The main object need to
with semi-rigid connection under different fire
be considered is about the failure mode due to
conditions (Natural fire)
bending, tension, compression or shear force
and the influence of axial tensile force of the Connection types have a significant effect on
connected beam on the connections. the beams deflection, but they don't affect such
much on the axial forces in the beams. As
3.1 Basic Results
shown in figures below, we could easily find
First 6 cases of the tests are under whole out that connections almost behave the same.
framed heated conditions. Under natural fire, In early stage pin connection performs like
results show that structure will not fail due to rigid connection and in late stage it performs
bending moment since the beam get its like semi-rigid connection. However, the
maximum deflection at 36.5 minutes (with the forces of the connections at different positions
beam’s temperature of 817.025 ) and are very different from each other. P4 has a
decrease in the cooling period. But under force of almost 3 times than it at P1 no matter
ISO834 fire structure will keep on rising its early as tension force or later as compressive
deflection with the rising of the temperature force. We could know that under natural fire
and fail at last. We can find that pin connection during the heating period the compressive
always get a maximum deflection during the force in the beams are mainly supported by the
whole tests while under ISO834 fire rigid thermal restrain of the column and during the
connection could bear a longer time. cooling period, beams have a large tension
mm force due to beam shrinkage which may occur
0 a tensile failure in the structure. While under
pin
-100 ISO834 fire, beams also have the significant
-200 differences between different beams because
-300 semi- of the thermal restraint of the columns.
-400 rigid
-500 rigid
-600
-700
-800
0 30 60 90 120 min
Fig. 3.1 Predicted deflections of different kind

of connections under natural fire
525
1500 I and Fire II are both partial heated. Results
shown in the figure indicate that under natural
pin
1000 fire, different fire heated places doesn’t affect
500 a lot on a beam deflection. Especially for a
Semi
semi-rigid connection, they are almost the
0 -rigid
same. For a rigid connection, fire I condition
Rigid did same effect as whole frame heated but fire
-500
II condition get more deformations. For a pin
-1000 connection (actually, we always assume the
-1500 connection as pinned for convenient
0 30 60 90 120 calculation and analysis) partial heated
condition will contribute more deflection than
Fig. 3.4 Time (min)-Axial forces (KN) of a whole frame heated structure. Connections
beams with different connection under whole under ISO834 fire always get failure of
frame heated fire conditions (natural fire) bending moment, Semi-rigid connection is the
earliest one get to fail no matter under which
KN
1500 kind of heat condition, rigid connection always
P1 can bear a longer time during fire.(Fig. 3.7)
1000
P2 0
500
P3
0 -200 Semi
P4 -rigid
-500 -400
Rigid
-1000
-600
-1500 Pin
0 30 60 90 120 min -800
Fig. 3.5 Predicted axial force of different -1000

connections under natural fire
-1200
1500 KN 0 30 60 90 120
P1
Fig. 3.7 Time-Deflection of beams with
1000 P2 different connection under fire II conditions
P3 (ISO834 fire)
500 P4
No matter in which condition of fire, pin
0 connection always get a fewest axial force, and
in early stage (when the beam is in
compression), semi-rigid connection almost
-500
perform the same as rigid connection. Pin
0 30 60 90 120 min
connection usually turns into tension earlier,
Fig. 3.6 Predicted axial force of different after that force in semi-rigid connection will
connections under ISO834 fire change to compression. In later stage (when
the beam is in tension), semi-rigid connection
Other 12 cases are occurring under partial fire almost perform the same as pin connection. In
conditions. Steel structures always have a fig. 3.9, fire I is showing the axial force of
strong connectivity which means any part of connection P1 (under heated), it’s easy to find
the structure fails may occur an overall out that Fire I always create fewer forces than
collapse. Partial fire conditions give us a other fire conditions while whole frame heated
comparison of different heat positions, the create most. Because the connections are not
result shows that different fire conditions won't fail of axial forces under ISO834 fire, although
affect a lot on the beams’ deflection except each fire condition make a different maximum
using different connections, but axial forces in compression force in beam, when the structure
the beam still have an important relationship is failed, forces inside are almost same.
with the positions. Figures shown below are
using semi-rigid connection as an example. We
have discussed before that previous
experiments told us that an element’s
behaviour is very different from itself in a
structure, now let’s find out the difference. Fire
526
1500 not easy for a beam to get failure, or any fire
conditions under natural fire if only the central
1200 semi- part are heated then the building shouldn’t get
rigid
900 failed. But when the fire is affect at the central
rigid part of a structure (just like fire II condition),
600
structures may fail faster even than whole
300 pin frame heated.
0 While under ISO834 fire, different connection
-300 has a similar affect about the axial forces in
beams as under natural fire, that’s why axial
0 30 60 90 120
forces of connection P4 is still as 3 times as
Fig. 3.8 Time (min)-Axial forces (KN) of P1. In early stage semi-rigid connections
beams with different connection under whole almost behave the same as rigid connections
frame heated fire conditions (ISO834 fire) while perform the same as pin connection in
late stage, then forces in rigid connection is
1500 few smaller than others. However this
whole compression force is too small to make a
1000
frame tensile failure in the beams and don’t need to
500 P1 be considered anymore. Since temperature
Fire I
0 under ISO834 fire is rising all the time, all the
components got broken during the test, unlike
-500 Fire II an axial force, same connection under different
-1000 conditions produces almost a same deflection
and different connection types have a large
-1500 change. Simi- rigid connection is the one most
0 30 60 90 120 easily get failed, rigid connection could stand
for a longest time while pin connection could
Fig. 3.9 Time (min)-Axial forces (KN) of bear a maximum deflection. From fire time,
beams with semi-rigid connection under structure under fire I will get failed first and
different fire conditions (Natural fire) whole framed fire will be the second.
3.2 Conclusion
From previous analysis, comparing with the 4. CONCLUSION
data we have got from program VULCAN we
can give some conclusions about the influence Fire is really a serious threaten to humans, in
of the endplate steel connections in a steel this project a 2-noded connection element in a
structure under fire. steel structure has been modelled for tests. 18
different cases are carrying out to analysis the
While under natural fire, because of the fire influence of bolted end plate connection
condition beams in this project always have a between unprotected steel beams and protected
largest deflection at 36.5 minutes at steel columns under different fire conditions.
817.025 ℃ ( the highest temperature which a Thus one object is about the failure mode of
beam could achieve under a natural fire). We the connection subjected to different fires
know the structure won’t get fail of bending (natural fire and ISO834 fire), second one is
moments but pin connection still have a largest investigation the behaviour of connection in
deflection while rigid connection get a cooling phase of the fire.
minimum one under natural fire. After this
beams turn into the cooling phase and show us Researches before have checked for this model
an affect that they wouldn’t get a bending and it is confirmed that this 2-noded model is
failure. In fact, the beam hasn’t got failure suitable for previous simple and
during the test, however although it’s surely of component-based model. We have discussed
not having bending moment failure, a tensile that steel structure is easily get broken because
failure in the beam is expected, especially in of partial failure especially in fire, generally
central point of the whole structure. From the central part of a structure is the most
data we could see that the types of connections dangerous part probably with maximum axial
do not affect any internal forces of the beams, force and deflection. In fact, a structure under
but because of the restraint of column and the ISO834 fire is usually fail due to bending
thermal shrinkage of the beam axial forces at moment (large deflection) and is deeply
P4 always get a 3 times value larger than P1, affected by connection types, combined with
and during the cooling phase such a strong fire engineering the rigid (or pin) connection
force could be an certain to make the structure should be more suitable for reducing damages
get broken. So under fire I condition it’s still and losses in a fire accident no matter which
527
part of the structure is under fire. While a
structure is in cooling phase of the fire, beams
REFRENCE
won’t produce a large deflection but will fail
due to axial tensile force generated by the [1] The Cardington full-scale fire tests,
restraint of columns. So when the structure is Swinden Technology Centre. The behaviour of
under cooling phase, the central need more multi-storey steel-framed buildings in fire: A
attentions. European joint research programme. British
Steel plc, Rotherham, UK; 1999
In this project, all the cases are carrying on a
same bolted end-plate connection, while in the [2] Santiago, A. Behaviour of beam-to column
future tests about extended end-plate steel joints under natural fire. Ph.D. Thesis.
connection or some other kind of connections University of Coimbra; 20
could be done for further research.
528
Active Control of Human Induced Vibrations in Floors
Sina Yousefpour Moghadam

ABSTRACT Vibration serviceability issues of floors have become a subject of research in recent
years. Active vibration control (AVC) is considered to be a suitable technique for the mitigating
human induced vibrations in floor structures. Some AVC control laws previously applied to reduce
human-induced floor vibrations in researches and also investigated in this study are: direct velocity
feedback (DVF), direct acceleration feedback (DAF) and compensated acceleration feedback (CAF).
Dynamics of a library floor via finite element modelling in ANSYS has been assessed and the above
mentioned control laws have been applied to reduce its response. The models have been simulated
using Matlab Simulink and the transfer function solved. After applying AVC laws, all three control
laws had acceptable performance but due to the high frequency nature of this floor, direct
compensator acceleration feedback control has proven to be most effective with 74% reduction in the
maximum transient vibration value (MTVV).
dynamics is considerable, performance of these

1 INTRODUCTION
devices is not sufficient (Ivan M.Dıaz 2010). In
Investigations in human-induced vibration have this situation active control approach can be a
been carried out recently in response to proper substitute for passive or semi-active
significant vibration experienced in numerous systems. An active vibration control (AVC)
modern civil engineering structures. Design of system essentially is comprised of a sensor for
light, slender, open plan structures, spanning monitoring the response of structure, a control
long distances have been more in demand due to algorithm for computing control signal and an
progresses in structural technology but these actuator for applying control force.
advancements have increased vibration
In this project mitigation of disturbance
problems. Structures such as office buildings,
vibrations in a library floor in Manchester by
footbridges, pedestrian structures, gymnasiums,
performing AVC is demandable via three
sports halls, shopping malls, airport terminals,
different control laws and investigating the
staircases, dance halls, concert halls, spectator
galleries and high-diving platforms are efficiency of each one.
susceptible to human-induced vibrations.
Structural vibrations caused due to human
motions seldom produce safety or fatigue 2 Background to Human-induced Vibration
concerns for the structure however they have the Serviceability
potential to raise serviceability issues. Vast
amount of research are in progress to recognize 2.1 The Nature of Human Excitation
the nature of human vibration serviceability Disturbing vibrations in civil engineering
problems, like human dynamic loading, human structures like floors, footbridges, grandstands
structure interaction and human response to and staircases are mostly a consequence of
vibration. Employing passive or semi-active human activities. Dynamic loads can be
devices is another option. The effectiveness of provoked into the structures by the occupants’
these devices is regularly restricted because of rhythmical body motion during activities such
their passive nature that forces them to be tuned as walking, running, jumping, dancing, hand-
to a single vibration mode. Where clapping, and lateral body sways. As a result of
consideration of multiple vibration modes is such human activities, a resonant, transient,
required or the rate of changes occurred in floor
529
steady-state or impulsive response of structures be mitigated either by isolation systems, which
may occur. Isolating humans from the structure absorb energies through reducing their
they are occupying is not possible, unlike with transition to primary structures, or by absorbing
machinery. Normal walking of pedestrians most of the inputted energy by means of
typically has frequencies between 1.5-3.0 Hz employing passive supplemental damping
whereas running/jogging more often has devices.
frequencies above 3 Hz.
3.2 Active Vibration Control Techniques
2.2 Floors The key feature of active control is employing
an external energy for powering the control
Floors should not experience unpredicted
actuators to generate control forces for
deflections, cracking or undesirable vibrations
mitigating vibrations of structure. Capability of
when they are designed to satisfy serviceability
adapting to diverse conditions and playing a
requirements. In recent years a significant raise
role as a controller in different vibration modes
in unwanted floor vibrations has been observed
of structures is a distinct feature of active
by researchers in response to human movement.
control. In the case of variability in active
Previous floor designs were based on satisfying
control, the design approach chosen depends on
static deflections and span/depth ratios, which
the active controls devices nature, controlled
could widely provide sufficient mass and
target characteristics and objectives of preferred
stiffness properties to control undesirable
performance.
vibrations. Designing light-weight floor
structures with longer span is a result of Detecting undesirable vibrations via sensors and
improvement in steel and concrete materials as restraining them by actuators is a typical
well as employing computer-optimized designs. mechanism of active control operation.
Enhancing floor structures to provide
serviceability requirements for a wide range of
activities has been in demand in recent years.
Floors are usually divided into low frequency,
less than 8-10 Hz, and high frequency, larger
than 8-10 Hz. The response of low frequency
floors to periodic human excitation tends to be
in resonant type, while high-frequency floors
lean towards having a dominant transient
response with decaying among individual
footfalls. Figure 0-1 - (a) Proof-mass electromagnetic
shaker (APS Dynamics Model 113
electrodynamics shaker). (b) Piezoelectric
accelerometer (Endevco 7754-1000) mounted
3 Mitigation of Human-induced Vibrations on a leveled base plate (top view).
Vibration mitigation can be defined as
improving vibration performance of civil 3.3 Semi-active Vibration Control Techniques
engineering structures with respect to providing
comfort for the human occupants and for safety Semi-active devices can have adjustable
reasons. In addition to this, it can also be the properties (stiffness and damping) during a
design process of new structures; those are period of time however they cannot insert
prone to human-induced vibrations according to energy into the controlled systems. Therefore
analysis. Installing tuned mass dampers and they are considered as a compromise between
viscous dampers to solve the London passive and active control systems.
Millennium Footbridge serviceability problem is
a typical example of vibration mitigation.
Different techniques such as changing mass, 4 Control Laws and Mechanisms of Active
stiffness or damping properties or via vibration Control
isolation can mitigate vibrations. In general, An active control system can perform as an
passive, active and semi-active are the main open-loop or closed-loop (feedback) control. In
categories of vibration mitigation techniques. closed-loop control the feedback of structural
3.1 Passive Vibration Mitigation Techniques responses are determined by the control forces,
Passive techniques can mitigate vibrations by while in open-loop control the control forces are
absorbing their input energies. Vibrations can applied to the structure just by measuring
530
excitations. Previously control commands to When a passive strategy participates in the
actuator were produced by multiplying sensor control system, active control tends to use less
outputs by a gain matrix, while in the new power source. Hybrid control is a combination
method controlled mode states are achieved of active and passive devices, therefore it can
from sensor outputs via a state estimator and reduce the restriction of each system when they
controlled actuator commands are produced by are acting alone.
applying gains to estimated states. Control gains
can be chosen either by pole placement or
optimal control strategies. Active mass 5 Control engineering
drivers/dampers, active tendons and hybrid
systems are used for mitigation of human- 5.1 Effects of Integral and Derivative Control
induced vibrations as active control Actions on System Performance
mechanisms.
5.1.1 Integral Control Action
4.1 Control methods Adding integral control action in the
control methods are categorized as:”single-input proportional control of a plant which has a
single-output frequency domain methods transfer function without an integrator 1/s can
(classical control), state-space methods which eliminate its steady-state error and offset due to
allow multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) a step input.
control (focused on time domain control), and
5.1.2 Derivative Control Action
modern control theory, which looks at MIMO
control in the frequency domain.” Classical Increasing sensitivity of the controller is a result
control is mostly capable of using low-order of adding derivative control action to a
models of structure in contrast to state-space proportional one.
control theory which is well-matched with
vector differential equation via employing 5.2 Root-Locus Method
matrix theory to illustrate the vibrations of
Satisfying the characteristic equation of a
structures.
system through values of s that cause transfer
function around the loop has value of -1 is the
4.2 Active Mass Dampers
main purpose of root-locus method. In other
Active mass dampers (AMDs) tend to adjust the words, Root locus analysis is a graphical
performance of TMDs through inserting control method for examining how the roots of a system
force via an active control system. An actuator change with variation of a certain system
which is supplying control force is substituted parameter, commonly the gain of a feedback
for damping and spring devices of TMDs. system (OGATA 2002).
5.2.1 Root-Locus Approach to Control System

The vibration problem of an office floor and
Design
chemistry laboratory floor under human-induced
vibrations has been improved as a result of Root-locus scheme is a graphical criteria for
implementations of an active mass damper clarifying of the locations of closed-loop poles
(AMD). The rms acceleration level of office by an understanding of the positions of the
floor and chemistry laboratory floor reduced open-loop zeros and poles under changing the
from 0.0057 g to .0017 g and .0037 g to .0009 g gain from zero to infinity. The effect of
respectively. adjusting the gain is obviously traceable through
this method. In fact this method points out the
4.3 Active Tendon Control necessity of reshaping the root loci instead of
adjusting the gain to achieve desired
A successful employment of piezoelectric performance (OGATA 2002).
actuators on truss structure was demonstrated by
The European Space Agency together with 5.2.2 Effects of the Addition of Poles
Micromega Dynamics (2004). The effectiveness
Stretching the root locus to the right side and
of using piezo actuators (APAs) as an active
making the system more unstable as well as a
damping was highlighted through an active
reduction in the settling of the response are the
tendon control experiment. Investigating the
effects of adding a pole to an open-loop transfer
performance of a new active tendon mechanism
function (OGATA 2002).
was the focus of ARCOP project.
4.4 Hybrid Systems
531
5.2.3 Effects of the Addition of Zeros component size, properties of materials and
exciting power (Slotine & Li, 1991).
Stretching the root locus to the left side and
making the system more stable as well as 5.5.2 On-off Nonlinearity
increasing the settling of the response are the
On-off nonlinearity is a severe case of
effects of adding a zero to an open-loop transfer
saturation. When the slope of the linear part
function (OGATA 2002).
becomes vertical on-off or relay nonlinearity
5.3 System Compensation occurs (Slotine & Li, 1991).
Enhancing the system performance by setting 5.5.3 Dead-zone
the gain is not sufficient in many practical
cases, and moreover in the case of frequency In various physical devices there is no output
where increasing the gain value improves the since the input magnitude exceeds a confident
steady-state behavior but at the same time value. This type of input-output is called a dead-
reduces the stability of the system (OGATA zone (Slotine & Li, 1991).
2002). Lead, lag, and lag-lead are typical kinds
of compensators.
6 Finite Element Modelling
5.3.1 Lead Compensator
Proportional derivative (PD) compensator tends The main aims of carrying out a Finite Element
to increase the compensation as the frequency is analysis for this study are:
rising. This causes a reduction in attenuation at Achieving an accurate measurement of
high frequency and lead compensator can fundamental and higher modes of floor
remove this disadvantage by inserting a pole at vibration and their corresponding modal mass.
higher frequency. Modifying the initial FE model in order to
match its modes and modal masses to their
5.3.2 PI compensator experimentally measured counterparts.
Indication of a reasonable interaction between
Proportional plus integral (PI) tends to
the upper and lower floor.
eliminate the static error via increasing the gain
at low frequency.
6.1 Floor description
5.3.3 Lag compensator
The test structure is the third and fourth floors
Lag compensator has the same properties of of a four floor steel frame building where a
lead compensator but its pole and zero are library is located on the third floor and the
placed in reverse order. fourth floor is used as a gym .The plans of these
floors and a cross-section of the building are
5.3.4 PID compensator
presented in appendix A . The structure is a
The Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative composite steel-concrete floor in a steel frame.
(PID) are a combination of PD and PI The total dimension in Y direction is 58.57 m
compensators. for both third and fourth floors and dimensions
in X direction for third and fourth floors are
5.5 Continuous and Discontinuous 36.576 m and 18.288 m, respectively. The
Nonlinearities height of floors is 5 m. The steel decking
These are two types of nonlinearity, continuous supports the in-situ concrete slab in the
and discontinuous. Linear functions cannot direction orthogonal to primary and secondary
locally approximate discontinuous beams. Table 6.-1-shows the comparison
nonlinearities, thereby it is called "hard" between FE model and modal test results.
nonlinearity.(Slotine & Li, 1991).
5.5.1 Saturation 6.2 Floor dynamics
A device can be said to be in saturation when, For calculating the floor dynamics, the transfer
by increasing the input from a small value, its function can be introduced as an sum of second-
corresponding output will increase as well order systems achieved using modal analysis
since a certain level in which the increase of with determined acceleration (output) and force
input does not lead to output increase and the (input). The transfer function can be represented
output keeps its maximum value. Saturation as below:
occurs as a result of a limitation in its
532
N
is2 Ka  s2 1
G (s)   Ga ( s)  
i 1 s 2  2 i  i s   i2 (1)
2
s  2 a a s   2
a s (2)
s = jω
ω The frequency
 i Inverse of the modal mass 6.3 Sensor Dynamics
i Damping ratio
The sensor dynamics i.e. the dynamics of the
i Natural frequency associated to the i th integrator circuit used in these studies can be
Table 0-1- Modification of the FE model modeled by the filter in
s
Mode Natural Natural Natural G m ( s) 
Frequency Frequency Frequency s  2 m m s   m2
2
(3)
[Hz] [Hz] [Hz]
6.4 Control Laws
Modal Test Initial FE Updated FE
Modal Modal
The control laws typically employed for
mitigating human-induced floor vibrations are
known as: Direct Velocity Feedback (DVF),
1 6.56 6.4 6.55
Response-Dependent Velocity Feedback
(RDVF), Direct Acceleration Feedback (DAF)
2 6.87 6.5 6.66
and Compensator Acceleration Feedback
(CAF). Each of these control laws are briefly
3 7.58 7.04 7.52 described below:
7 Simulations Results
For mitigating the vibrations of the floor, three
techniques namely DVF, DAF and CAF have
been employed. Firstly, using root locus closed-
loop the damping of the system introduced by
the control systems (DVF, DAF and CAF) has
been investigated. Secondly, the peak of the 1s
running RMS known as MTVV, for the
uncontrolled and controlled (DVF DAF and
CAF) responses is studied.
7.1 Root locus

The root locus plots of DVF, DAF, and CAF
Figure 0-1 - Mode shape extracted from FE control law of the floor in this study has been
model derived to find the optimum gain of close loop
which provides the best damping ratio and
stability of this plan.
6.3 Actuator Dynamics
Results
The proof-mass actuator considered in this
research is an APS dynamics Model 400 The reposnse of the structure due to (a) direct
mechanical shaker. It has a 30.4 Kg reaction velocity control (b) direct acceleration control
mass and its estimated natural frequency is 1.8 (c) compensator acceleration control are
Hz. The dynamics can closely be modeled by the presented in Figure 7-1.
linear third-order model using the below
equation. KA>0, and ξa and ωa are, respectively 7.2 Comparison of control laws
the damping ratio and natural frequency of the In Table 2, the percentages of response
actuator and the pole at –ε provides the low-pass reduction are indicated for each of the three
characteristics of this actuator control laws.
533
structure was carried out to estimate the logical
properties and mode shapes of floors, different
active control methods were employed to solve
the serviceability problem of the first floor. For
this propose a collocated actuator and sensor
was applied to the most critical region of floor.
All three control methods use a saturation non
linearity to control overloading of actuator
together with a high-pass filter for controlling
the stroke of actuator moving mass.
Implementation of all strategies has achieved
(a) acceptable results. However due to the high
frequency nature of the floor, the CAF proved to
be the most effective. Root locus method was
used to choose the optimum gain for each
control strategy and to prevent instability in
either actuator or structure. Finally the results of
each method was plotted and compared in terms
of their MTVV. The acceptance level of
serviceability can be checked against the
Appendix G of Technical Report No. 43, Post-
tensioned concrete floors design Handbook
published by the Concrete society to determine
(b) whether or not these vibration are in the range
of acceptably low levels of vibration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Paul
Reynolds, for his valuable support and guidance
throughout this study.
REFERENCES
Dıaz, IM & Reynolds, P 2010, 'On-off
(c)
nonlinearactivecontroloffloorvibrations',
(a) direct velocity control (b) direct
Figure 0-1
acceleration control (c) compensator MechanicalSystemsandSignalProcessing, p.
acceleration control 1711–1726.
Ebrahimpour, A & Sack, RL 2005, 'A Review of

Table 2 - Comparison of control laws Vibration Serviceability Criteria for Floor
Structures', Computers and Structures.
MMTV Response
Control Law Nyawako, DS & Reynolds, P 2009, 'Response-
(m/s2) Reduction (%)
dependent velocity feedback control for
migration of human-induced floor vibrations',
DVFC 0.0076 62.37
Smart Materials and Structures, vol 18, no. 7.
DAFC 0.0065 67.82 OGATA, K 2002, MODERN CONTROL

ENGINEERING, 4th edn, Tom Robbins, New
CAFC 0.0052 74.25 Jersey.
8 CONCLUSION Slotine, JJ & Li, W 1991, APPLIED

NONLINEAR CONTROL, Prentice-Hall, New
The main concept of this study was to mitigate
Jersey.
undesirable vibration via active control laws, for
this purpose FE modeling of a two floors
534
Screen In CSO Chamber

Kai Zhang
Candidate MSc(environment) environmental management of urban land and water
ABSTRACT Combіnеd sеwеr ovеrflows to rеcеіvіng wаtеrs posе sеrіous еnvіronmеntаl, аеsthеtіc
аnd publіc hеаlth concеrns. Thіs pаpеr rеports on а dеvіcе thаt utіlіzеs thе kіnеtіc еnеrgy of sеwаgе
ovеrflows flowіng down аn ogее-shаpеd wеіr to clеаn а pеrforаtеd scrееn locаtеd іn thе lowеr sеctіon
of thе wеіr. Thе kіnеtіc еnеrgy subsеquеntly dіssіpаtеs іn а hydrаulіc jump thаt mаіntаіns thе cаpturеd
sеwаgе solіds іn suspеnsіon prіor to rеturnіng thеm to thе sеwеr followіng thе ovеrflow еvеnt. Thе
pаtеntеd dеvіcе, known аs thе Mіschwаssеr-Sіеbsystеm (MWSS), wаs sеlеctеd by thе
Emschеrgеnossеnschаft for а pіlot study аt а CSO chаmbеr dіschаrgіng to thе Vorthbаch, а wаtеrcoursе
nеаr Essеn іn Gеrmаny. Thе hydrаulіc dеsіgn wаs supportеd by lаborаtory tеsts on а full-scаlе profіlе аt
Swіnburnе Unіvеrsіty іn Mеlbournе, Austrаlіа. Thе pіlot MWSS wаs іnstаllеd іn lаtе 2006 аnd
subsеquеntly monіtorеd to іdеntіfy аny dеsіgn, fаbrіcаtіon or іnstаllаtіon problеms. Somе fеаturеs
rеquіrеd modіfіcаtіons whіlе othеrs such аs thе onе-wаy vаlvе workеd еxtrеmеly wеll.
іs dеsіgnеd аnd constructеd іn CSO. Thе pаpеr

1 INTRODUCTION
еxplаіns thе concеpt of thе MWSS, іts hydrаulіc
Combіnеd sеwеr ovеrflows to rеcеіvіng wаtеr dеsіgn, thе rеsults of modеl tеsts, а dеscrіptіon
bodіеs cаn cаusе sеrіous еnvіronmеntаl, of thе pіlot MWSS аnd іts modе of opеrаtіon,
аеsthеtіc аnd publіc hеаlth concеrns. CSO еvеnts rеcordеd ovеrflow еvеnts аnd аrеаs іdеntіfіеd for
occur whеn thе combіnеd sеwаgе аnd storm futurе rеsеаrch аnd dеvеlopmеnt.
wаtеr flow еxcееds thе cаpаcіty of thе sеwеr
Durіng thе AMP3 аnd AMP4 progrаmmеs іn thе
systеm. Prеsеnt mеаsurеs to mіtіgаtе thе іmpаct
UK, thеrе hаs bееn а mаjor іnvеstmеnt іn
of thеsе еvеnts іncludе tеmporаry holdіng tаnks
scrееnіng unsаtіsfаctory CSO dіschаrgеs. Wіth
аt sеwеrаgе trеаtmеnt plаnts, еnlаrgеd upstrеаm
fіnаncіаl іnvеstmеnt rеquіrеd, mаny wаtеr
sеwеrs to provіdе trаnsіеnt storаgе, rеаl tіmе
compаnіеs hаvе drіvеn а rеductіon іn cost
control of sеwеr systеms, sеpаrаtіon of sеwаgе
through іncrеаsеd еffіcіеncіеs іn thе dеsіgn,
аnd storm wаtеr flows аs wеll аs vаrіous typеs of
supply аnd constructіon procеssеs. Thіs hаs
ovеrflow scrееnіng dеvіcеs. Thіs pаpеr rеports
pаrtіculаrly bееn sееn wіth Yorkshіrе Wаtеr,
on а nеw аpproаch to thе scrееnіng of sеwеr
whеrе thе dеvеlopmеnt of а sound scrееn
ovеrflows thаt doеs not rеly on mеchаnіcаl
frаmеwork, thе rе-usе of еxіstіng chаmbеrs, аs
clеаnіng аnd/or еxtеrnаl powеr sourcеs to clеаn а
wеll аs chаllеngіng dеsіgn stаndаrds, whіlst
sеpаrаtіng scrееn but rаthеr on thе kіnеtіc еnеrgy
wіshіng to undеrstаnd morе complеx structurеs
of thе ovеrflowіng sеwаgе (UKWIR, 2006, pp
or thosе wіth hіgh flows wіth а grеаtеr dеаl of
45-61). It іs bеіng trіаllеd іn а pіlot projеct
cеrtаіnty, hаvе аll bееn аchіеvеd.
conductеd undеr thе аuspіcеs of thе
Emschеrgеnossеnschаft аt а CSO outlеt Wіthіn Yorkshіrе Wаtеr, а CSO scrееn
dіschаrgіng to thе Vorthbаch, а wаtеrcoursе nеаr frаmеwork hаs bееn іn plаcе for thе lаst two
Essеn, Gеrmаny. Rеsults from thе іnstrumеntеd AMP pеrіods. Thіs hаs rеаlіsеd а numbеr of
CSO outlеt hаd shown аn unаccеptаbly hіgh sіgnіfіcаnt bеnеfіts. Thе two supplіеrs Hydrok
frеquеncy of ovеrflow еvеnts thаt promptеd thе аnd Hubеr run „clіnіcs‟ to provіdе support to thе
Emschеrgеnossеnschаft to rеtаіn а locаl dеsіgn tеаms.
consultіng еngіnееrіng compаny to іnvеstіgаtе
аnd rеport on mеаsurеs thаt mіght bе
іmplеmеntеd to rеducе thе іmpаct of thе sеwеr
ovеrflows on thе Vorthbаch.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Thе purposе fo thіs pаpеr іs to еxаmіnе thе
functіons of scrееn іn CSO chаmbеr аnd how іt
535
Thе CSO hаs bееn а nеcеssіty іn thе UK sіncе
thе іmplеmеntаtіon of а combіnеd sеwеrаgе
systеm to provіdе flood rеlіеf аt spеcіfіc poіnts
wіthіn thе nеtwork. CSOs hаvе dеvеlopеd
substаntіаlly sіncе thе mіd 1980s wіth thе tеstіng
аnd dеvеlopmеnt of numеrous dеsіgn guіdеs.
There are several main types of screens used
today.
Figure 5. Hydro-Static® Screen

From figure 1 to figure 5, the five main types of
screens are shown. We can see clearly the
difference of each screen from the figure. Hydro-
Jet® Screen is a non-powered CSO screen
system. Rеsults of іndеpеndеnt fіеld tеstіng аt
thе UK Nаtіonаl CSO Tеst Fаcіlіty аt Hoscаr
Figure 1.ROTAMAT® storm screen for storm Wаstеwаtеr Trеаtmеnt Works, Wіgаn, of thе
water discharges (RoK1) commonly usеd CSO chаmbеrs аnd thе Hydro-
Jеt Scrееn™ аrе prеsеntеd аnd compаrеd. Thе
rеsults dеmonstrаtе thаt thе commonly usеd
chаmbеrs do not mееt rеgulаtory rеquіrеmеnts
аnd thе usе of а sеlf-clеаnsіng scrееnіng systеm
such аs thе Hydro-Jеt Scrееn™ provіdеs
sіgnіfіcаnt pеrformаncе еnhаncеmеnts. Thе
pаpеr dеscrіbеs thе rеquіrеmеnts of thе іdеаl
іntеrmіttеnt dіschаrgе scrееnіng systеm аnd
rеvіеws thе еvolutіon аnd dеvеlopmеnt of thе
Hydro-Jеt Scrееn™.
Figure 2.ROTAMAT® storm screen for storm
water discharges (RoK2) 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Dеsіgn Crіtеrіа
Thе MWSS wаs to bе аccommodаtеd wіthіn thе
spаcе rеstrаіnts of thе CSO chаmbеr. It wаs to
rеquіrе mіnіmum іnspеctіon аnd mаіntеnаncе
аnd thеsе functіons wеrе to bе conductеd from
аbovеground. Thе trеаtmеnt cаpаcіty wаs to bе
thе oncе іn fіvе-yеаr ovеrflow еvеnt. Aftеr
еxtеnsіvе lаborаtory tеstіng showеd thаt thіs wаs
nеіthеr prаctіcаl nor еconomіcаl іt wаs rеducеd
to thе oncе іn onе-yеаr ovеrflow еvеnt of 0.42
Figure 3. Heliscreen® cubіc mеtrеs pеr sеcond. Thе MWSS wаs to
rеtаіn аll solіds еxcееdіng 10 mm іn sіzе аnd
rеturn thеm to thе sеwеr for аll еvеnts up to аnd
іncludіng thе oncе іn onе-yеаr ovеrflow еvеnt.
Ovеrflows іn еxcеss of thе oncе іn onе-yеаr
еvеnt wеrе to bе bypаssеd through thе MWSS
wіthout obstructіon.
3.2 Dеsіgn Concеpt
Thе dеsіgn concеpt utіlіzеs thе convеrsіon of
potеntіаl еnеrgy to kіnеtіc еnеrgy аs wаtеr
plungеs down аn ogее-typе wеіr to а lowеr
sеctіon contаіnіng pеrforаtіons. Thе kіnеtіc
Figure 4. Hydro-Jet® Screen еnеrgy of thе fаllіng nаppе shеаrs off аny sеwаgе
solіds аttаchеd to thе pеrforаtіons pеrmіttіng thе
536
wаtеr to pаss through whіlе thе solіds аrе thе dеsіgn flow іn thе pіlot MWSS mаy forcе thе
rеtаіnеd. Thе rеtаіnеd solіds аrе thеn kеpt іn wаtеr іn thе sеpаrаtor chаmbеr аwаy from thе
suspеnsіon іn thе sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr by а pеrforаtеd sеctіon аnd so lеаvе thе nаppе
hydrаulіc jump gеnеrаtеd by thе dіssіpаtіng uncovеrеd ovеr thе full dеpth of thе pеrforаtеd
kіnеtіc еnеrgy. Thе gеnеrаl concеpt іs shown іn sеctіon. To еnsurе thаt thе plungіng nаppе іs
Fіgurе 6 bеlow wіth а dеtаіlеd еxplаnаtіon gіvеn аlwаys іn contаct wіth thе curvеd wеіr fаcе іts
іn thе bеlow sеctіon еntіtlеd “Dеscrіptіon of curvаturе іs dеsіgnеd to mаtch thаt of thе undеr-
pіlot MWSS”. sіdе of thе fаllіng nаppе аt thе mаxіmum dеsіgn
ovеrflow of 0.42 m³/s. Consеquеntly іt wіll
аlwаys rеmаіn іn contаct wіth thе wеіr fаcе аt
lеssеr flows. Thе curvеd wеіr fаcе іs known аs
аn ogее wеіr profіlе аnd іs shown іn Fіgurе 2
bеlow. It prеvеnts sub-аtmosphеrіc prеssurеs
formіng bеtwееn thе wеіr fаcе аnd thе
ovеrflowіng nаppе аt thе mаxіmum ovеrflow аnd
wаs cаlculаtеd usіng еquаtіons gіvеn іn
hydrаulіc tеxts (Fеаthеrstonе & Nаllurі, 1995).
Figure 6. cross-section of MWSS through one

way valve
Followіng cеssаtіon of thе ovеrflow еvеnt thе
rеtаіnеd solіds аrе rеturnеd to thе sеwеr vіа а
sіmplе onе-wаy bаll vаlvе locаtеd іn thе floor of
thе sеpаrаtor chаmbеr аs shown іn Fіgurе 1. A
low wаll аt thе bаck of thе chаmbеr rеgulаtеs thе
mаxіmum scrееnіng rаtе by bypаssіng flows іn
еxcеss of thе cаpаcіty of thе pеrforаtеd wеіr
sеctіon.
3.3 Hydrаulіc Thеory
A mаjor problеm wіth sіdе ovеrfаll wеіrs іn CSO
Durіng thе lаborаtory tеsts obsеrvаtіons from
bеhіnd thе wеіr rеvеаlеd thаt аlthough thе
pеrforаtеd scrееn wаs nеаrly vеrtіcаl, wаtеr wаs
pаssіng through thе uppеr 70 mm of pеrforаtіons. Figure 7 ogee weir profile for a 0.42m3/s
Thіs wаs іntеrprеtеd аs bеіng duе to thе Howеvеr, to cаlculаtе thе scrееn‟s cаpаcіty іt
projеctіng lowеr еdgеs of thе іnclіnеd wаs аssumеd to hаvе both drownеd аnd frее
pеrforаtіons іntеrcеptіng аnd slіcіng off portіon pеrforаtіons (sее Fіgurе 8 bеlow). Flows wеrе
of thе flow. From thіs іt wаs dеducеd thаt аs thе thеn cаlculаtеd by thе smаll orіfіcе еquаtіon
іntеrcеptеd flow would contаіn sеwаgе solіds usіng thе mаxіmum prеssurе hеаd on еаch row
thеn sеrіous snаggіng wіth rеsultаnt pеrforаtіon of pеrforаtіons іn turn аnd thеn summіng thеsе
blockаgе would occur. To corrеct thіs fаult аll togеthеr to obtаіn thе totаl through-flow. Thіs
pеrforаtіons wеrе to bе sеt wіth thеіr lowеr еdgеs fіgurе wаs thеn vеrіfіеd by lаborаtory tеsts аt
vеrtіcаlly bеlow thеіr uppеr еdgеs so thаt thе Swіnburnе Unіvеrsіty on thе full-scаlе profіlе by
fаllіng nаppе would not іmpаct on thеm, еvеn аt mеаsurіng thе flow rаtе аnd thе knowlеdgе thаt
vеry low flows.іlе thе wеіr hеіght wаs 0.77 m 40 pеr cеnt of thе scrееn аrеа consіstеd of
gіvіng а rаtіo of 0.83. As thіs іs grеаtеr thаn 0.75 pеrforаtіons.
thе plungіng nаppе should bе uncovеrеd, Durіng thе lаborаtory tеsts obsеrvаtіons from
аllowіng а vеlocіty of 3.5 m/s аcross аll of thе bеhіnd thе wеіr rеvеаlеd thаt аlthough thе
pеrforаtіons, thus еnhаncіng іts аbіlіty to shеаr pеrforаtеd scrееn wаs nеаrly vеrtіcаl, wаtеr wаs
off аny аttаchеd solіd mаttеr bеforе dіssіpаtіng pаssіng through thе uppеr 70 mm of pеrforаtіons.
іn thе hydrаulіc jump. Evеn аt quіtе low flows Thіs wаs іntеrprеtеd аs bеіng duе to thе
thіs rаtіo rеmаіns аbovе 0.75 sіncе thе wаtеr projеctіng lowеr еdgеs of thе іnclіnеd
lеvеl іn thе sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr іs аlso lowеr. To pеrforаtіons іntеrcеptіng аnd slіcіng off portіon
chеck thіs hypothеsіs, modеl studіеs wеrе of thе flow. From thіs іt wаs dеducеd thаt аs thе
conductеd on а full-scаlе wеіr profіlе onе-mеtrе іntеrcеptеd flow would contаіn sеwаgе solіds
іn lеngth. Whіlе thе mаxіmum аchіеvаblе thеn sеrіous snаggіng wіth rеsultаnt pеrforаtіon
lаborаtory flow wаs only 50 L/s compаrеd to thе blockаgе would occur. To corrеct thіs fаult аll
dеsіgn oncе іn onе-yеаr ovеrflow of 70 L/m/s, pеrforаtіons wеrе to bе sеt wіth thеіr lowеr еdgеs
obsеrvаtіons suggеstеd thаt thе fаllіng nаppе аt vеrtіcаlly bеlow thеіr uppеr еdgеs so thаt thе
fаllіng nаppе would not іmpаct on thеm, еvеn аt
537
vеry low flows.
Figure 10. Cross-section through valve housing

during dry weather flow
Figure 8. Water surface RL in separation and Fіgurе 11 bеlow іllustrаtеs а wеt wеаthеr flow
flush-water chambers for the once in one-year еvеnt іn thе sеwеr thаt іs not sеvеrе еnough to
ARI overflow event ovеrtop thе wеіr. As thе 250 mm dіаmеtеr 4.9 kg
4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION bаll hаs аn SG of 0.60, іt floаts upwаrds to closе
4.1 Dеscrіptіon Of Pіlot MWSS off thе cіrculаr 200 mm dіаmеtеr vаlvе opеnіng
As shown іn Fіgurе 9 bеlow, thе pіlot MWSS to thе sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr аnd so prеvеnts flow
wаs іnstаllеd іn thе CSO chаmbеr wіth thе еnds short-cіrcuіtіng thе MWSS.
of thе wеіr аdjаcеnt to thе sіdеs of thе upstrеаm
аnd downstrеаm sеwеr pіpеs rеspеctіvеly.

during a non-overflow wet weather event
Figure 9. Plan view of MWSS within CSO Thе cіrculаr vаlvе opеnіng іs lіnеd wіth а
chamber nеoprеnе-lіkе mаtеrіаl thаt cаn dіstort to
аccommodаtе mаttеr thаt mіght lodgе bеtwееn іt
Fіgurе 9 shows thе MWSS wіthout thе scrееn to аnd thе bаll аnd so lіmіt аny lеаkаgе thаt mіght
rеvеаl thе trаnsvеrsе dіvіdіng wаlls spаcеd аlong occur. Fіgurе 12 bеlow shows thе wаtеr lеvеl іn
thе flush chаmbеr. Thеsе compаrtmеntаlіzе thе thе sеwеr chаmbеr rіsіng аbovе thе wеіr crеst
flush wаtеr to іmprovе thе flushіng of solіds аnd flow cаscаdіng down thе scrееn іnto thе
from thе sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr followіng аn sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr pool formіng а hydrаulіc
ovеrflow еvеnt. Thе cеntrаlly locаtеd onе-wаy jump bеforе pаssіng through thе scrееn аnd
bаll vаlvе, shown іn thе fіgurе, closеs off а еxіtіng thе MWSS vіа thе іnnеr wеіr аnd outlеt
rеturn outlеt to thе sеwеr chаmbеr durіng hіgh pіpеs.
sеwеr flows. Thіs prеvеnts such flows short-
cіrcuіtіng thе MWSS аnd cаusіng unаccеptаblе
frеquеncіеs of dіschаrgе.
4.2 Mode Of Operation
Thе dіffеrеnt modеs of opеrаtіon of thе
Vorthbаch MWSS wіll now bе dеscrіbеd wіth
rеfеrеncе to thе followіng Fіgurеs 10 to 13.
Fіgurе 5 shows а cross-sеctіon through thе vаlvе
housіng durіng dry wеаthеr flow wіth thе bаll
rеstіng on thе floor of thе housіng. Notе thе
bаfflе іn front of thе wеіr еxtеndіng bеlow thе
wеіr crеst. Figure 12. Cross-section through MWSS during
an overflow wet weather event
Thе fіgurе shows thе plungіng nаppе forcіng thе
poolеd wаtеr іn thе sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr аwаy
538
from thе pеrforаtеd scrееn hеncе pеrmіttіng full conductеd sіncе еаrly 2007 followіng MWSS
dеpth clеаnіng аnd thе subsеquеnt dіssіpаtіon of іnstаllаtіon. In аll, еіght ovеrflow еvеnts wеrе
іts еnеrgy іn thе hydrаulіc jump. As thе scrееnеd rеcordеd аnd, аs аll lаy wіthіn thе typіcаl dеsіgn
wаtеr flows through thе flush-wаtеr chаmbеr, rаngе, іt dеmonstrаtеd thаt thе CSO fаcіlіty wаs
locаtеd bеhіnd thе scrееn, іt аlso flushеs out аny complіаnt wіth thе spеcіfіеd dеsіgn stаndаrds.
fіnе sеttlеd solіd mаttеr, mаіntаіnіng thе flush- Fіgurе 15 bеlow shows thе wаtеr dеpth іn thе
wаtеr chаmbеr frее of solіds аccumulаtіons. CSO durіng аn ovеrflow еvеnt on thе 20th of
Whеn ovеrflow cеаsеs аnd thе flow іn thе sеwеr Junе 2007 whеrе thе horіzontаl lіnе іndіcаtеs thе
fаlls bаck towаrds thе dry wеаthеr flow rаtе, thе wеіr crеst lеvеl of thе MWSS. From thе fіgurе іt
floаtіng bаll drops аnd movеs to onе sіdе of thе cаn bе sееn thаt thе аffluеnt wаvе rіsеs аt а fаіrly
vаlvе housіng to аllow thе pool of rеtаіnеd wаtеr constаnt rаtе of bеtwееn 20 аnd 30 cm/mіn up to
аnd sеwеr solіds іn thе sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr to thе pеаk іn аbout 5 mіnutеs bеforе fаllіng fаr
rеturn to thе sеwеr vіа thе vаlvе аnd rеturn morе slowly аt аbout 10 cm/mіn, furthеr
conduіt, аs shown іn Fіgurе 13 bеlow. rеducіng to 3 cm/mіn аt thе tіmе whеn thе bаll
vаlvе stаrts to opеn. As cаn bе sееn from thе
fіgurе, whіlе thе totаl durаtіon іs аbout 30
mіnutеs, thе аctuаl ovеrflow pеrіod іs rеlаtіvеly
short, lаstіng for just ovеr 10 mіnutеs.

during an overflow wet weather event
As thе wаtеr lеvеl іn thе sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr
fаlls, thе wаtеr storеd іn thе flush-wаtеr chаmbеr
flows bаck through thе аdjаcеnt scrееn Figure 15. CSO chamber water levels during an
pеrforаtіons аnd іnto thе sеpаrаtіon chаmbеr to overflow event to the pilot MWSS
аssіst іn thе flushіng of thе sеwеr solіds to thе
cеntrаl vаlvе opеnіng аnd thеncе to thе sеwеr. 4.4 Discussion Of Results
Thе dеsіgn of thе pіlot MWSS wаs bаsеd on
hydrаulіc thеory bаckеd by lаborаtory studіеs on
а full-scаlе profіlе. Howеvеr аs іts еffеctіvеnеss
іn hаndlіng sеwаgе solіds could not bе rеplіcаtеd
undеr lаborаtory condіtіons а pіlot іnstаllаtіon
wаs nеcеssаry. Whіlе thе pеrforаtіon clеаnіng
аctіon іs prіncіpаlly duе to thе shеаr forcеs
gеnеrаtеd аgаіnst thе scrееn fаcе by thе plungіng
nаppе, thеy cаn nеіthеr bе rеаdіly cаlculаtеd nor
physіcаlly mеаsurеd. Howеvеr аs thеsе shеаr
forcеs аrе lаrgеly dеpеndеnt on thе vеlocіty
Figure 14. Cross-section through valve housing gеnеrаtеd by thе plungіng nаppе, thе fіnаl
during an extreme wet weather event vеlocіty of thе nаppе cаn bе usеd аs а mеаsurе of
thе еffеctіvеnеss of pеrforаtіon clеаnіng. Thіs
Durіng еxtrеmе еvеnts, аs shown іn Fіgurе 14 cаn bе cаlculаtеd from Nеwton‟s Lаws of
аbovе, thе wеіr ovеrflow еxcееds thе scrееn Motіon or mеаsurеd by lаborаtory tеsts.
cаpаcіty аnd thе еxcеss flow pаssеs ovеr thе low
rеаr wаll of thе MWSS to dіschаrgе dіrеctly to 5 CONCLUSION
thе outlеt pіpеs. Thіs wаll іs toppеd wіth а grаtе Baesd on the literature review of previous
to rеtаіn lаrgе sеwеr solіds. studies, this paper aims to to еxаmіnе thе
4.3 Practical Experience functіons of scrееn іn CSO chаmbеr аnd find out
how іt іs dеsіgnеd аnd constructеd іn
A wаtеr lеvеl gаugе connеctеd to а dаtа loggеr CSO.Meanwhile, this paper also tried to еxplаіn
wаs іnstаllеd wіthіn thе flow chаmbеr of thе thе concеpt of thе MWSS, іts hydrаulіc dеsіgn,
pіlot MWSS to rеcord dеpths on thе wеіr crеst thе rеsults of modеl tеsts, а dеscrіptіon of thе
durіng ovеrflow еvеnts from whіch both pіlot MWSS аnd іts modе of opеrаtіon, rеcordеd
ovеrflow rаtеs аnd totаl dіschаrgе volumеs could ovеrflow еvеnts аnd аrеаs іdеntіfіеd for futurе
bе dеducеd Thеsе mеаsurеmеnts hаvе bееn rеsеаrch аnd dеvеlopmеnt. In order to achieve
539
these objectives, several lаborаtory tеsts and the [2] Chadwick A., & Morfett J. (1986).
recorded figures have been used to jutisfy the Hydraulics in Civil Engineering, Allen & Erwin,
results. What is more, to make a more sounder Chapter 2.8, pp. 45-46.
expalnation, the hydrаulіc thеory also has been
referenced as a srong tool. The detailed [3] Featherstone R E. and Nalluri C. (1995).
conclusions are as followed: Civil Engineering Hydraulics, 3rd edn,
Blackwell Science, Oxford, Chapter 3.17, pp.
Thе concеpt of thе MWSS shows consіdеrаblе
68-70. National Screen Evaluation Facility. Inlet
promіsе аs аn еffеctіvе аpproаch to thе rеtеntіon
Screen Evaluation Year 5 (2006). Comparative
of sеwеr solіds durіng CSO еvеnts.
Report. 03/ww/06/5 UKWIR. ISBN 1-84057-
Fіnе scrееnіng of sеwаgе prеsеnts mаny 295-7.
tеchnіcаl problеms. For CSOs thеsе problеms
[4] UK Water Industry Research Limited (2006).
аrе еxаcеrbаtеd by thеіr oftеn-rеmotе locаtіon or
“CSO performance evaluation results of a field
dіffіcult аccеss couplеd wіth thе іntеrmіttеnt
programme to assess the total solids retention
nаturе of opеrаtіon. Elеctro-mеchаnіcаl Scrееns
efficiency performance of side weir and stilling
wіth thеіr movіng mеchаnіcаl pаrts аrе oftеn
pond chambers”. Report ref. 97/WW/0811.
morе pronе to fаіlurе whеn not opеrаtіng
contіnuаlly bеcаusе of thе hаrsh еnvіronmеnt іn
combіnеd sеwеr systеms. 100 hours per yеаr in
fact is the longest time that most CSOs typіcаlly
opеrаtеd. In аddіtіon, lеvеl or flow sеnsors аnd
swіtchgеаr іs rеquіrеd to stаrt аnd stop thе rаkіng
systеms of Elеctro-mеchаnіcаl scrееns. Thіs
provіdеs аnothеr potеntіаl poіnt of fаіlurе wіthіn
thе systеm.
Thе Hydro-Jеt Scrееn™ provіdеs thе іdеаl
chаrаctеrіstіcs of а CSO scrееnіng dеvіcе. Thе
scrееn opеrаtеs rеlіаbly іn thе sеwеr
еnvіronmеnt, іs hydrаulіcаlly fаіl-sаfе, hаs no
movіng pаrts аnd rеquіrеs no еxtеrnаl sourcеs of
powеr. For thе dеsіgn of CSO structurеs, thе
dеvіcе has ovеrcomе mаny of thе concеrns аbout
scrееns rаіsеd іn thе UK guіdаncе documеnt.
Fіеld tеsts cаrrіеd out to dаtе show complеtе
complіаncе wіth thе UK nаtіonаl consеnt
stаndаrds for thе dіschаrgе of CSOs to hіgh
аmеnіty wаtеrs.
Thе Hydro-Jеt Scrееn™ utіlіsіng аpplіеd
hydrаulіcs to hаrnеss іnhеrеnt еnеrgy wіthіn flow
fіеlds to еffеct rеquіrеd wаtеr quаlіty аnd
quаntіty controls wіthout іncurrіng upstrеаm
pеnаltіеs quаlіfіеs аs а truе “mіllеnnіum
product”. It іs thе only non-powеrеd sеlf-
clеаnsіng іntеrmіttеnt dіschаrgе scrееnіng
systеm offеrіng futurе proofіng. It guаrаntееs
totаl complіаncе wіth currеnt stаndаrds аnd
scopе for complіаncе wіth potеntіаl tіghtеr
stаndаrds іn thе futurе.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks very much for the large help and great
advice from Pro.A.J.SAUL.
REFERENCES
[1] Bakhmeteff B. A. (1932). Hydraulics of
Open Channels 1st edn, McGraw-Hill, New
York, Chapter 11, pp 287
540
Whole cell biosensor array and competitive model for BTEX

contaminants detection
Yiyu Zhao
Candidate MSc Environmental management of urban land and water
ABSTRACT BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes) in water contamination has
become a major environmental concern due to their toxic effects on human health and terrestrial
biota. Compared to the traditional chemical analytical methods for BTEX, a cost-effective novel
approach of whole cell biosensor array was introduced in this study. Here, ADPWH_Tol and
ADPWH_XylR5 acted as a biosensor array for BTEX measurement. The results of both ADPWH_Tol
and ADPWH_XylR5 biosensors show positive bioluminescent response to respective concentrations of
the individual and mixtures of BTEX. However, results of multi BTEX induction show that pre-
transcriptional regulation are of two steps, which perform as stimuli competition. XylR or XylR5
regulatory proteins firstly recognize and combine with BTEX molecule individually, followed by
competitive binding on Pu promoter to trigger the expression of Pu operon. To be more precise, two
factors are defined as chemical reaction rate and gene expression rate, referring to stimulus-regulatory
and regulatory-promoter respectively, to describe the whole gene regulation process. Therefore, a
novel mathematical model has been developed, based on modified physical Hill’s equation and
experimental data, to simulate and predict bioluminescence response behaviour when biosensor are
exposed to BTEX mixture. Additionally, an innovative competitive model was illustrated to determine
specific concentration of each BTEX chemicals, showing attractive potential in future application for
in-situ environmental monitoring.
solvents, adhesives and caulks, office

1 INTRODUCTION
equipment, and consumer products (Guo et al.,
1.1 Content And Impact Of BTEX In 2003). Generally speaking, the concentration of
Environment BTEX compounds in shallow ground water is
normally higher than those in deep ground
As we currently know, BTEX compounds
water. Additionally, BTEX can be rapidly
consist of four aromatic hydrocarbons within
degraded in shallow water under natural aerobic
one aromatic benzene ring, including benzene,
environment, and provision of oxygen seems to
toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene, respectively,
be the key factor that restricts BTEX
Specifically, xylene is generally classified into
degradation (Morgan et al., 1993). Therefore,
three isomerides, named m-xylene, o-xylene,
detection the concentration of BTEX
and p-xylene, respectively. It was reported (An, contamination is the crucial stage for
2004) that BTEX compounds are extremely environmental monitoring in BTEX
toxic and are commonly released into contaminated water. However, the traditional
environment as a mixture, instead of single method used for BTEX detection commonly
constituent. So far, the main sources of BTEX demand relatively long time analysis to obtain
contamination were described (Capasso et al., results and require trained professionals to do
2007) to be predominantly produced by the spill the laboratory works (Huang et al., 2005).
of petroleum site from underground storage Here, a cost-effective novel approach of whole
tank. Moreover, BTEX contamination are also cell biosensor array was used in this study
produced from industry, infrastructure, and
domestic demand due to their wide range of 1.2 Principle Of Whole Cell Biosensor
applications, including vehicular emissions, In principle, the nature of whole cell biosensor
combustion by-products, cooking, construction technique is to combine with pollutant-sensitive
materials, furnishing, paints, varnishes and regulator proteins and promoter sequences to a
541
reporter gene that coding for a proteins and mutants, regulator XylR5 performance well to
fusing in a cell (living microorganisms) individual toluene, m-xylene and benzene.
(Daunert et al., 2000; Tecon and van der Meer, Therefore, it can be assumed that using these
2008). Furthermore, it is a fact that the entire two regulators as biosensor array for BTEX
procedure of whole cell biosensor technique is detection (Galvao and de Lorenzo, 2006).
under control of gene regulation. Furthermore, in the real BTEX contaminated
site, these four organics are commonly released
as mixture compounds, hence one biosensor
application to estimate the exact concentration
of individual BTEX compounds seems
impossible. As a result, it is appropriate to use
ADPWH_Tol and ADPWH_XylR5 biosensor
array to quantitatively determine the
concentration of individual and multiple BTEX
molecules.
The purpose of this study is to develop a
mathematical gene expression that based on
physical Hill’s equation and experimental data,
to simulate and predict bioluminescence
Figure 1.1 A model of whole cell biosensor (van response behavior of individual or mixed
der Meer and Belkin, 2010) concentrations of benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene and xylenes in BTEX compounds
The schematic procedure of a whole cell
in aqueous environment. Furthermore, an
biosensor system is depicted in Fig 1.3. It
innovative competitive model is illustrated to
demonstrated that DNA (gene) can be the most
determine specific concentration of each BTEX
necessary section, and it can be bound and
chemicals, including benzene, toluene,
assembled by genetic engineering techniques.
ethylbenzene and xylenes, showing attractive
Reporter genes are utilized for system output in
potential in future application for environment
general while regulatory genes are normally
monitoring.
used for gene expression level control,
respectively (van der Meer and Belkin, 2010).
With the control of gene regulation, some other
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
DNA fragments are got involved in the
procedure as well, such as: promoter, ribosome 2.1 Experimental Design
binding sites, terminators, and etc. All these
Two kinds of bioreporters, ADPWH_Tol and
components are combined together to form an
ADPWH_XylR5, were placed as an array in 96-
operon, which is the essential functional
well microplate to sense artificial individual and
element during the whole process. The
mixture of either kind of BTEX, and reveal the
regulatory gene transduces into regulator
cross impact of similar stimulus on regulatory
proteins, and regulators that activated by
protein.
operator couples the target chemicals by fusing
a specific promoter then can induce the reporter 2.2 Cell Culture And Preparation
genes start to transcription, which resulting that
Two kinds of biosensor cells (ADPWH_Tol and
the reporter proteins produce specific output to
ADPWH_XylR5) were isolated from original
corresponding target chemicals.
source in -80 °C freezer or LB agar plate in -
1.3 Prespetive Of Whole Cell Biosensor 20 °C freezer. Subsequently, they were cultured
Array For BTEX Detection in 10 mL LB liquid medium at 30oC in shaking
incubator overnight (about 18 hours), followed
Note that whole cell biosensor array is the array
by centrifuge under 3000 rpm for 10 minutes,
of multiple bioreporter strains using the same
respectively. The supernatant was then
reporter proteins but differing or partially
discharged and the cell pillet was resuspended
overlapping detection specificities to target
in 10 mL deionized water. The washing step
analyte (Melamed et al., 2011). To be more
was repeated twice till biosensor suspension was
precise, two integrated bioreporter array may
clear without any biomass waste. Finally, 1 mL
considerably augment the use of bioreporter,
biosensor suspension was diluted in 9 mL MMS
which is the obvious advantage of using
and ready for use.
bioreporter array. In this study, given that the
regulator XylR has a high sensitivity to toluene, 2.2 Stimulus Preparation
m-xylene and benzene derivatives, and the
542
In the whole experiment of this study, benzene,
toluene, ethylbenzene and m-xylene are used as
3 RESULTS AND DISCCUSION
a single stimulus in the reaction, respectively.
250 µL, 100 µL, 50 µL, 25 µL, 10 µL and 5 µL 3.1 Behavior Response Of ADPWH_Tol and
solution were taken from the prepared 10 mM ADPWH-XylR5 To Single BTEX Molecule
stimulus stock solution into 1.5 mL centrifuge
This section aimed to get a respective
tubes, followed by adjusting deionized water to
calibration curve of relative bioluminescence
final 0.5 mL volume. Then, series dilution for
response ratio against different levels of
different concentrations of stimulus was made at
stimulus concentration for both ADPWH_Tol
10 mM, 5 mM, 2 mM, 1 mM, 0.5 mM, 0.2 mM
and ADPWH_XylR5 response to individual
and 0.1 mM. For multi stimuli induction, series
BTEX molecule.
dilution for different concentrations at 10 mM,
5 mM, 2 mM, 1 mM and 0.1 mM for mixture
BTEX compounds were tested in response to
multi BTEX molecules.
2.3 Bioluminescence Detection
180 μL prepared cells in MMS solution as
described above in were placed in 96-well black
clear bottom microplate as designed, together
with another 20 μL particular stimulus solution
in specific micro wells. Three replicates were
carried out in this part to avoid bioluminescence (A)
fluctuation, then, the microplate was put into
multimode microplate reader for 16 hours
measurement. The biosensor was inoculated
under 30 °C with both bioluminescence and
optical density (OD) detection every 10 minutes.
Before each measurement, 30 seconds medium
shaking was set for cells mixture. The
sensitivity of bioluminescence detection was
150, while OD parameter was 600 nm. The total
detection results were ready for future analysis.
2.4 Data Analysis (B)
Average of 3 replicates at the same time forms Figure 3.1 Simulation of respective biosensor
the bioluminescence and OD600 curve of each (A for ADPWH_Tol and B for ADPWH_XylR5)
sample. Calculate cell number at each time response to BTEX compounds.
point by standard cellcount-OD600 equation.
Subsequently, bioluminescence is divided by cell From figure 3.1, it exhibited that XylR
count to get relative bioluminescence. Calculate regulatory protein binding capability with
bioluminescence response ratios by dividing specific BTEX molecule, where m-
induced bioluminescence by related xylene>toluene>benzene>ethylbenzene, while
bioluminescence of control (non-stiumulated) for XylR5 regulatory protein, the ordering, m-
sample at the same time point. The relevant xylene>toluene>ethylbenzene>benzene.
bioluminescence response ratios of specific Moreover, it can be found that biosensor
biosensor ADPWH_Tol and ADPWH_XylR5 ADPWH_Tol showed a higher sensitivity to
are then obtained by averaging five monitored individual BTEX molecule than that for
bioluminescence data around the peak time, ADPWH_XylR5. To be more precise, the
while that of ADPWH_Tol and ADPWH_XylR5 relative bioluminescence response ratio of
are gained by averaging five monitored ADPWH_Tol to single BTEX molecule was
bioluminescence data between 180 minutes and between 1 and 256 while the response of
210 minutes. Establish calibration curves of ADPWH_XylR5 to single BTEX molecule was
relative bioluminescence response ratio against from 1 to 8. Additionally, both ADPWH_Tol
dose of specific bioreporters. Finally, Compare and ADPWH_XylR5 biosensors showed a
relative bioluminescence response ratio of strong linear relationship between
samples with calibration curve to get the bioluminescence and the concentration range
pollutants concentration. between 0.1 mM and 10 mM for individual
BTEX molecule.
543
3.2 Multi Stimuli Gene Expression Model avoid such question that, no stable gene
expression baseline is obtained no matter how
It was known that mRNA synthesis rate is the
low the stimulus is, a pseudo expression
key factor of the whole process. For multiple
background is introduced when stimulus
stimulus, the Classic Hill’s equation is still a
concentration is low enough (below detection
good model for mRNA synthesis simulation, as
shown in Eq. (1). limit) as shown in Eq. (6). Here is the rate
when stimulus concentration is zero or below
(1) detection limit.
Similarly, is the number of stimulus in

(5)
-1
cytoplasm (cell ), while and are
concentrations of free regulators and regulators (6)
combined with stimulus (cell-1), respectively.
Therefore, it was proposed that there is not only
While and are the chemical reaction one step happened during the regulator binding
rates of the equilibrium (s-1·cell-1), respectively. for these two biosensors.
In both ADPWH_Tol and ADPWH_XylR5, due
3.3 Parameter Analysis
to regulatory protein XylR or XylR5 is
constitutively expressed, suggesting that the On the basis of the mathematical equations
introduced above, the relevant data were
total regulator ( , cell-1) remains at the calculated in tablev3.1
stable level, with and follow the Table 3.1 ADPWH_Tol and ADPWH_XylR5
Eq. (2). Eq. (3) describes differential equation of respective response ratio to different stimulus.
regulatory proteins combined with stimulus, and
Parameter Stimulus ADPWH_Tol ADPWH_XylR5
specific is reduced and given by Eq (4). Gene Benzene 28432 3177
expression
Toluene 108640 73054
rate ( )
(2) Ethylbenzene 6542 3583
m-xylene 145581 28336
(3) Chemical Benzene 0.091 0.165
reaction
Toluene 0.380 0.169
(4) rate ( )
Ethylbenzene 0.189 0.766
m-xylene 1.057 0.865
Here, (s-1·cell-1) is the gene expression
In terms of modified Hill’s equation, the
rate, which is determined by both and competitive simulations of respective biosensors
, and was described in Eq. (4). Moreover, response to BTEX compounds were delineated
in figure 3.2.
(s-1·cell-1) represents the maximal gene
expression rate when stimulus concentration is
saturated. is defined as chemical reaction
rate, obtained by . However, on the

basis of experimental phenomena, a certain
gene expression baseline always exists for each
gene regulation system when stimulus
concentration was below some level, which is
usually called as detection limit. From the
original Hill’s equation, when substrate (A)
trends to be zero, gene expression rate ( ) Figure 3.2 Competitive simulations of
respective biosensors response to BTEX
tends to be , indicating that no
compounds. (A for single stimuli, B for two
detection limit can be found until substrate is stimuli, and C for multiple stimuli)
zero and no gene expression occurs. In order to
544
it can be explained that when these two
chemicals were mixed together and went
through the cell membrane of whole biosensor
ADPWH_Tol, the chemical reaction rate refers
to XylR protein bound to the mixture was
mostly affected by ethylbenzene, and then the
gene expression rate of Pu promoter was mainly
influenced by benzene while XylR combined
with the mixture already. Moreover, when
ADPWH_Tol was induced by benzene and m-
xylene mixture, both the chemical reaction rate
refers to XylR protein and gene expression rate
of Pu promoter were predominantly affected by
(B) m-xylene because of the highest value of
chemical reaction rate and gene expression rate
while ADPWH_Tol response to individual m-
xylene. Additionally, it exhibited the relatively
higher value of relative bioluminescence
response ratio of ADPWH_Tol to individual
toluene, which was 111.738. Similarly,
biosensor ADPWH_Tol showed the relatively
higher gene expression rate of Pu promoter
while XylR protein combined with individual
toluene within the value of 108640. However,
when toluene, benzene and ethylbenzene were
mixed together, the performance of
ADPWH_Tol response to this mixture was
(C) mostly influenced by the chemical reaction rate
refers to XylR protein. For ADPWH_XylR5, it
Figure 3.2 (continued) Competitive simulations showed that when stimulated by toluene, this
of respective biosensors response to BTEX biosensor exhibited a lower chemical reaction
compounds. (A for single stimuli, B for two rate (0.169) while a relatively higher gene
stimuli, and C for multiple stimuli) expression rate of Pu operon, which was 73054.
Based on the experimental results described In contrast, ADPWH_XylR5 showed a relatively
above, and in conjunction with the competitive higher chemical reaction rate (0.766) while a
stimulus model, both ADPWH_Tol and lower gene expression rate of Pu promoter
ADPWH_XylR5 biosensors displayed that the (3583) when induced by ethylbenzene. It was
mathematical relationship with emission of noticeable that when these two chemicals were
bioluminescence and the concentration of mixed together and induced to ADPWH_XylR5
multiple BTEX molecules were not linear. To biosensor, the chemical reaction rate refers to
be more precise, the results indicated there were XylR5 protein to this mixture was mainly
two steps occurred during the regulator binding influenced by ethylbenzene while the gene
for both ADPWH_Tol and ADPWH_XylR5 expression rate of Pu promoter was
biosensors. Therefore, the assumption proposed predominantly affected by toluene, which
before has been proved by the lab results. directly led to the value of relative
bioluminescence response ratio for this
With respect to biosensor ADPWH_Tol biosensor response to ethylbenzene and toluene
response to different conditions of stimuli, when mixture was 2.081. Furthermore, another
induced by benzene, biosensor ADPWH_Tol example was that when ADPWH_XylR5 was
exhibited the lowest value of chemical reaction induced by m-xylene and ethylbenzene mixture,
rate, 0.091, and on the other hand, the Pu due to this biosensor exhibited the highest
promoter displayed the lowest value (6542) of chemical reaction rate and gene expression rate
gene expression rate when stimulated by of Pu promoter to individual m-xylene, and
ethylbenzene. Furthermore, the value of relative therefore, the chemical reaction rate refers to
bioluminescence response ratio of ADPWH_Tol XylR5 protein to the mixture was equally
to benzene with ethylbenzene mixture was influenced by ethylbenzene and m-xylene,
23.330 while that for ADPWH_Tol response to comparatively, the gene expression rate of Pu
individual benzene and ethylbenzene were promoter to this mixture was mainly affected by
51.127 and 17.064, respectively. On this point, m-xylene.
545
An, Y J (2004) Toxicity of benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) mixtures to
4 CONCLUSION
Sorghum bicolour and Cucumis sativus.
Based on all the results described above, the Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and
assumptions proposed before have been proved Toxicology, Vol. 72, pp. 1006-1011.
to be valid. ADPWH_Tol and ADPWH_XylR5
Capasso, S, Monaco, M, Iovino, P, Salvestrini,
biosensors acted as the whole cell biosensor
S and Vigliotti, M ( 2007) Characterization of
array for BTEX measurement, and the lab data
BTEX sources in a medium-size city by
agreed with the mathematical model of
concentration statistical analysis and GIS
competitive stimuli simulation. The result
technique. In: Borrego, C A and Brebbia, C A
reveals XylR regulatory protein binding
(eds.) Air Pollution XV. Southampton: Wit
capability with specific BTEX molecule, where
Press
xylene>toluene>ethylbenzene>benzene,
indicating recognition site of XylR recognizes Daunert, S, Barrett, G, Feliciano, J S, Shetty, R
bay region of BTEX molecule. On the other S, Shrestha, S and Smith-Spencer, W (2000)
hand, for three chemicals mix together, Genetically engineered whole-cell sensing
ethylbenzene, toluene and benzene mixture was system: coupling biological recognition with
the most representative. To be more specific, the reporter genes. Chemical Reviews, Vol. 100,
value of relative bioluminescence response ratio pp. 2705-2738.
of ADPWH_XylR5 to ethylbenzene, toluene and
Galvao, T C, and de Lorenzo, V (2006)
benzene mixture was 1.805. The explanation for
Transcriptional regulators a la carte:
this is the chemical reaction rate refers to XylR5
engineering new effector specificities in
protein to this mixture was mostly affected by
bacterial regulatory proteins. Current Opinion
the higher one, ethylbenzene, and inversely,
in Biotechnology, Vol. 17, pp. 34-42.
when XylR5 protein already bound with this
mixture, the gene expression rate of Pu Guo, H, Lee, S C, Li, W M and Cao, J J (2003)
promoter was predominantly influenced by the Sources characterization of BTEX in indoor
higher one, toluene. In terms of these analysis, microenvironments in Hong Kong. Atmospheric
under the activation of regulator XylR-like Environments, Vol. 37, pp. 73-82.
protein as transcriptional regulators, the full
Huang, W E, Wang, H, Huang, L F, Zheng, H J,
performances for both ADPWH_Tol and
Singer, A C, Thompson, I P and Whiteley, A S
ADPWH_XylR5 biosensors stimulated by
(2005) Chromosomally located gene fusions
multiple BTEX molecules include at least two
constructed in Acinetobacter sp ADP1 for the
steps. The XylR and XylR5 proteins firstly
detection of salicylate. Environmental
recognize the multiple BTEX molecules and
Microbiology, Vol. 7, pp. 1339-1348.
combine with them, respectively, after binding
with them correspondingly, the Pu promoter Melamed, S, Ceriotti, L, Weigel, W, Rossi, F,
starts to be expressed at respective level. To be Colpo, P and Belkin, S (2011) A printed
more precise, the whole procedure is mostly nanolitre-scale bacterial sensor array. Lab on a
based on two factors, chemical reaction rate Chip, Vol. 11, pp. 139-146.
which refers to XylR and XylR5 proteins
Morgan, P, Lewis, S T and Watkinson, R J
respectively combine with multiple BTEX
(1993) Biodegradation of benzene, toluene,
molecules, and gene expression rate of Pu
ethylbenzene and xylenes in gas-condonsate-
promoter while separately binding with multiple
contaminated groundwater. Environmental
BTEX molecules.
Pollution, Vol. 82, pp. 181-190.
Tecon, R and van der Meer, J R (2008)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bacterial biosensors for measuring availability
of environmental pollutants. Sensors, Vol. 8,
I sincerely appreciate Dr Wei Huang
pp. 4062-4080.
(Supervisor) and Dayi Zhang for their
committed guidance supervision and advices on van der Meer, J R and Belkin, S (2010) Where
the whole study, thank Dayi Zhang for his microbiology meets microengineering: design
venerable advices on experimental design and and applications of reporter bacteria. Nature
procedures. Reviews Microbiology, Vol. 8, pp. 511-522.
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546
Seventeenth postgraduate on MSc dissertation 2010/11
Sustainable Concrete with Low Carbon Footprint

Wu Zheng
MSc (Eng) Structural engineering
ABSTRACT Nowadays, as the development of human civilization, the environment pollutions are
more serious than past. Global warming is the most important environmental issue in the world which
is caused by a lot of greenhouse gas release to atmosphere. However, concrete industry, which is the
most widely used building material, is one type of ‘destructive’ materials in sustainable development
strategy. More specifically, many bad effects to environment are cause by the whole life of concrete
building. After a lot of reviews of previous researches and a case study, some methods are found out to
reduce or solve different environmental impacts in different stages of concrete building. To sum up
briefly, GGBS and PFA can be cement replacements to reduce CO2 release in cement manufacture, ‘old’
concrete can be recycled to be aggregate to reduce the quarrying of natural resources, and ready-mixed
and precast concrete can be good solutions to avoid low durability and a lot of ways of environmental
pollutions.
building includes four main stages, building

1 INTRODUCTION
materials, construction phase, service life and
Nowadays, according to the report of the World end of building’s service life.
Commission on Environment and Development
In this paper, four aspects (concrete materials,
of the UN, global warming is the most serious
construction phase, durability and recycle) in
phenomenon today, which is primarily due to the
concrete industry, which have serious influences
increase of the greenhouse gas, such as Carbon
to environment, will be discussed and some
Dioxide, Methane and Nitrous Oxides primarily
solutions will be found out respectively.
and pollutions enter to atmosphere. In order to
protecting the future of the Earth, sustainable
development strategy is used to protect the
2 SUSTAINABLE DEVOLOPMENT IN
planet, reduce greenhouse gas and as far as
CONCRETE MANUFACTURE
possible to avoid pollutions.
Concrete is a composite building material, is
In the field of concrete architecture, during the
composed of cement or other cement
whole life of a building , lots of carbon dioxide
replacement materials such as fly ash, slag, etc.,
is released, lots of energy also is consumed, and
coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water and
also lots of natural raw resources are requested
chemical admixtures. However, concrete is not
from the manufacture of building materials to
an environmental friendly material. During the
the dismantle process of the building after the
manufacture of concrete, a lot of energy and
end of its service life. The life of a typical
547
natural resources are required. Moreover, a mass
of greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide specifically)
release to the atmosphere, which is due to
concrete production.
Figure 2.1 Portland cement manufacture
2.1 Cement
As description in the flow chart above, in the
Cement plays a very important role in concrete. cement kiln, with 1500 ℃ , some chemical
The effect of cement in concrete is summed up reactions will process between limestone and
as key points below (Lynsdale, 2011). clay. The reactions are shown below.
 To be binder to bonds other compositions Limestone = CaO + CO2
of concrete. Clay = SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
 To produce the C-S-H gel to decides the Then,
strength and other properties of concrete. Limestone + Clay = C3S + C2S + C3A + C4AF
 To affect fluids transport.
After the reaction in cement kiln and cooler,
 To produces heat in the setting and
clinker of aluminates and silicates are produced.
hardening processes
Then, the final stage of Portland cement
 To supplies an alkaline environment.
manufacture is grinding the clinker to average
 To decides the colour of concrete.
particle. In this stage, about 5 per cent gypsum
2.1.1 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) or calcium sulfate will be mixed with the clinker
to be grinded, which is in order to control setting
Nowadays, ordinary Portland cement (OPC),
and hardening of the cement (Mehta, 2006).
which is due to easy to obtain raw material and
cheap to produce, is the most widely used in the During the whole of the Portland cement
world at present, and it already has been manufacture process, a lot of carbon dioxide
produced about 150 years. releases to atmosphere, which is the main reason
that Portland cement is not an environmental
The main component of Portland is calcium
friendly material. More specifically, the direct
silicates, which occupies two-thirds mass of
carbon dioxide emission from Portland cement
OPC. Since that, limestone and chalk are two
manufacture is in the two phases which are
common resources to apply calcium, and clays
shown below (Lynsdale, 2011).
are the main resource to supply silica, which is
 Limestone de-carbonation: 1kg of cement
in the mix of producing calcium silicates. In
produced needs 1.12 kg limestone, and
addition, a small amount of calcium sulfate or
releases 0.53 kg CO2
gypsum also plays an important role in Portland
 Burning and pulverizing: 1kg of cement
cement.
produced needs 0.123kg of carbon to be
The manufacture of Portland cement is a closely burned as fuel, releases 0.45kg CO2
controlled process, akin to large-scale chemical  CO2 produced by transport vehicles in
engineering’ (Bennett, 2010). Some different cement plants and distribution.
methods are used to produce Portland cement.
Furthermore, according to David Bennett’s
However, consideration both of energy
research in 2010, three indirect carbon dioxide
consumption and energy efficiency, the ‘dry
emissions during the Portland cement
process’ of cement manufacture is used in the
manufacture process are summed up below.
most plants today.
 CO2 emissions (80 kg / tonne cement) from
The manufacture of Portland cement can be the consumption of electricity which is
described simply, according to the figure below.
548
mainly used in the crushing and chemical
pulverizing.  Improves resistance to chloride ingress,
 CO2 emissions (2.5 kg / tonne cement) by reducing the risk of reinforcement corrosion
transport vehicles in cement plants and
Moreover, GGBS is one of environmental
distribution.
friendly cement replacements. Compare with
 CO2 emissions (0.1 kg / tonne cement) by
OPC, GGBS require only 20 % energy during
employees’ travelling.
manufacture. Even more, CO2 release of GGBS
In addition, according to Kumar's research in manufacture is less than 10 % of the OPC. In
2001, it is clear that producing 1 tonne of addition, GGBS is a by-product material, if it is
Portland cement consumes 4GJ energy not used as cement replacement, it will be
approximately, abandoned. Because of that, using GGBS can
reduce the quarrying of natural raw resources
2.1.2 Cement replacements
effectively, and also can avoid potential landfills
Today, in order to achieve sustainable
As the advantages of adding GGBS in the
development, a big challenge in a concrete
concrete mix design, GGBS is used widely in
industry is how to minimize the CO2 release.
concrete manufacture. Nowadays, nearly 50% of
Because of that, it is an unavoidable step to
ready-mixed concrete supplied to sites contains
consider the minimization of the usage of OPC.
GGBS, and the most common use of the
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)
proportion is around 50% which can achieve
and Pulverised fuel ash (PFA), which will be
similar strength as OPC after 28 days. And if the
introduced following in detail, are the two most
proportion of GGBS exceeds 50 per cent, in
popular cement replacements at present in the
order to achieve similar strength as OPC after 28
UK to replace OPC partially to be the '
day, the cement content needs to be increased or
Eco-Cement'.
the ratio of water to cement needs to be reduced.
Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS) Normally, the proportion of replacement is up to
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is 70%. However, due to the difference of concrete
produced during the fabrication phase of pig iron service environment, different proportions of
for steel manufacture. In other word, it is a waste GGBS are required.
product in steel making. GGBS has similar Pozzolanic: Pulverised fuel ash (PFA)
chemical composition to OPC. However,
Pozzolanic material is another common cement
compare with Portland cement, the addition of
replacement in industry at present. There are
portion GGBS have some special benefit (Aitcin,
many different types of Pozzolanic materials,
2008).
include natural, by-product and waste material.
 Lower early-age strength (temperature rise),
which can avoid the risk of thermal Pozzolanic materials contain a certain
cracking effectively. percentage of amorphous silica. After the lime
 Improves the imperviousness of concrete produced from hydration of Portland cement
 Improves the ratio of tensile / compression (C3S mainly and C2S), the silica in Pozzolanic
strength materials can reacts with lime to produce CSH
 Protects concrete against swelling which which can decide the strength and other
possibly cause by internal reactive such as properties of concrete.
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
In, addition, the CSH produced by the reaction
 Improves resistance to sulphates and other
between Pozzolanic and Lime is similar to the
549
CSH which is from the hydration of Portland levels of natural resources’ use need to be
cement (Mehta, 1996). controlled. As a result, nowadays, more and
more ‘old concrete’ is recycled and reused as
Similar to GGBS, PFA is a by-product material,
aggregate after processing and handling. This
which is produced by the burning of pulverised
waste concrete is named recycled concrete
coal at power plants.
aggregate (RCA). This measure not only can
PFA is quite different from OPC, and due to PFA dispose demolition waste commendably, but also
is a type of Pozzolanic materials, the content of can reduce the excessive quarrying of natural
silica is much higher than OPC, just 3% calcium resources effectively. And also, critical carbon
inside. benefits can be achieved when RCA is combined
Compare with GGBS, PFA have just a little with cement replacement, such as GGBS, PFA
calcium. Due to that, it needs lime, which is etc. In addition, the measure can make
produced from hydration of OPC, to react to construction cost down.
produce CSH gel. As the result of that, the When RCA replaces up to 20% of natural
proportion of fly ash replacement in cement is aggregates, compare with, the elastic modulus,
much lower than GGBS, generally not more than the shrinkage and coefficient of thermal
30 percent at present. However, nowadays, in expansion is similar to absolutely natural
order to achieve better use effects, PFA is often aggregates use. But for any high proportion of
mixed with other cement replacing materials RCA, in order to achieve the similar properties
such as silica fume (SF), superplasticizer and to 100% natural aggregates, higher cement (or
GGBS. replacements) should to be mixed in concrete
Similar to GGBS, The widely use of PFA in manufacture. Furthermore, the quality of ‘old’
concrete due to its low cost, reduced early-age concrete needs to be considered in account. For
temperature rise and greater resistance to example, the chloride content should be checked
alkali-silica reaction, chloride ingress and if reinforced concrete is recycled (Bennett,
sulphate attack, and by the significant reduction 2010).
in the release of CO2.
In addition, due to PFA is a waste material, the 3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTS IN

usage of PFA is an effective way to reduce the THE CONSTRUCTION PHASE
quarrying of raw resources and avoid new
Nowadays, due to more and more environmental
landfills.
issues are caused by the construction phase, such
2.2 Aggregates as global warming, people begin to pay more
Aggregate is another important composition in attention on making construction more
concrete. In normal situation, aggregate takes environmental friendly. Then, some ‘green’
over about 60-80 per cent mass of concrete. And construction methods appear to reduce these
most physical properties of concrete are decided impacts.
by aggregate characteristics. In the past, 90 % of 3.1 Ready-mixed concrete
aggregates, which is used in concrete industry,
Ready-mixed concrete is a method to
are using natural aggregates.
manufacture concrete in construction. Briefly,
However, as more and more natural resources ready-mixed concrete is produced in plant, then
are used to be aggregates, environment is using transit mixers to delivery to construction
destroyed. Due to the serious problems, the site. In ready-mixed concrete industry, according
550
to customers’ requirements, it can supply either cast-in-place, precast concrete is produced in
customized or standard mix of ‘fresh concrete’, factory where is not concern about weather, and
and also can match variety of material also, plant manufacture can control concrete
specifications (Bennett, 2010). mixing more effectively. These reasons ensure
that precast concrete has better quality than
Compare with site-mixed concrete, ready- mixed
in-situ concrete. In addition, precast concrete is
concrete can control the quality of concrete more
an environmental friendly construction method.
effective, which is due to accurate mixing,
In site, it reduces a number of the usage of
weighting, etc. Otherwise, ready-mix concrete
formwork, which is used in cast-in-place
can improve the speed of construction due to its
concrete and difficult to recycle. And similar
mechanization operating mode.
with ready-mixed concrete, it is produced in
Analyzing in the angle of ‘green’ construction plant where can reduce waste and recycle more
phase, compare with site-mixed ready-mixed effectively. Moreover, it can reduce CO2 release
concrete can avoid multi-transportation of more easily by using cement replacement and
different raw materials, which can reduce a renewable energy sources.
number of energy consumption and CO2 release
during transport. Moreover, mixing in
specialized plant, on one hand, it can avoid the 4 DURABILITY
waste of raw materials even better, and on the
It is clear that if sustainable development is
other hand, it can recycle the waste of raw
important objective, then increasing the
materials conveniently and easily. In addition,
durability of product is a long-term and easy
Noise and dust pollutions can be reduced by
solution for that, which can reduce both of
mixing concrete in plant.
quarrying of the earth’s natural resources and
3.2 Precast concrete CO2 emissions.
Precast concrete is the modern concrete Normally, concrete structures are designed for a
construction method in the world. Precast service life of 50 years. However, in the fact,
concrete is concrete product, such as slabs, some modern reinforced concrete structures
beams, column, etc. which are manufactured in begin to deteriorate in 20 years or even less
plant with re-use formworks, and then delivered (Mehta, P. K. 2001). Two primary reasons of the
to construction sites to be installed. poor durability are found out. One is due to that
OPC material has highly crack-prone and can
Compare with cast-in-place concrete, precast
make concrete to more permeable during service.
concrete has some significant advantages. Faster,
As the result of that, the steel reinforcement in
higher quality, effectively and more
concrete is easy to corrode, and that will cause
environmental-friendly are the three special
the progressive deterioration of the structure.
advantages of precast concrete.
Another reason is that the quality of concrete
More specifically, compare in-situ construction does not achieve expect level due to the poor
method, precast concrete method reduces a construction quality. Then some design features
plenty of time in construction site, after are not achieved. More specifically, due to the
transporting pre-produced concrete to construction practice driven by faster and faster
construction site, the installing can be proceed speed, a lot of concrete’s quality is beyond
more easily and faster than in-situ concrete. control.
Moreover, another key benefit of precast
Nowadays, solutions are available to these two
concrete is its high quality. Compare with
551
key issues in concrete durability. As mentioned In building demolition, how to use and how
previously in 2.1.2, both GGBS and PFA can be much can be use the demolition of structure,
good answers to solve OPC’s problem. They can which need to be considered in design stage, are
reduce the early-age compression strength, and the definitive question in sustainable concrete
decrease the perviousness of concrete. Moreover, industry. As mentioned previously, part of
they can protect concrete against ASR; improve concrete can be recycled to be aggregates (RCA).
resistance to sulphates and other chemical; and However, it is clear that relative of the traditional
also reduce the risk of reinforcement corrosion concrete, lighter concrete is more convenient and
by improving resistance to chloride ingress. easier to recycle, which is due to that it is easy to
However, according to different situations, be dismantled.
different proportions of cement replacements are
In addition, some precast concrete products can
mixed.
be repaired, after passing test, they can be used
In the aspect of construction, using ready-mixed in new buildings directly. Also in demolition
concrete and precast concrete, which are phase, precast concrete is much easier to be
mentioned in 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, are effective ways operated than cast-in-place concrete.
to control concrete quality. More specifically,
ready-mixed concrete and precast concrete
manufacture can proceed in controllable 6 CONCLUSTON
environment with mechanization operating mode To sum up briefly, in concrete manufacture,
which mean that the whole of manufacture different proportions of cement replacements,
process is under control. Due to that, the quality such as GGBS, PFA can be used to substitute for
of concrete can be guaranteed, and also the cement content in concrete. And recycled
design features can be achieved. concrete can be used to be aggregates. In
construction phase, ready-mixed concrete and
precast concrete can be good ways to control the
5 RECYCLE
quality of concrete which is a key point of
Recycle is another important way to support concrete durability in long-term. Also, compare
sustainable development in concrete industry. with manufacture in construction site, it can
Recycle can be proceeding in the whole life of avoid the material waste, voice and other
concrete building from material manufacture to pollutions more effectively. Moreover, increase
building demolition. concrete durability is a very important long-term
measure to protect environment.
In materials manufacture, both GBS and PFA are
waste materials, also a great part of steel
reinforcement and aggregates are from
REFERENCES
secondary materials. In addition, if curing water
can be recycle and reuse more effectively, Aitcin, P. C. (2008) Binders for durable and
concrete industry will be more sustainable. sustainable concrete. Taylor & Francis: Oxon.
In construction phase, it is clear that compare Bennett, D. (2010) Sustainable concrete

with producing in construction site, working in architecture, RIBA Publishing: London.
specialized plants can process surplus materials Mehta, P. K. and Monteiro, P. J. M. (2006)
recycle more easily and effectively. Concrete Microstructure, Properties, and
Moreover, the heaviest recovery work is being Materials. 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill.
processed after the end of building’s service life.
552
Influence of Proximity and Sensory Inputs on Synchronisation Effects

among Spectators Bouncing
Xin Zheng
Msc(Eng) Earthquake Engineering and Civil Engineering Dynamics
ABSTRACT Prediction of coordinated dynamic loads induced by groups and crowds of people
bouncing is a hot topic among designers of stadia structures. In existing guidance, a group of
bouncing humans are normally portrayed as a set of identical periodic force generators moving with
either perfect synchronisation or with random phases. But humans are not identical and natural
variability and imperfect synchronisation of individuals points to a random approach to modelling of
groups and crowd bouncing loads.
This study investigates the effect of proximity, visual and tactile cues on the ability of people to
coordinate or synchronise their movements in groups of varying size. ‘Coda’ motion capturing system
with visual markers was used in experiment. Bouncing people’s motion were instantly measured and
quantified. Influence of proximity, visual and tactile cues were analysed based on the data collected in
experiment.
synchronisation relationship between individual

1 INTRODUCTION and the crowds subjected to certain rhythms still
remain less known.
Nowadays, both the function and the material of
stadia are changing. There are increasing Regarding the stadia, now the modern ones can
numbers of diverse public events been staged in be designed slender and lighter than before
stadia structures, while in the past, stadia were since improved materials and construction
designed to host sports events. Other activities technologies can be applied. However, some
like rock concerts are more and more likely to cases have [1, 2] shown that grandstands may
be hosted in the stadia. Large available areas of fail to accommodate the spectators comfortably
the stadia enable them to accommodate large under coordinate dynamic loads which are often
number of audience which could bring caused by large crowds bouncing or jumping.
economical benefits for the stadia owners.
However, some concerns on the dynamic Hence, some uncertainties in the vibration
loading arise as the structures no longer serviceability design of grandstands arise. A
subjected to the sport-type load from spectators. vital issue is the prediction of coordinated
For the most of normal football or other sport dynamic loads induced by groups and crowds of
matches, spectators are likely to move e.g. people bouncing. It has been a hot topic among
bounce or jump in a random or relative poor designers of stadia structures. As just few
synchronised level. Excitation received by the studies have been done on the different effects
grandstands or structure is also random except on the ability of people to synchronise their
the goal moments or other attractable moments. movements in varying size, available guidance
While during live music concert, rhythm of the portrays a group of bouncing humans as a set of
performed songs is usually a cue to guide identical periodic force generators moving with
people to move. e.g. bounce, jump or dance in a their perfect synchronisation or with random
similar or same rhythm, inducing a rhythmic phases. In reality, humans are not identical and
loading type on the structure. One important natural variability and imperfect
issue affects crowd moving together is that the synchronisation of individuals points to a
interactions among people. e.g. eye contact or random approach to modelling of group and
touching. As a result, different synchronised crowd bouncing loads. A main drawback of the
moving type will appear. However, prediction existing guidance is structures may fail to
of this coordinate dynamic loads and the satisfy the vibration serviceability due to human
553
bouncing. As can be seen in Fig.2.1, one marker
coordinate variability is ignored in stadia was located on the one side of the neck of the
design. subject and another one was in the front side.
This was because the subjects had tests of side-
This study aims to investigate effect of by-side, facing and back-to-back while the
proximity and audio, visual and tactile cues on sensors were fixed and in one direction. By
the ability of people to coordinate or putting the markers on two sides, it was ensured
synchronise their movements in groups of that there was at least one marker can be ’seen’
varying size by using ‘Coda’ motion capturing by the sensor for each test. Special care should
system and visual markers in bouncing tests be taken of the front marker when fix it: do not
Finally, propose descriptions of these effects fix the front marker on the Adam’s apple of the
that can be used to generate more reliable subject since the marker could possibly move
artificial dynamic loads due to groups and with the Adam’s apple and this reduced the
crowds bouncing. accuracy of the measurement. Markers being
covered by the hair of the subjects should be
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS avoid as well. Wires of the markers also should
stay clear and unwrapped
2.1 General description
The motion capturing system, called ‘Dual CX1

system’ includes two sensors and sets of visual
markers and marker drive boxes. Markers were
powered by the drive boxes and two markers
with one drive boxes were attached onto the
necks of the bouncing subjects. When the
system started working, the bouncing motions
of the subjects were captured by the sensors by
capturing the signals from the markers and the
bouncing data captured by sensors were
instantly transferred to Coda host computer.
Fig. 2.1Markers’ positions
The test protocol was approved by Dr. V. Racic
of Department of Civil and structural 2.2.3. Designed different stimuli for
Engineering of the University of Sheffield and
the whole procedure of the experiment was synchronisation
made in Light Structure Laboratory (LSL) of
the University of Sheffield. Since the bouncing tests were designed for
investigating the level of synchronisation under
2.1.1 Participants different physical prompts. Each test was
carried out as a combine of the following
There were eight healthy male volunteers stimuli and each test was repeated three times in
participated in the bouncing tests. They were order to make sure the data were not acquired
labelled ‘subject 1 – 8’ and divided into two by chance and maximise the accuracy. e.g.
groups. Each group had two pairs consisted of 2 bouncing test001-test003: facing at a medium
people. In order to maximise the accuracy and distance between two people.
visibility from Coda sensors, people who had
similar height and weight were paired together. i. Visual Types:
2.2.2 Coda system set-up Side-by-side: subjects were just expected to see
each other partially from the corners of their
Two coda sensors were set up in the laboratory eyes.
and sampling rate was set as 200 Hz.
Fig.2.1 indicates the positions of the markers Facing: Subjects could make full eye contact
and drive boxes. In previous study [3] based on when bouncing.
bouncing tests, representative segment of
Back-to-back: Subjects could not see each other
human body theory were applied Neck was
completely.
chosen to place the markers since neck was not
likely to have (or have very little) local These three types were mainly set to investigate
displacements when bouncing. It tended to the effects of visual prompts on
move in the same manner with the whole body synchronisation.
and well represent the motions of body in
554
measured in 95% percent of the 25 seconds by
ii. Proximity on distance: Distances between the sensors.
the subjects could be close (0.05m), medium
(0.5m) and far (1.0m). Fig. 2.3 illustrates a ‘side-by-side’ test at
medium distance.
iii, Tactile cue: Touching, not touching.
Touching manners can be in various ways. This
experiment adopted ‘hand in hand’ as people
are more likely to behave in this way in modern
sports events or live pop concerts. Touching
only existed in the tests with close distance.
iv. Bouncing rate: 0.5Hz, 2.0Hz and 2.5Hz. As

mentioned in the previous chapter, these three
frequencies can be used as representatives in the
frequency range of dance-type load.
2.2 Pair tests
Fig. 2.3 A pair test of side-by-side at medium
Pair tests were carried out in the order of pair 1, distance
pair 2, pair 3 and pair 4.For each pair, they had
totally 99tests including 33 subtests repeated by In order to increase the visibility from the two
3 times sensors, four markers and the corresponding
drive boxes were symmetrically placed on the
In the tests, each subject carried a drive box shoulders of the subjects.
independent from others while the markers were
all the same, did not have unique properties. 2.3 Single tests
When the pair was ready to start bouncing, they
were given an order to start and meanwhile, Single tests were relatively easier compared
Coda sensors were triggered from Coda host with the pairs. One single subject was bouncing
computer to capture the motions of the subjects. at the central mark, facing the sensors. Each
As a long period of testing time would tire subject was allocated 15 individual tests in three
people and increase inaccuracies, each of the frequencies, 1.5Hz 2.0Hz and 2.5Hz, each was
tests lasted a period of 25 seconds which was repeated by 5 times.
pre-set up in Coda system in the host computer
and it was applied to all types of the tests. i. e. 2.4 Group tests
pairs, singles and groups. During the 25
seconds, the subjects were asked not to talk with The group tests were divided into parts of side-
each in order to avoid being distracted by-side tests and grouped tests. In order to
investigate the complex interpersonal effects on
synchronisation, four and three different cases
were designed for the side-by-side tests and
grouped tests, respectively (Fig. 2.4).
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.2 A pair test of facing and touching at

close distance.
As can be seen in Fig. 2.2, a pair of subjects Fig. 2.4 Bouncing cases in ‘side-by-side’
were bouncing and facing at close distance. In group tests (a) and grouped tests (b).
the tests of facing or back-to-back, markers
located on the front sides of the necks could not As illustrated in Fig. 2.4 (a), there were four
always been captured all the time by the different cases in the side-by-side tests. In case
sensors. It was considered a valid test that at 1, two pairs just stood side-by-side towards
least one of two markers of one subject could be Coda sensor 1 and they could just have visual
contact with each other to some extent. The
555
3.1 Plotting method
members turned to right in case 2 and one of
them could not see anyone else while other Since Coda motion system exactly captured the
three members could see some of others. In case three dimensional positions of markers
3, two pairs were opposite to each other and instrumented by the subjects. It is possible to
they turned back to each other in case 4 which plot the marker position time history by using
two people could only see their pair mate Matlab and further, to analyse the
respectively. synchronisation level among different bouncing
types. The markers position analysed were
There were three cases (Fig. 2.4 (b)) in the mean values of the positions of the two markers
grouped tests. Case 1 was that 2 pairs bouncing in three tests.
in the same direction, perpendicular to the
sensors. In case 2, an inward scenario, members
were facing each other while in case 3, the
outward scenario, they could not be seen by
anyone. Touching motions were also included
in the 3 cases. When touching, each subject was
hands in hands with their two adjacent subjects.
Fig. 3.1 A typical marker position time

history of bouncing of a pair.(25s)
3.2 Time-phase lag: Peak time-to-peak time

intervals
The level of synchronisation under different

prompts reflected on the marker position time
history is the coherence of the signals.
Fig. 2.5 A ‘side-by-side’ group test (case 4)
During the grouped tests, some of the drive

boxes ran out of battery and they were replaced
by new boxes. Hence the measurement
information of one person might be from more
than two markers (boxes).
However, some of the markers were still not

visible (or poorly visible) from Coda sensors
after being replaced by fully charged drive Fig. 3.2 The mean marker position history
boxes. Then the subjects were asked to adjust and corresponding phase-time lags for a pair
their positions or orientation of their shoulders test. Bouncing at medium distance at 2.5 Hz
and necks attached markers, but it was still not
The time-phase lag was defined, as the
working. The author considered it might be a
difference in time between peak marker position
distraction from other optical resources. After
of one subject or pair and the corresponding
closed the curtains of the windows in LSL, the
peak marker position of another subject or pair.
markers can be captured again. Hence, the
optical condition of the testing site should be (3.1)
considered and controlled properly.
For the perfectly synchronised subjects,
2.5 Data output
equals zero. In reality, this value deviates about
After finished all the tests, the data acquired in zero and it could be positive or negative. For the
Coda host computer were output as text files statistical convenience, the absolute value of
including each marker’s position, velocity and ,| | was calculated to express the time lag.
acceleration in Z (vertical) direction. In order to find the values in the marker
position time history of each type of test, a
3. DATA PROCESSING AND RESULTS spreadsheet program was used to pick up the
DISCUSSION regional peak position and its corresponding
time.
556
by-side tests. Generally, at close distance,
3.3 Influence on synchronisation effects bouncing with touching could help reduce the
time lag by 40%-50%. The visual prompts
As there were repeating times for each type of without touching did not show a stable effect on
test, the marker position was calculated as the reducing time lag and the two lower
mean value of the repeating tests of four pairs. frequencies’ synchronisation presented a similar
trend. When the two pairs were bouncing with
Based on the mean marker position history, the touching and facing, there was a remarkable
time phase legs of each type of bouncing were time lag decrease (by 50% than only close
statistically calculated bouncing).
Fig. 3.5 Grouped tests: Variation of time lag

Fig. 3.3 Pair tests: Variation of time lag at at close distance
close distance
For the grouped tests at close distance, groups
In the pair tests, the influence (Fig.3.3) on tended to be distracted by ‘side-by-side’ but
synchronisation shows a similar trend between facing was still good for synchronisation. Like
the frequencies of 1.5 Hz and 2.0 Hz, the visual other tests, combine of touching and facing
condition of side-by-side did not help the could significantly reduce time lag.
coordination of the subjects. On contrary, for
each test with side-by-side condition, the
synchronisation decreased than that of without
side-by-side. Touching was also favourable on
synchronisation and when subjects were with
touching and facing each other, time lags
reduced to the lowest level. In the higher
frequency, 2.5 Hz, synchronisation showed a
more complex variation, the side-by-side
condition was favourable in higher frequency
and again, the best synchronised bouncing was
with touching and facing. Fig. 3.6 Variation of time lag with frequency
of three types of bouncing. All at close
distance and facing and touching.
It can be seen in Fig.4.17 that ‘Close, facing and

touching’ as the most synchronised bouncing
type, producing fewer time-phase lag at lower
frequency. At higher frequency, Its influence on
synchronisation tends to decrease.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Coda motion capturing system with visual

markers were used to directly measure and
quantify the synchronisation of rhythmic
Fig. 3.4 ‘side-by-side’ tests: Variation of time
bouncing of people of varying size. Different
lag at close distance
visual, tactile and distance conditions were
Fig. 3.4 illustrates the sensory and distance included in sets of tests to compare the
influence on synchronisation of the group side- influence of proximity and sensory inputs on
synchronisation of bouncing.
557
Sheffield. The author also would like to thank
The following conclusions can be made from all the participated volunteers and Jonathan
the study on the collected bouncing data: Wood, the technician of Light Structure
Laboratory for his support during the
1. In general, time-phase lag reduces with experiment of this research.
decreasing distance.
REFERENCES
2. For the coherency of bouncing between two
people, visual tactile and distance effects can [1] D. Rogers, Two more ‘wobbly’ stands,
mostly improve the synchronisation at 2.0 Hz, Construction News, 17 August 2000.
2.5 Hz and 1.5 Hz, respectively.
[2] R. C. Bastia, C. Magluta, Spectator-induced
3. For the coherency of four people, motion of vibration of Maracana Stadium, Second
touching is more effective on improving European Conference on Structural Dynamics
synchronisation than providing visual prompts EURODYN, Trondheim, Norway, June 1993.
alone. Visual effects, especially the partial
visual effects on synchronisation, are more [3] V. Racic, J.M.W. Brownjohn, A. Pavic,
likely to be revealed together with touching. Reproduction and application of human
bouncing and jumping forces from visual
4. For all types and sizes of groups, rhythmic marker data. Journal of Sound and Vibration
bouncing at close distance with touching and 329 (2010) 3397-3416
facing can significantly increase the degree of
synchronisation and at 1.5 Hz, bouncing will be
synchronised the best. This effect will decrease
with increasing frequency.
4.1 Recommendation for future studies
1. It is strongly suggested that to provide proper

optical source for any future experiments
involved with optoelectronic motion capturing
system. It has been found that Coda sensor
might be distracted by the sunlight.
Fig. 4.1Poor signals
2. It was observed that marker position waves

tended to be without distinct wave peaks in the
later period of the experiment. (Fig. 4) This
means that motions of the subject were getting
slower. In other words, people were tired.
Hence, the testing time should also be
considered properly. Tests of more than four
hours are not recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express his gratitude for
the guidance and support of his supervisor, Dr
Vitomir Racic – Department of Civil and
Structural Engineering of the University of
558
NEGATIVE PHASE EFFECTS ON
BLAST RESPONSE OF FLEXIBLE STRUCTURES
Xindong Zhou
Abstract
This is a dissertation to investigate the negative phase effect of blast impulse to the structure. It is well known
that when a blast impulse sweeps through the air, and it creates a partial vacuum, which is the negative blast
impulse. Some people rise that this negative blast impulse could be used to help decreasing the peak
displacement for structure under blast load. Currently, people usually only consider the positive phase of the
blast loading, leading to big size structure component, which is uneconomical. If the hypothesis is true, it could
be a great breakthrough and the construction cost will be lower.
To investigate the hypothesis, a SDOF system is developed and the negative phase of blast loading is considered.
Many parameter studies are carried out to Figure out the difference of peak structure displacement under blast
load with and without negative phase for the structure under pure elastic and elastic – plastic behaviour. For a
more realistic simulation, a minor blast impulse, which is 20% peak pressure to the major one, is also taken into
account during the study.
Keywords: blast impulse, negative phase, SDOF system, elastic response, elastic-plastic response.
1.Introduction
resulting in a subsequent under-pressure and
period of suction on the target structure, That is to
Buildings will suffer from some blast impact due to say the structure will rebound after the inward
industry, millitary or even the terrorist activity. displacement under the NEGATIVE phase of the
Especially, the flexible and spacious structures with impulse.
long span, such as the airport and some large public
structures, are easy to be the target of terrorists [1]. Another point needs to pay attention to here.
They will experience great stress redistribution Basically, the damping effect is negligible for the
under the blast load until the heavy damage appears blast load respond of flexible structure for several
and finally the whole structure collapse. Thus the reasons. 1) The duration of the blast very shot,
design of blast resistance of the structure is almost only tens to hundreds of microseconds, one
required. can not significantly see the effect of damping of
the structure. 2) What is cared about is only the
Frequently, when considering the effect of blast first circle of the vibration of the structure under
loading on structures, we are less concerned with the impulse because, obviously, if the structure
the magnitude of the peak applied pressure, and survive the peak displacement of the first circle, it
more interested in the overall impulse imparted to will also not collapse or damage under the rest of
the structure. This is justified when the load the circle.
duration is very short when compared to the natural
period of the loaded structure. A further To study the negative phase effect of blast
simplification is that we usually simply consider impulse to a flexible structure, some approaches
the positive impulse generated by the blast load. can be taken here. 1)Nonlinear finite element
analysis taking account of the effect of plasticity,
559
buckling and strain rate is supposed to be a very ( )
accurate way to investigate the overall blast () { for triangle
impulse effect, however, very specified software,
models and other efforts are required to implicate distribution, and
the research, It is not easy to be accomplished by
only one researcher. An alternative approach is the () ( ) for exponential
assumption of the flexible structure to be a SDOF distribution.
system. The whole structure is simplified as and
SDOF system with a lumped mass support by a Where
massless spring under the concentrated force. Some
assumptions are made to establish an equivalent Structures subjected to blast impulse loading are
system to investigate the blast impact to the often treated with elastic-plastic response spectra.
flexible structure. Basically, many literatures available before were
computed on the base of triangle distribution of the
Finally, what is needed to be figure out in this load. However, many current studies reveal that the
study is the peak displacement in the first circle. commonly adopted hypothesis of triangle
Several groups of scaled distance between the distribution of the blast load will lead to a
structure and the charge will be set to investigate unconserative solution for the flexible structure,
the difference between the impact under only the while the solution for the stiffer structure will be
positive phase of blast impulse and that of both overconservative. Many investigations have been
positive and negative phase of the blast impulse. completed with the exponential distribution blast
impulse loading in the present papers, and the
results are in better agreement with the
2.Simulation model and methodology experimental data. For the value exponential shape
2.1 model and loading adopted parameter b on the design purpose, the
conservative choice b=1 or even smaller is
recommended.
The model finally used to finish the simulation is a
simply supported beam under blast impulse At first, the shape parameter b should be
pressure, as the chart shows below: determined. 4 values of it are set for the
investigation,
Fig.2.1 Simulation model
. The usual way to simulate blast load is a start

of peak pressure with a sharp decrease during a
short time of , followed by an exponential
negative distribution of the pressture, as blast load
function and charts shown below:
Fig. 2.3 Load with different shape parameter
Where , , the peak

value of negative phase is smaller with larger shape
parameter. Therefore, the final shape parameter
adopted is b=0.85 to have a significant negative
phase effect.
The default cross-section is a rectangle shape of

0.05m x 0.05m. For a simple support beam, the
deflexion
Fig. 2.2 Ideal blast loading
where
560
The transformation factors ensure that the work
done by the load and the kinetic and strain energies
generated by the structural response are identical in
the real and equivalent systems.
Solution of the equivalent system Eq. (3) is [8]

( ) ( ) √ (7)
Fig.2.4 Shape function

is the angular frequency of the system. For the
idealized triangular approximation to the blast load,
( ) during the load application ( ):
( )
( ) (8)
for a spring, the relationship between external force while after the load ( ):
and displacement is
( ) (9)
(2)
Therefore, the equivalent stiffness for a simply 2.2 Elastic simulation

supported beam is
(3) For the elastic simulation, the stiffness is
constant. The structure will not yield under the
In the simplest equivalent, SDOF system, the 3D hypothesis. Therefore the relationship between the
properties of the real structure are taken as an displacement and resistance is as the chart below:
approximate one-dimension system. The support of
the structure is replaced by a single massless spring,
the distributed mass of the beam by a lumped mass
at the end of the spring, and the distributed loading
by a concentrated force as diagram (see Figure 4.)
The dynamic expression of the SDoF system is [8]:
̈ () (4)
The mass, stiffness and load of the SDoF system

must be factored to make the transformation Fig. 2.6 Elastic R-z relationship
between the equivalent system and the virtual one.
Then, The relationship between acceleration and
resistance is:
, , () () (5)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Where,
The time step must be small enough to
accurately represent the structure behaviour, using
the time stepping analysis chart below:
Fig.2.5 simplified Sdof model
∫ ( )
∫ ( ) ( ) Fig. 2.7 Elastic simulation iteration

( ) (6)
561
2.3Elastic-Plastic simulation 2.4.1 stage 1
The stiffness of structure in elastic behaviour is The mathematical description of this stage is
linear, yet the actual stiffness of the structure is
nonlinear (Figure 7). However, it is too complex to ̈( ) ( ) ( ) (12)
simulate with the part (2) of the curve. Therefore,
use the elastic-plastic relationship in Figure 8 Charis J. Gantes* and Nikos G. Pnevmatikos [3]
instead to do the transient analysis. claim that the damping effect could be out of
account because the peak displacement only occur
during the first cycles in most cases rarely will it
occur in the second or third cycle due to the shape
to loading function ( ). Also, this is a transient
analysis. The typical displacement of stage 1 is the
part (1) in Figure 8. The initial velocity and
displacement are usually zero. At the moment
, the end of elastic region, we have got
( ) ̇( ) (13)
Figure 2.8. Real and simplified R-z relationship
the yield displacement could be gain by
The relationship between the displacement z and
the resistance R of structure under elastic-perfectly
plastic behaviour is divided into 4 stages by Charis (14)
J. Gantes* and Nikos G. Pnevmatikos [3]
Therefore, by solving eq.20, the time could be
found and the velocity of eq. 20 could also be
calculated.
2.3.1 stage 2
The mathematical description of this stage is
̈ ( ) (15)
In this stage, the structure has been plastic, the

solution of x(t) on again depends on the external
Figure 2.9. Plastic-Elastic relationship of force ( ), the initial displacement and velocity
resistance and displacement has been obtained at the end of stage 1. The
typical displacement of stage 2 is part (2) of Figure
(1) The structure have a forward displacement 8. As we can see, the velocity of structure and the
up to the elastic limit end of plastic region is zero. Then we have
(2) Structure yields and the stiffness is zero,
the resistance stays constant as . ̇( ) (16)
Structure continue to move forward until
the maximum displacement Figure out the and substitute it into ( ) then
(3) Structure is unloaded and starts to rebound we can find the maximum displacement
with the same absolute structure stiffness
up to the negative resistance - . This is ( ) (17)
an elastic rebounding.
(4) Plastic rebounding with a maximum The velocity and displacement of eq.22 and eq.23
resistance (absolutely) - are initial condition or stage 3.
The Analytical formula for each stage above is 2.3.3 stage 3 and stage 4
( ) Similar method can be taken to gain the time

( )
{ ( ) ( )
and and calculate the displacement and
( ) velocity for the stage 3 and stage 4. The typical
(11) displacement is curve(3) and curve(4) for stage 3
and 4 separately. At the end for stage 4 ,the
562
second cycle commences and the same procedure Three magnitudes of the time steps are set to
could be taken . determine the final one, basing on the numerical
displacement and blast energy.
2.3.4 numerical simulation
The numerical method for these 4 stages of R-z

relationship can be describe as the flow chart below,
the record of increasing displacement and
decreasing displacement provided, Setting is the
difference between them
Fig. 3.1 Numerical diversion due to eh time step
The final time step taken is 2e-6s.
3.2 parameter study
During all of the parameter study, the blast loading

is kept constant to investigate what will happen if
one parameter varies while other parameters are
unchanged, which is the essential idea for the
parameter study. Three cases, which are with
Fig. 2.10 numerical R-z relationship flow chart negative phase, without negative phase, Dual
impulse (the minor impulse is 20% to the major
With the R-z relationship established, the same
iteration as elastic simulation could be carried out one) with negative phase, will be studied during
as below: the investigation. The default value for the
variable to be investigated is b=0.05m, h=0.05m,
( ) ( ) l=1m, E=200Gpa, ,
( ) (18)
, =0.005s without considering failure
problem.
3.2.1 elastic behaviour parameter study
6 parameter studies are implicated to study the

influence of span l, width b, height h, dendity ,
elastic modulus E,and positive phase duration .
With all of the parameter study for elastic
Fig. 2.11 Plastic-elastic simulation iteration behaviour of the model, it can be concluded that
the negative phase effect of blast impulse will have
a tendency to increase the peak structure
displacement and maximum blast energy absorbed
3. results and conclusion by the structure, especially when the structure
modal is relatively “weak” under some setting of
3.1 numerical diversion the parameters investigated. structure have a
forward displacement and would not fail when the
This is a technical problem without any theoretical duration of positive blast impulse ends, the
difficulties. However, it is very important to the
negative blast impulse suck the structure
result of simulation accuracy. Therefore, the time
backward during the rebounding and cause an
step must be small enough to guarantee the
even larger displacement.
accuracy.
563
Australia bSchool of Civil and Resource
Engineering, The University of Western Australia,
3.2.2 plastic-elastic behaviour parameter study 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009, Australia,
04/01/2006
Same parameter study as elastic behaviour and the
effect of Yield strength are study this time. [5] T. Børvik a,b,*, A.G. Hanssen a,c, M. Langseth a,
The negative phase plays a different role in the L. Olovsson a,d, Response of structures to planar
structural plastic behaviour. Now the structure blast loads – A finite element engineering
yield and still a have a forward velocity when the approach, 29/03/2009
positive phase of blast impulse ends, without out
[6] K. Fischer, I. Häring, SDOF response model
the negative blast impulse, it will go forward and
parameters from dynamic blast loading
finally oscillate at a place further. But the negative
experiments, Received 12 September 2008
blast impulse is able to give the structure a
backward force while it still has a forward velocity, [7] Andrew Tyas, department of civil and structure
and finally the whole structure is sucked back and engineering of Sheffeild University, Section 8-
oscillate at a place closer to its original one and it closed form SDoF models. Oct./2009
will never be back to the plastic region again.
[8] Andrew Tyas, department of civil and structure
The difference of the peak displacement is the engineering of Sheffeild University, Section 9 -
effect of negative blast impulse, and it is Principles of numerical modelling of blast-impact
remarkable while the structure is relatively weak. events. Oct./2009
Also, it is found that the minor impulse does not
have remarkable influence on the peak [9] Sozen MA, Thornton CH, Corley WG, Mlakara
displacement. Therefore it is reasonable to ignore PF. The Oklahoma City bombing: structure and
it during the engineering design mechanisms of the murrah building. ASCE J
Performance Constr Facilities 1998;12(3):120–36.
Reference
[1] T. Krauthammer!,*, A. Altenberg",Negative

phase blast e!ects on glass panels, Department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
16802, USA "Department of Civil Engineering,
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843,
USA, 09/07/1999
[2] T.A. Rose*, P.D. Smith, Influence of the

principal geometrical parameters of straight city
streets on positive and negative phase blast wave
impulses, Engineering Systems Department,
Cranfield University, Royal Military College of
Science, Swindon SN6 8LA, UK, 28/09/2001
[3] Charis J. Gantes*, Nikos G. Pnevmatikos,

Elastic–plastic response spectra for exponential
blast loading, Metal Structures Laboratory, School
of Civil Engineering, National Technical University
of Athens, 9 Heroon Polytechneiou, Zografou GR-
15780, Greece, 12/01/2003
[4] Chengqing Wua, Hong Haob, Numerical

simulation of structural response and damage to
simultaneous ground shock and airblast loads,
aSchool of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The University of Adelaide, North Terrace, SA 5005,
564
New Developments in Coupled Multi-Physics Modelling

Yizhou Zhu
ABSTRACT Euler-Bernoulli theory, Rayleigh theory and Timoshenko theory are introduced in
this report and the assumptions and terms of use of each theory are proposed. Rotational effect is
considered in Rayleigh theory and Timoshenko theory further enhances it by adding shear deformation.
Four cases have been studied to compare three beam theories. Critical time steps are produced by these
theories. Various formations of mass matrices and stiffness matrices are also generated and combined in
these four cases. Matlab code is applied to simulate structural fast dynamic. Wave propagation is
studied to simulate the wave speed and wave numbers under these theories.
conservative system by the use of the principle

1 INTRODUCTION
of conservation of energy (Singiresu S.Rao,
The most widely used beam theory in 2004). Another notable contribution of him is
engineering field is Euler theory. It is a that he improves the Euler-Bernoulli beam
simplified method of the linearity of the theory by considering the rotation influence of
elasticity which gives a way of determining the the cross section. Rayleigh’s mass matrix is
load bearing capacity and deflection of structural formed in this paper which included the effect of
members. However, it is just accurate in the the rotation of the cross section.
circumstance that transverse loads on the beam
Stephen Timoshenko contributed further to the
results in small deflection only. It was first
beam theory. His model included both of
launched in 1750 (Truesdell, C. 1960), and the
the rotational inertia effects and the shear
success of the Ferris wheel and the Eiffel Tower
deformation, which makes it more appropriate to
made it well known. After that, it became a
simulate the behaviour of short beam members.
milestone of engineering and an activator of the
As general, stiffness of the beam will be lowered
revolution of the industrial.
by taking into account the added rotational and
It is accepted that the traditional Euler-Bernoulli shear deformation, which results in a larger
beam model is enough for the calculation of the deflection under the static load and lower Eigen
natural frequencies of first few modes in frequencies. For those structures with higher
relatively long and slender beams. However, it frequencies, the second influence is more
neglects both of the rotational and shear effects apparent when the wavelength gets smaller.
for the purpose of simpler applications, which Timoshenko beam theory can be converged
makes this theory does not perform well in towards Euler-Bernoulli beam theory when
dynamics. Different frequencies of dynamics the shear modulus of the beam goes infinity and
give various assumptions and prerequisite. “Slow the rotation effects are omitted.
dynamics” are often referred to as “vibrations”
In this report, Matlab code is used to simulate
while “fast dynamics” as “wave propagation”. In
and compare several cases with different beam
this project, two other beam theories, which are
theory. One of the key points is finding critical
Rayleigh beam theory and Timoshenko beam
time step when doing the time integration.
theory will be studied, which have improved
Implicit and explicit time integration is often
behaviour in dynamics, especially in the range of
used in finite element method. Explicit time
wave propagation problems. Alternative
integration is generally very efficient in
formation of the stiffness matrices and mass
structural dynamics, but suffers from one
matrices will be compared. The subsequent finite
important drawback: a critical time step exists
element formulation will also be investigated.
such that when the real time step is made larger
Rayleigh developed the method of calculating than this, the system tends to be unstable and the
the fundamental frequency of vibration of a numerical data is worthless. Generally it is
565
desirable to choose the time step as close to the The static Euler-Bernoulli equation reflects the
critical time step as possible, but not larger, so as relationship between the applied load and the
to be efficient but not lose stability. The critical deflection of the beam:
time steps of the various beam theories and the
d2 d 2w
associated finite element formulations will be
2
( EI )q
derived, so that a rational choice can be made on dx dx 2 (1)
which beam theory combines good behaviour in
Where, w(x) is the deflection w along the beam
fast dynamics, and which finite element
at a certain position x; q is a distributed load;
formulation of this theory is the most efficient
E is the elastic modulus; I is the second moment
for dynamic simulations.
of area.
A further comparison of these three beam
Successive derivatives of w have different
theories will be done on the subject of wave
representations:
propagation within the elements. The
relationship between the wave speed and the dw
wave numbers will be discussed. Formulations of 
dx (2)
the three beam theories will also be derive.
d 2w
 EI M
dx 2 (3)
2 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND
EQUATIONS OF THREE BEAM d d 2w
THEORIES  ( EI )Q
dx dx 2 (4)
In order to apply these three different beam
theories, there are certain assumptions and Where φ is the slope of the deformed beam
conditions should be taken. Seon M.Han(1999) element; M is the bending moment of the beam;
gave his summary: Q is the shear force of the beam.
 The property of the material remains linear 2.2 Rayleigh beam theory
elastic. The Rayleigh beam theory puts forward a fringy
 The Poisson’s effect is not taken into enhancement to the Euler-Bernoulli theory by
account. taking the effect of rotational inertia effects of
the cross-section into account. Consequently, it
 The longitudinal direction is significantly modifies the overestimation of the Euler-
larger than the other two. Bernoulli beam natural frequencies by part.
 The neutral axis and the centroidal axes Nevertheless, the overestimation still exists.
coincide based on the Equation (1) can then be modified as:
prerequisite that the cross section is
symmetric. (5)
 Planes always stay normal to the neutral 2.3 Timoshenko beam theory
axis.
Timoshenko added both of the effect of shear
 The rotation angle is fairly small so that the and rotation to the Euler-Bernoulli beam. It is
small angle assumptions can be applied. believed that the Timoshenko theory is a
2.1 Euler-Bernoulli beam theory paramount improvement for the study of non-
slender beams as well as high-frequency
Euler-Bernoulli beam theory reveals the responses where shear or rotation cannot be
proportional relationship between the curvature ignored (Seon M. Han et al.1999). Compared to
and the bending moment along the beam. The the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, which has
Euler-Bernoulli beam theory has been well infinity Phase velocity and parabolic motion
known as a basic theory for engineers for it equations, Timoshenko’s beam theory is of more
provides understandable and feasible importance in the study of structural dynamics
approximations. Nevertheless, the natural and vibrations, and thus become indispensable
frequencies of the higher modes are slightly for the analysis of short transient and wave
overestimated in the Euler-Bernoulli model. propagation.
Besides that, this theory is more accurate in
slender members than in non-slender members Shape factor is the essential parameter in
(Seon M. Han et al.1999). Timoshenko beam theory. It can be called the
area reduction factor or the shear coefficient as
well. The reason of the existing of this factor is
that the shear force does not stay the same over
566
the entire cross section area. The vibration 3 MATRICES
frequency, Poisson's ratio and the cross-section
3.1 Stiffness matrices
shape are three main factors that decide the
shape factor. Generally shape factor has more The traditional 4 x 4 stiffness matrix is:
than one expression; however, the functional
dependence on frequency is usually omitted.
Many researchers proposed several ways to
determine the shape factor presented by
combining the shape effect of the cross-section
and Poisson's ratio. Moreover, variations in the
shape factor with frequency were given (Seon M.
Han et al.1999).
The equilibrium equations of the Timoshenko (14)
theory are:
If the longitudinal deformation, i.e. axial
displacement, is not neglected, the matrix
expands to 6 x 6 stiffness matrix [K1]:
(6)
(7)
Reddy (2002) also gives the expressions of Va,
Ma, Vb, and Mb:
(15)
(8)
In Timoshenko theory, the shape factor, shear
modulus and Poisson’s ratio are introduced into
the stiffness matrix [K2]:
(9)
(10)
(11)
Therefore, the weak form of the equation (6) and (16)
(7) are given as:
3.2 Mass matrices
One of the important part of the comparison is
the alternative mass matrices. Assuming the
cross section area is A, the mass density is ρ,
(12) member length L. The lumped mass matrix [M1]
is:
(13)
where υ1 is equivalent to the deflection w and

υ2is equivalent to the rotation function ψ.
(17)
In the lumped mass matrix, α is a dimensionless.
567
Various values of α will be compared. Archer (1965) gave an even more complicated
Timoshenko consistent mass matrix [M6]. The
The most widely used consistent mass matrix
parameter φ has the same expression as before.
[M2] is:
4 MATLAB MODELLING
The most interesting part of the dissertation is
the Matlab modelling using different beam
theories and matrices. Four cases has been
studied. They are separated into two groups.
Group one is a structure and group two id a
(18) beam. Two cases in each group varies from the
boundary conditions. The material property are:
For the Rayleigh beam theory the effect of rotary
The elastic modulus is 210e+9 N/m2; the cross
inertia is taken into consideration [M3]:
section area A=4.53e-3m2, the second moment of
inertia I=25.1e-6 m4, the mass density
ρ=7800kg/m3.
 Case 1
All the information including the element
numbering, boundary conditions, and loading
conditions are plotted in figure 1.
(19)
According to J.Chang et al. (2009), the mass
matrix [M4]of Rayleigh beam contains two parts:
Figure 1 Structure of case 1

The node coordinates vector is:
(20)
According to H. Gavin (2007), the beam element
mass matrix including shear deformation [M5] The applied loads on selected degree of freedom
has the following formation of: are:
The structure has two fixed ends, that is to say,

the first six degree of freedom is zero, so the
boundary condition vector is:
Table 1 gives the results of the critical time step

(21) of each combination:
568
Stiffness Critical time
Theory Mass matrix matrix step (s)
EB lumped [M1] [K1] 0.000215
EB consistent [M2] [K1] 0.000122
Figure 2 Beam of case 3
R Lumped [M3] [K1] 0.000218
The node coordinates vector is:
R consistent [M4] [K1] 0.000130
T Lumped [M1] [K1] 0.000228
T consistent [M5] [K2] 0.000130
The applied loads on selected degree of freedom
T consistent [M6] [K2] UNSTABLE are:
Table 1 Results of case 1

From the data in table 1, generally, the critical
time step of the Timoshenko beam theory is
larger than the other two theory combinations. The boundary condition is:
Also, theories using the lumped mass matrix
have larger critical time step than their
counterparts with consistent mass matrices. All
the following three cases has similar results
 Case 4
Case 4 remove the restraints of the right end of
-3
Δtcri (10 s) the beam and thus the beam becomes a cantilever
Theory beam. The boundary condition is then:
α=1/150 α=1/120 α=1/78 α=1/24
EB
Lumped
[M1] 0. 193 0. 215 0. 231 0. 231
Additionally, tests are done to investigate if the
R load position and magnitude will affect the
Lumped critical time steps. The outcomes shows that for
[M3] 0. 197 0. 218 0. 231 0. 231 both of these two froups.
T 5 WAVE DISPERSION
Lumped
[M1] 0. 209 0. 228 0. 231 0. 231 According to H. Askes and Elias C. Aifantis
(2009), the simplified wave dispersion equations
Table 2 Influence of α of the three beam theories can be obtained. the
relationship between wave speed and wave
The main trend of table 2 is that the critical time
numbers varies with different theory. Figure 2,
step turns out to be larger when α increases. The
figure 3, and figure 4 depicted relationship of
other three cases also demonstrates the similar
three theories respectively.
results
 Case 2
Case 2 shares the same structure with case 1. The
only difference is that the boundary condition.
The sixth restraint is removed. So the boundary
condition appears as:
 Case 3
Case 3 is a beam with left end fixed and right
end rollered. All the information is shown in
figure 2.
Figure 2 Euler-Bernoulli theory
569
and less restrains results in smaller critical time
steps. Neither the position nor the magnitude of
the external loads affects the critical time step. In
the wave dispersion analysis, Euler-Bernoulli
theory produces meaningless results and
Timoshenko theory has the best simulation of the
wave propagation. Therefore, Timoshenko beam
theory with lumped mass matrix is recommended
in the computational analysis in terms of the
smallest critical time step it can produce. This
will significantly enhance the performance of the
computer calculation and thus make it more
efficient.
Figure 3 Rayleigh theory ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

to my supervisor Prof. Harm Askes for his
guidance, support and encouragement
throughout the preparation of this dissertation.
REFERENCES
Truesdell, C. 1960. The rational mechanics of
flexible or elastic bodies, 1638-1788.
Singiresu S.Rao, 2004. Mechanical Vibrations,
Fourth Edition in SI Units.
Seon M. et al. 1999. Dynamics of transversely
vibrating beams using four engineering theories.
Figure 4 Timoshenko theory Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Rutgers, the State university of New Jersey,
When both of the rotary inertia and shear Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A.
deformation are taken into consideration,
according to the simulation results, the wave J.N.REDDY, 2002, On the dynamic behaviour
approaches to 2937.6 m/s, which is only nearly of the Timoshenko beam finite elements,
half of that in the Rayleigh analysis. It can be sadhana, Vol.24, Part 3, P 175-198.
clearly observed that the slope of the curve at the J. Chang et al., 2009. Vibration and stability of
beginning is smaller than that in the previous an axially moving Rayleigh beam, Applied
figure. When the value of k increases to as much Mathematical Modelling, P1482–1497.
as sixth degree, the curve reaches the plateau.
H. Gavin. 2007. Beam stiffness and mass
Therefore, the Rayleigh theory is only partly matrices, CE283-Structural Dynamics.
reasonable, and the wave speed will almost
remain the same after a dramatic increase. J. S. Archer. 1965. Consistent matrix formation
Timoshenko analysis simulates the process for structural analysis using finite element
feasibly and thus the developing relationship techniques. AIAA, J.3, P1910-1918.
between c and k is more accurate. H. Askes and Elias C. Aifantis, 2009. Gradient
6 CONCLUSIONS elasticity and flexural wave dispersion in carbon
nanotubes, Physical Review, B80, 195412.
Timoshenko beam theory takes into account the
rotary inertia and shear deformation and thus
become the most accurate theory of structural
analysis. Timoshenko produces the largest
critical time step, which makes it the most
efficient theory in the computational analysis.
Another important conclusion is that for all the
three beam theories, lumped mass matrix
performs better than consistent mass matrix for
they lead to larger critical time steps. Also,
boundary conditions slightly influence the results
570
Near Surface Mounted FRP for Shear Strengthening of Reinforced

Concrete Beams
Min Liu
ABSTRACT The use of near surface mounted (NSM) fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
reinforcement for shear strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) beams is a new technique which has
been developed for just a few years. The aim of this dissertation is to evaluate the effectiveness and the
influencing variables of the efficacy. And the research on the model accuracy is carried out as well.
Existing experimental programs presented in the dissertation provide enough evidence to support that
the NSM FRP shear strengthening technique can largely improve the shear resistance of the RC beams.
The spacing and the inclination of FRP reinforcements, percentage of internal steel stirrups and
concrete strength have significant influence on the efficacy of using NSM technique. Nanni’s et.al
formula provides the most satisfied prediction value of the contribution by using NSM FRP shear-
strengthening system. The stiffness and the inclination of FRP reinforcements affect the accuracy of the
prediction most.
of near surface mounted FRP reinforcement, has

1 INTRODUCTION
been developed for improving the flexural and
A large number of existing concrete structures shear performance of reinforced concrete
need to be upgraded or replaced for the structures. By using this technique, FRP
improvement of their structural performance reinforcements are applied into grooves opened
nowadays. Not only due to the deterioration in the concrete cover of reinforced concrete
processes of the reinforced concrete, but also beams or columns by the bond of epoxy
due to some demands of loading capacity adhesive.
increase or errors during the design and
The effectiveness of the NSM technique with
construction (Szabóand Balázs, 2007).
FRP reinforcement for strengthening of
Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) material is a reinforced concrete beams was already assessed.
very important and effective material for This dissertation focuses on researching the use
construction repair because it has an excellent of NSM FRP shear strengthening technique to
performance in structure strengthening. In the improve the shear capacity of reinforced
past two decades, FRP reinforcement materials concrete beams.
have been widely used in strengthening system
of reinforced concrete structures due to their
several advantages when strengthened with 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
concrete.
2.1 Advantages of NSM technique
The application of near surface mounted (NSM)
 The use of NSM need less time for installing
was first developed in Europe in 1950s and the
FRP reinforcements since the only
reinforcement materials were steel bars.
preparation work is to cut grooves;
Recently, a new strengthening technique, the use
571
 NSM technique can provide larger bond There are a number of reasons for the preference
surface than EBR method due to its internal of laminates for NSM FRP shear strengthening
bond; technique (Teng, De Lorenzis, Wang, Li, Wong
and Lik Lam, 2006):
 NSM technique can provide the better
anchorage and reduce the possibility of  Installing of FRP laminates requires the
debonding; opening of rectangular slits, which costs less
time than opening square cross section
 The FRP reinforcement can be well
grooves for circular bars;
protected due to the internally mounted
method; and  FRP laminates maximize the ratio of surface
to cross section area, which minimizes the
 NSM technique has minimum influence on
bond stress associated with a given tensile
the original aesthetics of the structure (Lee
force in FRP reinforcement; and
and Cheng, 2011).
 The circular FRP bar tends to split the
adhesive cover and the surrounding surface
layer of concrete more easily than the FRP
2.2 Application of NSM shear strengthening laminate.
system 2.4 Failure modes
 Cut grooves or slits according to the FRP In existing research on NSM FRPs technique for
reinforcement type and size on the bottom or shear strengthening of RC beams, four different
lateral concrete cover by using a diamond failure modes are identified (Bianco, Barros and
cutter; Monti, 2010). These four types are loss of bond
 Clean the grooves or slits by using vacuum (debonding), concrete semi-conical tensile
or compressed air to insure the bond fracture, mixed shallow-semi-cone-plus-
strength between FRP reinforcements and debonding and FRP laminate fracture
concrete; respectively as shown in Figure 1 below:
 Cut the FRP reinforcement rods or laminates

into the requisite size then clean them by
using acetone;
 Produce epoxy adhesive as the supplier’s

recommendations;
 Fill grooves or slits halfway with the

adhesive; Figure 2.1: Possible failure modes of an NSM FRP
strip: (a) debonding; (b) laminate tensile rupture; (c)
 Apply epoxy adhesive evenly on the surface
concrete semi-conical fracture; and (d) mixed
of the rods or strips carefully;
shallow-semi-cone-plus-debonding
 Insert the rods or strips into the grooves or
slits and press them lightly to ensure the
3 EXISTING EXPERIMENTAL
adhesive overlap the FRP reinforcements;
PROGRAMS
and
There are seven existing experimental programs
 At last, fill the grooves or slits with more
presented for analysis in the dissertation:
adhesive and smooth the surface.
 DeLorenzis and Nanni (2001)
2.3 FRP reinforcement cross section selection
572
 Barros and Dias (2006) Based on the test results of the seven existing
experimental programs, the comparison between
 Rizzo and De Lorenzis (2007)
actual fail loads and predictions for each model
 Kotynia (2007) can be carried out. The figures of experimental
 Dias and Barros (2008) contribution against the value from calculation
by each model are provided below:
 Dias and Barros (2011_a)
 Dias and Barros (2011_b) 140

120
100
80
Vf,exp
60
4 EXISTING CALCULATION MODELS 40
20
So far, based on the literature review, four 0
approaches are proposed: adapted fib (2001), De 0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00
Lorenzis (2002), Nanni et.al (2004) and Bianco Vf,cal
et.al (2009). Adapted fib (2001) defines the
contribution of the FRP reinforcement similar Figure 5.2: De Lorenzis
with the steel stirrups. Nanni et.al (2004) derived
from the formulation by De Lorenzis (2002), 140
120
FRP contribution was determined to the bond 100
80
Vf,exp
condition and the effective bond length of FRP

60
stirrups. The last model by Bianco et.al (2009) 40
focuses on the fracture of the concrete 20
0
surrounding the FRP stirrups.
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00
The total shear resistance of a FRP strengthened Vf,cal
beam, 𝑉𝑛 , is obtained from:
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑓 Figure 5.3: Nanni et.al
𝑉𝑐 is the shear contribution of concrete.
𝑉𝑠 is the shear contribution of steel stirrups. 140
120
𝑉𝑓 is FRP shear reinforcement contribution. 100
80
Vf,exp
Assumption for the models of NSM FRP shear 60

strengthening system: 40
20
 The critical shear crack angle is generally 0
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00
assumed as 45 degrees;
Vf,cal
 The bond stress distributes evenly along the
FRP reinforcement at the ultimate state; and Figure 5.4: Adapted fib
 The ultimate bond stress is ranged in all
FRP reinforcements intersected by the shear
failure crack at ultimate (De Lorenzis and
Nanni, 2001).
5 MODEL ACCURACY
5.1 Model accuracy comparison
573
𝑠𝑓 𝑁
140 min 𝑖; 𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖 = 1 ⋯
𝐿𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2
120 𝑠𝑓 𝑁
100 min 𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑡 − 𝑖; 𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖 = ⋯ 𝑁
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2
80
Vf,exp
60
𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 accords to an arrangement of the FRP
40
20 reinforcements crossing the shear failure crack
0 that leads to the minimum of the 𝐿𝑖 . In Figure
𝑖
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00
9, θ represents the slope of the FRP laminate
Vf,cal
with the beam longitudinal axis and
Figure 5.5: Bianco et.al 2𝑐
𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑙𝑏 −
sin 𝜃
De Lorenzis’s formulation is only feasible for
the inclination of 90 degrees and 45 degrees. which represents the net length of a FRP
About 30% predictions fails by adapted fib. laminate, as shown in the Fig, to account for
Bianco’s et.al formula is too conservative. cracking of the concrete cover and installation
Nanni’s et.al approach is the most satisfied one. tolerances. 𝑙𝑏 is the actual length of a FRP
laminate; c is the concrete cover thickness.
5.2 Nanni’s et.al formulation
The first limitation of takes into account bond as
Nanni’s et.al formula derived from the
the controlling failure mechanism, and
formulation of De Lorenzis (2002) which is
represents the minimum effective length of a
mentioned above. According to the formulation
FRP laminate intercepted by a shear crack as a
by Nanni et al, the term within the square
function of the term N,
brackets of the Equation is the force resulting
from the tensile stress in the NSM FRP elements 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 (1 + cot 𝜃)
𝑁=
𝑠𝑓
crossing the shear failure crack. The vertical
projection of this force is the contribution of the where N is rounded off to the lowest integer
FRP to the shear resistance of the beam 𝑉𝑓 , (e.g., N = 5.7 ) N = 5), and 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 represents the
𝑉𝑓 = 4 ∙ 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝜏𝑏 ∙ 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∙ sin 𝜃 length of the vertical projection of 𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑡 as
shown in Fig. 12 written as follows:
(for FRP strips)
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑙𝑏 sin 𝜃 − 2𝑐
𝑉𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑑𝑓 ∙ 𝜏𝑏 ∙ 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∙ sin 𝜃
The second limitation, 𝐿𝑖 = 𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 , obtained from
(for FRP bars)
the equation below:
where 𝑎𝑓 and 𝑏𝑓 are the dimensions of the
𝜀𝑓𝑒 𝑎𝑙 + 𝑏𝑙 𝐸𝑓
laminate cross section, 𝑑𝑓 is the diameter of the 𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∙ ∙
2 𝑎𝑙 ∙ 𝑏𝑙 𝜏𝑏
FRP bar, 𝜏𝑏 represents the average bond stress
of the FRP elements intercepted by the shear The design contribution of the NSM laminates to
failure crack, and 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 is obtained from, the shear resistance of the beams is defined as,
𝑉𝑓𝑑 = 𝜙𝜓𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿𝑖
𝑖 being 𝜙 the strength-reduction factor indicated
where 𝐿𝑖 represents the length of each single by ACI [22] that, for shear strengthening of
NSM laminate intercepted by a 45∘ shear concrete elements has a value of 0.85. For the
crack, determined from, additional reduction factor 𝜓𝑓 , the value of 0.85
recommended by ACI [1] for EBR technique
(bonded face schemes) was adopted.
574
the improvement of shear capacity has a
tendency to decrease.
6 PARAMETRIC STUDY
Parametric study plays a very important role in 0.5

the dissertation. There are two main sections in 0.4
Vf,exp/Vn
this chapter: 0.3
0.2
 The evaluation of the variables’ influence on
0.1
the contribution of FRP reinforcement by
0
using NSM shear strengthening technique 0 50 100
 The selection of the factors that affect the Inclination of laminates
accuracy of the predicted loads by

calculation. Figure 6.3: Ratio of shear capacity improvement
versus inclination of laminates with similar 𝜌𝑓𝑤 ∙ 𝐸𝑓
6.1 Shear capacity improvement by using
NSM technique b) It is also obviously that the strengthening
efficacy decreases with the increase of the
In this part, the variables of laminates spacing,
inclination of laminates.
laminates inclination, internal steel stirrups,
anchorage and the concrete strength are taken
0.45
into account. 0.4
0.35
Vf,exp/Vn
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.35 0.15
0.1 2S series
0.3 0.05
0
0.25 Laminates 4S series
Vf,exp/Vn
0.2 at 90
0.15
Laminates
0.1 at 45 Beam shear strengthened with NSM FRP
0.05 laminates
0 Laminates
at 60
0 200 400 Figure 6.4: Impact of the percentage of internal steel
Spacing of laminates stirrups from the test of Dias and Barros (2011_a)
Figure 6.1: Ratio of shear capacity improvement

0.4
Vf,exp/Vn
versus spacing of laminates of Dias and Barros (2008) 0.3

0.2
0.1
0.4 2S series
Vf,exp/Vn
0.35 0
0.3 Laminates 4S series
0.25
0.2 at 90
0.15
0.1 Laminates Beam shear strengthened with NSM FRP
0.05 at 45 laminates
0
Laminates
0 500 at 60
Figure 6.5: Impact of the percentage of internal steel
Spacing of laminates
stirrups from the test of Dias and Barros (2011_b)
Figure 6.2: Ratio of shear capacity improvement c) From the results, it can be concluded that the
versus spacing of laminates of Dias and Barros effectiveness is higher in beams with lower
(2011_a) percentage of internal steel stirrups by using
a) Regardless of the CFRP percentages, both NSM FRP shear strengthening technique.
figures show that with the increase of spacing,
575
a) The inclination of 90 degrees provides the
120
most satisfied result for prediction due to its
100
80 excellent distribution in the figure.
Vf,exp (kN)
60
40
20 5.000
0 4.000
1 2
Vf,exp/Vf,cal
3.000
Unanchorage 24.9 37.4
Anchorage 2.000
52.8 95.4
1.000
Figure 6.6: Impact of anchorage of the FRP rods from 0.000
0 100 200 300 400
the test of DeLorenzis and Nanni (2001)
Stiffness of FRP reinforcements
d) Anchorage the FRP reinforcement into the

flange is an effective way in preventing bond
Figure 6.9: Impact of stiffness in the accuracy of
failure and increase the ultimate shear load.
Nanni’s et.al formulation
b) It is obvious that the points are sporadic when

80
70 the stiffness of FRP reinforcement is lower than
60
Vf,exp (kN)
50 100MPa. The accuracy of the approach rises

40
30 when the stiffness of FRP reinforcements
20 fcm=18.6MPa
10
0 fcm=39.7MPa increases.
Beam shear strengthened with NSM FRP

6 CONCLUSIONS
laminates
The study of the dissertation confirms that the

Figure 6.7: Impact of concrete strength from the tests
use of NSM FRPs is an effective and
of Dias and Barros (2011_a & 2011_b) encouraging approach to increase the shear
resistance of RC beams. The NSM technique
e) The larger contribution of NSM FRP gains increasing interest in civil engineering due
reinforcements can generate by using concrete of to its several advantages than the existing shear
higher strength. strengthening technique of EBR. Compare with
6.2 Accuracy of calculation EBR, NSM technique can provide greater
anchorage capacity, minimal installation time
4.500 and less debonding from concrete elements.
4.000
3.500
Vf,exp/Vf,cal
3.000 According to the analysis of predicted

2.500
2.000
contributions of FRP reinforcements by using
1.500 NSM shear strengthening technique of each
1.000
0.500 existing model respectively, it is confirmed that
0.000
Nanni’s et.al formula is the most satisfied one
0 50 100
due to its stable prediction.
FRP reinforcements inclination
From the parametric study, The shear
Figure 6.8: Impact of FRP reinforcements inclination contribution of FRP laminates increases with the
on the accuracy of Nanni’s et.al formulation decrease of both laminates spacing and
laminates inclination. The percentage of internal
steel stirrups has a negative impact on the
576
improvement of shear load capacity by using Lee, D, and Cheng, L. (2011). Assessing the
NSM shear strengthening technique, while the Strengthening Effect of Various Near-Surface-
strength of concrete has a positive influence. Mounted FRP Reinforcements on Concrete
According to the research results of the accuracy Bridge Slab Overhangs. Journal of composites
of calculation, the larger stiffness of the FRP for construction. 15 (4), 615-624.
reinforcements, the more accurate design values
Szabó,Z.K and Balázs, G.L. (2007). Near
by Nanni’s et.al can be predicted. The influence
surface mounted FRP reinforcement for
of the inclination of FRP reinforcements on the
strengthening of cornet structures. Periodica
accuracy is significant. Inclination of 90 degrees
Polytechnica. 1 (51), 33-38.
gives the best prediction accuracy for Nanni’s
et.al formula, 60 degrees takes second place and Teng, J.G, De Lorenzis, L, Wang, B, Li, R,
the predicted values are imprecision when the Wong, T.N, and Lam, L. (2006). Debonding
inclination is 45 degrees. failures of RC beams strengthened with near
surface mounted CFRP strips. Journal of
composites for construction. 10 (2), 92-105.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

to my supervisor, Dr. Maurizio Guadagnini, for
guiding me throughout my dissertation and
meeting me whenever I had questions. He is so
responsible and patient to me. I really would like
to express my heartfelt gratitude to him.
REFERENCES
Bianco, V, Barros, J.A.O, and Monti, G. (2010).

New approach for modeling the contribution of
NSM FRP strips for shear strengthening of RC
beams. Journal of composites for construction.
14 (1), 36-48.
De Lorenzis, L and Nanni, A. (2001). Shear

strengthening of reinforced concrete beams with
near-surface mounted finer-reinforced polymer
rods. ACI structural journal. 98 (1), 60-68.
Dias, S.J.E and Barros, J.A.O. (2010). Shear

strengthening of RC T-section beams with low
strength concrete using NSM CFRP laminates.
Cement & Concrete composites. 33 (2), 334-
345.
Kotynia, R. (2011). NSM FRP shear

contribution in the strengthened RC beams. First
Middle East Conference on Smart Monitoring,
Assessment and Rehabilitation of Civil
Structures.
577

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THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Seventeenth Postgraduate Student Conference

(Papers in partial fulfilment of CIV6020 Dissertation Planning

Bonding between concrete aggregates and cement pastes in concrete

Vibration performance of long-span composite building floors featuring light-weight concrete

Bond strength models For FRP strengthened structures

Steel beam-to-column connections designed for robustness

Vibration serviceability assessment of a leisure centre floor

The behaviour of steel structures subject to seismic loading conditions

Effect of non-structural partitions on sway (vibration) performance of university Arts Tower

Seismic strengthening of reinforced concrete

Strut and tie modelling of concrete using truss layout optimisation

CFD modeling of intrusion in water distribution systems

Finite element modelling of a section of Tamar suspension bridge (high resolution)

Numerical modelling of the dynamic response of composite materials

Sustainable concrete with low carbon footprint

Structural optimisation as a form finding tool

Analysis of reinforced concrete structures in fire

Seismic performance of buildings with sliding base isolation systems

Dynamic performance of floors in multi-storey buildings

Design of retaining walls to Eurocode 7

Seismic design and analysis of reinforced concrete buildings

Structural concrete with minimum cement content

Developing a rational approach to intumescent fire protection of steel sections including

A test for colliery spoil expansiveness

Controls on thaumasite sulfate attack in concrete

Optimization of MTMDs for low frequency floor

Comparison of geotechnical codes for shallow foundations

Vibration serviceability assessment of a real-life laboratory floor

Water quality analysis of combined sewer overflows and sensitivity testing

Building a teaching exercise for groundwater modelling

Computational analysis of slabs using discontinuity layout optimisation

Flexural strengthening of concrete vehicular barrier using FRPs

Bearing capacity of eccentrically loaded shallow foundations

Textile fibre reinforcement in mortar

Punching shear design in slabs

CFD modelling of a surcharged manhole with different pipe directions

Experimental determination of the advective zone in open channel flow

The effect of ultrasound exposure on bacterial transformation

The performance of concrete made with large amounts of PFA and SF

Filter-based whole cell biosensor for environmental contaminants detection

IAPPS design aids for steel framed building design

Embodied versus operational energy in buildings

Seismic resistance of RC flat slabs

Semi-active control for mitigation of vibrations in structures

Lighting adjustment to define preferred illuminances and user satisfaction

Walking excitation of floors housing vibration sensitive equipment

High temperature performance of reverse channel connections to open section columns

Mechanisms of progressive collapse of buildings attacked by fire

Optimum ductility assessment of earthquake resistant fire structures

Concrete confinement with FRP systems

Seismic design and analysis of reinforced concrete structures

Simple modelling of progressive collapse of column systems in fire

Thermal mass: fact or fiction?

Use of FRP-reinforcement to improve in-plane shear behaviour of confined masonry walls

Screens in CSO chambers

Assessment of dynamic response of a real-life grandstand

Concrete slab analysis using discontinuity layout optimization

The performance of vibrated stone columns

Why is the water quality in the Doe Lea River so poor?

The effect of water content on the strength of rock

Reducing noise by natural means